ISCjgT
o
£6.H
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA.
(Cncpclopaetita Brttanmca
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE SIXTH EDITION.
BUustrateti fcmti) ncarlp dip JunUreti (Cngrabtugs*
VOL. VI.
INDOCTI DISCANT ; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY;
AND HURST, ROBINSON, AND COMPANY, 90, CHEAPSIDE,
LONDON.
1823.
4 ♦
o.
115 @v APg
\ 19 G 6 P7
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
China.
Boundaries,
extent, See.
s
Division
into pro-
vinces.
, 3
Chinese
pretensions
to antiqui¬
ty-
4
Why their
history is.
so uncer¬
tain.
CHI
CHINA, a country of Asia, situated on the most
easterly part of that continent. It is bounded
on the north by Tartary j from which it is divided,
partly by a prodigious wall of 1500 miles in length,
and partly by high, craggy, and inaccessible mountains.
On the east, it is bounded by the ocean j on the west,
by the extensive country known by the name of Thi¬
bet, which separates China from Hindostan j on the
south, it is bounded partly by the kingdoms of Lao,
Tonquin, Ava, and Cochin-China, and partly by the
southern or Indian sea, which flows between it and the
Philippine islands. Its length is about 1400 miles,
and its breadth about 1150. These are the bounds of
China proper •, but the Chinese empire extends over a
vast region lying to the west and north, including Thi¬
bet, and great part of the country known by the name
of Tartary.{ China proper contains 15 provinces, exclu¬
sive of that of Lyau-tong, which is situated without the
great wall, though under the same dominion. Their
names are, 1. Shensi, 2. Shansi, 3. Pecheli, which
are situated on the north side, along the wall j 5. Shan-
tong> 5* Kyan-nang, 6. Che-kyang, 7. Fo-kyer,
which are situated along the eastern ocean j 8. Quang-
tong, 9. Quang-si, 10. Yu-nan, 11. Se-chuen, which
stretch themselves towards the south and south-west;
and, 12. Honan, 13. Hu-quand, 14. Quey-chew,
15. Kyang-si; which take up the middle part. For
a particular description of all these, see their proper
articles.
The origin of all nations is involved in obscurity
and fable, but that of the Chinese much more so than
any other. Every nation is inclined to assume too
high an antiquity to itself; but the Chinese carry theirs
beyond all bounds. Indeed, though no people on
earth are more exact in keeping records of every me¬
morable transaction, yet such is the genius of the Chi¬
nese for superstition and fable, that the first part of
their history is deservedly contemned by every rational
person. What contributes more to the uncertainty of
the Chinese history is, that neither we, nor they them¬
selves, have any thing but fragments of their ancient
historical books ; for, about 213 years before Christ,
the reigning emperor Si-whang-ti caused all the books
in the empire to be burned, except those written bv
lawyers and physicians. Nay, the more effectually to
destroy the memory of every thing contained in them,
he commanded a great number of learned men to be
Vol. VI. Part I. ^
CHI
buried alive, lest, from their memories, they should China.
commit to writing something of the true memoirs of  
the empire. The inaccuracy of the Chinese annals is
complained of even by their most respected author Con¬
fucius himself; who also affirms, that before his time
many of the oldest materials for writing such annals had
been destroyed. ^
According to the Chinese histories, the first mo- Fabulous
narch of the whole universe (that is, of China), was*“story °f
called Puon-ku, or Puen-cu. This, according to some,
was the first man ; but according to Bayer and Men-
zelius, twm of the greatest critics in Chinese litera¬
ture that have hitherto appeared, the word signifies
the highest antiquity. Puon-ku was succeeded by Tiene-
hoang, which signifies the emperor of heaven. They call
him also the intelligent heaven, the supreme king of
the middle heaven, &c. According to some of their
historians, he was the inventor of letters, and of the
cyclic characters by which they determine the place of
the year, &c. Tiene-hoang was succeeded by Ti-hoang
(the emperor of the earth), who divided the day and
night, appointing 30 days to make one moon, and fix¬
ed the winter solstice to the nth moon. Ti-hoang
was succeeded by Gine-hoang (sovereign of men), who
with his nine brothers shared the government among
them. They built cities, and surrounded them with
wralls ; made a distinction between the sovereign and
subjects ; instituted marriage, &c.
The reigns of these four emperors make up one of
what the Chinese called Aa*, “ ages,” or “ periods,” of
which there were nine before Fo-hi, whom their most
sensible people acknowledge as the founder of their
empire.
The history of the second A:z* contradicts almost every
thing said of the first; for though we have but just
now been told that Gine-hoang and his brethren built
cities surrounded with walls; yet, in the succeeding
age, the people dwelt in caves, or perched upon trees
as it were in nests. Of the third Aa" we hear nothing ;
and in the fourth, it seems matters had been still worse,
as we are told that men were then only taught to re¬
tire into the hollows of rocks. Of the fifth and sixth
we have no accounts. These six periods, according to
some writers, contained 90,000 years; according to
others, 1,100,750.
Jn the seventh and eighth kiy they tell us over again
what they had said of the first ; namely, that men be*
A gan
CHI [ 2 ] CHI
China. San ^eave their caves and dwell in houses, and were
v-~-—' taught to prepare clothes, &c. Tchine-fang, the first
monarch of the eighth ki, taught his subjects to take
oft' the hair from skins with rollers of wood, and co¬
ver themselves with the skins so prepared. He taught
them also to make a kind of web of their hair, to serve
as a covering to their heads against rain. They 6bey-
ed his orders with joy, and he called his subjects people
clothed with skins. His reign lasted 350 years •, that
of one of his successors, also, named Yeou-tsao-chi,
lasted more than 300 ; and his family continued for
12 or 18,000 years. But what is very surprising, all
these thousands and millions of years had elapsed with¬
out mankind’s having any knowledge of fire. This
was not discovered till towards the close of this period,
by one Souigine. After so useful a discovery, he
taught the people to dress their victuals 3 whereas be¬
fore they had devoured the flesh of animals quite raw.
drunk their blood, and swallowed even their hair and
feathers. He is also said to have been the inventor of
fishing, letters, &c.
In the ninth period, we find the invention, or at
least the origin of letters, attributed to one Tsang-hie,
who received them from a divine tortoise that carried
them on his shell, and delivered them into the hands
of Tsang-hie. During this period also, music, money,
carriages, merchandise, commerce, &c. were invented.
There are various calculations of the length of these ki
or periods. Some make the time from Puan-ku to
Confucius, who flourished about 479 years before
Christ, to contain 279,000 years; others, 2,276,000;
some, 2,759,860 years ; others, 3,276,000 ; and some
6 no less than 96,961,740 years.
Fabulous These extravagant accounts are by some thought
history ex- conta;n obscure and imperfect hints concerning the
p * cosmogony and creation of the world, &c. Puon-ku,
the first emperor, they think, represents eternity pre¬
ceding the duration of the world. The succeeding
ones, Tiene-hoang, Ti-hoang, and Gine-hoang, they
imagine, signify the creation of the heavens and earth,
and the formation of man. The ten ki or ages, nine
of which preceded Fo-hi, mean the ten generations
preceding Noah. This may very possibly be the case ;
for about 500 years before Christ, some Jews travelled
into China, who might have made the Mosaic writings
known there.
What we have now related, contains the substance
of that part of the Chinese history which is entirely
fabulous. After the nine ki or “ ages” already taken
notice of, the tenth commenced with Fo-hi; and the
history, though still very dark, obscure and fabulous,
begins to grow somewhat more consistent and intel-
Reign of 1‘8‘ble. Fo hi was born in the province of Shensi.
Fo-hi. mother walking upon the bank of a lake in that
province, saw a very large print of a man’s foot in
the sand there ; and, being surrounded with an iris or
rainbow, became impregnated. The child was named
Fo-hi; and, when he grew up, was by his country¬
men elected king, on account of his superior merit,
and styled Tyen-tse, that is, “ the son of heaven.” He
invented the eight qua, or symbols, consisting of three
lines each, which, differently combined, formed 64 cha¬
racters that were made use of to express every thing.
To give these the greater credit, he pretended that
he had seen them inscribed on the back of a dragon- China,
horse (an animal shaped like a horse, with the wings ^
and scales of a dragon), which arose from the bottom
of a lake. Having gained great reputation among his
countrymen by this prodigy, be is said to have created
mandarins or officers, under the name of dragons.
Hence we may assign a reason why the emperors of
China always carry a dragon in their banners. He al¬
so instituted marriage, invented music, &c. Having
established a prime minister, he divided the government
of his dominions among four mandarins, and died after
a reign of 115 years. g
After Fo-hi followed a succession of emperors, ofMiracalou&
whom nothing remarkable is recorded, except that insolstice*
the reign of Yau, the seventh after Fohi, the sun did
not set for ten days, so that the Chinese were afraid of
a general conflagration. This event the compilers of ^
the Universal History take to be the same with that Hypothesis
mentioned in the book of Joshua, when the sun and concerning,
moon stood still for about the space of a day. Fo-hit5li® ^ls^e
they will have to be the same with Noah. They ima-an ‘
gine, that after the deluge this patriarch remained some
time with his descendants; but on their wicked com¬
bination to build the tower of Babel, he separated him¬
self from them with as many as he could persuade to
go along with him ; and that, still travelling eastward,
he at last entered the fertile country of China, and laid
the foundation of that vast empire.—But, leaving these
fabulous and conjectural times, we shall proceed to give
some account of that part of the Chinese history which
may be more certainly depended on.
As the Chinese, contrary to the practice of almost
all nations, have never sought to conquer other coun¬
tries, but rather to improve and content themselves
with their own, their history for many ages furnishes
nothing remarkable. The whole of their emperors,
abstracting from those who are said to have reigned in
the fabulous times, are comprehended in 22 dynasties,
mentioned in the following table.
1. Hya, containing
2. Shang, or Ing,
3. Chew,
4. Tsin,
5. Han,
6. Hew-han,
7. Tsin,
8. Song,
9. Tsi,
10. Lyang,
11. Chin,
12. Swi,
13. Twang,
14. Hew-lyang,
15. Hew-tang,
16. Heiu-tsin,
17. Hew-han,
18. Hew-chew,
19. Song,
20. Iwen,
21. Ming,
22. Tsing,
Emperors.
35
4
25
i5
8
5
4
4
3
20
3
18
9
16
Before Christ.
2207
1766
1122
248
206
After Christ.
220
465
220
479
502
557
618
9°7
923
936
947
951
960
1280
1368
i645
This
CHI [ 3 ] CHI
China. This table is formed according to the accounts of of emperor ; founded the 16th dynasty j and changed
c »the Jesuit Du Halde, and is commonly reckoned to be his name to that of Kaut-su. But the Kitan general '■
the most authentic} but according to the above-men- refusing to acknowledge him, he was obliged to por¬
tioned hypothesis of the compilers of the Universal chase a peace by yielding up to the Tartars 16 cities
History, who make Yau cotemporary with Joshua, the in the province of Pecheli, besides a yearly present of
dynasty of Hya did not commence till the year before 300,000 pieces of silk.
Christ 1357 i accommodate tne history to their This submission served onlv to inflame the avarice
hypothesis, great alterations must be made in the dura- and ambition of the Kitan. In 959, they broke the
10 tion of the dynasties. . treaty when least expected, and invaded the empire
Incursions I he most interesting particulars of the Chinese hi- afresh. Tsi-vang, the emperor at that time, opposed
of the Tar- story relate only to the incursions of the Tartars, who them with a formidable army ; but through the treach-
tars. at last conquered the whole empire, and who still con- ery of his general Lyew-chi-ywen, the Tartars were
tinue to hold the sovereignty \ though by transferring allowed to take him prisoner. " On this, Tsi-vang was
the seat of the empire to Peking, and adopting the glad to recover his liberty, by accepting of a small
Chinese language, manners, &c. Tartary would seem principality j while the traitor became emperor of all
rather to have been conquered by China, than China China, and, changing his name to Kaut-sv, founded
by Tartary. These incursions are said to have begun the 17th dynasty. The Tartars, in the mean time,
very early $ even in the time, of the emperor Shun, ravaged all the northern provinces without opposition,
successor to Yau above mentioned, in whose reign the and then marched into the southern. But being here
miraculous solstice happened. At this time, the Tar- stopped by some bodies of Chinese troops, the gene-
tars were repulsed, and obliged to retire into their own ral thought proper to retire with his booty into Tar-
territories. From time to time, however, they conti- tary. In 962, Kaut-su-dying, was succeeded by his
nued to threaten the empire with invasions, and the son In-ti. The youth of this prince gave an opportu-
northern provinces were often actually ravaged by the nity to the eunuchs to raise commotions ; especially
Tartars in the neighbourhood. About the year before as the army was employed at a distance in repelling
Christ 213, Shi-whang-ti, having fully subdued all the the invasions of the Tartars. This army was com-
princes, or kings as they were called, of the different manded by Ko-ghey, who defeated the enemy in seve-
provinces, became emperor of China with unlimited ral battles, and thus restored peace to the northern
power. He divided the whole empire into 36 pro- provinces. In the mean time, In-ti was slain by his
vinces ; and finding the northern part of his domi- eunuchs, and the empress placed his brother on the
nions much incommoded by the invasions of the neigh- throne : but Ko-ghey returning in triumph, was sa-
bouring barbarians, he sent a formidable army against luted emperor by his victorious army ; and the em-
11 them, which drove them far beyond the boundaries of press being unable to support the rights of her son,
Great wall China To prevent their return, he built the famous was obliged to submit, while Ko-ghey, assuming the
built. wall already mentioned, which separates China from name of Tay-tsu, founded the 18th dynasty. Nine
Tartary. Alter this, being elated with his own ex- years after this, however, the grandees of the empire,
ploits, he formed a design of making posterity believe setting aside Kong-ti, the third in succession from Tay-
top.i. he himself had been the first Chinese emperor tsu, on account of his non-age, proclaimed his guar-
tnat ever sat on the throne, ror this purpose, he or- dian, named Chau-quang-yut emperor j who assuming
uered all the historical writings to be burnt, and caused the name of Kau-tsu, founded the 19th dynasty, called
many of the learned to be put to death, as already men- SoJig or Tsong.
12 tionqd. Under this monarch the empire began to recover
Kitan Tar- »vhat eflect the great wall for some time had in Itself j but the Katan still continued their incursions,
tars settle preventing the invasions of the Tartars, we are not The successors of Kau-tsu opposed them with various
rntmua. told ; but in the tenth century of the Christian era, success j but at last, in 978, the barbarians became so
those of Kitan or Lyau got a footing in China. rlhe strong as to lay siege to a considerable city. Tay-
Kitan were a people of eastern Tartary, who dwelt to tsong, successor to Kau-tsu, detached 300 soldiers, each
the north and north-east of the province of Pecheli in carrying a light in his hand, against them in the night-
China, particularly in that of Lyau-tong, lying with- time, with orders to approach as near as possible to the
out the great wall.^ These people having subdued the Tartar camp. The barbarians imagining, by the num-
country between Korea and Kashgar, became much ber of lights, that the whole Chinese army was at hand,
more troublesome to the Chinese than all the other immediately fled, and, falling into the ambuscades laid
Tartars. Their empire commenced about the year for them by the Chinese general, were almost all cut
916, in the fourth year of Mo-ti-kyan-ti, second em- to pieces.
peror of the 14th Chinese dynasty called Hew-Lyang. This check, however, did not long put a stop to
In 946, Mingt-song, second emperor of’ the 15th dy- the ravages of the Kitan. In the year 999, they laid
nasty, being dead, Sheking-tang bis son-in-law rebelled siege to a city in the province of Pecheli $ but Cbing-
against Mingt-song, his son and successor, whom he tsong, successor to Tay-tsong, came upon them with
deprived of his crown and life. This he accomplished his army so suddenly, that they betook themselves to
y means of an army of 50,000 men furnished by the flight. The emperor was advised to take advantage
Kitan. Ii-ti, the son of Mingt-song, being unable to of their consternation, and recover the country which
resist the usurper, fled to the city Ghey-cjiew ; where had been yielded to them j but instead of pursuing his
s mtting unise f up with his family and all his valuable victory, he bought a peace by consenting to pay an-
eltects, lie set fare to the palace, and was burnt to nually 100,000 tael (about 34,000!.), and 200,000
asiies. Un his death, bheking-tang assumed the title pieces of silk. The youth and pacific disposition of
A 2 Jin-tsong,
China.
CHI [ 4 ] CHI
Kitan dri-
▼an out by
the eastern
Tartars;
who as¬
sume the
name of
Kin, and
invade
China..
They take
the empe¬
ror prison-
er. J
\6
Imperial
city and
another
emperor
taken.
JIn-tsong, successor to Ching-tsong, revived the cou¬
rage of the Kitan j and, in 1035, war would have
been renewed, had not the emperor condescended to
as shameful a treaty as that concluded by his father.
Two years after, the Tartars demanded restitution of
ten cities in the province of Pecheli, which had been
taken by Ko-ghey founder of the 18th dynasty : upon
which Jin-tsong engaged to pay them an annual tri¬
bute of 200,000 taels of silver, and 300,000 pieces of
silk, in lieu of these cities.
From this time the Kitan remained in peaceable pos¬
session of their Chinese dominions till the year 1117.
Whey-tsong, at that time emperor, being able nei¬
ther to bear their ravages, nor by himself to put a
stop to them, resolved upon a remedy which at last
proved worse than the disease. This was to call in
the Nu-che, Nyu-che, or Eastern Tartars, to destroy
the kingdom of the Kitan. From this he was dissua¬
ded by the king of Korea, and most of his own mini¬
sters ; but, disregarding their salutary advice, he join¬
ed his forces to those of the Nu-che. The Kitan were
then everywhere defeated j and at last reduced to
such extremity, that those who remained were forced
to leave their country, and fly to the mountains of the
west.
Thus the empire of the Kitan was totally destroyed,
but nothing to the advantage of the Chinese $ for the
Tartar general, elated with his conquest, gave the
name of Kin to his new dominion, assumed the title of
emperor, and began to think of aggrandizing him¬
self, and enlarging his empire. For this purpose, he
immediately broke the treaties concluded with the
Chinese emperor j and, invading the provinces of Pe¬
cheli and Shensi, made himself master of the greater
part of them. Whey-tsong, finding himself in danger
of losing his dominions, made several advantageous
proposals to the Tartar ; who, seeming to comply
with them, invited him to come and settle matters by
a personal conference. The Chinese monarch com¬
plied: but, on his return, the terms agreed on seemed
intolerable to his ministers ; so that they told him the
treaty could not subsist, and that the most cruel war
was preferable to such an ignominious peace. The
Kin monarch, being informed of all that passed, had
recourse to arms, and took several cities. Whey-
tsong was weak enough to go in person to hold a se¬
cond conference j but, on his arrival, was immediate¬
ly seized by the Tartar. He was kept prisoner un¬
der a strong guard during the remaining part of his
lifej and ended his days in 1126, in the desert of
Shamo, having nominated his eldest son Kin-tsong to
succeed him.
Kin-tsong began his reign with putting to death six
ministers of state, who had betrayed his father into
the hands of the Kin Tartars. The barbarians in
the meantime pursued their conquests without oppo¬
sition. They crossed the Whang-ho, or Yellow river,
which a handful of troops might have prevented •, and
marching directly towards the imperial city, took and
plundered it. Then seizing the emperor and his con¬
sort, they carried them away captives: but many of
the principal lords, and several of the ministers, prefer¬
ring death to such an ignominious bondage, killed them¬
selves. The Kin being informed by the empress
Meng that she had been divorced, they left her behind. Chin*.
This proved the means of saving the empire } for by —-y——J
her wisdom and prudence she got the crown placed on
the head of Kau-tsong, ninth son of the emperor Whey-
tsong by his divorced empress.
Kau-tsong fixed his court at Nanking the capital
of Kyang-nan j but soon after was obliged to remove
it to Kang-chew in Che-kyang. He made several ef¬
forts to recover some of bis provinces from the Kin,
but without effect. Ili-tsong the Kin monarch, in the
mean time, endeavoured to gain the esteem of his
Chinese subjects by paying a regard to their learning
and learned men, and honouring the memory of Con¬
fucius. Some time after he advanced to Nanking,
from whence Kau-tsong had retired, and took it :Vtbut,
receiving advice that Yo-si, general of the Song, or
southern Chinese, was advancing by long marches to
the relief of that city, they set fire to the palace, and 17
retired northward. However, Yo-si arrived time Progress of
enough to fall upon their rear-guard, which suffered
very much $ and from this time the Kin never daredc ec
to cross the river Kyang. In a few years afterwards
the Chinese emperor submitted to become tributary to
the Kin, and concluded a peace with them upon very
dishonourable terms. This submission, however, was
of little avail: for, in 1163, the Tartars broke the
peace, and, invading the southern province with a for¬
midable army, took the city of Yang-chew. The
king, having approached the river Kyang, near its
mouth, where it is widest as well as most rapid, com¬
manded his troops to cross it, threatening with his
drawn sword to kill those who refused. On recei¬
ving such an unreasonable command, the whole ar¬
my mutinied $ and the king being killed in the be¬
ginning of the tumult, the army immediately re¬
tired. lg
From this time to the year 1210, nothing remark-They are
able occurs in the Chinese history; but this year, attacked by
Jenghiz-khan, chief of the western Tartars, Moguls,
or Mungls, quarrelled with Yong-tsi emperor of 'yn™*
Kin ; and at the same time the king of Hya, disgusted of Hjra5
at being refused assistance against Jenghiz-khan, threat¬
ened him with an invasion on the west side. Yong-tsi
prepared for his defence ; but in 1211, receiving news
that Jenghiz-khan was advancing southward with his
whole army, he was seized with fear, and made pro¬
posals of peace, which were rejected. In 1212, the Great* wall ^
Mogul generals forced the great wall; or, according forced by
to some writers, had one of the gates treacherously Jenghia-
opened to them, to the north of Shansi ; and made in-k^ai1,
cursions as far as Peking, the capital of the Kin em¬
pire. At the same time the province of Lyau-tong
was almost totally reduced by several Kitan lords who
had joined Jenghiz-khan ; several strong places were
taken, and an army of 300,000 Kin defeated by the
Moguls. In autumn they laid siege to the city of
Tay-tong-fu ; where, although the governor Hujaku
fled, yet Jenghiz-khan met with considerable resist¬
ance. Having lost a vast number of men, and being
himself wounded by an arrow, he was obliged to raise
the siege and retire into Tartary; after which the Kin
retook several cities. The next year, however, Jen¬
ghiz-khan re-entered China; retook the cities which
the Kin had reduced the year before ; and overthrew
their
ken
*i
Southern
Chinese <le
dared war
CHI [
China, their armies in two bloody battles, in one of which
k-—■\r—' the ground was strewed with dead bodie's for upwards
of four leagues.
The same year Yong-tsi was slain by his general
Hujaku j and Sun, a prince of the blood, advanced in
his room. After this the Moguls, attacking the em¬
pire with four armies at once, laid waste the provinces
of Shansi, Honan, Pecheli, and Shan-tong. In 1214
Jertghiz-khan sat down before Peking ; but instead of
assaulting the city, offered terms of peace, which were
accepted, and the Moguls retired into Tartary. Af-
1 ter their departure, the emperor, leaving his son at
to Peking, removed his court to Pyen-lyang near Kay-
Pekingla- fong-fu, the capital of Honan. At this Jenghiz khan
being offended, immediately sent troops to besiege
Peking/ The city held out to the fifth month of the
year 1215, and then surrendered. At the same time
the Moguls finished the conquest of Lyau-tong j and
the Song refused to pay the usual tribute to the Kin.
In 1216, Jenghiz-khan returned to pursue his con¬
quests in the west of Asia, where he staid seven years $
against'The during which time his general Muhuli made great
Kia. progress in China against the Kin emperor. He was
greatly assisted by the motions of Ning-tsong emperor
of the Song, or southern China ; who, incensed by the
frequent perfidies of the Kin, had declared war against
them, and would hearken to no terms of peace, though
very advantageous proposals were made. Notwith¬
standing this, however, in 1220, the Kin, exerting
themselves, raised two great armies, one in Shensi,
and the other in Shan-tong. The former baffled the
attempts of the Song and king of Hya, who had united
against them ; but the latter, though no fewer than
200,000, were entirely defeated by Muhuli. In 1221,
that officer passed the Whang-ho, and died after con¬
quering several cities.
In 1224, ^ie emperor died ; and was succeeded
by his son Shew, who made peace with the king of
kingdom of ^ya ’ ^ut next year> ^iat kingdom was entirely de-
Ilya; stroyed by Jenghiz khan. In 1226, Oktay, son to
Jenghiz-khan, marched into Honan, and besieged Kay-
fong-fu, capital of the Kin empire, but wras obliged
to withdraw into Shensi, where he took several cities,
and cut in pieces an army of 30,000 men. In 1227
Jenghiz-khan died, after having desired his sons to de¬
mand a passage for their army through the dominions
of the Song, without which he said they could not eas ily
vanquish the Kin.
After the death of that great conqueror, the war
was carried on with various success j but though the
Moguls took above 60 important posts in the province
of Shensi, they found it impossible to force Ton-qnan,
which it behoved them to do in order to penetrate ef¬
fectually into Honan. In April 1231 they took the
capital of Shensi, and defeated the Kin army which
came to its relief. Here one of the officers desired
Prince Toley to demand a passage from the Song
through the country of Han-chong-fu. This proposal
Toley communicated to his brother Oktay, who ap¬
proved of it as being conformable to the dying advice
ol Jenghiz-khan. Hereupon Toley, having assembled
all his forces, sent a messenger to the Song generals to
demand a passage through their territories. This, how¬
ever, they not only refused, but put the messenger to
death j which so enraged Toley that he swore to
Jengliiz-
idian de¬
stroys the
23
and dies.
*4
Moguls
quarrel
with the
Song.
5 ] C H I
make them repent of it, and was soon as good as his China,
word. He decamped in August 123IJ and having ' ■■ ■ v ■ *
forced the passes, put to the sword the inhabitants of 25
Wha-yang and Fong-chew, two cities in the districtof
of Hang-chong-fu. Then having cut down rocks to
fill up deep abysses, and made roads through places
almost inaccessible, he came and besieged the city of
Hang-chong-fu itself. The miserable inhabitants fled
to the mountains on his approach, and more than
1 co,coo of them perished. Alter this, Toley divided
his forces, consisting of 30,000 horse, into two bodies.
One of these went westward to Myen-chew : from
thence, after opening the passages of the mountains,
they arrived at the river Kyaling, which runs into
the great Kyang. This they crossed on rafts made
of the wood of demolished houses 5 and then, march¬
ing along its banks, seized many important posts.
At last, having destroyed more than 140 cities, towns,
or fortresses, they returned to the army. The second
detachment seized an important post in the mountains,
called Toutong, six or seven leagues to the eastward
ol Hang-chong-fu. On the other side Oktay advan¬
ced, in October, towards Pu-chew a city of Shansi ;
which being taken after a vigorous defence, he pre¬
pared to pass the Whang-ho. Toley, after surmount¬
ing incredible difficulties, arrived in December on the
borders of Honan, and made a show as if he designed
to attack the capital of the Kin empire. On his first
appearance in Honan through a passage so little sus¬
pected, every body was filled with terror and astonish*-
ment, so that he proceeded for some time without
opposition. At last the emperor ordered his generals,
Hota, Ilapua, and others, to march against the enemy.
Toley boldly attacked them; but was obliged to re¬
tire, which he did in good order. Hota w'as for pur¬
suing him, saying that the Mogul army did not exceed
30,000 men, and that they seemed not to have eaten
any thing for two or three days. Ilapua, however,
was of opinion that there was no occasion for being
so hasty, as the Moguls were enclosed between the
rivers Han and Whang-ho, so that they could not
escape. This negligence they soon had occasion to re¬
pent of: for Toley, by a stratagem, made himself ma¬
ster of their heavy baggage $ which accident obliged
them to retire to Tang-chew. From thence they sent
a messenger to acquaint the emperor that they had
gained the battle, but concealed the loss of their bag¬
gage. This good news filled the court with joy ; and
the people who had retired into the capital for its de¬
fence, left it again, and went into the country : but,
in a few days after, the vanguard of the Moguls, who
had been sent by the emperor Oktay, appeared in the
field, and carried off a great number of those that had
quitted the city.
In January 1232, Oktay passing the Whang-ho, Capital of
encamped in the district of Kay-fong fu, capital of thetlie Kin
Kin empire, and sent his general Suputay to besiege c”ipll,e ^
the city. At that time the place was near 30 miles
in circumference j but having only 40,000 soldiers to
defend it, as many more from the neighbouring cities,
and 20,000 peasants, were ordered into it; while the
emperor published an affecting declaration, animating
the people to defend it to the last extremity. Oktay,
having heard with joy of Toley’s entrance into Ho¬
nan, ordered him to send succours to Suputay. On
the
CHI [6
China, the other hand, the Kin generals advanced with
—vi j0,000 men to relieve the city, but being obliged
to divide their forces, in order to avoid in part the
great road, which Toley had obstructed^ with trees,
they were attacked by the prince at a disadvantage,
and, after a faint resistance, defeated with great slaugh¬
ter, and the loss of both their generals, one killed and
the other taken. The emperor now ordered the army
at Tong-quan and other fortified places to march to
the relief of Kay-fong-fu. They assembled accord¬
ingly, to the number of 110,000 foot and 15,000
horse ; and were followed by vast numbers of people,
who expected by their means to be protected from the
enemy. But many of these troops having deserted,
and the rest being enfeebled by the fatigues of their
inarch, they dispersed on the approach of their pur¬
suers, who killed all they found in the highways. Af¬
ter this the Moguls took Tong-quan and some other
considerable posts ; but were obliged to raise the sieges
of Quey-te-fu and Loyang by the bravery of the go¬
vernors. Kyang-shin, governor of Loyang, had only
3 or 4000 soldiers under him, while his enemies were
30,000 strong. He placed his worst soldiers on the
walls, putting himself at the head of 400 brave men $
whom he ordered to go naked, and whom he led to
all dangerous attacks. Hs invented engines to cast
large stones, which required but few hands to play
them, and aimed so true as to hit at 100 paces dis¬
tance. When their arrows failed, he cut- those shot
by the enemy into four pieces $ pointed them with
pieces of brass coin 5 and discharged them from wooden
tubes with as much force as bullets are from a musket.
Thus be harassed the Moguls for three months so grie¬
vously, that they were obliged, notwithstanding their
numbers, to abandon the enterprise.
Oktay, at last, notwithstanding bis successes, resol¬
ved to return to Tartary ; and offered the Kin empe¬
ror peace, provided he became tributary, and deli¬
vered up to him 27 families which he named. These
ofi'ers were very agreeable to the emperor •, but Supu-
tay, taking no notice of the treaty, pushed on the
siege of the capital with more vigour than ever. By
the help of the Chinese slaves in his army, the Mogul
general soon filled the ditch ; but all his efforts seem¬
ed only to inspire the besieged with new vigour. The
Moguls at that time made use of artillery, but were
unable to make the least impression upon the city walls.
They raised walls round those they besieged, which
they fortified with ditches, towers, and battlements.
They proceeded also to sap the walls of the city j but
were very much annoyed by the artillery of the besie¬
ged, especially by their bombs, which sinking into the
galleries, and bursting under ground, made great ha-
vock among the miners. For 16 days and nights the
attacks continued without intermission j during which
time an incredible number of men perished on both
28 sides $ at length, Suputay, finding that he could not
Peace con-take the city, withdrew his troops, under pretence of
eluded; conferences being on foot. Soon after the plague be¬
gan in Kay-fong-fu ; and raged with such violence,
that, in 50 days, 900,000 biers were carried out, be¬
sides a vast multitude of the poorer sort, who could not
29 afford any.
and bro- In a short time two unlucky accidents occasioned
feen‘ a renewal of the war; which now put an end to the
27
Bravery of
tire be¬
sieged.
] CHI
empire of the Kin. Gan-yong, a young Mogul lord, China,
havino; assumed the government of some cities in k-——
Kyang-nan, and killed the officer sent to take posses¬
sion of them, declared for the Kin. The emperor
unwarily took Gan-yong into his service, and gave
him the title of prince. Upon this Oktay sent an en¬
voy, attended by 30 other persons, to inquire into the
affair ; hut the Kin officers killed them all, without
being punished by the emperor. Suputay, having in¬
formed his master of all these proceedings, was or¬
dered to continue the war in Honan. Shew-fu now
commanded his officers to unite their troops for the
defence of the capital ; but before his orders could be
obeyed, they were attacked and defeated, one after
another, by the Moguls. This obliged him to raise
soldiers from among the peasants, for whose subsistence
the people were taxed TVths of the rice they possessed.
The city began now to be distressed for want of provi¬
sions ; and as it was but in a had posture of defence,
the emperor marched with an army against the Moguls. 30
His expedition proved unfortunate; for, sending part Capital
of his army to besiege a city called JFhy-chew, it was a.SaiIf be-
totally cut in pieces, and Suputay a second time satSKgc ’
down before the capital. 31
On hearing this bad news, the emperor repassed the and taken.
Whang-ho, and retired to Quey-te-fu. Here he had
not been long before the capital was delivered up by
treachery, and Suputay put all the males of the impe¬
rial race to death ; but, by the express command of
Oktay, spared the inhabitants, who are said to have
amounted to 1,400,000 families. After this disaster,
the unhappy monarch left his troops at Quey-te-fu,
and retired to Juning-fu, a city in the southern part ^
of Honan, attended only by 400 persons. Here the Siege of
distance of the Moguls made him think of living at Juning-fu.
ease ; but while he flattered himself with these vain
hopes, the enemy’s army arrived before the city and
invested it. The garrison were terrified at their ap¬
proach ; but were encouraged by the emperor, and his
brave general Hu-sye-hu, to hold out to the last. As
there was not in the city a sufficient number of men,
the women, dressed in men’s clothes, were employed
to carry wmod, stones, and other necessary materials to
the walls. All their efl’orts, however, were ineffec¬
tual. They were reduced to such extremities, that
for three months they fed on human flesh ; killing the
old and feeble, as well as many prisoners, for food.
This being known to the Moguls, they made a gene¬
ral assault in January 1234. The attack continued
from morning till night; but at last the assailants were
repulsed. In this action, however, the Kin lost all
their best officers ; upon which the emperor resigned
the crown to Cheng-lin a prince of the blood. Next
morning, while the ceremony of investing the new em¬
peror was performing, the enemy mounted the south
walls, which were defended only by 200 men; and
the south gate being at the same time abandoned, the
whole army broke in. They were opposed, however,
by Hu-sye-hu; who, with 1000 soldiers, continued to ^
fight with amazing intrepidity. In the mean time Unhappy
Shew-fu, seeing every thing irreparably lost, lodged fate of the
the seal of the empire in a house ; and then causingemPerGr’
sheaves of straw to be set round it, ordered it to be set
on fire as soon as he was dead. After giving this or¬
der he hanged himself, and his commands were exe¬
cuted
34
Dissolution
of the Kin
empire.
35
War be-
tween the
Song and
the Mo-
guls.
CHI [
China, cuted by his domestics. Hu-sye-hu, who still con-
tinued fighting with great bravery, no sooner heard
of the tragical death of the emperor, than he drown¬
ed himself in the river Ju j as did also 500 of his most
resolute soldiers. The same day the new emperor,
Cheng-lin, was slain in a tumult; and thus an end
was put to the dominion of the Kin Tartars in
China.
The empire of China was now to be shared between
the Song, or southern Chinese, and the Moguls. It
had been agreed upon, that the province of Honan
should be delivered up to the Song as soon as the war
tvas finished. But they, without waiting for the ex¬
piration of the term, or giving Oktay notice of their
proceedings, introduced their troops into Kay-fong-fu,
Lo-yang, and other considerable cities. • On this the
Mogul general resolved to attack them j and repassing
the Whang-ho, cut in pieces part of the garrison of
Lo-yang, while they were out in search of provisions.
The garrison of Kay-fong-fu likewise abandoned that
place; and the Song emperor degraded the officers
who had been guilty of those irregularities, sending
ambassadors to Oktay, at the same time, to desire a
continuance of the peace. What Oktay’s answer was
we are not told, but the event showed that he was not
well pleased ; for, in 1235, he ordered his second son
Prince Kotovan, and his general Chahay, to attack
the Song in Se-. hwen, while others marched towards
the borders of Kyang-nan.
In 1236, the Moguls made great progress in the
province of Huquang, where they took several cities,
and put vast numbers to the sword. This year they
introduced paper or silk money, which had formerly
been used by Chang-tsong, sixth emperor of the Kin.
Prince Kotovan forced the passages into the district of
Hang-chong-fu in the province of Shensi, which he
entered with an army of 500,000 men. Here a ter¬
rible battle rvas fought between the vast army of the
Moguls and the Chinese troops, who had been driven
from the passages they defended. The latter consisted
only of 10,000 horse and foot, who were almost en¬
tirely cut off; and the Moguls lost such a number of
men, that the blood is said to have run for two leagues
together. After this victory the Moguls entered Se-
chwen, which they almost entirely reduced, commit¬
ting such barbarities, that, in one city, 40,000 people
chose rather to put an end to their own lives than sub¬
mit to such cruel conquerors.
In 1237, the Moguls received a considerable check
before the city of Gantong in Kyang-nan, the siege of
which they were obliged to raise with loss. In 1238,
they besieged Lu-chuw, another city in the same pro¬
vince. They surrounded it with a rampart of earth
and a double ditch ; but the Chinese general ordered
their intrenchments to be filled with immense quanti¬
ties of herbs steeped in oil, and then set on fire, while
hq shot stones upon them from a tower seven stories
high. At the same time a vigorous sally was made ;
and the Mogul army being thrown into the utmost
disorder, were obliged finally to abandon the siege,
and retire northwards.
I*1 1239> these barbarians were opposed by a gene¬
ral called Meng-kong, with great success j who, this
and the following year, gained great honour by his
exploits. While he lived, the Moguls were never
36
Dreadful
engage¬
ment.
7 ] CHI
able to make any considerable progress; but his death, China,
in 1246, proved of the greatest detriment to the Chi-' ""-v *
nese affairs : and soon after, the Tartars renewed the
war with more vigour and success than ever. In
1255, they re-entered the province of Se-chwenj but
still met with vigorous opposition in this quarter, be¬
cause the Chinese took care to have Se-chwen furnish¬
ed with good troops and generals. Though they were
always beaten, being greatly inferior in number to
their enemies, yet they generally retook the cities the
Moguls had reduced, as the latter were commonly
obliged to withdraw for want of provisions and fo¬
rage. In 1259 they undertook the siege of Ho-chew, siege of
a strong city to the west of Peking, defended by Vang-Ho-chew.
kyen, a very able officer, who commanded a numerous
garrison. The siege continued from the month of Fe¬
bruary till August j during which time the Moguls
lost an immense number of men. On the 10th of Au¬
gust they made a general assault in the night. They
mounted the walls before the governor had intelli¬
gence $ but were soon attacked by him with the ut¬
most fury. The Mogul emperor, Meng-ko, himself
came to the scalade j but his presence was not suffi¬
cient to overcome the valour of Vang-kyen. At the j\f0gUjg
same time the scaling-ladders of the Moguls were feated, and
blown down by a storm j upon which a terrible slaugh-their empe-
ter ensued, and amongst the rest fell the emperor him- ror hilled,
self. Upon this disaster the Mogul generals agreed to
raise the siege, and retired towards Shen-si.
On the death of Meng ko, Hupilay, or Kublav
Khan, who succeeded him, laid siege to Vu-chapg-fu,
a city not far distant from the capital of the Song em¬
pire.
At this the emperor being greatly alarmed, distri¬
buted immense sums among his troops j and, having
raised a formidable army, marched to the relief of Vu-
chang-fu. Unfoi’tunately the command of this army
was committed to the care of Kya-tse-tau, a man with¬
out either courage or experience in war. He was be¬
sides very vain and vindictive in his temper; often
using the best officers ill, and entirely overlooking
their merit, which caused many of them to go over to
the Moguls. The siege of Vu-chang-fu was commen¬
ced, and had continued a considerable time, when
Ky a-tse tau, afraid of its being lost, and at the same
time not daring to take any effectual step for its relief,
made proposals of peace. A treaty was accordingly
concluded, by which Kya-tse-tau engaged to pay an
annual tribute of about 50,000!. in silver and as much
in silk; acknowledging likewise the sovereignty of the
Moguls over the Song empire. In consequence of this
treaty, the Moguls retreated after the boundaries of
the two empires had been fixed, and repassed the Ky-
ang ; but 170 of them having staid on the other side of
the river, were put to death by Kya-tse-tau. 39
This wicked minister totally concealed from the Treachery
emperor his having made such a shameful treaty withofa
the Moguls ; and the 170 soldiers massacred by his mi!“”
order, gave occasion to a report that the enemy had
been defeated ; so that the Song court believed that
they had been compelled to retreat by the superior
valour and wisdom of Kya-tse-tau. This proved the
ruin of the empire ; for, in 1260, the Mogul emperor
sent Hauking to the Chinese court to execute the trea¬
ty according to the terms agreed on with Kya-tse-tau.
The
China.
40
Desperate
conflict.
. 41
Chinese
empress
submits.
CHI [ 8
The minister, dreading the arrival of this envoy, im¬
prisoned him near Nanking; and took all possible care
that neither Hupilay, nor Li-tsong the Chinese empe¬
ror, should ever hear any thing of him.
It was impossible such unparalleled conduct could
fail to produce a new war. Hupilay,s courtiers in¬
cessantly pressed him to revenge himself on the Song
for their treacherous behaviour j and he soon publish¬
ed a manifesto against them, which was followed by
a renewal of hostilities in 1268. The Mogul army
amounted to 300,000 men $ but notwithstanding their
numbers, little progress was made till the year 1271.
Syan-yang and Fan-ching, cities in the province of
Se-chew, had been besieged for a long time ineffec¬
tually *, but this year an Igur lord advised Hupilay to
send for several of those engineers out of the west, who
knew how to cast stones of 150 pounds weight out of
their engines, which made holes of seven or eight feet
wide in the strongest walls. Two of these engineers
were accordingly sent for j and after giving a speci¬
men of their art before Hupilay, were sent to the ar¬
my in 1272. In the beginning of 1273 they planted
their engines against the city of Fan-ching, and pre¬
sently made a breach in the walls. After a bloody
conflict the suburbs were taken ; and soon after the
Moguls made themselves masters of the walls and gates
of the city. Nevertheless, a Chinese officer, with on¬
ly 100 soldiers, resolved to fight from street to street.
This he did for a long time with the greatest obstina¬
cy, killing vast numbers of the Moguls j and both
parties are said to have been so much overcome with
thirst, that they drank human blood to quench it.
The Chinese set fire to the houses, that the great
beams, falling down, might embarrass the way of their
pursuers $ but at last, being quite wearied out, and fill¬
ed with despair, they put an end to their own lives.
After the taking of Fan-ching, all the materials which
had served at the siege were transported to Seyen-
yang. The two engineers posted themselves against a
wooden retrenchment raised on the ramparts. This
they quickly demolished j and the besieged were so in¬
timidated by the noise and havock made by the stones
cast from these terrible engines, that they immediately
surrendered.
In 1274, Pe-yen, an officer of great valour, and en¬
dowed with many other good qualities, was promoted
to the command of the Mogul army. His first ex¬
ploits were the taking of two strong cities j after
which he passed the great river Ky-ang, defeated the
Song army, and laid siege to Vu-chang-fu. This city
was soon intimidated into a surrender 5 and Pe-yen,
by restraining the barbarity of his soldiers, whom he
would not allow to hurt any body, soon gained the
heai'ts of the Chinese so much, that several cities sur¬
rendered to him on the first summons. In the mean
time the treacherous Kya-tse-tau, who was sent to op¬
pose Pe-yen, was not ashamed to propose peace on the
terms he had formerly concluded with Hupilay •, but
these being rejected, he was obliged at length to come
to an engagement. In this he was defeated, and Pe-
yen continued his conquests with great rapidity. Ha¬
ving taken the city of Nanking, and some others, he
marched towards Hang-chew-fu, the capital of the
Song empire. Peace was now again proposed, but
rejected by the Mogul general j and at last the em-
3
] CHI
press was constrained to put herself, with her son, then China,
an infant, into the hands of Pe-yen, who immediately —y—
sent them to Hupilay.
The submission of the empress did not yet put an
end to the war. Many of the chief officers swore to
do their utmost to rescue her from the hands of her
enemies. In consequence of this resolution they dis¬
tributed their money among the soldiers, and soon
got together an army of 40,000 men. This army at¬
tacked the city where the young emperor Kong-
tsong was lodged, but without success $ after which,
and several other vain attempts, they raised one .of
his brothers to the throne, who then took upon him
the name of Twon-tsong. He was but nine years of
age when he was raised to the imperial dignity, and
enjoyed it but a very short time. In 1277 he was in
great danger of perishing, by reason of the ship on
board which he then was being cast away. The poor
prince fell into the water, and was taken up half dead
with the fright. A great part of his troops perished
at that time, and he soon after made offers of submis¬
sion to Hupilay. These, however, were not accept¬
ed j for, in 1278, the unhappy Twon-tsong was obli¬
ged to retire into a little desert island on the coast of
Quang-tong, where he died in the nth year of his
age
Notwithstanding the progress of the Moguls, vast f);Sg0lntioii
territories still remained to be subdued before they of the Song
could become masters of all the Chinese empire. On empire,
the death of Twon-tsong, therefore, the mandarins
raised to the throne his brother, named Te-ping, at
that time but eight years of age. His army consisted
of no fewer than 200,000 men $ but being utterly void
of discipline, and entii’ely ignorant of the art of war,
they were defeated by 20,000 Mogul troops. Nor
was the fleet more successful 5 for being put in confu¬
sion by that of the Moguls, and the emperor in dan¬
ger of falling into their hands, one of the officers ta¬
king him on his shoulders, jumped with him into the
sea, where they were both drowned. Most of the
mandarins followed this example, as did also the em¬
press and minister, all the ladies and maids of honour,
and multitudes of others, insomuch that 100,000 peo¬
ple are thought to have perished on that day. Thus
ended the Chinese race of emperors ; and the Mogul
dynasty, known by the name of Ywent commenced. ^
Though no race of men that ever existed were Rcjgn of
more remarkable for cruelty and barbarity than the Hupilay.
Moguls ; yet it doth not appear that the emperors of
the Ywen dynasty were in any respect worse than
their predecessors. On the contrary, Hupilay, by the
Chinese called S/ii-tsu, found the way of reconciling
the people to his government, and even of endearing
himself to them so much, that the reign of his family
is to this day stiled by the Chinese the wise govern¬
ment. This he accomplished by keeping as close as
possible to their ancient laws and customs, by his mild
and just government, and by his regard for their
learned men. He was indeed ashamed of the igno¬
rance and barbarity of his Mogul subjects, when com¬
pared with the Chinese. The whole knowledge of the
former was summed up in their skill in managing their
arms and horses, being perfectly destitute of every art
or science, or even of the knowledge of letters. In
1269, he had caused the Mogul characters to be con¬
trived
C H I
[
China, trived. In 1280, he caused some mathematicians search
v -1 tor the source of the river Whang-ho, which at that
time was unknown to the Chinese themselves. In four
months time they arrived in the country where it rises,
and made a map of it, which they presented to his ma¬
jesty. The same year a treatise on astronomy was
published by his order; and, in 1282, he ordered the
learned men to repair from all parts of the empire, to
examine the state of literature, and take measures for
its advancement.
At his first accession to the crown he fixed his resi¬
dence at Tay-ywen-fu, the capital of Shensi; but
thought proper afterwards to remove it to Peking.
Here, being informed that the barks which brought
to court the tribute of the southern provinces, or car¬
ried on the trade of the empire, were obliged to come
by sea, and often suffered shipwreck, he caused that
celebrated canal to be made, which is at present one
of the wonders of the Chinese empire, being 300
leagues in length. By this canal above 9000 imperial
barks transport with ease, and at small expence, the
tribute of grain, rice, silk, &c. which is annually paid
to the court. In the third year of his reign, Shi-tsu
formed a design of reducing the islands of Japan, and
the kingdoms of Tonquin and Cochin-china. Both
these enterprises ended unfortunately, but the first re¬
markably so ; for of 100,000 persons employed in it,
only four or five escaped with the melancholy news of
the destruction of the rest, who all perished by ship¬
wreck. Shi-tsu reigned 15 years, died in the 80th year
of his age, and was succeeded by his grandson. The
throne continued in the Ywen family to the year 1367,
44 when Shun-ti, the last of that dynasty, was driven out
Moguls dri-by a Chinese named Chu. During this period the
ven out. Tartars had become enervated by long prosperity;
and the Chinese had been roused into valour by their
subjection. Shun-ti, the reigning prince, was quite
sunk in sloth and debauchery ; and the empire, besides,
4- was oppressed by a wicked minister named Ama. In
Exploits of June 1355, Chu, a Chinese of mean extraction, and
^u’ head of a small party, set out from How-chew, passed
the Kyang, and took Tayping. He then associated
himself with some other malcontents, at the head of
whom he reduced the town of Tu-chew, in Kyang-
nan. Soon after he made himself master of Nanking,
having defeated the Moguls who came to its relief. In
December 1356, he was able to raise 100,000 men,
at the head of whom he took the city of U-chew, in
the east borders of Quang-si; and here, assembling his
generals, it was resolved neither to commit slaughter
nor to plunder. The most formidable enemy he had
to deal with was (Jlien-ijeiv-hjang, styled, “ emperor of
the Han.” This man being grieved at the progress
made by Chu, equipped a fleet, and raised a formida¬
ble army, in order to reduce Nan-chang-fu, a city of
ot Kyang-si, which his antagonist had made himself
master of. The governor, however, found means to
inform Chu of his danger ; upon which that chief
caused a fleet to be fitted out at Nanking, in which
he embarked 200,000 soldiers. As soon as Chen-yew-
lyang was informed of his enemy’s approach, he raised
the siege ol Nan-chang-fu, and gave orders for at¬
tacking Chu’s naval force. An engagement ensued
between a part of the fleets, in which Chu proved
victorious; and next day, all the squadrons having
Vol. VI. Part I. f
47
9 ] CHI
joined in order to come to a general engagement, cj,;na
Chu gained a second victory, and burnt ico of the —y—
enemy’s vessels. A third and fourth engagement hap¬
pened, in both which Chu gained the victory; and in
the last, Chen-yevv-lyang himself was killed, his son
taken prisoner, and his generals obliged to surrender
themselves, with all their forces and vessels.
In January 1364, Chu’s generals proposed to pro-He is pro¬
claim him emperor ; but this he declined, and at first claimed
contented himself with the title of king of U. Inking of U.
February he made himself master of Vu-chang-fu,
capital of Hu-quang: where, with his usual huma¬
nity, he relieved those in distress, encouraged the
literati, and would allow his troops neither to plunder
nor destroy. This wise conduct procured him an
easy conquest both cf Kyang-si and Hu-quang. The
Chinese submitted to him in crowds, and professed the
greatest veneration and respect for his person and go*
vernment.
All this time Shun-ti, with an unaccountable negli¬
gence, never thought of exerting himself against Clio,
but continued to employ his forces against the rebels
who had taken up arms in various parts of the empire ;
so that Chu found himself in a condition to assume the
title of emperor. This he chose to do at Nanking on Becomes
the first day of the year 1368. After this his troops emperor of
entered the province of Honan, which they presently cll*na*
reduced. In the third month, Chu, who had now
taken the title of Hong-vu or Tay-tsu, reduced the
fortress of Tong-quan ; after which his troops entered
Pecheli from Honan on the one side, and Shang-tong
on the other. Here his generals defeated and killed
one of Shun-ti’s officers ; after which they took the
city of Tong-chew, and then prepared to attack the
capital, from which they were now but 12 miles distant.
On their approach the emperor fled with all his family
beyond the great wall, and thus put an end to the dy- 4g
nasty of Ywen. In 1370 he died, and was succeeded Moguls
by his son, whom the successor of Hong-vu drove be-driven be¬
yond the Kobi or Great Desert, which separates Chi-y011^ l*ie
na from Tartary. They continued their incursions, ^tsert*
however, for many years ; nor did they cease their at¬
tempts till 1583, when vast numbers of them were cut
in pieces by the Chinese troops. ^
The 2ist dynasty of Chinese emperors, founded in China a-
1368 by Chu, continued till the year 1644, when thfcy£ain con*
were again expelled by the Tartars. The last Chinese
emperor was named Whay-tsong, and ascended the lal,
throne in 1628. He was a great lover of the scien¬
ces, and a favourer of the Christians ; though much
addicted to the superstitions of the Bonzes. He
found himself engaged in a war with the Tartars, and
a number ot rebels in different provinces. That he
might more effectually suppress the latter, he resolved
to make peace with the former; and for that end sent
one ot his generals, named Ywen, into Tartary, at
the head of an army, with full power to negotiate a
peace; but that traitor made one upon such shameful
terms, that the emperor refused to ratify it. Ywen,
in order to oblige bis master to comply with the terms
made by himself, poisoned his best and most faithful
general, named Mau-ven-long: and then desired the
Tartars to march directly to Peking, by a road dif¬
ferent from that which he took with his army. This
they accordingly did, and laid siege to the capital.
B Yweu
CHI [i
China. Ywen was ordered to come to its relief j but, on his
' ' arrival, was put to the torture and strangled ; of which
the Tartars were no sooner informed, than they raised
the siege, and returned to their own country. In 1636,
the rebels above mentioned composed four great ar¬
mies, commanded by as many generals j which, how¬
ever, were soon reduced to two, commanded by Li
and Chang. These agreed to divide the empire be¬
tween them j Chang taking the western provinces,
and Li the eastern ones. The latter seized on part of
Shen-si, and then on Honan, whose capital, named
Kay-fong-fu, he laid siege to, but was repulsed with
loss. He renewed it six months after, but without
success j the besieged choosing rather to feed on human
flesh than surrender. The imperial forces coming soon
after to its assistance, the general made no doubt of
being able to destroy the rebels at once, by breaking
down the banks of the Yellow river*, but unfortunate¬
ly the rebels escaped to the mountains, while the city
was quite overflowed, and 300,000 of the inhabitants
perished.
After this disaster, Li marched into the provinces
of Shen-si and Honan ; where he put to death all the
mandarins, exacted great sums from the officers in
place, and showed no favour to any but the populace,
whom he freed from all taxes : by this means he drew
so many to his interest, that he thought himself strong
enough to assume the title of emperor. He next ad¬
vanced towards the capital, which, though well gar¬
risoned, was divided into factions. Li had taken care
to introduce beforehand a number of his men in dis-
_0 guise : and by these the gates were opened to him the
Unhappy third day after his arrival. He entered the city in
fate of the triumph at the head of 300,000 men, Whilst the em™
emperor^ peror kept himself shut up in his palace, busied only
ir'ily ^ l" vv^ suPerstitions. It was not long, however, be¬
fore he found himself betrayed *, and, under the great¬
est consternation, made an effort to escape out of the
palace, attended by about 600 of his guards. He was
still more surprised to see himself treacherously aban¬
doned by them, and deprived of all hopes of escaping
the insults of his subjects. Upon this, preferring death
to the disgrace of falling alive into their hands, he im¬
mediately retired with his empress, whom he tenderly
loved, and the princess her daughter, into a private
part of the garden. His grief was so great that he was
not able to utter a word ; but she soon understood his
meaning, and, after a few silent embraces, hanged her¬
self on a tree in a silken string. Her husband staid
only to write these words on the border of his vest:
“ I have been basely deserted by my subjects 5 do
what you will with me, but spare my people.” He
then cut off the young princess’s head with one stroke
of his scymitar, and hanged himself on another tree,
in the 17th year of his reign, and 36th of his age.
His prime minister, queens, and eunuchs, followed his
example*, and thus ended the Chinese monarchy, to
give place to that of the Tartars, which hath continued
' ever since.
It was some time before the body of the unfortu¬
nate monarch was found. At last it was brought be¬
fore the rebel Li, and by him used with the utmost
indignity ; after which he caused two of Whay-tsong’s
sons, and all his ministers, to be beheaded 5 but his
eldest son happily escaped by flight. The whole em-
2
> ] CHI
pire submitted peaceably to the usurper, except Prince China.
U-san-ghey, who commanded the imperial forces in the 1—
province of Lyau-tong. This brave prince, finding
himself unable to cope with the usurper, invited the
Tartars to his assistance ; and Tsong-te their king
immediately joined him with an army of 80,000 men.
Upon this the usurper marched directly to Peking $ but
not thinking himself safe there, plundered and burnt
the palace, and then fled with the immense treasure
he had got. What became of him afterwards we are
not told ; but the young Tartar monarch rvas imme¬
diately declared emperor of China, his father Tsong-
te having died almost as soon as he set his foot on that
empire.
The new emperor, named S/iun-chi, or Xun-chi, be¬
gan his reign with rewarding U-san-ghey, by confer¬
ring upon him the title of king ; and assigned him the
city of Si-gnan-fu, capital of Shen-si, for his residence.
This, however, did not hinder U-san-ghey from re¬
penting of his error in calling in the Tartars, or, as he
himself used to phrase it, “ in sending for lions to
drive away dogs.” In 1674, he formed a very strong
alliance against them, and had probably prevailed if his
allies had been faithful; but they ti'eacherously desert¬
ed him one after another : which so affected him, that
he died soon after. In 1681 Hong-vvha, son to U-san-
ghey, who continued his efforts against the Tartars,
was reduced to such straits that he put an end to his
own life.
During this time, some resistance h&d been made to
the Tartars in many of the provinces. Two princes of
Chinese extraction had at different times been pro¬
claimed emperors j but both of them were overcome c;r
and put to death. In 1682, the whole 15 provinces Empire to-
were so effectually subdued, that the emperor Kang-hi, tally redu-
successor to Shun-chi, determined to visit his nativece^*
dominions of Tartary. He was accompanied by an
army of 70,000 men, and continued for some months
taking the diversion of hunting. For several years he
repeated his visits annually ; and in his journeys took
Father Verbiest along with him $ by which means we
have a better description of these countries than could
have been otherwise obtained. This prince was a great ciiristiani-
encourager of learning and of the Christian religion ; ty first en-
and in favour of the latter he published a decree, dated couraged
in 1692. Eut in 1716, he revived some obsolete laws ancl llien
against the Christians j nor could the Jesuits with a|l Persecuteik
their art preserve the footing they had got in China.
The causes of this alteration in his resolution are, by
the missionaries, said to have been the slanders of the
mandarins *, but, from the known character of the Je¬
suits, it will be readily believed, that there was some¬
thing more at bottom. This emperor died in 1722, and
was succeeded by his son Yon-chingj who not only
gave no encouragement to the missionaries, but perse¬
cuted all Christians of whatever denomination, not ex¬
cepting even those of that imperial race. At the be¬
ginning of his reign he banished all the Jesuits into the
city of Canton, and in 1732 they were banished from
thence into Ma-kau, a little island inhabited by the
Portuguese, hut subject to China. He died in 1736:
but though the Jesuits entertained great hopes from bis
successor, we have not heard that they have yet met
with any success.
Thus we have given an account of the most memo¬
rable
S3
Climate,
soil, and
produce.
CHI [
China, rable transactions recorded in the Chinese history. We
—* now proceed to describe the present state of the em¬
pire and its inhabitants, according to the best and latest
accounts.
The climate as well as the soil of this extensive em¬
pire is very different in different parts ; severe cold
being often felt in the northern provinces, while the in¬
habitants of the southern ones are scarcely able to bear
the heat. In general, however, the air is accounted
wholesome, and the inhabitants live to a great age.—
The northern and western provinces have many moun¬
tains, which in the latter are cultivated, but in the
north are barren, rocky, and incapable of improve¬
ment. On the mountains of Chensi, Honan, Canton,
and Fokien, are many forests, abounding with tall
straight trees, of different kinds, fit for building, and
particularly adapted for masts and ship timber. These
are used by the emperor in his private buildings j and
from these forests enormous trunks are sometimes
transported to the distance of more than 300 leagues.
Other mountains contain quicksilver, iron, tin, copper,
gold, and silver. Formerly these last were not allow¬
ed to be opened, lest the people should thereby be in¬
duced to neglect the natural richness of the soil: and
it is certain, that, in the 15th century, the emperor
caused a mine of precious stones to be shut, which had
been opened by a private person. Of late, however,
the Chinese are less scrupulous, and a great tx-ade in
gold is carried on by them. Many extravagant fables
are told by the Chinese ot their mountains, particularly
of one in Chensi which throws out flames, and produces
violent tempests, whenever any one beats a drum or
plays on a musical instrument near it. In the province
of Fokien is a mountain, the whole of which is an
idol or statue of the god Fo. This natural colossus,
for it appears not to have been the work of art, is
of such an enormous size, that each of its eyes is seve¬
ral miles in circumference, and its nose extends some
leagues.
China has several large lakes ; the principal one is
that named Poyang-hou, in the province of Kiang-si.
It is formed by the confluence of four large rivers; ex¬
tends near 100 leagues in length ; and, like the sea,
its waters are raised into tempestuous waves. The em¬
pire is watered by an immense number of rivers of dif¬
ferent sizes, of which two are particularly celebrated,
viz. the Yang-tse-kiang, or son of the sea, and Hoang-
ho, or the yellow river. The former rises in the pro¬
vince of Yunan, and passing through Houquang and
Kiang-nan, falls into the eastern ocean, after a course
of 1200 miles, opposite to the island of Tson-ming,
which is formed by the sand accumulated at its mouth.
This river is of immense size, being half a league broad
at Nanking, which is near 100 miles from its mouth.
The navigation is dangerous, so that great numbers
of vessels are lost on it. It runs with a rapid cur¬
rent, forming several islands in its course, which are
again carried off, and new ones formed in different
places, when the river is swelled by the torrents from
the mountains. These islands, while they remain,
are very useful ; producing great quantities of reeds
ten or twelve feet high, which are used in all the
neighbouring countries for fuel. The Hoang-ho, or
Yellow-river, has its name from the yellow colour gi¬
ven it by the clay and sand washed down in the time
China.
54
Lakes and
n ] CHI
of rain. It ilses in the mountains which border the
province of Te-tchuen on the west, and after a course
of near 600 leagues, discharges itself into the eastern
sea, not far from the mouth of the Kiang. It is very
broad and x'apid, but so shallow that it is scarcely navi¬
gable. It is very liable to inundations, often overflow¬
ing its banks, and destroying whole villages. For this
reason it has been found necessary to confine it in se¬
veral places by long and strong dikes, which yet do
not entirely answer the purpose. The people of Ho¬
nan, therefore, whose land is exceedingly low, have
surrounded most of their cities with strong ramparts of
earth, faced with turf, at the distance of three fur¬
longs.
The Chinese have been at great pains to turn their Canals!
lakes and rivers to the advantage of commerce, by pro¬
moting an inland navigation. One of their principal
works for this purpose is the celebrated canal reach-
ing from Canton to Peking, and forming a communi¬
cation between the southern and northern provinces.
I his canal extends through no less a space than 600
leagues ; but its navigation is interrupted in one place
by a mountain, where passengers are obliged to travel
IO or 12 leagues over land. A number of other ca¬
nals are met with in this and other provinces; most of
which have been executed by the industry of the inha¬
bitants of different cities and towns, in order to pro¬
mote their communication with the various parts of
the empire. M. Grosier remarks, that, in these works,
the Chinese have “ surmounted obstacles that perhaps
would have discouraged any other people: such, for
example, is part of a canal which conducts from Chao-
king to Ning-po:'1 Near these cities there are two ca¬
nals, the waters of which do not communicate, and
which differ ten or twelve feet in their level. To
render this place passable foi’ boats, the Chinese have
constructed a double glacis, of large stones, or rather
two inclined planes, which unite as an acute angle at
their up{jer extremity, and extend on each side to the
surface of the water. If the bark is in the lower ca¬
nal, they push it up the plane of the first glacis by
means of several capstans until it is raised to the
angle, when by its own weight it glides down the se¬
cond glacis, and precipitates itself into the water of
the higher canal with the velocity of an arrow. It is
astonishing that these barks, which are generally very
long and heavily loaden, never burst asunder when
they are balanced on this acute angle ; however,
we never hear of any accident of this kind happening
in the passage. It is true they take the precaution of
using for their keels a kind of wood which is exceed¬
ingly hard, and proper for resisting the violence of such
an effort.
The following remarkable phenomenon in a Chinese Remark-
rivei’ is related by lather le Couteux, a French mis-aWe river
sionary. “Some leagues above the village Che-pai,whi.cl1 Part*
(says he), the river becomes considerably smaller, al-ly sinks un"
though none of its waters flow into any other channel; gro,uuI*
and eight or nine leagues below, it resumes its former
breadth, without I’eceiving any additional supply, ex¬
cepting what it gets from a few small rivulets, which
are almost dry during the greater part of the year.
Opposite to Che-pai it is so much diminished, that,
excepting one channel, which is not very broad, I have
passed and repassed it several times by the help of a com-
B 2 mon
CHI [i
China, mon pole. I was always surprised to find this river so
—v-—> narrow and shallow in that place: but I never thought
of inquiring into the cause of it, until the loss of a bark
belonging to a Christian family afforded me an op¬
portunity. In that place where the river diminishes
almost of a sudden, it flows with great impetuosity ;
and where it resumes its former breadth it is equally
rapid. At the sixth moon, when the water was high
and the wind strong, the bark I have mentioned ar¬
riving above Che-pai, was driven on a sand-bank ; for
between these twm places the river is full of moveable
sands, which are continually shifting their situation.
The master of the boat dropped his anchor until the
wind should abate, and permit him to continue his
voyage $ but a violent vortex of moveable sand, which
was cast up from the bottom of the river, laid the
bark on its side ; a second vortex succeeded j then a
third 5 and afterwards a fourth, which shattered the
bark to pieces. When I arrived at the place where this
bark had been lost, the weather was mild anti serene; I
perceived eddies in the current everywhere around,
which absorbed, and carried to the bottom of the ri¬
ver, whatever floated on the surface ; and I observed,
at the same time, that the sand was thrown violently
up with a vortical motion. Above these eddies the
water was rapid, hut without any fall ; and in the
place below, where the river resumes its usual course,
no eddies are to be seen, but the sand is thrown up in
the same violent manner ; and in some places there
are water-falls and a kind of small islands scattered
at some distance from one another. These islands
which appear above the surface of the wrater, are not
solid earth, but consist of branches of trees, roots, and
herbs collected together. I was told that these boughs
rose up from the water, and that no one knew the
place from whence they came. I was informed that
these masses, which w'ere 40 or 50 feet in extent on
that side on which we passed, were immoveable and
fixed in the bottom of the river ; that it wras dangerous
to approach them, because the water formed whirl¬
pools everywhere around them ; that, however, when
the river was very low, the fishermen sometimes ven¬
tured to collect the bushes that floated on its sur¬
face, and which they used for fuel. I am of opinion,
that, at the place of the river which is above Che-pai,
the water falls into deep pits, from whence it forces
up the sand with that vortical motion ; and that it
flows under-ground to the other place, eight or nine
leagues below, where it carries with it all the boughs,
weeds, and roots, which it washes down in its course,
and thus forms those islands which appear above its
surface. We know there are some rivers that lose
themselves entirely, or in part, in the bowels of the
earth, and which afterwards arise in some other place ;
but I believe there never was one known to lose part
of its water below its own channel, and again to re-
57 cover it at the distance of some leagues.”
Why China It has already been said, that China is, in general,
IS subject a fevtile country; and indeed all travellers agree in this
notwith- respect, and make encomiums on the extent and beauty
standing its of its plains. So careful are the husbandmen of this
fertility. empire to lose none of their ground, that neither in¬
closure, hedge, nor ditch, nay, scarce a single tree,
are ever to be met with. In several places the land
yields two crops a-year; and even in the interval be-
; ] CHI
tween the harvests the people sow several kinds of
pulse and small grain. The plains of the northern
provinces yield wheat; those of the southern, rice,
because the country is low and covered with water.
Notwithstanding all this fertility, however, the inha¬
bitants are much more frequently afflicted with famine
than those of the European nations, though the coun¬
tries of Europe produce much less than China. For
this two causes are assigned. 1. The destruction of
the rising crops by drought, hail, inundations, lo¬
custs, &c. in which case China cannot like the Eu¬
ropean countries be supplied by importation. This is
evident by considering how it is situated with regard
to other nations. On the north are the Mogul Tar¬
tars, a lazy and indolent race, who subsist principally
on the flesh of their flocks ; sowing only a little mil¬
let for their own use. The province of Leatong,
which lies to the north-east, is indeed extremely fer¬
tile, but too far distant from the capital and centre
of the empire to supply it with provisions ; and be¬
sides, all carriage is impracticable but in the winter,
when great quantities of game and fish, preserved in
ice, are sent thither. No corn is brought from Corea
to China ; and though the Japan islands are only
three or four days sailing from the Chinese provinces
of Kiang-nan and Che-kyang, yet no attempt was
ever made to obtain provisions from thence ; whether
it be that the Japanese have nothing to spare, or oti
account of the insults offered by those islanders to
foreign merchants. Formosa lies opposite to the pro¬
vince of Fo-kien ; hut so far is that island from being
able to supply any thing, that in a time of scarcity it
requires a supply from China itself. The province of
Canton is also bounded by the sea, and has nothing
on the south but islands and remote countries. One
year, when rice was exceedingly scarce there, the em¬
peror sent for F. Parranin, a Jesuit missionary, and
asked him if the city of Macao could not furnish
Canton with rice until the supply he had ordered
from other provinces should arrive : but was informed
that Macao had neither rice, corn, fruit, herbs, nor
flocks, and that it generally got from China what
was necessary for its subsistence.—The only method,
therefore, the Chinese can take to guard against fa¬
mines arising from these causes, is to erect granaries
and public magazines in every province and most of
the principal cities of the empire. This has at all
times been a principal object of care to the public
ministers ; but though this mode of relief still takes
place in theory, so many ceremonies are to be gone
through before any supply can be drawn from those
public repositories, that it seldom arrives seasonably at
the places where it is wanted : and thus numbers
of unhappy wretches perish for want. 2. Another
cause of the scarcity of grain in this empire, is the
prodigious consumption of it in the composition of wines,
and a spirituous liquor called rack. But though go¬
vernment is well apprised that this is ong of the prin¬
cipal sources of famine throughout the empire, it ne¬
ver employed means sufficient to prevent it. Procla¬
mations indeed have frequently been issued, prohibit¬
ing the distillation of rack ; and the appointed offi¬
cers will visit the still-houses and destroy the'furnaces
if nothing is given them ; hut on slipping some money
into their hands, they shut their eyes, and go some¬
where
C H I
r
China, where else to receive another bribe. When the man-
v 1 darin himself goes about, however, these distillers do
not escape quite so easily, the workmen being whip¬
ped and imprisoned, after which they are obliged to
carry a kind of collar called the Cangite; the masters
are likewise obliged to change their habitations and
conceal themselves for a short time, after which they
generally resume their operations. It is impossible,
however, that any method of this kind can prove ef¬
fectual in suppressing these manufactories, while the
liquors themselves are allowed to be sold publicly j and
against this there is no law throughout the empire.
Our author, however, justly observes, that in case of a
prohibition of this kind, the grandees would be obli¬
ged to deny themselves the use of these luxuries, which
would be too great a sacrifice for the good of the em-
58 P‘re;
Immense The population of China, is so great, in compari-
population. son w'ith that of the European countries, that the ac¬
counts of it have generally been treated as fabulous by
the western nations. From an accurate investigation
of some Chinese records concerning the number of
persons liable to taxation throughout the empire, M.
Grosier concluded that it cannot be less than 200
millions. For this extraordinary population he assigns
the following causes, i. The strict observance of fi¬
lial duty throughout the empire, and the prerogatives
of fraternity, which make a son the most valuable pro¬
perty of a father. 2. The infamy attached to the me¬
mory of those who die without children. 3. The uni¬
versal custom by which the marriage of children be¬
comes the principal concern of the parents. 4. The
honours bestowed by the state on those widows who
do not marry a second time. 5. Frequent adoptions,
which prevent families from becoming extinct. 6. The
return of wealth to its original stock by the disin¬
heriting of daughters. 7. The retirement of wives,
which renders them more complaisant to their hus¬
bands, saves them from a number of accidents when
big with child, and constrains them to employ them¬
selves in the care of their children. 8. The mar¬
riage of soldiers. 9. The fixed state of taxes ; which
being always laid upon lands, never fall but indirectly
on the trader and mechanic. 10. The small number
of sailors and travellers. 11. To these may be added
the great number of people who reside in China only
by intervals; the profound peace which the empire
enjoys ; the frugal and laborious manner in which the
great live ; the little attention that is paid to the vain
and ridiculous prejudice of marrying below one’s rank ;
the ancient policy of giving distinction to men and not
to families, by attaching nobility only to employ¬
ments and talents, without suffering it to become he¬
reditary. And, 12. lastly, A decency of public man¬
ners, and a total ignorance of scandalous intrigues and
gallantry.
Extravagant, however, and almost incredible as this
account of the population of China may appear to some,
we have very respectable authority for believing that
it is much below the truth. Whether the causes of
this phenomenon, as above enumerated by M. Grosier,
be the only ones assignable, it is certain that the popu¬
lation of this country was estimated at 333,000,000
Jn 1793 at the time when Sir George Staunton* visited it in
3 3 CHI
the capacity of secretary to the British plenipotentiary,
as appears from the following estimate of the popula¬
tion of each province, made by Chovv-ta-zhin, and taken
from his official documents.
China.
Provinces.
Pe-che-lee,
Kiang-nan, two provinces,
Kiang-see,
Tche-kiang,
Fo-chen,
Flo-nan,
Shan-tung,
Shan-see,
Shen-see,
Kan-sou,
Se chuen,
Canton,
Quang-see,
Yu-nan,
Koei-cheou,
Population.
38,000,000
32,000,000
19,000,000
21,000,000
15,000,000
f 14,000,000
\ 13,000,000
25,000,000
24,000,000
27,000,000
18,000,000
I 2,000,000
27,000,000
21,000,000
10,000,000
8,000,000
9,000^000
333>000>°°o
59
Pcpulation
of the dif-
terent pro¬
vinces.
The accounts, however, on which these statements rest,
are found, when investigated, to abound in inconsist¬
encies which destroy their credit. Mr Barrow, after
balancing and comparing a variety of authorities, con¬
cludes, that the actual amount of the population of China
is about 146,000,000. See China,Sdfplement, p. 102. (l2
Ihe government of China, according to the Abbe Unlimited
Grosier, is purely patriarchal. The emperor is more authority
unlimited in his authority than any other potentate on of thc e,,1‘
earth ; no sentence of death, pronounced by any off61'01’*
the tribunals, can be executed without his consent,
and every verdict in civil affairs is subject to be revised
by him; nor can any determination be of force until
it has been confirmed by the emperor p and, on the
contrary, whatever sentence he passes is executed with¬
out delay ; his edicts are respected throughout the em¬
pire as if they came from a divinity ; he alone has the
disposal of all offices, nor is there any such thing as
the purchase of places in China ; merit, real or sup¬
posed, raises to an office, and rank is attached to it on-,
ly. Even the succession to the throne is not altoge¬
ther hereditary. The emperor of China has a power
of choosing his own successor, without consulting any
of his nobility ; and can select one not only from
among his own children, but even from the body of
his people ; and there have been several instances of
his making use of this right : and he has even a power
of altering the succession after it has once been fixed,
in case the person pitched upon does not behave to¬
wards him with proper respect. The emperor can also
prevent the princes of the blood from exercising the
title, with which, according to the constitution of the
empire, they are invested. They may, indeed, not¬
withstanding this, possess their hereditary dignity ; in
which case they are allowed a revenue proportioned
to their high birth, as *Yell as a palace, officers, and
C H I
China, a court; but they have neither influence nor power,
^ —-vand their authority is lower than that ot the meanest
6l mandarin.
Mandarins The mandarins are of two classes, viz. those of let-
of different ters, and the inferior sort styled mandarins ol arms,
classes. rj[ie latter by no means enjoy the same consideration
with the former sort; indeed in China the literati are
highly honoured, and to their influence M. Grosier
supposes that we may in a great measure ascribe the
mildness and equity of the government j though he
thinks that the balance may incline rather too much
in their favour. Several degrees, answering to those
of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor, must be passed
through before one can attain to the dignity of a man¬
darin of letters ; though sometimes, by the favour of
the emperor, it is conferred on those who have attain¬
ed only the two first degrees: but even the persons
who have gone through all the three, enjoy at first
only the government of a city of the second or third
class. When several vacancies happen in the govern¬
ment of cities, the emperor invites to court a corre¬
sponding number of the literati, whose names are
written down in a list. The names of the vacant go¬
vernments are then put into a box, raised so high that
the candidates are able only to reach it with their
hands 5 after which they draw in their turns, and each
is appointed governor of the city whose name he has
drawn.
There are eight orders of these mandarins in China.
I. The calao, from whom are chosen the ministers of
state, the presidents of the supreme courts, and all the
superior officers among the militia. The chief of this
order presides also in the emperor’s council, and en¬
joys a great share of his confidence. 2. The te-hiose,
or man of acknowledged ability, is a title bestowed
upon every mandarin of the second rank j and from
these are selected the viceroys and presidents of the
supreme council in the difl’erent provinces. 3. The
tchong-tchneo, or school of mandarins, act as secretaries
to the emperor. 4. Y tchuen-tao. These keep in re¬
pair the harbours, royal lodging houses, and harks
which belong to the emperor, unless particularly en¬
gaged in some other office by his order. 5. The ting-
pi-tao have the inspection of the troops. 6. The tun-
tien-hao have the care of the highways. 7. The ho-
tao superintend the rivers. 8. The hai-tao inspect the
sea-coasts.
Thus the whole administration of the Chinese empire
is intrusted to the mandarins of letters $ and the ho¬
mage paid by the common people to every mandarin in
office almost equals that paid to the emperor himself.
Th is indeed flows from the nature of their government.
In China it is a received opinion that the emperor is
the father of the whole empire ; that the governor of a
province is the father of that province $ and that the
mandarin who is governor of a city is also the father of
that city. This idea is productive of the highest re¬
spect and submission, which is not at all lessened by
their great number j for though the mandarins of letters
amount to more than 14,000, the same respect is paid
to every one of them.
The mandarins of arms are never indulged with any
share in the government of the state $ however, to at¬
tain the dignity, it is also necessary to pass through
the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor of arms.
C H I
The accomplishments necessary for a mandarin of arms China,
are, strength of body, with agility and readiness in per- '■ •—-v—..J
forming the various military exercises, and compre¬
hending the orders requisite for the profession of arms j
an examination on these subjects must be undergone
before the candidate can attain the wished-for dig¬
nity. _ . 6*
The mandarins of arms have tribunals, the members Tribunal of
of which are selected from among their chiefs j and th6 msmda-
among these they reckon princes, counts, and dukes }nnso*aims"
for all these dignities, or something equivalent to them,
are met with in China. The principal of these tribu¬
nals is held at Peking, and consists of five classes :
1. The mandarins of the rear-guard, called heou-fou.
2. Of the left wing, or tsa-fou. 3. Of the right wing,
or yeou-feou. 4. Of the advanced main-guard, or te-
hong-fou. 5. Of the advanced guard, or tsien-fou. These
five tribunals are subordinate to one named iong-tching-
fou ; the president of which is one of the great lords of
the empire, whose authority extends over all the mili¬
tary men of the empire. By his high dignity he could
render himself formidable even to the emperor j but to
prevent this inconvenience, he has for his assessor a
mandarin of letters, who enjoys the title and exercises
the function of superintendant of arms. He must al¬
so take the advice of two inspectors who are named by
the emperor $ and when these four have agreed upon
any measure, their resolution must still be submit¬
ted to the revisal of a higher court named ping-pouy
which is entirely of a civil nature. The chief of these
mandarins is a general of course, whose powers are
equivalent to those of our commanders in-chief j and
below him are other mandarins who act as subordinate
officers.
These two classes of mandarins compose what is call¬
ed the nobility of China : but as we have already hint¬
ed, their office is not hereditary j the emperor alone
continues or confers it. They have the privilege of re¬
monstrating to the emperor, either as individuals or in
a body, upon any part of his conduct which appears
contrary to the interest of the empire. These remon¬
strances are seldom ill received, though the sovereign
complies with them only when he himself thinks proper.
The number of literary mandarins in China is comput¬
ed at upwards of 14,000 ; and those of arms at 18,000 ;
the former, however, are considered as the principal
body in the empire ; and this preference is thought to
damp the military ardour of the nation in general,
and to be one cause of that weakness in war for which
the Chinese are remarkable.
The armies of this empire are proportioned to its Military
vast extent and population j being computed in time force,
of peace at more than 700,000. Their pay amounts
to about two-pence halfpenny and a measure of rice
per day, though some of them have double pay, and
the pay of a horseman is double that of a foot soldier j
the emperor furnishes a horse, and the horseman re¬
ceives two measures of small beans for his daily sub¬
sistence j the arrears of the army being punctually paid
up every three months.
The arms of a horseman are, a helmet, cuirass, lance,
and sabre j those of a foot soldier are a pike and sabre j
some have fusees, and others bows and arrows. All
these are carefully inspected at every review j and if
any of them are found in the least rusted, or otherwise
in
[ 14 ]
China.
64
Use of fire¬
arms lost
and revi¬
ved.
6S
Account of
the great
wall.
CHI [ 1
in bad condition, the possessor is instantly punished ;
if a Chinese, with 30 or 40 blows of a stick ; or if a
Tartar, with as many lashes.
Though the use of gun-powder is certainly very
ancient in China, it appears to have been afterwards
totally lost, at least fire-arms seem to have been al¬
most entirely unknown some centuries ago. Three or
four cannon were to be seen at that time about the
gates of Nanking; but not a single person in China
knew how to make use of them ; so that, in 1621,
when the city of Macao made a present of three pieces
of artillery to the emperor, it was found necessary also
to send three men to load them. The utility of these
weapons was quickly perceived by the execution which
the three cannon did against the Tartars, at that
time advanced as far as the great wall. When the
invaders threatened to return, the mandarins of arms
gave it as their opinion, that cannons were the best
arms they could make use of against them. They
were then taught the art of casting cannon by F.
Adam Schaal and Verbiest, two Jesuit missionaries,
and their artillery was increased to the number of 320
pieces 5 at the same time that they were instructed
in the method of fortifying towns, and constructing
fortresses and other buildings according to the rules of
modern architecture.
The best soldiers in China are procured from the
three northern provinces, the others being seldom call¬
ed forth, but allowed to remain at peace with their
families 5 indeed there is not often occasion for exert¬
ing their military talents, unless it be in the quelling
of an insurrection, when a mandarin or governor usual¬
ly accompanies them. They march in a very tumul¬
tuous manner, but Avant neither skill nor agility in
performing their different evolutions. They, in ge¬
neral, handle a sabre well, and shoot very dexterously
with bows and arrows. There are in China more
than 2000 places of arms; and through the different
provinces there are dispersed about 3000 towers or
castles, all of them defended by garrisons. Soldiers
continually mount guard there ; and on the first ap¬
pearance of tumult, the nearest sentinel makes a sig¬
nal from the top of the tower, by hoisting a flag in the
day-time, or lighting a torch in the night; when the
neighbouring garrisons immediately repair to the place
where their presence is necessary.
The principal defence of the empire against a fo¬
reign enemy is the great wall which separates China
from Tartary, extending more than IJCO miles in
length, and of such a thickness that six horsemen may
easily ride abreast upon it. It is flanked with towers
two bow-shots distant from one another; and it is said
that a third of the able-bodied men in the empire
were employed in constructing it. The workmen
were ordered, under pain of death, to place the ma¬
terials so closely, that not the least entrance might be
afforded for any instrument of iron ; and thus the
work was constructed with such solidity, that it is still
almost entire, though 2000 years have elapsed since it
was constructed. This extraordinary work is carried
on not only through the low lands and valleys, but
over hills and mountains ; the height of one of which
was computed by F. Verbiest at 1236 feet above the
level of the spot where he stood. According to F.
Martini it begins at the gulf of Lea-tong, and reaches
5 1 CHI
to the mountains near the city of Kin on the Yellow China,
river ; between which places it meets with no inter- *"11
ruption, except to the north of the city of Suen in
the province of Pecheli, where it is interrupted by a
ridge of hideous and inaccessible mountains, to which
it is closely united. It is likewise interrupted by the
river Hoang-ho ; but for others of an inferior size,
arches have been constructed, through which the wa¬
ter passes freely. Mr Bell informs us, that it is car¬
ried across rivers, and over the tops of the highest hills,
without the least interruption, keeping nearly along
that circular range of barren rocks which incloses the
country; and, after running about 1200 miles, ends
in impassable mountains and sandy deserts. The foun¬
dation consists of large blocks of stone laid in mortar ;
but all the rest is of brick. The whole is so strong
and well built, that it scarcely needs any repairs ; and,
in the dry climate in which it stands, may remain in
the same condition for many ages. When carried
over steep rocks, where no horse can pass, it is about
15 or 20 feet high, but when running through a val¬
ley, or crossing a river, it is about 30 feet high, with
square towers and embrasures at equal distances. The
top is flat and paved with cut stone ; and where it
rises over a rock or eminence, there is an ascent made
by an easy stone stair. “ This wall (our author adds)
was begun and completely finished in the short space
of five years ; and it is reported, that the labourers
stood so close for many miles, that they could hand
the materials from one to another. This seems the
more probable, as the rugged rocks among which it
is built must have prevented all use of carriages ; and
neither clay for making bricks, nor any kind of ce¬
ment are to be found among them.1’
To this account of the most astonishing production
of human labour and industry to be met with on the
face of the earth, we may add, that if to its prodigious
length of 1500 miles, we assume as true, the probable
conjecture that its dimensions throughout are nearly the
same as where it was crossed by the British embassy, it
contains materials more than sufficient to erect all the
dwelling houses in England and Scotland, even admit¬
ting their number to be 1,800,000, and each to con¬
tain 2000 cubic feet of masonry. In this calculation
the huge projecting masses of stone called towers, are
not included, which of themselves would erect a city
as large as London. To assist the conceptions of our
readers still farther respecting this singular and stupen¬
dous fabric, we shall only observe, that were its mate¬
rials converted into a wall 12 feet high and four feet
thick, it would possess sufficient length to surround the
globe, at its equatorial circumference.
Ihe whole civil government of China is managed Courts by
by the following courts. 1. The emperor’s grand ^le
council, composed of all the ministers of state, i»resi-C^V^
dents and assessors or the six sovereign courts, and ofis mana-
three others, to be afterwards mentioned. This isged.
never assembled but on affairs of the greatest impor¬
tance ; the emperor’s private council being substituted
to it in all cases of smaller moment. 2. The chief of
the other courts furnishes mandarins for the differ¬
ent provinces, watches over their conduct, keeps a
journal of their transactions, and informs the emperor
of them, who rewards or punishes according to the re¬
port he gets.
This
C H I
China. This second tribunal, which may be called a kind
—v ","i/ of civil inquisition, is subdivided into four others ; the
first entrusted with the care of selecting those who, on
account of their learning or other good properties, are
capable of filling the offices of government j the second
appointed to take care of the conduct of the mandarins j
the third affixing the seals to the different public acts,
giving the seals to mandarins, and examining those ot
the different dispatches; while the fourth inquires in¬
to the merit of the grandees of the empire, not except¬
ing the princes of the imperial blood themselves. The
principal sovereign court to which these four last are
subordinate is called Li-pou.
2. Hou-pou, or the grand treasurer, superintends all
the finances of the state ; is the guardian and protec¬
tor of the treasures and dominions of the emperor,
keeping an account of his revenues, 8ic. superintend¬
ing the management and coining of money, the pub¬
lic magazines, customhouses ; and, lastly, keeping an
exact register of all the families in the empire. To
assist this court, 14 others are appointed throughout
the different provinces of the empire.
3. Li-pou, or the court of ceremonies. “ It is an
undoubted fact (says M. Grosier), that ceremonies
form, in part, the base of the Chinese government.
Th is tribunal therefore takes care to support them,
and enforce their observance; it inspects also the arts
and sciences. It is consulted by the emperor when he
designs to confer particular honours; takes care of
the annual sacrifices offered up by him, and even re¬
gulates the entertainments which he gives either to
strangers or to his own subjects. It also receives and
entertains foreign ambassadors, and preserves tranquil¬
lity among the different religious sects in the empire.
It is assisted by four inferior tribunals.
4. Ping-Pou, or the tribunal of arms, comprehends
in its jurisdiction the whole militia of the empire ; in¬
specting also the fortresses, magazines, arsenals, and
store-houses of every kind, as well as the manufacto¬
ries of arms both offensive and defensive; examining
and appointing officers of every rank. It is com¬
posed entirely of mandarins of letters; and the
four tribunals depending upon it consist also of li¬
terati.”
5. The hong-pou, Is a criminal bench for the whole
empire, and is assisted by 14 subordinate tribunals.
6. The cong-pou, or tribunal of public works, sur¬
veys and keeps in repair the emperor’s palaces, as well
as those of the princes and viceroys, and the buildings
where the tribunals are held, with the temples, tombs
of the sovereigns, and all public monuments. It has
besides the superintendance of the streets, public high¬
ways, bridges, lakes, rivers, and every thing relating
either to internal or foreign navigation. Four inferior
tribunals assist in the discharge of these duties ; the
first drawing the plans of public works ; the second
directing the work-shops in the different cities of the
empire ; the third surveying the causeways, roads,
bridges, canals, &c. ; and the fourth taking care of
the emperor’s palaces, gardens, and orchards, and re-
ceiving their produce.
Partiality All the tribunals are composed, one half of Chi-
of govern- nese, and the other of Tartars ; and one of the pre-
t0|* s'u^ents °f each superior tribunal is always a Tartar
Chinese'6 ^orn* N°ne ot the courts above described, however,
CHI
has absolute authority even in its own jurisdiction ; China,
nor can its decisions be carried into execution without v—
the concurrence of another tribunal, and sometimes of
several others. The fourth tribunal, for instance, has
indeed under its jurisdiction the whole troops of the
empire; but the payment of them is entrusted with
the second ; while the sixth has the care of the arms,
tents, chariots, barks, and stores necessary for military
operations ; so that nothing relative to these can be
put in execution without the concurrence of all the
three tribunals. gg
To prevent any unlawful combination among the Censors,
tribunals, each has its censor appointed. This is an
officer whose duty is merely to watch over the pro¬
ceedings of the court, without deciding upon any
thing himself. He assists therefore at all assemblies,
revises all their acts, and without acquainting the court
in the least with either his sentiments or intentions,
immediately informs the emperor of what he judges
to be amiss. He likewise gives information of the
behaviour of the mandarins, either in the public ad¬
ministration of affairs, or in their private conduct ;
nay, sometimes he will not scruple to reprimand the
emperor for what he supposes to be erroneous in his
conduct.
These censors are never removed from their places
but in order to be promoted ; and thus, holding their
offices for life, they have the greater courage to speak
out when they observe any impropriety or abuse.
Their accusation is sufficient to set on foot an inquiry,
which generally leads to a proof; in which case the
accused is discharged from his office, and never held in
any estimation afterwards. The complaints of the cen¬
sors, however, are referred to the very tribunal against
whose members they complain; though, being afraid of
an accusation themselves, they very seldom pass sen¬
tence against the accusers.
Besides all this, the censors also form a tribunal of
their own, named tou-tche-yven. Its members have a
right of remonstrating with the emperor, whenever his
own interest or that of the public renders it necessary.
They inspect all lawyers and military men in public
employments. “ In short (says M. Grosier), they
are, morally speaking, placed between the prince and
the mandarins ; between the mandarins and the peo¬
ple ; between the people and families ; between fami¬
lies and individuals; and they generally unite to the
importance of their office incorruptible probity and in¬
vincible courage. The sovereign may, if he proceeds
to rigour, take away their lives ; but many of them
have patiently suffered death, rather than betray the
cause of truth or wink at abuses. It is not sufficient
therefore to have got rid of one, they must all be treat¬
ed in the same manner; the last that might be spared
would tread in the same steps with no less resolution
than those who went before him. In the annals of no
nation do we find an example of such a tribunal, yet
it appears to be necessary in all without exception.
We must not, however, imagine, that the privileges of
a censor give him a right to forget his duty tu his
sovereign, or to communicate to the public those re¬
marks which he takes the liberty of making to him :
were he only to give the least hint of them to his col¬
leagues, he would be punished with death ; and he
would share the same fate did he, in any of his repre¬
sentations,
[ 16 ]
CHI [ 17 ] CHI
China, sentatxons, suffer a single word, inconsistent with mode-
-v—J ration or respect, to escape him.”
69 There are still two other courts in China, both of
^culiarto* t^em Pecu^ar to the empire, which deserve to be men-
China^ ° tioned. The first is that of princes j and which, in
conformity with its title, is composed of princes only.
In the registers of this tribunal are inscribed the names
of all the children of the imperial family as soon as
they are born : and to these are also consigned the dig¬
nities and titles which the emperor confers upon them.
This is the only tribunal where the princes can be tried j
and here they are absolved or punished according to the
pleasure of the judges.
The other tribunal is that of history, called by the
Chinese han-lin-yvan. It is composed of the greatest
geniuses of the empire, and of men of the most pro¬
found erudition. These are entrusted with the educa¬
tion of the heir apparent to the throne, and the compi¬
lation and arrangement of the general history of the
empire $ which last part of their office renders them
formidable even to the emperor himself. From this
body the mandarins of the first class, and the presidents
70 of the supreme class, are generally chosen.
Filial piety The basis of all the civil laws of the Chinese is fi-
afalrtheir P‘ety* Every mandarin, who is a governor either
laws. °f a province or city, must instruct the people assem¬
bled round him twice a-montb, and recommend to
them the observance of certain salutary rules, which
are summed up in a few short sentences, and such as
no person can ever be supposed capable of forget-
7*. ting.
Of their The Chinese are allowed only to have one wife,
marriages. wij0Se an^ age must jje nearly equal to that of
their husbands 5 but they are allowed to have several
concubines, whom they may admit into their houses
without any formality, after paying the parents a sum
of money, and entering into a written engagement to
use their daughters well. These concubines, however,
are all in subjection to the lawful wife $ their child¬
ren are considered as hers ; they address her as mother,
and can give this title to her only. A person that has
once been married, whether man or woman, may law¬
fully marry again, but it is then no longer necessary to
study equality of age or condition. A man may choose
his second wife from among his concubines ; and, in
all cases, this new marriage requires very few forma¬
lities. A widow is absolute mistress of herself, and can
neither be compelled by her parents to marry again,
nor continue in a state of widowhood, contrary to her
own inclination. Those of moderate rank, however,
who have no children, do not enjoy the same privilege;
as the parents of the former husband can dispose of her
in marriage, not only without her consent, but with¬
out her knowledge. The law authorizes the disposal
of them in this manner, in order to indemnify the rela¬
tions of the deceased husband for the money they may
have cost him. If the wife is left big with child, this
cannot take place, until she is delivered ; nor can it
be done at all if she brings forth a son. There are
likewise two exceptions ; 1. when the parents of the
widow assign her a proper maintenance ; and, 2. if
72 the widow embraces a religious life, and becomes a
Divorce*, bonzesse.
maniacs Divorces are allowed in China in cases of adultery,
I &rageS’ mutual dislike, incompatibility of tempers, jealousy,
Vol, VI. Part I. f
&c. No husband, however, can put away or sell his China,
wife until a divorce is legally obtained ; and if this re-
gulation be not strictly observed, the buyer and seller
become equally culpable. If a wife, lawfully married,
privately withdraws herself from her husband, he may
immediately commence an action at law; by the sen¬
tence of which she becomes his slave, and he is at li¬
berty to sell her to whom he pleases. On the other
hand, if a husband leaves his wife for three years, she
is at liberty, after laying her case before the mandarins,
to take another husband ; but if she w'ere to anticipate
their consent, she would be liable to a severe punish¬
ment.
Marriage is deemed illegal in China in the follow¬
ing cases. 1. If the young woman has been betrothed
to a young man, and presents have been given and re¬
ceived by the parents of the intended husband and
wife. 2. If in the room of a beautiful young wo¬
man another be substituted of a disagreeable figure ;
or if the daughter of a free man marry his slave ; or
if any one give his slave to a free woman, pretending
to her parents that he is his son or relation. In all
these cases the marriage is null and void ; and all those
who have had any share in making up the match are
severely punished.
3. Any mandarin of letters is forbidden to form an
alliance with any family residing in the province or
city of which he is governor.
4. No Chinese youth can enter into a state of mar¬
riage during the time of mourning for his father or
mother ; and if promises have been made before, they
cease immediately on that event taking place. After
the usual time of mourning is expired, however, the
parents of the intended bride are obliged to write to
those of the young man, putting him in mind of his
engagement.
5. Marriage is also suspended when a family expe¬
riences any severe misfortune, and even if a near rela¬
tion were thrown into prison; though this may be set
aside, provided the unfortunate person gives his con¬
sent.
6. Two brothers cannot marry two sisters; nor is
a widower at liberty to marry his son to the daughter
of a widow whom he chooses for his own wife. A
man is also forbidden to marry any of his own rela¬
tions, however distant the degree of consanguinity be¬
tween them.
In China, every father of a family is responsible for
the conduct of his children, and even of his domes¬
tics ; all those faults being imputed to him which it
was his duty to have prevented. Every father has the
power of selling his son, “ provided (says the law)
the son has a right of selling himself.” This custom,
however, is barely tolerated among the middling and
inferior ranks; and all are forbidden to sell them to
comedians, or people of infamous character or very
mean stations.
In China a son remains a minor during the whole
lifetime, and is even liable for the debts contracted by
his father, those from gaming only excepted. Adop¬
tion is authorized by law, and the adopted child imme¬
diately enters into all the rights of a lawful son ; only
the law gives a right to the father of making a few
dispositions in favour of his real children. The chil¬
dren, however, whether adopted or not, cannot suc-
C ceed
CHI [ 18 ] CHI
China, ceed to the dignity or titles of their father, though they
—y—~' may to his estate. The emperor alone can confer ho¬
nours $ and even then they must be resigned when the
person attains the age of 70 $ though this resignation
is considered as an advice rather than a law. The
will of a father cannot be set aside in China on account
of any informality j nor can any mother in this empire
make a will.
Though the Chinese laws authorize slavery, yet the
power of the master extends only to those matters which
concern his own service j and he would be punished
with death for taking advantage of his power to debauch
the wife of his slave.
By the laws of China husbandmen are exempt from
the payment of taxes after they have begun to till the
earth to the beginning of harvest.
Criminal It appears, from recent information respecting many
code. interesting particulars relating to China, that the ut¬
most attention seems to have been paid to the different
degrees of enormity attached to those actions of men
which are denominated criminal. The code of laws
is pronounced the reverse of sanguinary, and it is affirm¬
ed by competent judges, that if the practice in all re¬
spects coincided with the theory, few nations could boast
of a milder or more effectual administration of justice.
But while they do not consider the crime of pilfering a
few small pieces of money as of equal enormity with the
shedding of human blood, yet they pay too little at¬
tention to the three different circumstances under which
that action may exist j either as accidental, uninten¬
tional as to the extent of taking away life, or malici¬
ously premeditated. Even foreigners who have the
misfortune to kill a Chinese, however casually it may
be done, have been punished in the very same manner
as a traitor or deliberate assassin. As foreigners in¬
tending to reside in China may be at a loss to deter¬
mine how, when, and by what various means their
lives may be endangered, the.following abstract of the
criminal code of that country may perhaps be beneficial
to some of our readers. ,
1. A man who kills another on the supposition of
theft, shall be strangled, according to the law of homi¬
cide committed in an affray.
2. A man who fires at another with a musket, and
kills him, shall be beheaded, as in cases of wilful mur¬
der. If the sufferer be wounded, but not mortally, the
offender shall be sent into exile.
3. A man who puts to death a criminal who had
been apprehended, and made no resistance, shall be
strangled, according to the law against homicide com¬
mitted in an affray.
4. A man who falsely accuses an innocent person of
theft (in cases of greatest criminality) is guilty of a
capital offence j in all other cases the offenders, whe¬
ther principals or accessaries, shall be sent into ex¬
ile.
5. A man who wounds another unintentionally,
shall be tried according to the law respecting blows
given in an affray, and the punishment rendered more
or less severe, according to the degree of injury sus¬
tained. 1
6. A man, who, intoxicated with liquor, commits
outrages against the laws, shall be exiled to a desert
country, there to remain in a state of servitude.
For this abstract we are indebted to the humane in¬
terference of the supercargoes of the East India Com- china,
pany, on account of the disagreeable disputes which v—
frequently took place with the Chinese government,
owing to accidents of the most trivial nature, which
the people sometimes met with from the British in the
port of Canton*.
The blood of a traitor is supposed to be contamina¬
ted in this country to the 10th generation, although
the law in general is conceived to be. satisfied with im¬
plicating the nearest male relatives in the guilt of the
actual perpetrator of the crime, but with commutation
of punishment from death to exile. It appears to us,
that nothing can be conceived more tyrannical than a
law which pretends to inflict punishment on an inno¬
cent person, since no man can be a traitor, merely
from the circumstance of his being the relation of one,
and the absurdity of supposing that a non-existence is
capable of committing a crime, must be obvious to
every man. The fifth law in the forementioned ex¬
tract is peculiarly cruel and unjust, since it subjects a
man to different degrees of punishment, according to
the different effects which those actions may produce.
It is with a degree of national pride that we turn from
this cruel, absurd specimen of Chinese legislation, this
strange judicial thermometer, if we may be allowed the
expression, to the nice discriminations which are made
by the laws of our own country respecting the shedding
of blood, the gradations of guilt attending which we
have already mentioned, and which are distinguished by
the appropriate names of manslaughter, culpable homi~
cide, and wilful murder.
1 he denunciations of Moses, it may be said, have
some resemblance to this Gothic code of the Chinese,
especially when he declares that the deity would visit
the iniquities of the fathers upon the children to the
third and fourth generation. It is not our province, in
this account of China, to write an apology for Moses in
this particular instance, although it must be granted that
he had a most obstinate and refractory race of beings to
govern, and to preserve a becoming degree of order and
subordination among them. He might therefore have no¬
thing more in view than political expedience; an opi¬
nion which we are the more encouraged to entertain,
when we find the prophet Ezekiel reprobating the
idea of making the innocent suffer for the guilty, in
the following beautiful passage. “ What mean ye that
ye use this proverb concerning the land of Israel, say¬
ing, the fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the chil¬
dren’s teeth are set on edge ? As I live, saith the Lord,
ye shall not have occasion any more to use this proverb
in Israel. Behold all souls are mine j as the soul of
the father, so also the soul of the son, is mine. The
soul that sinneth, it shall die. The son shall not bear
the iniquity of the father, neither shall the father bear
the iniquity of the son : the righteousness of the right¬
eous shall be upon him, and the wickedness of the wick¬
ed shall be upon him.'1'*
In criminal matters every person accused must be
examined before five or six tribunals; and whose in¬
quiries are directed not only against him, but against
his accuser, and the witnesses that appear in the cause.
He is, however, obliged to remain in prison during
the process: “ but (says M. Crosier) the Chinese
prisons are not horrible dungeons like those of so ma¬
ny other nations j they are spacious, and have even a
degree
CHI [ ]
Chinft- degree of convenience. One of the mandarins is ob-
v'*-""' liged to inspect them frequently 5 and this he does
with the greater punctuality, as he must answer for
those who are sick. lie is obliged to see them pro¬
perly treated, to send for physicians, and to supply
them with medicines at the emperor’s expence. If
any of them dies, he must inform the emperor, who
perhaps will order some of the higher mandarins to ex¬
amine whether the former has discharged his duty faith-
fully or not.
Method of The slightest punishment in China is the bastinado 5
inflicting ancl the number of blows is to be determined by the
iiado3381** degree of the offender’s guilt. Twenty is the lowest
number : and in this case the punishment is consider¬
ed as having nothing infamous in it, but being only a
simple paternal correction. In this way the emperor
sometimes orders it to be inflicted on his courtiers j
which does not prevent them from being afterwards
received into favour, and as much respected as before.
»■ Every mandarin may inflict the bastinado when any
one forgets to salute him, or when he sits in judgment
in public. The instrument of correction is called pan-
tsee, and is a piece of bamboo a little flatted, broad
at the bottom, and polished at the upper extremity,
in order to manage it more easily with the hand.
When the punishment is to be inflicted, the magis¬
trate sits gravely behind a table, having on it a bag
filled with small sticks, while a number of petty offi¬
cers stand around him, each furnished with these pan~
tsees, and waiting only for his signal to make use of
them. The mandarin then takes out one of the little
sticks contained in the bag, and throws it into the hall
of audience. On this the culprit is seized and stretch¬
ed out with his belly towards the ground 5 his breeches
are pulled down to his heels, and an athletic domes¬
tic applies five smart blows with his pan-tsee. If the
judge draws another small stick from the bag, ano¬
ther officer succeeds, and bestows five more blows j
and so on until the judge makes no more signals. When
the punishment is over, the criminal must throw him¬
self on his knees, incline his body three times to the
earth, and thank the judge for the care he takes of his
75 education.
The For faults of a higher nature, the carrying of a
cangue, or wooden collar, called by the Portuguese the cangue, is
colk*a inflicted. This machine is composed of two pieces of
wood hollowed out in the middle, which, when put
together, leave sufficient room for the neck. These
are laid upon the shoulders of the criminal, and join¬
ed together in such a manner, that he can neither see
his feet nor put his hands to his mouth j so that he is
incapable of eating without the assistance of another.
This disagreeable burden he is obliged to carry day
and night j its weight is from 50 to 200 pounds, ac¬
cording to the enormity of fhe crime, to which the
time of carrying it is also proportioned. For rob-
bery, breaking the peace, or disturbing a family, or
being a notorious gambler, it is generally carried three
mouths. During all this time the criminal is not al¬
lowed to take shelter in his own house, but is stationed
for a certain space of time, either in some public
square, the gate of a city or temple, or perhaps even
of the tribunal where he was condemned. On the
expiration of his term of punishment, he is again
brought before the judge, who exhorts him in a friend-
[9 ] CHI
ly manner to amend ; and after giving him 20 sound China,
blows discharges him. ».1— v-—
Banishment is inflicted for crimes of a nature infe*£
rior to homicide, and the duration is often for life, ifment 5^,
the criminals be sent into Tartary. Some culprits
are condemned to drag the royal barks for three years,
or to be branded in the cheeks with a hot iron, indi¬
cating the nature of their transgressions. Bobbery be¬
tween relations is more severely punished than any 0-
therj and that is accounted the most atrocious where
younger brothers or nephews appropriate to them¬
selves beforehand any part of the succession in which
they have a right to share with their elder brothers or
nephews. 77
Information against a father or mother, grandfather I*un*sh-
or grandmother, uncle or eldest brother, even though
the accusation be just, is punished with 100 blows ofarrainst pa-
the pan-tsee and three years banishment. If the accu-rents, &c.
sation be false, it is punished with death. Deficiency
in proper filial respect to a father, mother, grandfather,
or grandmother, is punished with 100 blows of the pan-
tsee j abusive language to these relations is death by
strangling j to strike them is punished by beheading j
and if any one presumes to hurt or maim them, his flesh
is torn from his bones with red-hot pincers, and he is
cut into a thousand pieces. Abusing an elder brother
is punished with 100 blows of the pan-tsee $ striking
him, with the punishment of exile. 78
Homicide, even though accidental, is punished with Capital pu-
death in China. A rope about six or seven feet in
length, with a running noose, is thrown over the cri-e(^
minal’s head ; and a couple of domestics belonging to
the tribunal pull it strongly in different directions.
They then suddenly quit it, and in a few moments
give a second pull j a third is seldom necessary to fi¬
nish the business. Beheading is accounted in China
the most dishonourable of all punishments, and is re¬
served only for desperate assassins, or those who com¬
mit some crime equally atrocious with murder. To be
cut in a thousand pieces is a punishment inflicted only
upon state criminals or rebellious subjects. It is per-
lormed by tying the criminal to a post, scalping the
skin from the head and pulling it over the eyes. The
executioner then tears the flesh from different parts of
unhappy wretch’s body ; and never quits this horrible
employment till mere fatigue obliges him to give over:
the remains of the body are then left to the barbarous
spectators, who finish what he has begun. Though
this punishment, however, has been inflicted by some
emperors with all the dreadful circumstances just men¬
tioned, the law orders only the criminal’s belly to be
opened, his body to be cut into several pieces, and
then thrown into a ditch or river.
The torture, both ordinary and extraordinary, is
used in China. The former is applied to the hands
or feet: for the hands, small pieces of wood are ap¬
plied diagonally between the fingers of the criminal ;
his fingers are then tied close with cords, and he is
left for some time in that painful situation. The tor¬
ture for the feet is still worse. An instrument, con¬
sisting of three cross pieces of wood, is provided, that
in the middle being fixed, the others moveable. The
feet of the criminal are then put into this machine,
which squeezes them so close that the ankle bones
become flat. The extraordinary torture consists in
C 2 making
China.
Saws.
CHI [
making small gashes in the body, and then tearing ofl:
the skin like thongs. It is never applied but for
some great crime, such as treason, or where the crimi¬
nal’s guilt has been clearly proved, and it is necessary
to make him discover his accomplices.
M Gro- Notwithstanding these dreadful punishments, M.
sier’s gene-QrosJer Js at great pains to prove that the laws of the
tlf rr'V °fChinese, with regard to criminal matters, are extreme-
Unese]y mild. “ One law (says he) will no doubt appear
exceedingly severe and rigorous; it inflicts the punish¬
ment of death on those who use pearls. Those who
read the history of China will be apt to fall into cer¬
tain mistakes respecting the penal laws of that na¬
tion. Some of its sovereigns have indulged them¬
selves in gratifying sanguinary caprices which were
not authorized by the laws, and which have often been
confounded with them j but these princes are even yet
. ranked among the number of tyrants, and their names
are still abhorred and detested throughout the whole
empire. The Chinese, in their criminal procedure,
have a great advantage over all other nations: it is
almost impossible that an innocent man should ever be¬
come a victim to a false accusation : in such cases the
accuser and witnesses are exposed to too much danger.
The slowness of the process, and the numberless re¬
visions it undergoes, are another safeguard for the ac¬
cused. In short, no sentence of death is ever carried
into execution until it has been approved and con¬
firmed by the emperor. A fair copy of the whole
process is laid before him j a number of other copies
are also made out, both in the Chinese and Tartar
languages, which the emperor submits to the exami¬
nation of a like number of doctors, either Tartars or
Chinese. When the crime is of great enormity, and
clearly proved, the emperor writes with his own hand
at the bottom of the sentence, “ When you receive
this order, let it be executed without delay.” In
cases where the crime, though punishable by death
according to law, is ranked only in the ordinary
class, the emperor writes at the bottom of the sen¬
tence, “ Let the criminal be detained in prison, and
executed in autumn j” that being the season in
which they are generally executed, and all on the same
day.
The emperor of China never signs an order for the
crimes mayeXe^U^°n a cr*rn*na^ till he has prepared himself by
be pardon. .st.InS- -L!ke other monarchs he has the power of
ed. giving pardons j but in this respect is much more li¬
mited than any other. The only cases in which the
Chinese monarch can remit the punishment inflicted
by law are, I. To the son of a widow who has not
married again j 2. To the heir of an ancient family ;
3. The descendants of great men or citizens who have
deserved well of their country j and, 4. lastly, The sons
or grandsons of a mandarin, who has become illustri¬
ous, and distinguished himself by faithfully dischar¬
ging the duties of his office. Neither a child, nor a
man of very advanced age, can be cited before a tri¬
bunal. The son of a very aged father and. mother is
pardoned, if private property or the public peace be
not hurt by giving him a pardon 5 and if the sons of
such a father and mother be all guilty, or accomplices
in the same crime, the youngest is pardoned in order
to comfort his parents.
In China the accused are always treated with ten-
20 ] CHI
derness and lenity, being accounted innocent until china,
their guilt be clearly proved ; and even then, liberty '——y-—
excepted, they are scarce allowed to want for any thing.
A jailor is punished who behaves rigorously towards
his prisoners ; and the judges must likewise answer at
their peril for any additions to the severity of the law ;
deposition being the slightest punishment inflicted up¬
on them.
Substitution is sometimes allowed by the laws of
China j so that the near relation of a guilty per¬
son may put himself in the criminal’s place, pro¬
vided however, that the chastisement be slight, and
the accused his ancient friend. The sons, grand¬
sons, wife, and brothers of a banished Chinese, are al¬
lowed to follow him into exile 5 and the relations of all
persons are permitted to visit them in prisons, and to
give them every assistance in their power j to do which
good offices they are even encouraged, instead of being
prevented. gt
Every city in China is divided into different quar-Of the ci-
ters, each of which is subjected to the inspection of1*68.*111^
So
Cases ia
■which
a certain officer, who is answerable for whatever passes
in the places under his jurisdiction. Fathers of fa¬
milies, as we have already observed, are answerable for
the conduct of their children and domestics. Neigh¬
bours are even obliged to answer for one another,
and are bound to give every help and assistance in cases
of robbery, fire, or any accident, especially in the
night-time. All the cities are furnished with gates,
which are barricaded on the commencement of night.
Centinels are also posted at e.ertain distances through¬
out the streets, who stop all who walk in the night,
and a number of horsemen go round the ramparts for
the same purpose j so that it is almost impossible to e-
lude their vigilance by favour of the darkness. A strict
watch is also kept during the day-time 5 and all
those who give any suspicion by their looks, accent, or
behaviour, are immediately carried before a mandarin,
and sometimes even detained until the pleasure of the
governor be known.
Private quarrels do not often happen in China, and
it is rare that they are attended with a fatal issue.
The champions sometimes decide the quarrel with
their fists, but most frequently refer the case to a man¬
darin, who very often orders them both a sound drub¬
bing. None but military people are permitted to
wear arms in public ; and this privilege is extended
even to them only during the time of war, or when
they accompany a mandarin, mount guard, or attend
a review. Prostitutes are not allowed to remain within
the walls of a city, or to keep a house of their own
even in the suburbs. They may, however, lodge in
the house of another 5 but that other is accountable
for every disturbance which may happen on their ac-
count.
In all the Chinese cities, and even in some of their gorrowjjjg
ordinary towns, there is an office where money may be of money,
borrowed upon pledges at the common rate of the
country 5 which, however, is no less than 30 per cent.
Every pledge is marked with a number when left at
the office, and must be produced when demanded $
but it becomes the property of the office if left there
a single day longer than the term agreed upon for the
payment of the money. The whole transaction
remains an inviolable secret j not even the name
of
CHI [
China, of the person who leaves the pledge being inquired
This mode of procuring a supply of money for the
exigencies of the moment, has been long known in
Britain, and the people who thus lend money on pledges
under the sanction of government, have a most exor¬
bitant interest, as well as in China, but we are sorry
to add, that it is by no means conducted with such
profound secrecy. The person’s name and surname
who offers a pledge must be inserted in the pawn-bro¬
ker’s books, who is thus enabled to make the trans¬
action as public as he pleases. Institutions of this na¬
ture are no doubt of considerable utility to the modest
poor during a period of embarrassment; but the mon¬
strous evils to which they have given rise are more
than sufficient to counterbalance their advantages. We
should deem an open avowal of poverty and want to
be infinitely preferable to an application to such a sink
of corruption and extortion, assured that genuine dis¬
tress will never want a friend among the sons of bone¬
s' volence or philanthropy.
Of the Cbi- Great attention is paid by the administration of
uese roads. China to the conveniency of travellers. The roads
are generally very broad, all of them paved in the
southern provinces, and some in the northern ; but
neither horses nor carriages are allowed to pass along
these. In many places valleys have been filled up, and
rocks and mountains cut through, for the purpose of
making commodious highways, and to preserve them
as nearly as possible on a level. They are generally
bordered with very lofty trees, and in some places
with walls eight or ten feet high, to prevent travellers
from going into the fields ; but openings are left in
proper places, which give a passage into cross roads
that lead to different villages. Covered seats are
erected on all the great roads, where travellers may
shelter themselves from the inclemency of the weather;
temples and pagods are also frequent, into which tra¬
vellers are admitted without scruple in the day-time,
but often meet with a refusal in the night. In these
the mandarins only have a right to rest themselves as
long as they think proper. There is, however, no
want of inns on the great roads, or even the cross ones
in China ; but they are ill supplied with provisions ;
and those who frequent them are even obliged to car¬
ry beds along with them to sleep on, or else take up
with a plain mat.
Towers are erected on all the roads of this great
empire, with watch-boxes on the top, with flag-staffs,
for the convenience of signals in case of any alarm.
These towers are square, and generally constructed of
brick, but seldom exceed twelve feet in height. They
are built, however, in sight of one another, and are
guarded by soldiers, who run with great speed from
one to another, carrying letters which concern the
emperor. Intelligence of any remarkable event is also
conveyed by signals ; and thus the court is informed
with surprising quickness of any important matter.
Those which are built on any of the roads conducting
to court, are furnished with battlements, and have also
2i ] CHI
very large bells of cast iron. According to law these
China.
towers should be only five /y.9, about half a French
league, distant from one another. g.
There is no public post-office in China, though se- Method of
veral private ones have been established ; but the cou-convey-
riers and officers charged with dispatches for the ern-ance*
pire have only a right to make use of them. This in¬
convenience, however, excepted, travellers find con¬
veyance very easy from one part of China to ano¬
ther. Great numbers of porters are employed in every
city, all of whom are associated under the conduct of
a chief, who regulates all their engagements, fixes the
pr ice of their labour, receives their hire, and is respon¬
sible for every thing they carry. When porters are
wanted, he furnishes as many as may be necessary, and
gives the same number of tickets to the traveller; who
returns one to each porter when they have conveyed
their loads to an appointed place. These tickets are
carried back to the chief, who immediately pays them
from the money he received in advance. On all the
great roads in China there are several offices of this
kind, which have a settled correspondence with others;
the travellers therefore have only to carry to one of
these offices a list of such things as they wish to have
transported : this is immediately written down in a
book ; and though there should be occasion for two,
three, or four hundred porters, they are instantly fur¬
nished. Every thing is weighed before the eyes of
their chief, and the hire is fivepence per hundred
weight for one day’s carriage. An exact register of
every thing is kept at the office ; the traveller pays
the money in advance, after which he has no occasion
to give himself any farther trouble ; on his arrival at
the city he designs, his baggage is found at the cor¬
responding office, and every thing is delivered to him
with the most scrupulous exactness.
The customhouses are here regulated by the gene- s5
ral police of the country ; and according to M. Gro-Pustoni*
sier’s account, these customhouse officers are the most ‘ou,e'‘
civil in the world. They have no concern with any
class of people but the merchants, whom they take
care not to distress by any rigorous exactions ; nei¬
ther, though they have authority to do so, do they
stop travellers till their baggage is examined, nor do
they ever require the smallest fee from them. Duties
are paid either by the piece or by the load ; and in the
former case credit is given to the merchant’s book
without asking any questions. A mandarin is appoint¬
ed by the viceroy of each province to inspect the cus¬
tomhouses of the whole district ; and the mandarins
have also the care of the post-offices.
In former times the only money used in China was Money of
made of small shells, but now both silver and copper the empire-
coin are met with. The latter consists * of ror.nd
pieces about nine-tenths of an inch (a) in diameter,
with a small square hole in the middle, inscribed with
two Chinese words on one side, and two Tartar ones
on the other. The silver pieces are valued only by
their weight. For the convenience of commerce the
metal is therefore cast into plates of different sizes :
and
(a) The Chinese foot is longer by one hundredth part than the French, and the inch is divided into ten
parts.
CHI [ 2
Chin*, and for want of small coin, a Chinese always carries
V-i'i* about him his scales, weights, and a pair of scissai’s to
cut the metal. This operation is performed by put¬
ting the silver between the scissars, and then knocking
them against a stone till the pieces drop ofi. In gi¬
ving of change, however, people have no right to va¬
lue silver by the numerical value of copper, this be-
in" entirely regulated by the intrinsic value of the me-
tafs. Thus, an ounce of silver will sometimes be
worth IOOO copper pieces, and sometimes only 800 ;
and thus the copper money of China may frequently
be sold for more than it would pass for in commerce.
The emperor would lose much by this recoinage, were
he not the sole proprietor of all the copper mines in
China. It is, however, expressly forbidden to employ
copper coin in any manufacture where it might be
employed as plain copper, and it is also forbidden to
be sold for the purpose of melting : but if the price of
the metal has not fallen, the infraction of this law is
not very severely punished. On the other hand, if
the value of unwrought copper exceeds that of the coin,
a quantity of the latter is issued out to restore the equi¬
librium.
To keep up a constant circulation of all the coin in
the empire, the Chinese government are attentive to
preserve an equilibrium between the proportional value
of the copper and silver ; that is, to regulate the intrinsic
value of each in such a manner that the possessor of
silver may not be afraid to exchange it for copper,
nor the possessor of copper for silver. The method
used for this purpose is, when silver becomes scarce, to
make all the payments for some time in silver; but if
copper, to make them all for some time in that metal
87 . only.
Of the Chi- rpjie commerce of China is under the inspection of
nieree0m" tribunal of finances ; but on this subject the Chi¬
nese entertain an opinion quite different from that of
the Europeans. Commerce, according to them, is
only useful as far as it eases the people of their super¬
fluities, and procures them necessaries. For this rea¬
son they consider even that which is carried on at
Canton as prejudicial to the interest of the empire.
“ They take from us (say the Chinese) our silks, teas,
and porcelain : the price of these articles is raised
throughout the provinces : such a trade therefore can¬
not be beneficial. The money brought us by Euro¬
peans, and the high-priced baubles that accompany it,
are mere superfluities to such a state as ours. We
have no occasion for more bullion than what may be
necessary to answer the exigencies of government, and
to supply the relative wants of individuals. It was
said by Kouan-tse, two thousand years ago, That the
money introduced does not enrich a kingdom in any
otaer way than as it is intianluced by commerce. No
commerce can be advantageous long, but that which
consists in a mutual exchange of things necessary or
useful. That trade, whether carried on by barter or
money, which has for its object the importing of ar¬
ticles that tend to the gratification of pride, luxury,
or curiosity, always supposes the existence of luxury :
but luxury, which is an abundance of superfluities
among certain classes of people, supposes the want of
necessaries among a great many others. The more
horses the rich put to their carriages, the greater will
be the number of those who are obliged to walk on
t.... 2
! ] CHI
foot; the larger and more magnificent their houses are, China,
so much the more confined and wretched must those of
the poor be ; and the more their tables are covered
with a variety of dishes, the more must the number of
those increase who are reduced to the necessity of feed¬
ing upon plain rice. Men, united by society in a large
and populous kingdom, can employ their industry, ta¬
lents, and economy, to. no better purpose than to pro¬
vide necessaries for all, and procure convenience for
some.” 8S
The only commerce considered by the Chinese as History of
advantageous to their empire, is that with Russia and^®^1^®
Tartary; by which they are supplied with those furssia>
so necessary in the northern provinces. The disputes
concerning the limits of the respective empires of
Russia and China seem to have paved the way to this
commerce. These disputes were settled by treaty on
the 27th of August 1689, under the reign of Ivan
and Peter Alexiowitz. The chief of the embassy on
the part of Russia was Golovin governor of Siberia;
and two Jesuits were deputed on the part of the em¬
peror of China ; and the conferences were held in La¬
tin, with a German in the Russian ambassador’s train,
who was acquainted with that language. By this trea¬
ty the Russians obtained a regular and permanent trade
with China, which they had long desired ; but in re¬
turn they yielded up a large territory, besides the na¬
vigation of the river Amour. The first intercourse
had taken place in the beginning of the 17th centu¬
ry ; at which time a small quantity of Chinese mer¬
chandise was procured by some Russian merchants
from the Kalmuck Tartars. The rapid and profitable
sale of these commodities encouraged certain Siberian
•wayvodes to attempt a direct and open communication
with China. For this purpose several deputations were
sent to the emperor ; and though they failed of obtain¬
ing the grant of a regular commerce, their attempts
were attended with some consequences of importance.
Thus the Russian merchants were tempted to send
traders occasionally to Peking; by which means a
faint connexion was preserved with that metropolis.
This commerce, however, was at last interrupted by
the commencement of hostilities on the river Amour 3
but after the conclusion of the treaty in 1689, was re¬
sumed with uncommon alacrity on the part of the Rus¬
sians : and the advantages thence arising were found
to be so considerable, that a design of enlarging it was
formed by Peter the Gi’eat. Isbrand Ides, a native of
the duchy of Holstein, then in the Russian service,
was therefore despatched to Peking in 1692; by whose
means the liberty of trade, before confined to indivi¬
duals, was now extended to caravans. In the mean
time, private merchants continued to trade as before,
not only with the Chinese, but also at the head quar¬
ters of the Mogul Tartars. The camp of these ro¬
ving Tartars, which was generally stationed near the
confluence of the Orhon and Toula rivers, between the
southern frontiers of Siberia and the Mogul desert,
thus became the seat of an annual fair. Complaints,
however, were soon made of the disorderly behaviour
of the Russians ; on which the Chinese monarch
threatened to expel them from his dominions entirely,
and to allow them neither to trade with the Chinese
nor Moguls. This produced another embassy to Pe¬
king in 1719, when matters were again adjusted to
the
China.
CHI
the satisfaction of both parties.
X. 89
.Lmperor’s
revenue.
was of no long duration j for the Russians having soon
renewed their disorderly behaviour, an order for their
expulsion was issued in 1722, and all intercourse be¬
tween the two nations forbiddfen. The differences
were once more made up in 1727, and a caravan al¬
lowed to go to Peking once in three years, provided
it consisted of no more than a hundred persons j and
that during their stay their expences should not, as for¬
merly, be defrayed by the emperor of China. The
Russians at the same time obtained permission to build
a church within the precincts of the caravansary ; and
four priests were allowed to reside at Peking for
the celebration of divine service j the same indulgence
being granted to some Russian scholars, for the°pur-
pose of learning the Chinese language, and qualifying
themselves for being interpreters between the two na¬
tions. This intercourse continued till the year 1755 j
since which time no more caravans have been sent to
China. It was first interrupted by a misunderstanding
betwixt the two courts j and though that difference
was afterwards made up, no caravans have been sent
ever since. The empress of Russia, sensible that the
monopoly of the fur trade (which was entirely confin¬
ed to the caravans belonging to the crown, and pro¬
hibited to individuals) was prejudicial to commerce,
gave it up in favour of her subjects in 1762 j and the
centre of commerce betwixt the two nations is now at
Kiatka. Here the trade is entirely carried on by bar¬
ter. I he Russians are prohibited from exporting their
own coin j finding it more advantageous to take goods
in exchange than to receive bullion at the Chinese
standard. The principal exports from Russia are furs
of different kinds; the most valuable of which are
those of sea otters, beavers, wolves, foxes, martens,
sables, and ermines ; the greater part of which are
brought from Siberia and the newly discovered islands ;
but as they cannot supply the demand, there is a ne¬
cessity for importing foreign furs to Petersburg, which
are aftervyards sent to Kiatka. Various kinds of cloth
are likewise sent to China, as well as hardware, and
live cattle, such as horses, camels, &c. The exports
from China are raw and manufactured silk, cotton,
porcelain, rhubarb, musk, &c. The government of
Russia likewise reserves to itself the exclusive privilege
of purchasing rhubarb. It is brought to Kiatka by
some Bukharian merchants, who have entered into a
contract to supply the crown with it in exchange for
furs: the exportation of the best rhubarb is forbidden
under severe penalties, but yet is procured in sufficient
quantities, sometimes by clandestinely mixing it with
inferior roots, and sometimes by smuggling it directly.
Great part of Europe is supplied with rhubarb from
Russia.
I he revenue of the emperor of China amounts to
juore than 41 millions sterling ; and might easily be
increased, did the sovereign incline to burden his sub¬
jects with new impositions. When Lord Macartney
visited this vast empire in the capacity of his Britan¬
nic majesty’s ambassador, the revenue of the Chinese
emperor was not less than 66 millions sterling ; but it
cannot be supposed that a very large share of this enor¬
mous sum is actually expended by the emperor, after
educting the almost incalculable number of salaries
which it is destined to pay, together with a standing
[ 23 ] CHI
The reconciliation army of 1,800,000 men. Yet upon tire supposition
that each individual is taxed equally, this enormous
sum will amount to no more than 4s. a head annually,
while the same analogy applied to Britain will make
an individual share amount to 3I. There is reason,
however, to conclude, that the Chinese, in the above
estimate of their standing army, have been rather hy¬
perbolical, for Lord Macartney, from the information
communicated by \ an-ta-zin, makes the whole of the
expences of government to leave a surplus for the use
of the emperor of 14,043,734!. sterling, which we
presume would be impossible, were their standing army
as enormous as some of the Chinese pretend.
China.
Sum total of the revenue,
Civil establishment, L. 1»973»333
Military ditto, 49,982,933
L. 66,000,000
-51,956,266
Surplus for the emperor,
L. 14,043,734* * Rarrow’e
Travels,
The annual expences of government are indeed im-^’^°^*
mense, but they are regulated in such a manner as
never to be augmented but in cases of the utmost ne¬
cessity. It even happens very often that administration
makes greater savings every year. When this happens
to be the case, the surplus serves to increase the gene¬
ral treasure of the empire, and prevents the necessity
of new impositions in time of war, or other public ca¬
lamities. rlhe greater part of the taxes are paid in
kind ; those, for instance, who breed silk worms, pay
their taxes in silk, the husbandmen in grain, the gar¬
deners in fruits, &c. This method, at the same time
that it is exceedingly convenient for the subject, is no
way detrimental to the public interest. There are
numbers of people everywhere in the service of govern¬
ment, who are thus furnished with food and clothing ;
so that the commodities collected as taxes are almost
consumed in the provinces where they are levied;
what remains is sold for the behoof of the emperor,
and the money deposited in the imperial treasury.
The taxes paid in money arise principally from the cu¬
stoms and sale of salt (which belongs entirely to the
emperor), from the duties paid by vessels entering any
port, and from other imposts on various branches of
manufactures. Excepting these, the trader scarcely
contributes any thing to the exigencies of the state,
and the mechanic nothing at all; the whole burden of
taxation thus falling upon the husbandman. This bur¬
den is regulated in proportion to the extent and ferti¬
lity of his lands ; and the greatest care has been taken
to manage matters so, that he may neither be over¬
charged in the imposition nor harassed in the levying
of the duties. “ The registering of lands (says M.
Grosier), so often and to no purpose projected in
I ranee, has been long practised in this empire, not¬
withstanding its prodigious extent.”
The levying of taxes in China is as simple as the Of the;
nature of the thing will admit of. The duties levied tax,es
from towns and villages are carried to cities of the G'ina.
third class; then they are conducted to those of the
second ; then to those of the first; and at last to the
capital. The levying and imposition of taxes is sub¬
mitted to the tribunal of finances ; and matters are so
managed, that besides the consumption in each district
for
C K I [ 24 ] CHI
China, for discharging the ordinary expences of government,
v~ something is left by way of reserve for answering ac¬
cidental demands, and to be ready in cases of necessity.
This sum becomes gradually less from the capital to
cities of the first, second, and third class. A proper
statement of what is paid in the provinces, of what is
reserved in the different cities, or contained in the dif¬
ferent treasuries of the empire, is subjected to the
examination of the grand tribunal of finances. This
revises the whole, and keeps an exact account of
what is consumed, and of whatever surplus may be
Of lendin left*
money,1 S Lending money upon interest has been in use in
and defi- China for about 2000 years. It has often been abo-
oiencies in Kshed, and as often established. The interest, as has
terestg ^een a^rea<^y hinted, is no less than 30 per cent, and
the year is only lunar. A tenth part of this interest is
paid monthly : and concerning neglects of payment,
the following laws have been enacted. “ However
much the debt may have accumulated by months or
years, the principal and interest shall remain always
the same. Whoever infringes this law shall receive 40
blows of a pan-tsee; or an hundred, if he uses any ar¬
tifice to add the principal and interest together.” This
law is explained by the following. “ Whoever shall
be convicted before a mandarin of not having paid a
month’s interest, shall receive ten blows; twenty for
two months, and thirty for three j and in this manner
as far as sixty; that is to say, to the sixth month. The
debtor is then obliged to pay principal and interest j but
those who obtain payment by using violence and force
are condemned to receive 24 blows.
Agricul- Many Chinese writers have endeavoured unsuccess-
tare great- fully to show why government should allow such ex-
ra endCOU* octant interest to be taken for money j but the most
lage ‘ satisfactory and rational account seems to be, that the
great interest of money prevents the rich from pur¬
chasing much land j as landed estates would only em¬
barrass and impoverish them, their produce being so
much inferior to that of money. The patrimony of a
family in China is seldom divided $ and it never hap¬
pens there, as in almost every other country, that
wealth and riches are engrossed by one part of the na¬
tion, while the other possesses nothing.
Agriculture is by the Chinese considered as the first
and most honourable of all professions ; so that in this
empire the husbandman enjoys many and great privi¬
leges, while the merchant and mechanic are much less
esteemed. He is considered as next in dignity to offi¬
cers of state, from whom indeed they very frequently
originate. The soldier in China cultivates the ground,
and even the priests are employed in agriculture, when
their convents happen to be endowed with land. From
the principle that the emperor is absolute proprietor of
the soil, one would imagine that the tenant must hold
his share of it by a very precarious tenure; yet it is
certain that when any man is dispossessed, his own cul¬
pable conduct is the cause. The Chinese are so habi¬
tuated to consider a piece of land as their own, while
they continue to be punctual in the payment of their
rent, that a Portuguese resident in Macao who at¬
tempted to raise the rent of his tenants, ran the hazard
of losing his life. There are no prodigiously over¬
grown farms in China, no monopolizers of farms, no
wholesale dealers in grain, but every man has it in his
3
power to carry Ins produce to a free and open market, china.
Part of the crop is allowed to be used in distillation ; 'i—v—
but if the harvest happens to be bad, this operation is 93
prohibited. In China, the tillage of the earth is not^jj”®^
only encouraged by law, but also by the example of peror till-'
the emperor, who annually tills the earth with his owning the
hands. The beginning of spring in China is always eartb whh
reckoned to be in the month of February; but it be-Jj^^11
longs to the tribunal of mathematics to determine the
precise day. The tribunal of ceremonies announces it
to the emperor by a memorial; in which every thing
requisite to be done by him is mentioned with the most
scrupulous exactness. The sovereign then names 12
of the most illustrious persons in his court to accompa¬
ny him, and to hold the plough after he has perform¬
ed his part of the ceremony. Among these there are
always three princes of the blood, and nine presidents
of supreme courts ; and if any of them are too old and
infirm to undergo the fatigue, the substitutes must be
authorized by the emperor. The festival is preceded
by a sacrifice, which the emperor offers up to Chang-ti
(the supreme God) ; after which he and his attend¬
ants prepare themselves by three days fasting and con¬
tinence. Others are appointed by the emperor, on the
evening before the ceremony, to go and prostrate
themselves at the sepulchre of his ancestors, and to ac¬
quaint them, that, on the day following, he intends
to celebrate a grand sacrifice. This is ofl’ered upon a
small mount a few furlongs distant from the city,
which, by the indispensable rules of the ceremony,
must be 50 feet in height. The Chang-ti is invoked
by the emperor, who sacrifices under the title of sove¬
reign pontiff, and prays for an abundant harvest in fa¬
vour of his people. He then descends, accompanied
by the three princes and nine presidents who are to
put their hands to the plough along with him ; the
field set apart for this purpose being at a small distance
from the mount. Forty labourers are selected to yoke
the oxen, and to prepare the seed which the emperor
is to sow; and which are of five different kinds, viz.
wheat, rice, two kinds of millet, and beans. They
are brought to the spot in magnificent boxes, carried
by persons of the most distinguished rank. The empe¬
ror then lays hold of the plough, and turns up several
furrows; the princes of the blood do the same, and
then the presidents ; after which the emperor throws
into the furrows the five kinds of seeds already men¬
tioned : lastly, four pieces of cotton-cloth, proper for
making dresses, are distributed to each of the labour¬
ers, who assist in yoking the oxen and preparing the
seeds; and the same presents are made to forty other
persons who have only been spectators of the cere-
mony. _ _ 94
“ We must not (says M. Grosier) judge of the Chi-Of the pea-
nese peasants from those of Europe, especially in whatsants*
relates to the lights acquired by education. Free
schools are very numerous in every province of China,
and even some of the villages are not destitute of this
advantage. The sons of the poor are there received
as readily as those of the rich ; their duties and their
studies are the same; the attention of the masters is
equally divided between them ; and from this obscure
source talents often spring, which afterwards make a
conspicuous figure on the grand stage of life. No¬
thing is more common in China than to see the son
of
CHI [ :
China, of a peasant governor of that province in which his
—v——' father had long toiled in cultivating only a few acres.
The father himself, if taken from his plough, and ele¬
vated to a superior sphere, might, by reviving the in¬
struction he received in his youth, and especially if he
be endowed with genius, find himself fully competent
for his new employment.
Grosier’s The Chinese have been greatly reproached with the
defence of inhuman practice of murdering their children j but
fronfthe636 though our author cannot deny that they are guilty
charge of °f practice, he excuses them by saying, that “ the
murdering crime when committed in China is commonly owing
and expo- to the fanaticism of idolatry ; a fanaticism which pre-
cliiklren r Va^S °n^ amon£ ^ie l°west °f ^ie people. It is either
in obedience to the oracle of a bonze, to deliver them¬
selves from the power of magic spells, or to discharge
a vow, that these infatuated wretches precipitate their
children into the river : they imagine that, by so doing,
they make an expiatory sacrifice to the spirit of the
river. All nations of antiquity almost have disgraced
themselves by the like horrid practices ; but the Chi¬
nese are far from countenancing this barbarity on that
account. Besides, these criminal sacrifices are never
practised but in certain cantons of China, where the
people, blinded by idolatry, are the dupes of prejudice,
fanaticism, and superstition.—It often happens also,
that the bodies of those children which are seen floating
on the water have not been thrown into it till after
their death j and this is likewise the case with those
which are found in the streets, or lying near the public
roads. The poverty of the parents suggests this dismal
resource, because their children are then buried at the
expence of the public. Exposing of children in public
places is a custom tolerated in China j and government
employs as much vigilance to have them carried away
in the morning, as it bestows care on their education.
This is certainly giving people intimation to expose
their children in the night-time, and no doubt encou¬
rages the practice $ but the dictates of humanity are
here united to those of sound policy. No law in China
authorizes mutilation: there are indeed eunuchs in the
empire, but their number is much less than what it is
generally supposed to be by Europeans. The greater
part of the eunuchs belonging to the emperor and em¬
presses have no higher employment than that of svveep-
ing the courts of justice.”
Gazette of Like the capital cities of European kingdoms, Pe-
Pekiug. king, the metropolis of the Chinese empire, is furnish¬
ed with a gazette, which circulates into the remotest
provinces, and which is even considered by admini¬
stration as an essential part of the political constitu¬
tion. It is printed daily at Peking, and contains an
account of all those objects to which the attention of
administration is directed. In this gazette may be
seen the names of all those mandarins who are stripped
of their employments, and the causes of their disgrace ;
it mentions also the names of all those delinquents who
are punished with death ; of the officers appointed to
fill the places of the disgraced mandarins j the cala¬
mities which have afflicted any of the provinces ; the
relief given by government ; and the expences incur¬
red by administration for the subsistence of the troops,
supplying the wants of the people, repairing or erect¬
ing public works ; and, lastly, the remonstrances made
to the sovereign by the superior tribunal, either with
VOL. VI. Part I. +
5 ] CHI
regard to his public decisions or private conduct, and China,
sometimes even with regard to both. Nothing, how- v ■— v '■
ever, is contained in this gazette that has not immedi¬
ately come from the emperor, or been submitted to his
inspection j and immediate death would be the conse¬
quence of inserting a falsehood in this ministerial paper. ^
No law or sentence, as has already been said, is of Seals of
any force, until the emperor’s seal has been affixed to the empe-
it. This is about eight inches square, and is made of‘lOIVTml,*
fine jasper, a kind of precious stone much esteemed auns’^cc*
in China ; of which only the emperor is allowed to
have a seal. Those given to princes as marks of ho¬
nour are composed of gold } the seals of the viceroys
and great mandarins, of silver ; while those of inferior
mandarins and magistrates are made only of lead or
copper. The size of these seals is greater or smaller
according to the rank their possessors hold in the tri¬
bunals or as mandarins ; and when any of them hap¬
pens to he worn out, intimation must be sent to the
next superior tribunal j on which a new one is sent,
and the old one must then he delivered up. The com¬
mission of evei-y inspector sent into the provinces must
also be confirmed by the emperor’s seal. The duty
of these officers is to examine into the conduct of go¬
vernors, magistrates, and private individuals ; and in¬
stances are recorded of emperors themselves assuming
the office of inspectors in some of the provinces. These
officers are not only superior to all the magistrates,
but even to the viceroys of the provinces themselves.
When a superior magistrate behaves ill to an inferior
one, the former instantly becomes the prisoner of the
inspector, and is suspended from his office until he has
cleared himself from every imputation laid to his
charge. The viceroy, however, is allowed to enjoy his
office until the report of the inspector has been trans¬
mitted to the emperor.
These viceroys are distinguished by the title of Tsovg- Powe» of
tou, and are always mandarins of the first class, posses-the vice¬
sing an almost unlimited power within their districts. r?ys of Pro*
They march abroad with all the pomp of royal mag-vmces‘
nificence, never quitting their palaces, on the most
trifling occasion, without a guard of 100 men. A
viceroy is the receiver-general of all the taxes collect¬
ed in the province, transmitting them to the capital,
after having reserved what he judges necessary for the
demands of his district. All law-suits must be brought
before his tribunal and he has the power of passintr
sentence of death, hut it cannot be put in execution
without being first carried to the emperor. Every three
years he sends to court a report of the conduct of the
mandarins subordinate to him ; and according to the
contents, they are either continued or disgraced. Those
of whom he makes an unfavourable report are punished
in proportion to their delinquency ; while, on the other
hand, those who have the good fortune to be well re¬
ported are rewarded in a similar proportion.
_ The principal mandarins are sometimes broken and jDeSmda-
dismissed from all their employments, while others aretion of
only removed some degrees lower. Those who have mandarins,
been degraded ten steps run a great risk of never be¬
ing employed again. These degraded mandarins are
kept in perpetual remembrance of their misfortune, bv
being obliged to mention it in every public order thev
issue forth in their inferior station ; thus : “ I such a,
mandarin, degraded one, two, three, &c. steps, com-
mand
CHI [26
inand and order,” &c. Over these inferior manda¬
rins the inspector of the province has a very unlimited,
authority, and can, by his own power, deprive them ot
their employments for a great offence } nor does he
consult the court excepting where the immediate pu¬
nishment of the criminal is not necessary. Every one
of the mandarins, of whatever rank or denomination,
is obliged, once in three years, to give in writing an
exact account of the faults he has committed in the
execution of his office. If he is a mandarin belonging
to any of the four first classes, this confession is exami¬
ned at court ; but if it is made by any of the infe¬
rior ones, it must be laid before the provincial tribunal
of the governor. Government, however, is not sa¬
tisfied even with this confession ; inquiry is made into
the truth of it, and the conduct of the mandarin is scru¬
tinized with the utmost severity, the informations be¬
ing subjected to the tribunal of mandarins j where they
are carefully examined, the merits and demerits of
those subjected to this political inquisition carefully
balanced, and their names afterwards divided into three
classes. The first consists of those for whom rewards
and preferment are intended : the second, for whom
gentle reproof and admonition are thought necessary ;
and the third, of those who are to he suspended for
some time, or removed altogether, from their offices.
Of these last some are allowed to continue } but they
receive no salary, and are not only deprived of all
their emoluments, but even of their honours. If they
have been guilty of any action tending to oppress the
people, or to occasion a famine or scarcity among the
lower ranks, their punishment is not confined to dis¬
mission from their offices, hut they are also criminally
impeached. The family burying-place of every Chi¬
nese is accounted sacred ; none dares cut down the
trees with which it is overshadowed until they become
decayed with age 5 and even then, not until their con¬
dition has been attested by a mandarin : but for cer¬
tain crimes against government or the people, the bu-
rying-place of a mandarin is rased to the foundation.
No kind of punishment, however, inflicted on a fa¬
ther, is supposed in the least to affect the character of
his son j and therefore, when the latter is asked by
the emperor concerning his family, he will perhaps
coolly answer, “ My father was disgraced for such a
crime, my grandfather was beheaded for such ano¬
ther,” without the acknowledgement being in the least
detrimental. On the contrary, by great and import¬
ant services, it is possible for him to wdpe out these
stains from the memory of his ancestors.
Though the empire of China is governed by Tartar
princes, the latter seem to bestow much more care
and attention on the Chinese than their own natural
subjects. Should any dispute arise between a Chinese
and Tartar, the former must have greatly deviated
from the rules of justice, if he is not acquitted even
by those tribunals which are composed of half Chinese
and half Tartars. The slightest fault committed by a
Tartar mandarin is always severely punished ; but the
punishment of the Chinese is often mitigated if the de¬
linquent be a Chinese ; and the same severity is exer¬
cised towards those of the military department. Those
faults, however, are punished with the greatest severi¬
ty which hurt the interests of the people *, for which
reason they seldom fall a sacrifice to that class of petty
2
]
CHI
tyrants who in other countries prey upon and devour Chri-a.-
them. Everv superior mandarin is obliged to inform —v~—^
himself of the faults of his inferiors, and expose them j
nay, he would he punished for them himself if he did not. 100
Very little regard, as we have already had occasion Privileges
to observe, is paid to hereditary rights in China. Even of princes,,
the princes of the blood enjoy no other privilege by &c-m
birth hut that of wearing a yellow girdle ; and the
names of their children, with the exact time of their
birth, are inscribed in a yellow book appropriated to
that purpose. Collateral princes are distinguished by
an orange girdle, and their children are marked in a
book of a red colour. The surnames of the princes
of the reigning family are determined by the empe¬
ror alone ; the rest not being allowed to assume any
name that too much resembles those of the Moguls or
Chinese. The rank even of the emperor’s sons dimi¬
nishes one degree every generation j so that, at the
seventh, only the eldest branch has a title to wear the
yellow girdle, the rest being sunk into the rank of
plain citizens. An hereditary sovereignty, however,
passes from one eldest son to another ; and this title
cannot he forfeited, unless the possessor he guilty of
some crime. In this case the emperor appoints to the
succession either one of his younger brothers or a cou¬
sin ; hut these must be always chosen from the same
branch, as the lawful branch cannot be deprived of its
right without the condemnation of all W'ho compose it.
The only hereditary authority of the other princes ex¬
ists among these troops called the Tartar bands. There
they enjoy, without opposition, that rank which they
derive from their birth, but in every thing else are on
a level with others. They are subjected to a military
examination at stated periods, and are always promo¬
ted or degraded according to the degree of skill they
exhibit. The same trial is undergone by the heir ap¬
parent and his sons *, the only indulgence shewn them
being, that schools are appointed for their particular
use. The princes are likewise indulged with a tribu¬
nal appropriated on purpose for them, and before
which alone they can be tried. An insult offered to a
prince decorated with the yellow girdle is punished
with death ; hut if he has omitted to put it on, the
aggressor escapes with a bastinading. A prince may
be put to death with the emperor’s consent j but he e-
scapes every slighter corporeal punishment by paying a
fine. Untitled princes have very few privileges superior
to those of common citizens ; and are generally very
poor, unless possessed of some lucrative office. Thus
they are sometimes reduced to the necessity of accept¬
ing the highest pay of a common soldier in the Tartar
hands. When they, or any of their children, how¬
ever, enter into the marriage-state, the emperor usu¬
ally makes them a present of 100 ounces of silver. He
will also relieve them on other occasions, assist their
widows and orphans, &e. but in all this never departs
from the most exact rules of economy ; so that the
mandarins in this respect are much better than the re¬
lations of the sovereign himself. roi
With regard to the ancient religion of China, F. F. Amioi’s
Amiot informs us, that after making every possible ^count of
research, comparing and reasoning upon his observa-
tions, he at last concluded, that “ The Chinese are a^y^
distinct people, who,have still preserved the characteris¬
tic marks of their first origin 5 a people whose primi¬
tive
I
CHI [ 27 J CHI
China, tive doctrine will be found, by those who take the trou-
'' ' ble of investigating it thoroughly, to agree in its es¬
sential parts with the doctrine of the chosen people,
before Moses, by the command, of God himself, had
consigned the explanation of it to the sacred records;
a people, in a word, whose traditional knowledge,
when freed from whatever the ignorance or supersti¬
tion of later ages has added to it, may be traced back,
from age to age, and from epocha to epocha, with¬
out interruption, for the space of 4000 years, even to
the renewal of the human race by the grandson of
Noah.” The king, or canonical books of the Chinese,
everywhere inculcate the belief of a Supreme Being,
the author and preserver of all things. Under him
they mention the names of Tien, or heaven ; Chang-
tien, or Supreme heaven j Chang-ti, or Supreme Lord j
and of Hoang-chan-ti, Sovereign and Supreme Lord:
“ Names (says M. Grosier) corresponding to those
which we use when rve speak of God, the Lord, the
Almighty, the Most High.”
According to the Chinese books, the Supreme Be¬
ing is the principle of every thing that exists, and the
father of all living ; he is eternal, immoveable, and
independent ; his power knows no bounds ; his sight
* equally comprehends the past, present, and the future,
penetrating even into the inmost recesses of the heart.
Heaven and earth are under his government 5 all
events, all revolutions, are the consequences of his will j
he is pure, holy, and impartial; wickedness offends his
sight ; but he beholds with an eye of complacency the
virtuous actions of men. Severe, yet just, he punishes
vice in a striking manner even on the throne, and of¬
ten precipitates from thence the guilty, to place upon it
the man who walks after his own heart, whom he hath
raised from obscurity. Good, merciful, and full of
pity, he relents on the repentance of the wicked : pub¬
lic calamities, and the irregularities of the seasons, are
only salutary warnings, which his fatherly goodness
gives to men to induce them to reform and amend.
The performance of religious worship at the pro¬
per and appointed times, has given occasion to the great
exactness with respect to the kalendar, which is re¬
markable throughout the empire of China; and all
the celebrated emperors have begun their reigns with
a reformation of it. Our historians, however, not
contented with discovering in the Chinese religion the
fundamental principles of the ancient patriarchal reli¬
gion, have also found in it evident symptoms of a
knowledge of the Trinity as believed among Christi¬
ans. “ Among the ancient Chinese characters (says
M. Grosier), which have escaped the ravages of time,
we find the following a. According to the dictionary
of Kang-hi, this signifies union ; according to the
Choue-ouen (that book so highly esteemed in China) a
is three united in one; it derives it from the charac¬
ters jom (to enter or penetrate), and one; whence
it concludes, that A means three united, penetrated,
or incorporated into one. According to another book,
accounted a learned and accurate explanation of the
ancient characters, ‘ A signifies strict union, harmony,
the chief good of man, of heaven, and of earth ; it
is the union of the three tsai (powers, principles, or china,
intelligences) ; for, united, they direct, create, and y-—»
nourish together. The image-7-(three united in one
figure) is not so obscure in itself; however, it is diffi¬
cult to reason upon it without being deceived: on this
subject it is difficult to speak.”
“ Father Amiot, spite of all the objections which
the critics of Europe may make, seems to conjecture,
that the character A might have been, among the an¬
cient Chinese, the symbol of the. most holy -Trinity ;
‘ and the more so (he adds), as the ancient books
furnish a number of texts, which give us reason to
suppose them to have been possessed of some know¬
ledge of this sublime mystery/ The book See-ki says,
‘ The emperor formerly offered up a solemn sacrifice
every three years to the Spirit, Trinity and Unity,
Chin-san-ye.'’ The following celebrated text of Lao-
tse has long been known in Europe. ‘ Tao is one by
nature : the first begot the second ; two produced the
third ; the three created all things.’
“ F. Amiot quotes another passage, which appears
to be no less singular. ‘ He who is, as it were, vi¬
sible, and cannot be seen, is named Khi; he who may
be heard, yet speaketh not to the ears, is called Hi;
he whom, in a manner, we feel, yet cannot touch, is
named Ouei. In vain do we interrogate our senses re¬
specting these three ; our reason, which alone can give
us any satisfaction, will tell us that they make only
one. Above there is no light; below there is no dark¬
ness. He is eternal ; there is no name which can be
given him. He resembles nothing that exists ; he is
an image without figure ; a figure without matter :
his light is surrounded by darkness. If we look up to
him above, we behold no beginning; if we follow him,
we discover no end. From what the Tao hath been
at all times, conclude what he is, viz. that he is eter¬
nal : he is the beginning of wisdom.’ The commen¬
taries which explain this passage speak in such strong
and precise terms, that F. Amiot forbears to quote
them, lest he might incur the censure of loo many in¬
credulous readers (a).”
The sacrifices of the Chinese were first offered up in Sacrifices,
the open fields, or on some mountain, upon what they
call the Tan, which siguifies a quantity of stones
thrown together in a round form, or simply a round
heap of earth. A double fence called Kiao, compo¬
sed of turf and branches of trees, was raised around
this ; and, in the space left between the two fences,
two lesser altars were erected on the right and left;
upon which, immediately after the sacrifice offered up
to the Tien, they sacrificed also to the Cheng, or good
spirits of every rank, and to their virtuous ancestors.
The sovereign alone had a right of sacrificing upon
this Tan; and the custom of sacrificing to inferior
spirits, according to the Chinese commentators, may
be traced even to the days of To-hi himself. The same
writers add, that, in addressing themselves to the
Chang-ti, they considered him as the sovereign lord of
the universe, clothed with all that power which was
necessary to satisfy them with regard to the different
I) 2 objects
(a) t is a singular circumstance that I. Amiot should have passed over in silence such unintelligible mum-
mery, without a single animadversion. Reason humbly confesses every word of it to be absolutely incomprehen-
81 e ? anu *aith itself has almost as hard a struggle in believing it as the never-to-be-fathomed creed of Athanasius.
CHI f 28 ] CHI
Cliiua. objects of their requests; but that, in offering up their
——v—- ' prayers to the inferior objects ot worship, they only im¬
plored their protection and mediation with the Chang-ti.
While the empire was confined within narrow
bounds, one mountain was sufficient for the sacrifices j
but in process of time it became necessary to consecrate
four others. These were situated at the extremities of
the empire, and were supposed to correspond with the
four quarters of the world ; and the prince went suc¬
cessively every year to one of these mountains to offer
up sacrifices •, taking occasion at the same time to
show himself to his people, and to inform himself of
their wants. This custom subsisted for a long time;
but at length it was found convenient to add a fifth
mountain in the centre of the empire ; and ever since
these have been called the five Yo, or the five moun¬
tains of sacrifice. This method of subjecting .the em¬
peror to regular annual journeys could not but be at¬
tended with many inconveniences. It was found neces¬
sary on this account to consecrate some spot in the
neighbourhood of his palace, which might be substi¬
tuted for the To upon all occasions when the emperor
could not repair to them. An edifice was therefore
erected, which at once represented the Kioo, Tan, and
the Hall of ancestors. This last was a necessary part
of the edifice ; because it wTas incumbent on those who
offered up sacrifices, first to repair to this hall, and ac¬
quaint their ancestors with what they were about to
perform; and thither also they returned after sacrifi¬
cing, to thank the same ancestors for the protection
they had received from the Chang-ti; after which they
offered up a sacrifice of thanksgiving in honour of them,
and performed certain other ceremonies to show their
respect. The building contained five separate halls,
appropriated to different purposes; originally it had
neither paintings nor ornaments of any kind, and a
staircase of nine steps conducted to the principal en¬
trance. Afterwards, however, it was much more rich¬
ly ornamented, each of the five halls being decorated
with columns, over which others were placed that sup¬
ported a second roof. In succeeding times it was strip¬
ped of all its ornaments, with a view to bring back re¬
ligion to its primitive simplicity. Its four gates w'ere
covered w'ith fine moss, representing the branches of
which the double fence of the ancient Kiao were form¬
ed. The ridge of the roof was covered with the same,
and the whole was encompassed by a canal filled with
water at the time of offering up the sacrifices. To
this a second building was added, which they called
the temple of neatness, and which was used only for pu¬
rifications and ceremonies, the former being entirely
consecrated to the worship of the Chang-ti.
At present there are only two temples in Peking,
named the Tian-tan and the Ti-tan ; in the construc¬
tion of which all the elegance of Chinese architecture is
displayed. These are both dedicated to the Chang-ti.
but under different titles ; in the one he is adored as
the eternal spirit; in the other, as the creator and pre¬
server of the world. The ceremonies of the modern
sacrifices are greatly multiplied ; and nothing can ex¬
ceed the splendour and magnificence with which these
solemnities are performed. Sometimes before the day
appointed for the grand ceremony, the monarch, the
grandees of the court, and all those whom their em¬
ployments qualify to assist at the solemnity, prepare
3
themselves by retirement, fasting, and continence ; no China,
audience is given by the emperor, and the tribunals v*1"
are entirely shut; marriages, J'unerals, rejoicings, and
entertainments of every kind, are then forbidden. At
last, on the day appointed, the emperor appears, at¬
tended by an innumerable multitude, and his person
surrounded by a vast number of princes, lords, and of¬
ficers, while every part of the temple seems to corre¬
spond with the magnificence of the sovereign ; all the
vases and utensils employed in the sacrifices are of
gold, and cannot be applied to any other purpose;
even the instruments of music are of enormous mag¬
nitude, and never used anywhere else. All this gran¬
deur, however, serves only to display in a more emi¬
nent manner the humility and abasement of the mo¬
narch during his devotion; at which time he rolls in
the dust, and speaks of himself before the Chang-ti in
terms of the most abject submission and humiliation. i0^
The purity of the ancient Chinese religion has,Sect of
however, been long contaminated by many idolatrous Tao-sse.
and fanatical sects. Among these, one named Tao-sse
was founded by a philosopher called Lao-kiun or Lao-
tse, who was born 603 B. C. He died in an advanced
age, leaving to his disciples a book entitled Tao-te, be¬
ing a collection of 5000 sentences. His morality has
a great resemblance to that of Epicurus. It consists
principally in banishing all vehement desires and pas¬
sions capable of disturbing the peace and tranquillity
of the soul. According to him, the care of every wise
man ought to be only to endeavour to live free from
grief and pain, and to glide gently down the stream
of life, devoid of anxiety and care. To arrive at this
happy state he advises his follow^ers to banish all thoughts
of the past, and to abstain from every vain and useless
inquiry concerning futurity, as v'ell as all tormenting
thoughts of ambition, avarice, &c. It was found by
the disciples of this philosopher, however, that all their
endeavours to obtain a perfect tranquillity of mind
w-ere vain, as long as the thoughts of death intervened;
they therefore declared it possible to discover a compo¬
sition from which drink might be made that would ren¬
der mankind immortal. Hence they were led to the
study of chemistry ; and, like the w'estern alchemists,
wearied themselves in search of the philosopher’s stone,
until at last they gave themselves up to all the extra¬
vagancies of magic.
The desire of avoiding death, together with the cre¬
dulity natural to unenlightened minds, quickly produ¬
ced a number of converts to the sect of 2cro sse. Ma¬
gical practices, the invocation of spirits, and the art ,
of foretelling events by divination, quickly diffused
themselves over the empire, and the imbecility of the
emperors contributed to propagate the deception.
Temples consecrated to spirits quickly reared thei
heads in every corner of the empire ; and two of the
most celebrated of the sect were authorized to main¬
tain public worship there after the form which had
been prescribed by their master. At the same time
they distributed, and sold at a dear rate, images of the
imaginary spirits with which they had peopled the hea¬
vens -and the earth. These were, by their command,
worshipped as so many deities independent of the Su¬
preme Being : and in like manner, several of the an¬
cient emperors were invoked as gods.
Being patronized by th'e emperors of several dy¬
nasties,
CHI [ 29 ] CHI
China, nasties, this sect became more ami more powerful,
—v—^ At last they had the impudence to affix, during the
night-time, to one of the gates of the imperial city,
a book filled with mystic characters and magical fi¬
gures. At break of day they informed the emperor
of the sudden appearance of this book, and publicly
declared that it was fallen from heaven. This trick
easily imposed upon the weak prince. He immediate¬
ly repaired, with a numerous train, to the spot where
the sacred volume appeared j and having taken it into
his hands in a respectful manner, carried it in triumph
to his palace, where he shut it up in a golden box.
Another emperor carried his reverence for the sect to
such a height of impiety and extravagance, as to or¬
der a celebrated Tao-sse to be publicly worshipped un¬
der the name of Chang-ti. The sect thus patronized
by the princes, and accommodated to the credulity of
the vulgar, continued to gain ground in spite of every
opposition from the wiser part of the people, and is
still very powerful in China. At present they offer
up three different victims, a hog, a fowl, and a fish, to
a spirit whom they invoke. Various ceremonies, such
as howling, drawing fantastical figures upon paper, ma¬
king a hideous noise with kettles and drums, are used
in their incantations j and though it may readily be
believed that they are for the most part unsuccessful,
yet their credit is still kept up by those cases in which
they succeed by accident.
The chief of the 1 'ao-sse is invested by government
with the dignity of grand mandarin, which is enjoyed
by his successors : he resides in a sumptuous palace in
a town of Kiang-si j and the superstitious confidence
of the people attracts an immense number thither from
all parts of the empire. Some arrive in order to be
cured of diseases, others to get an insight into futurity.
The impostor distributes to them small bits of paper fill¬
ed with magical characters j and the ignorant wretches
depart well satisfied, without grudging the expence of
l04 their journey, though ever so long.
Of the wor-. A still more pernicious and more widely diffused sect
shippers of is that of the idol Fo, which came originally from In¬
dia. The Tao-sse had promised to the brother of one
of the emperors of China to introduce him to a com¬
munication with spirits. The credulous prince having
heard of a great spirit named Fo, who resided in India,
prevailed on his brother to send an embassy thither.
On the arrival of the ambassadors, however, they could
find only two worshippers of this deity, both of whom
they brought to China. Several images of Fo were
also collected at the same time : and these, together
with some canonical books of the Indians, were placed
on a white horse, and carried in procession to the im¬
perial city.
This superstition wras introduced into China about
the 65111 year of the Christian aera, and soon made
vast progress. One of its principal doctrines is that
of the metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, of
which M. Grosier thinks he was the inventor, and that
Pythagoras, who travelled in^o several parts of India,
had borrowed the doctrine from him. The account
given of him by the bonzes is, that finding himself,
at the age of 70, oppressed with infirmities, he called
his disciples together, and told them he was unwilling
to leave the world without communicating the secret
and hidden mysteries of his doctiinej which were, ia
short, that all things had proceeded from a vacuum China,
and nothing, and to that they must return. This doc- l~—y-—'■>
trine produced a corresponding mode of action, or ra¬
ther of inaction, in those who believed it : for thus the
great happiness of man was made to consist in absolute
annihilation : and therefore the nearer he could bring
himself to this state during life, the happier he was
supposed to be.
The common doctrine, however, which admits of a
distinction between good and evil, finds more prose¬
lytes among the vulgar, whose situation in life will not
allow them to spend their time in perpetual idleness.
According to this, the righteous will be rewarded and
the wicked punished after death. They say also, that
the god Fo came to save mankind, and to expiate their
sins ; and that be aloue can procure them a happy re¬
generation in the life to come. Five precepts are
likewise inculcated on those who adopt this doctrine :
I. Not to kill any living creature j 2. Not to take
away the goods of another j 3. Not to pollute them¬
selves by uncleanness j 4. Not to lie j and, 5. Not to
drink wine. Above all, they recommend to them to
perform acts of mercy, to treat their bonzes well, build
temples, &c.
The doctrine of metempsychosis has introduced into
China an infinite number of idols, who are all worship¬
ped on the supposition that the spirit of Fo has trans¬
migrated into the animals they represent. These idols,
however, seem not to be worshipped with great sin¬
cerity ; but, like the images of saints in the more su¬
perstitious countries of Europe, are beaten and thrown
in the dirt when their votaries happen not to obtain
their desires, which they impute to the obstinacy or
weakness of the idol. Nay, M. Grosier gives an ac¬
count of one man, who having ineffectually paid a sum
of money to the bonzes of a certain idol for the cure of
his daughter, brought a formal accusation against the
idol himself j and in spite of all that the bonzes could
say in its behalf, got its worship suppressed throughout
the province. 10^
rI he bonzes of China are represented as a most ava- Bad cha-
ricious and hypocritical race of men, ready to practise racter of
every kind of villany, and even to subject themselves ^ ^enzes*
to the most intolerable tortures, in order to obtain mo¬
ney from the compassion of the public when they can¬
not get it in any other way ; and an edict of one of
the emperors is cited by M. Grosier, by which great
numbers of their religious houses were suppressed. In
order to perpetuate their sect, they purchase young
children, whom they take care to instruct in all the
mysteries and tricks of their profession ; hut except¬
ing this, they are in general very ignorant, and few
of them would he able to give any tolerable account
of the tenets of their own sect, They are not subject
to a regular hierarchy, but acknowledge. superiors
among them whom they call grand bonzes, who have
the first place in all religious assemblies at which they
happen to he present: and great profit is derived from
certain religious clubs, both of men and women, at
which the bonzes are always called to assist. Their
wealth is likewise augmented by pilgrimages to certain
places where there are temples more or less reverenced,
and where a multitude of absurd ceremonies is per¬
formed. . These bonzes, as may he easily imagined, are
inveterate enemies to the progress of Christianity, te!l-
ing
CHI [ 30 ] CHI
China, ing the most absurd stories concerning the missionaries j
   as that they pluck out the eyes of their converts to
construct telescopes with, &c. The literati, however,
and the more sensible part of the nation, hold them in
I0(y the greatest contempt.
Ridiculous We shall conclude this detail of the Chinese reli-
superstition gion with giving an account of one other superstition
°f the/ott?-which seems peculiar to the nation. It is named fong-
choui, which signifies wind and water. By this they
mean the lucky or unlucky situation of a house, bury-
ing-place, &c. If any imprudent person has built a
house close to that of a Chinese, in such a manner
that the angle formed by its roof flanks the wall or
roof of the former house, the proprietor ever after
lives in terror of utter ruin and destruction from the
malignant influence of that angle. An implacable
hatred instantly commences betwixt the two families,
and often gives rise to a law-suit, which furnishes mat¬
ter of discussion for some of the superior tribunals.
If no redress can be had at law, however, the Chinese
is then reduced to the necessity of erecting, on the top
of his house, an enormous image of a dragon, or some
other monster, with its mouth gaping towards the angle,
and, as it were, threatening to swallow it up ; after
which the apprehensions of the proprietor begin to
subside, and tranquillity is restored to the family. In
this manner the governor of Kien-tchang secured him¬
self from the influence of the church of the Jesuits,
which, being built on an eminence, overlooked his pa¬
lace. Not depending, however, entirely on the good
offices ol his tutelary dragon, he also took the wise
precaution of altering his principal apartments, and
raising, at the distance of 200 paces from the church,
a kind of large facade three stories high. But un¬
luckily the death of his successor was attributed to
this facade $ for the mandarin being attacked with a
disorder in the breast, which made him spit up a white
phlegm, this symptom was thought to be owing to the
walls ot the facade, which were very white, and which
were forthwith painted black. The salutary precau¬
tion, however, happened to be taken too late } for the
governor died notwithstanding the black colour of the
. walls.
“ We should never have done (says M. Grosier),
were we to relate all the superstitious ideas of the Chi¬
nese, respecting the lucky and unlucky situation of
houses, the quarter which doors ought to front, and
the plan and day proper for constructing the stoves in
which they cook their rice.” But the object on which
they employ their greatest care is the choice of the
ground and situation for a burying-ground. Some quacks
follow no other profession than that of pointing out
hills and mountains which have an aspect favourable
for w 0! K.s of that kind. When a Chinese is persuaded
01 the truth ol such information, there is no sum which
he would not give to be in possession of the fortunate
spot. I he greater part of the Chinese are of opinion
that all the happiness and misfortunes of life depend
i upon the fang-choui.
Jews and c0!011) Jews was established in China about
Mahome- the year 206 B. C. j but they are now reduced to a
tans in small number of families at Cai-fong, the capital of
• the province of Honan. The Mahometans have mul¬
tiplied much more than the Jews. It is about 600
years since they first entered the empire, where they
have formed different establishments. At first their China,
number was augmented only by marriages *, but for
some time past they have been more particularly at¬
tentive to the extending of their sect and propagating
their doctrine. The principal means employed for
this purpose are, to purchase a great number of chil¬
dren brought up in idolatry, whom their poor parents
are glad to part with ; and these they circumcise, and
afterwards instruct in the principles of their religion.
During the time of a famine which desolated the pro¬
vince of Chang-tong, they purchased more than 10,000
of these children \ for whom, when grown up, they
procured wives, built houses, and even formed whole
villages ot them. They are now become so numerous,
that in the places where they reside they entirely ex¬
clude every inhabitant who does not believe in their
prophet, and frequent a mosque. IoS
With regard to the manners of the Chinese, they Ceremonies
bear no resemblance to those of any other nation j and,°fman'iagc»
if we may believe their historians, they are the sam.o
at this day that they were 4000 years ago. The wo¬
men are condemned almost to perpetual imprisonment
within the precincts of their own houses, and are ne¬
ver seen even by their intended husbands before mar¬
riage. He knows nothing of her looks or person, but
from the account of some female relation or confidant,
who in such cases acts the part of match-maker \ though
if imposed upon either with regard to her age or fi¬
gure, he can have recourse to a divorce. The same
matrons who negotiate the marriage, also determine the
sum which the intended husband must pay to the pa¬
rents of the bride: for in China a father does not give
a dowry to his daughter ; it is the husband who gives
a dowry to the wife. When the day appointed for
the marriage is arrived, the bride is placed in a chair
or close palanquin, the key of which is committed to
the care of a trusty domestic, who must deliver it to
none but the husband. The latter, richly dressed, waits
at his gate for the arrival of the procession. As soon
as it approaches, the key is put into his hands j he
eagerly opens the chair, and for the first time perceives
Ills good or bad fortune. If he is contented with his
new spouse, the bride descends and enters the house,
where the marriage is concluded by feasting and mer¬
riment as in other countries $ but if the bridegroom is
very much disappointed, he suddenly shuts the chair,
and sends the bride home to her relations. To get rid
of her in this manner, however, costs a sum equal to
what he originally gave in dowry to obtain her.
The Chinese women, even of the first rank, seldom
quit their apartment, which is situated in the most re¬
tired part of the house, and in which they are seclu¬
ded from all society but that of their domestics. The
book of ceremonies requires that there should be two
apartments in every house ; the exterior one for the
husband, the interior for the wife. They must even
be separated by a wail or wooden partition, the door
of which is carefully guarded ; nor is the husband at
liberty to enter the wife’s apartment, or she to quit it,
without sufficient reason. According to the same book,
the prattling and loquacity of a woman are reckoned
sufficient grounds for a divorce. If this be founded
in fact, the women of China are either unexampled for
taciturnity, or else multitudes of divorces must be daily
occurrences. A woman, however, cannot he divorced
ois
C H I
China, on any account, if she loses her parents after marriage,
1111 v   or if she has worn three years mourning for the loss of
her husband, father, or mother.
A widow of any rank above the common, who has
children, seldom enters a second time into the mar¬
riage state, though those of the ordinary rank ge¬
nerally do. The poorer sort are not at liberty to fol¬
low their own inclination, but are sold for the behoof
of the parents of the deceased. As soon as the bar¬
gain is concluded, a couple of porters bring a chair,
which is guarded by a number of trusty people. In
this the widow is shut up, and thus conducted to her
new husband.
“Masters (says M. Grosier), for the most part, are
very desirous of promoting marriage among their slaves,
whatever Mr Paw may say ; who, without any founda¬
tion, has ventured boldly to assert the contrary. They
have even very strong motives to induce them to en¬
courage these marriagesj the children produced by them
are still their slaves ; and besides their becoming new
property to them, the fathers and mothers are thus more
strongly attached to their service.”
Concubf- Concubinage is tolerated in China, though not au-
nage tole- thorized by any law. This privilege is granted only to
rated. the emperor, the princes of the blood, and mandarins ;
and none but the emperor is permitted to have more
than one. The common people generally avail them¬
selves of the toleration granted them in this respect,
and will have two or three concubines if they can af¬
ford it. They are, however, careful to excuse them¬
selves as well as they can to their wives in this respect,
pretending only a desire to have many children, and
a number of women to attend their wives. Others,
desirous of having a male child, while perhaps their
lawful wife cannot have any, take a concubine for this
reason only, and dismiss her as soon as their wishes
are accomplished j they then permit her to marry whom
se pleases, and frequently even provide a husband for
her themselves. These concubines are almost all pro¬
cured from two cities named Yang-tcheou and Sou-tc/ieou,
where they are educated, and taught singing, dancing,
music, and every accomplishment suitable to women of
quality, or which can render them agreeable and plea¬
sing. The greatest part of them are purchased in other
places, to be again disposed of; and this is the principal
branch of trade carried on by these two cities. Unlaw¬
ful intrigues are seldom heard of in China. Whoever
seduces the wife of another is punished with death ; and
the same punishment is generally inllicted on the per¬
son who debauches a young woman.
Education ^rom t*16 accounts we have of the education of chil-
of children. ^ren ‘n China, one might be. apt to conclude, that, in¬
stead of being the ignorant superstitious race already
described, they ought to be the most intelligent people
in the world. The book of ceremonies directs the edu¬
cation of a child to commence as soon as it is born,
and describes exactly the qualities which its nurse
ought to have. She must speak little, adhere strictly
to truth, have a mild temper, behave with affability
to her equals, and with respect to her superiors. The
child is taught to use the right hand as soon as it can
put its hand to its mouth, and then it is weaned. At
six years of age, if a male, he is taught the numbers
most in use, and made acquainted with the names of
the principal parts of the world; at seven, he is sepa-
C H I
rated from his sisters, and no longer allowed to eat
with them, nor to sit down in their presence ; at eight,
ue is instructed in the rules of good breeding and po¬
liteness ; at nine, he studies the kalendar; at ten, he is
sent to a public school, where he learns to read, write,
and cast accounts ; from 13 to 15 he is taught music,
and every thing that he sings consists of moral precepts.
It was formerly the custom, that all the lessons design¬
ed for the Chinese youth were in verse; and it is to
this day lamented, that the same custom is not follow¬
ed, as their education has since been rendered much
more difficult and laborious.
At the age of 13, the Chinese boys are taught to
handle the bow and arrow, and to mount on horseback j
at 20 they receive the first cap, if they are thought to
deserve it, and are permitted to wear silk dresses orna¬
mented with furs ; but before that period they are not
allowed to wear any other thing than cotton.
Another method of initiating children into the
principles of knowledge in this empire is, by selecting
a number of characters expressive of the most common
objects, engraving or printing them separately on some
kind of substance, and, under the thing represented,
putting the name, which points out to them the mean¬
ing of the word.
As the Chinese have no proper alphabet, they re¬
present almost every thing by different characters.
The labour of their youth, therefore, is intolerable ;
being obliged to study many thousand characters, each
of which has a distinct and appropriate signification.
Some idea of their difficulties may be obtained from
what we are told by F. Martini, who assures us, that
he was under the necessity of learning 60,000 different
characters before he could read the Chinese authors
with tolerable ease.
If he book first put into the hands of the Chinese
children is an abridgement, which points out what a
child ought to learn, and the manner in which he
should be taught. This volume is a collection of short
sentences, consisting of three or four verses each, all
of which rhyme; and they are obliged to give an ac¬
count in the evening of what they have learned in the
day. After this elementary treatise, they put into their
hands the four books which contain the doctrines of
Confucius and Mencius. The sense and meaning of
the work is never explained to them until they have
got by heart all the characters, that is to say, the words
in the book ; a method no doubt inconceivably disgust-
ing, and calculated utterly to destroy the genius of a
boy, if he has any. While they are getting these cha¬
racters by heart, indeed, they are likewise employed in
learning to form them with a pencil. For this pur¬
pose they are furnished with large leaves of paper, on
which are written or printed with red ink very big
characters ; and all they are required to do is to cover
those red characters with black ink, and to follow ex¬
actly their shape and figure; which insensibly accus¬
toms them to form the different strokes. After this
they are made to trace other characters, placed under
the paper on which they write. These are black, and
much smaller than the other. It is a great advantage
to the Chinese literati to be able to paint characters
well ; and on this account they bestow great pains in
forming the hands of young people. This is of the
utmost consequence to literary students in the exami-
* nations
[ 31 ]
CHI . [_ 32
China, nations which they are obliged to undergo before they
v " 1 can be admitted to the first degree. Du Halde gives
a remarkable instance, viz. that “ a candidate for de¬
grees having, contrary to order, made use of an ab¬
breviation in writing the character ma, which signifies
a horse, had the mortification of seeing his composi¬
tion, though in other respects excellent, rejected mere¬
ly on that account j besides being severely rallied by
the mandarin, who told him a horse could not walk un¬
less he had all his legs.”
After the scholar has made himself master of the
characters, he is then allowed to compose ^ but the
subject of his composition is pointed out to him only
by one word. Competitions are likewise established
in China, but most of them are of a private nature.
Twenty or thirty families, who are all of the same
name, and who consequently have only one hall for
the names of their ancestors, agree among themselves
to send their children twice a month to this hall in. or¬
der to compose. Each head of a family in turn gives
the subject of this literary contest, and adjudges the
prize $ but this costs him a dinner, which he must cause
to be carried to the hall of competition. A fine of about
tenpence is imposed on the parent of each scholar who
absents himself from this exercise.
Besides these private competitions, every student is
obliged to compete at least twice a-year under the in¬
spection of an inferior mandarin of letters styled Hio-
kouan. It frequently happens also, that the mandarins
of letters order these students to be brought before
them, to examine the progress they have made in their
studies, to excite a spirit of emulation among them, and
make them give such application as may qualify them
for any employment in the state. Even the governors
of cities do not think it below their dignity to take
this care upon themselves ; ordering all those students
who reside near them to appear before their tribunal
once a month : the author of the best competition is
honoured with a prize, and the governor treats all the
candidates on the day of competition at his own ex¬
pence. In every city, town, and village in China,
there are schoolmasters who teach such sciences as are
known in that country. Parents possessed of a certain
fortune provide masters for their children, to attend
and instruct them, to form their minds to virtue, and
to initiate them in the rules of good breeding and the
accustomed ceremonies, as well as to make them ac¬
quainted with the laws and history, if their age will
admit. These masters have, for the most part attain¬
ed to one or two degrees among the literati, and not un-
frequently arrive at the first employments of the state.
The education of the Chinese women is confined to
giving them a taste for solitude, and accustoming them
to modesty and silence •, and if their parents are rich,
they are likewise instructed in such accomplishments as
in may render them agreeable to the other sex.
Dress. There is little distinction in China between the or¬
dinary dress of men and women. Rank and dignity
are distinguished by certain accessary ornaments ; and
the person would be severely chastised who should pre¬
sume to assume them without being properly authori¬
zed. The dress in general consists of a long vest which
reaches to the ground. One part of this vest, viz.
that on the left side, folds over the other, and is fasten¬
ed to the right by four or five small gold or silver but-
] CHI
tons, placed at a little distance from one another. The < China.
sleeves are wide towards the shoulder, growing narrow-
er as they approach the wrist, where they terminate in
the form of a horse shoe, covering the hands entirely,
and leaving nothing but the ends of the fingers to be
seen. Round their middle they wear a large girdle
of silk, the ends of which hang down to their knees.
From this girdle is suspended a sheath containing a
knife and two of those small sticks which they use as
forks. Below this robe they wear a pair of drawers,
in summer made of linen, and in winter of satin lined
with fur, sometimes of cotton, and in some of the
northern provinces of skins. These are sometimes co¬
vered with another pair of white taffety. Their shirts
are always very short and wide, of diftereat kinds of
cloth, according to the season. Under these they wear
a silk net to prevent it from adhering to the skin. In
warm weather they have their necks always bare
when it is cold, they wear a collar made of silk and
sable, or fox’s skin, joined to their robe, which in win¬
ter is trimmed with sheep skin, or quilted with silk and
cotton. That of people of quality is entirely lined
with beautiful sable skins brought from Tartary, or
with the finest fox’s skin, trimmed with sable; and in
the spring it is lined with ermine. Above their robe
they wear also a kind of surtout with wide sleeves, but
very short, which is lined in the same manner. The
emperor and princes of the blood only have a right to
wear yellow ; certain mandarins have liberty to wear
satin of a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony :
in general they are clothed in black, blue, or violet.
The common people are allowed to wear no other co¬
lours but blue or black ; and their dress is always com¬
posed of plain cotton cloth. uj
Formerly the Chinese were at great pains to pre-Chine*e
serve their hair $ but the Tartars, who subdued them, obliged by
compelled them to cut off the greater part of it, and to^ec^a^rs
alter the form of their clothes after the Tartar fashion. tjieir ^air.
This revolution in dress was not effected without blood¬
shed, though the conquerors at the same time adopted
in other respects the laws, manners, and customs of the
conquered people. Thus the Chinese are painted as
if bald, but they are not so naturally 5 that small por¬
tion of hair which they preserve behind, or on the
tops of their heads, is all that is now allowed them.
This they wear very long, and plait like a tail. In
summer they wear a kind of cap shaped like an invert¬
ed cone, lined with satin, and covered with ratan or
cane very prettily wrought. The top terminates in a
point, to which they fix a tuft of red hair, which
spreads over it, and covers it to the brim. This hair
grows between the legs of a kind of cow, and is ca¬
pable of taking any colour, especially a deep red. This
ornament is much used, and any person who chooses
may wear it.
The mandarins and literati wear a cap of the same
form as the foregoing, only it is lined with red satin,
and covered on the outside with white. A large tuft
of the finest red silk is fixed over it, which is sufl'ered
to hang down or wave with the wind. People of di¬
stinction generally use the common cap when they
mount on horseback or during bad weather j being
better calculated to keep off rain, and shelter those
who wear it from the rays of the sun. For winter
they have another cap bordered with sable, ermine, or
fox’s
CHI [3.3] CHI
China. |[ox’s skIn> ail<1 ornamented with a tuft of silk like the grow. So prevalent is the force of custom, however
In these fur-trimmings they are very curious, that as the child grows up she voluntarily submits to
former.  o ^    ^
sometimes expending 40 or 50 ounces of silver upon
them.
The Chinese people of rank never go abroad with¬
out boots made of satin or some other silk, and some¬
times of cotton, but always dyed. They have neither
heel nor top, and are made to fit the foot with the
greatest exactness. When they travel on horseback,
however, they have others made of the skin of a cow
or horse made very pliable. Their boot-stockings are
of silk stuff, quilted and lined with cotton, reaching
above the top of their boot, and ornamented with a
border of velvet or cloth. In summer they wear a
cooler kind, and in their houses a sort of slippers made
of silk stuff. The common people are contented with
black slippers made of cotton cloth. The fan is also a
necessary appendage of the Chinese dress, and is rec¬
koned equally necessary with the boots.
The dress of the vromen consists of a long robe quite
close at top, and long enough to cover even their toes,
with sleeves so long that they could hang down upon
the ground, did they not take care to tuck them up;
but their hands are seldom seen. The colour of their
dresses is entirely arbitrary, but black and violet are
generally chosen by those advanced in life. The young
ladies, like those of Europe, make use of paint to give
a bloom to their complexions ; but this, though not
the same with the kind used in Europe, agrees with it
in the effect of soon wrinkling the skin. Their gene¬
ral head-dress consists in arranging their hair in several
curls, among which are interspersed small tufts of gold
or silver flowers. According to Du Halde, some of
them ornament their heads with the image of a fabulous
bird, concerning which many stories are told. This
is made of copper or silver gilt, its wings extended and
lying pretty close to the head-dress, embracing the up¬
per part of their temples, while the long spreading
tail forms a kind of plume on the top of the head. Its
body is directly over the head, and the neck and bill
hang down, the former being joined to the body by a
concealed hinge, in order that it may play freely, and
move about on the least motion of the head. The
whole bird adheres to the head by means of the claws,
which are fixed in the hair.
Ladies of quality sometimes wear several of these
birds made up into a single ornament, the workmanship
of which is very expensive. Young ladies wear also a
crown made of pasteboard, the fore part of which rises
in a point above the forehead, and is covered with
jewels. The rest of the head is decorated with natural
or artificial flowers, among which small diamond pins
are interspersed. The head-dress of the ordinary class
of women, especially when they are advanced in years,
consists only of a piece of very fine silk wrapped round
It^ their heads.
Absurd cus- All authors agree, that an absurd custom prevails
tom of pre-throughout China, of confining the feet of female in-
^ants *n SUC^ a manner ^lat they are never allowed to
grow to near their full size. The smallness of their
feet is accounted such a valuable beauty, that the Chi¬
nese women never think they can pay too dear for it.
As soon therefore as a female infant is born, the nurse
wraps up its feet in very tight bandages 5 and this
toi tore must be endured until their feet have ceased to
\ol. VI. Part I. |
China.
male in¬
fants from
growing.
new tortures, in order to accomplish the purpose more
effectually. Thus the Chinese women are deprived al¬
most entirely of the use of their feet; and are scarce
able to walk, in the most awkward hobbling manner, for
the shortest space. The shoe of a full grown Chinese
woman will frequently not exceed six inches.
The Chinese use white as the colour proper for
mourning; and though a son cannot wear this while
his father and mother are alive, he can use no other
for three years after their death ; and ever afterwards
his clothes must be of one colour. The law has for¬
bidden the use of silk and furs to children ; and has
even prescribed the time when they are first to wear a
cap. This is put upon their heads by the master of
ceremonies himself, who addresses them in the follow¬
ing manner : “ Consider that you now receive the
dress of those who have attained to maturity, and that
you cease to be children; renounce, therefore, all child¬
ish thoughts and inclinations, assume a grave and se¬
rious deportment, apply with resolution to the study
of virtue and wisdom, and endeavour to merit a long
and happy life.” “ This ceremony (says M. Grosier),
which may appear trifling, is attended with the hap¬
piest eflects. Ihe Chinese give a kind of importance
to every thing which can inspire youth with a taste for
morality and a love of good order. It might be use¬
ful to mankind at every fixed epocha of their lives, to
remind them of those new duties imposed by each suc¬
cessive change ; but, by uniting the solemnity of a pu¬
blic ceremony to this instruction, it will make a deeper
impression, and remain much longer imprinted on their
memories.”
Nothing can appear more irksome to an European Excessive
than the multitude of ceremonies used on all occasions ceremoni-
by the Chinese. An invitation to an entertainment is°usness of
not supposed to be given with sincerity until it hasthe Cl,i~
been renewed three or four times in writing. Acard"686'
is sent on the evening before the entertainment, ano¬
ther on the morning of the appointed day, and a third
when every thing is prepared and the guests ready to
sit down to the table. The master of the house al¬
ways introduces his guests into the hall, where he sa¬
lutes them one after another. He then orders wine to
be brought him in a small cup made of silver, porce¬
lain, or precious wood, and placed upon a small var¬
nished salver. He lays hold of it with both his hands,
makes a bow to all the surrounding guests, and advan¬
ces towards the fore part of the hall, which generally
looks into a large court. He there raises his eyes and
the cup towards heaven ; after which he pours the
wine on the ground. He afterwards pours some wine
into a silver or porcelain cup, makes a bow to the most
considerable person in company, and then goes to place
the cup on the table before him ; for in China every
guest has a table for himself. The person for whom
he intends this honour, however, generally saves him
the trouble of placing the cup ; calls for wine in his
turn, and offers to place the cup on the master’s table,
who endeavours to prevent him, with a thousand apo¬
logies and compliments according to the rules of Chi¬
nese politeness. A superior domestic conducts the
principal guest to an elbow-chair covered with rich
flowered silk, where the stranger again begins his com-
E plihients,
CHI r 34 1 CHI
China, pliments, and begs to be excused from sitting in such
v■' an honourable seat, which nevertheless he accepts of}
and all the rest of the guests do the same, otherwise the
ceremonial would be gone through with each of them.
The entertainment is concluded by some theatrical re¬
presentations, accompanied with the music of the coun¬
try } which, however, would give hut little pleasure
to an European. Besides the guests, a certain num¬
ber of people are admitted into the court in order to
behold these theatrical representations ; and even the
women are allowed to view them through a wicket,
contrived so that they may behold them without being
seen themselves.
The entertainments of the Chinese are begun, not
by eating, but by drinking} and the liquor they drink
must always be pure wine. The intendant, or maitre
(Photel, falling down on one knee, first invites the
guests to take a glass ; on which each of them lays
' hold with both hands of that which is placed before
him, raising it as high as the forehead, then bringing
it lower down than the table, and at last putting it to
his mouth : they all drink together, and very slowly,
taking three or four draughts. While they are drink¬
ing, the dishes on each of the tables are removed, and
others brought in. Each of the guests has twenty-
four set before him in succession } all of them fat, and
in the form of ragouts. They never use knives in their
repasts } and two small pointed sticks, ornamented
with ivory or silver, serve them instead of forks. They
never begin to eat, however, until they are invited by
the maitre d?hotel; and the same ceremony must be
gone through every time they are going to take a cup
of wine, or begin a new dish. Towards the middle
of the entertainment the soup is brought in, accom¬
panied with small loaves or meat pies. These they
take up with their small sticks, steep them in the
soup, and eat them without waiting for any signal, or
being obliged to keep time with the rest of the guests.
The entertainment, however, continues in other re¬
spects with the utmost formality until tea is brought
in ; after which they retire from table and amuse
themselves in another hall, or in the garden, for a short
time, until the dessert be brought in. This, like the
entertainment itself, consists of 24 dishes, which are
made up of sweetmeats, fruits differently prepared,
hams and salted ducks which have been baked or dried
in the sun, with shell and other kinds of fish. The
same ceremonies which preceded the repast are now
renewed, and every one sits down at the same place
he occupied before. Larger cups are then brought
in, and the master invites the guests to drink more
freely.
These entertainments begin towards evening, and
never end till midnight. A small sum of money is
given to the domestics} when every one of the guests
goes home in a chair preceded by several servants,
who carry large lanthorns of oiled paper, on which
are inscribed the quality, and sometimes the name,
of the master. 'Without such an attendance they
would be taken up by the guard ; and the day follow¬
ing they never fail to return a card of thanks to the
officer.
Their method of drinking tea is not like that of
other nations. A small quantity of bohea, sufficient
to tinge the water and render it palatable (for they
drink no green), is taken in the morning, and thrown China,
into a vessel adapted to the number in family. This —v——'
stands till milk-warm } in which state it is kept the
whole day, and a cup drank now and then without
sugar or milk, in order to exhilarate the spirits when
exhausted by fatigue : and if a stranger call by accident,
or a visitor by appointment, the first thing presented,
after the usual ceremonies of meeting, is a very small
pipe filled with tobacco of their own growth, and a cup
of the tea already mentioned, or of some fresh made
of better quality, together with sweetmeats, &c. Tea
is the daily beverage in China, and is drank by all
ranks of people.
Some change has been made in the ceremonial of
the Chinese by the Tartar conquest, and some new
dishes also introduced by the same means ; and here
M. Grosier observes, that the Tartars are much better
cooks than the Chinese. All their dishes are highly
seasoned 5 and by a variation in the proportions of
their spiceries, they are able to form a variety of dishes
out of the same materials. None of their viands,
however, are more esteemed than stags sinews, and the
nests of a particular species of birds, which have the
property of giving a most agreeable relish to what¬
ever is mixed with them. Other dishes are introdu¬
ced at these repasts, which would be accounted very
disagreeable with us } such as the flesh of wild horses,
the paws of a bear, and the feet of several wild
animals. The greater part of these provisions are
brought preserved in salt from Siam, Camboya, and
Tartary. _ II5
The wines of China have no resemblance to ours chines©
either in taste or quality, being procured from rice,wines,
and not from the vine. A particular kind of rice is
employed for making them, and the grain is steep¬
ed for 20 or 30 days in water, into which ingredients
of a different nature are successively thrown : they af¬
terwards boil it} and as soon as it becomes dissolved
by the heat, it immediately ferments, and throws
up a vaporous scum not unlike new wine. A very
pure liquor is found under this scum, which is drawn
off and put into vessels well glazed : From the re¬
maining leys an inflammable spirit is made, little in¬
ferior, and sometimes even superior to the Euro¬
pean. Another kind of wine is used by the Chinese,
or rather Tartars, called lamb wine. It is very strong,
and has a disagreeable smell} and the same may be
believed of a kind of spirit distilled from the flesh
of sheep ; though this last is sometimes used by the
emperors.
These entertainments exceed the bounds of ordinary
repasts} the Chinese being naturally sober, and those
in easy circumstances living chiefly on pork } for which
reason a great number of hogs are bred in the country.
Their flesh is much easier of digestion, and more agree¬
able to the taste than those of Europe. The Chinese
hams are in high estimation. The common people live
very poorly } being satisfied, in time of scarcity, with
the flesh of dogs, horses, cats, and rats, which last are
sold publicly in the streets.
There are several public festivals annually celebrated Public fes*
in China. One is that already mentioned, in which^va^s*
the emperor tills the ground with his own hands. This
is also celebrated on the same day throughout the em¬
pire. In the morning the governor of every city comes
forth
CHI [ 35 ] CHI
China, forth from his palace crowned with flowers, and en-
■""V ■ 1 ters his chair amidst the noise of different instruments
which precede it 5 a great number of people attend¬
ing, as is usual on all such occasions. The chair is
surrounded by litters covered with silk, carpets, on
which are represented either some illustrious persons
who have supported and encouraged agriculture, or
some historical painting on the same subject. The
streets are hung with carpets, triumphal arches are
erected at certain distamces, lanthorns everywhere dis¬
played, and all the houses illuminated. During the
ceremony a figure resembling a cow, made of baked
earth, with gilt horns, is carried in procession, and of
such enormous magnitude that 40 men are scarcely suf¬
ficient to support it. A child follows with one foot
naked and the other shod, who is called the spirit of
labour and diligence, and keeps continually beating the
image with a rod to make it advance. Labourers,
with their implements of husbandry, march behind j
and the procession is closed by a number of comedians
and people in masks. The governor advances towards
the eastern gate, and returns in the same manner. The
cow is then stripped of its ornaments, a prodigious
number of earthen calves taken from its belly and
distributed among the people j after which the large
figure is broken in pieces and distributed in the
same manner. The ceremony is ended by an oration
in praise of agriculture, in which the governor en¬
deavours to excite his hearers to the practice of that
useful art.
Other two festivals are celebrated in China with still
more magnificence than that above described. One
of them is at the commencement of the year ; the
other is called the feast of lanthorns. During the
celebration of the former, all business, whether pri¬
vate or public, is suspended, the tribunals are shut, the
posts stopped, presents are given and received, and vi¬
sits paid. All the family assemble in the evening, and
partake of a feast to which no stranger is admitted 5
though they become a little more sociable on the fol¬
lowing day.
The feast of lanthorns ought to take place on the
15th day of the first month, but usually commences on
the evening of the 13th, and does not end till that of
the 16th. At that time every city and village, the
shores of the sea, and the banks of all the rivers, are
hung with lanthorns of various shapes and sizes j some
of them being seen in the courts and windows of the
poorest houses. No expence is spared on this occasion j
and some of the rich people will lay out eight or nine
pounds sterling on one lanthorn. Some of these are
very large, composed of six wooden frames either
neatly painted or gilt, and filled up with pieces of fine
transparent silk, upon which are painted flowers, ani¬
mals, and human figures; others are blue, and made
of a transparent kind of horn. Several lamps, and a
great number of wax candles, are placed in the inside:
to the corners of each are fixed streamers of silk and
satin of different colours, with a curious piece of car¬
ved work on the top. They are likewise acquainted
with our magic lanthorn, which they sometimes in¬
troduce into, this festival. Besides this, they have the
art of.forming a snake 60 cr 80 feet in length, filled
with lights from one end to the other j which they
cause twist itself into different forms, and move about
as if it were a real serpent. During the same festival China,
all the varieties of the Chinese fire-works, so justly ad- v—■■ y —
mired, and which, some time ago at least, surpassed
every thing of the kind that could be done in Europe,
are exhibited. ri^
Every public ceremony in China is carefully ren-Magnifi-
dered as striking as possible. A viceroy never quitscenc®of
his palace but with a royal train, dressed in his robestlie vice"
of ceremony, and carried in a chair elegantly gilt, ^
which is borne upon the shoulders of eight domestics j
two drummers marching before the guards, and beat-
ing upon copper basons to give notice of his approach.
Eight other attendants carry standards of wood var¬
nished, upon which are inscribed in large characters all
his titles of honour. After these come 14 flags with
the symbols of his office j such as the dragon, tyger,
phoenix, flying tortoise, &c. Six officers follow, each
bearing a piece of board in shape like a large shovel,
on which are written in large golden characters the
qualities of the mandarin himself j two others car¬
ry, the one a large umbrella of yellow silk, and the
other the cover in which the umbrella is kept. The
first guards are preceded by two archers on horseback j
the latter are followed by others armed with a kind of
weapons composed of hooked blades, fixed perpendicu¬
larly to long poles ornamented with four tufts of silk,
placed at a small distance above one another. Behind
these are two other files of soldiers, some of whom
carry large maces with long handles j others iron
maces in the shape of a snake $ others are armed with
huge hammers j while those behind them carry long
battle-axes in the form of a crescent: others follow,
who have battle-axes of another kind > and behind
these are some with the hooked weapons already de¬
scribed.
Behind these come soldiers armed with triple-point¬
ed spears, arrows, or battle-axes 5 having in front two
men who carry a kind of box containing the viceroy’s
seal. I hen come two other drummers to give notice
of his approach. Two officers follow, having on their
heads felt hats, adorned with plumes of feathers, and
each armed with a cane to recommend regularity and
good order to the surrounding multitude. Two others
bear maces in the form of gilt dragons. These again
are followed by a number of magistrates and officers
of justice : some of whom carry whips or flat sticks,
while others have chains, hangers, and silk scarfs.
’I wo standard-bearers and a captain command this
company, which immediately precede the governor.
His chair is surrounded by pages and footmen, and an
officer attends him who carries a large fan in form of
a screen $ he is followed by several guards differently-
armed, together with ensigns and other officers, who
are also followed by a great number of domestics all
on horseback, carrying various necessaries for the use
of the mandarin. If he marches in the night-time,
instead of flambeaux, as is customary in Europe, large
lanthorns, exceedingly pretty, are carried before him j
on the transparent part of which are written, in very
conspicuous characters, his quality, titles, and rank,
as mandarin. These are also intended to give notice
to the passengers to stop, and to those who are sitting
to rise up with respect $ for whoever neglects either
the one or the other is sure to receive a severe basti-
nading.
E 2
The
C H I
[ 36 J
C H I
Cfaina. The emperor marches with still more magnificence,
'~v—■"1 in proportion to his superior quality. T-he trumpets
used in this procession are about three feet long, eight
inches in diameter at the lower extremity, and pretty
much resembling a bell in shape : their sound is pecu¬
liarly adapted to that of the drums. His cavalcade is
closed by 2000 mandarins of letters, and as many of
arms. Sometimes the great mandarins, as well as the
emperor, travel in barks : their attendance is then
somewhat different, but the magnificence almost the
same. The honours paid to a viceroy who has governed
a province with equity are exceedingly great on his
departure from it. He has scarcely left the capital of
the province when he finds on the highway, lor the
space of two or three leagues, tables ranged at certain
distances, each of which is surrounded with a long
piece of silk that hangs down to the earth. On these
wax candles are placed even in the open day: perfumes
are burnt upon them •, and they are loaded w-th a pro¬
fusion of victuals, and various kinds of fruit, while tea
and wine are prepared for him on others. The peo¬
ple throw themselves on their knees as he passes, and
bow their heads even to the earth 5 some shed tears, or
pretend to do so j some present him with wine and sweet¬
meats j others frequently pull off his boots and give
him new ones. These boots, which he has perhaps
used only for a moment, are considered as a valuable
monument; those first taken off are preserved in a
cage over the gate of the city $ the rest are carefully
Il8 kept by his friends.
Kflavi).!i Hitherto our author, M. Grosier, has seemed in¬
disposition dined to give a favourable idea of the Chinese, and to
of the Chi- cause us l0ok upon them as many degrees superior to
ourselves in the practice of virtue and morality $ but
when he comes to give an account of their dealings in
trade, he is then obliged to confess that they are as dis¬
honest and knavish a race as any that exist. “ The most
frequented fairs of Europe (says he) afford but a faint
idea of that immense number of buyers and sellers with
which the large cities of China are continually crowd¬
ed. We may almost say, that the one half are em¬
ployed in over-reaching the other. It is, above all,
against strangers that the Chinese merchants exercise,
without any sense of shame, their insatiable rapacity.
Of this F. du Halde gives a striking example, which
might be Supported by many others : ‘ The captain of
an English vessel bargained with a Chinese merchant
at Canton for several bales of silk, which the latter
was to provide against a certain time. When they
were ready, the captain went with his interpreter to the
house of the Chinese merchant to examine whether
they were sound and in good condition. On opening
the first bale, he found it according to his wish, but all
the rest were damaged and good for nothing. The cap¬
tain on this fell into a great passion, and reproached
the merchant in the severest terms for his dishonesty.
The Chinese, after having heard him for some time,
with great coolness, replied, ‘ Blame, Sir, your knave
of an interpreter: he assured me that you would not
inspect the bales.*
“ The lower class of people are, above all, very dex¬
terous in counterfeiting and adulterating every thing
they sell. Sometimes you think you have bought a
capon, and you receive nothing but skin $ all the rest has
been scooped out, and the place so ingeniously filled,
that the deception cannot be discovered till the moment Chinn,
you begin to eat it. The counterfeit hams of China ,
have been often mentioned. They are made of a piece
of wood cut in the form of a ham, and coated over
with a certain kind of earth which is covered with hog’s ,
skin. The whole is so curiously painted and prepared,
that a knife is necessary to detect the fraud. Mr Os-
beck relates, that having one day observed a blind man
carrying about for sale some of those trees called by
the Chinese, Fokei, he purchased one, which to appear¬
ance had fine double red and white flowers } but on
closer examination, he found that the flowers were taken
from another tree, and that one calyx was so neatly fit¬
ted into the other, with nails made of bamboo, that he
should scarcely have discovered the deceit had not the
flowers begun to wither. The tree itsell had buds, but
not one open flower.
“ The robbers in China signalize themselves also by
the dexterity and ingenuity which they display in
their profession. They seldom have recourse to acts of
violence, but introduce themselves into a house either
privately or by forming some connection with the fa¬
mily. It is as difficult in China to avoid robbery as it
is to apprehend the criminal in the fact. If we are
desirous of finding among the Chinese openness of tem¬
per, benevolence, friendship, and, lastly, virtue, we must
not seek for it in cities, but in the bosom of the coun¬
try, among that class of men who have devoted them¬
selves to labour and agriculture. A Chinese rustic
often discovers moral qualities which would add a
lustre to the character of men of the most exalted
rank. It appears that rural life naturally inspires sen¬
timents of benevolence $ by continually receiving the
gifts of nature, the mind is enlarged, and men are
insensibly accustomed to diffuse them to those around
them.’
The internal commerce of China is much greater
than that of all Europe ; but its foreign trade is by
no means equal to that of any of the grand European
powers. Its internal commerce is greatly facilitated
by the vast number of canals and rivers with which
the country is intersected. The Chinese, however,
are not at all fitted for maritime commerce : Few
of their vessels go beyond the straits of Sunda; their
longest voyages to Malacca extended only as far as
Acheen, towards the straits of Batavia, and north¬
wards to Japan.
Their commerce with the last mentioned island, con¬
sidering the article of exchange, which they procure at
Camboya or Siam, produces them cent, per cent. Their
trade with the Manillas brings only about 50 per cent*
Their profit is more considerable about Batavia ; and
the Dutch spare no pains to invite them to traffic at
their settlements. The Chinese traders go also, though
not very frequently, to Acheen, Malacca, Thor, Patan,
and Ligor, belonging to Siam and Cochin-china j from
whence they bring gold and tin, together with some
objects of luxury for the table. A great obstacle to
the foreign commerce of the Chinese is their indiffe¬
rence about maritime affairs, and the bad construction
of their vessels. This they themselves acknowledge }
but say, that any attempt to remove it would be dero¬
gating from the laws, and subverting the constitution Ir
of the empire. . Etirying-
The burying-pi aces in China are always situated at places de-
a scribed.
CHI [ 37 3 CHI
China, a small distance from a city or town, and generally up-
' on some eminence, having pines or cypresses usually
planted around them. The form of the tombs is v?t-
rious according to the dift’erent provinces, and the situ¬
ation of those for whom they are intended. Th« coffins
of the poor are placed under a shed covered with thatch,
or inclosed in a small building of brick in the form of
a tomb. The tombs of the rich are shaped like a
horse-shoe, well whitened, and finished with great
taste j but those of the mandarins and people of qua¬
lity are much more sumptuous and elegant. A vault
is first constructed, in which the coffin is shut up j
over this vault is raised a pyramid of earth well beat
together, about 12 feet in height and to in diameter.
A layer of lime and sand laid over this earth makes a
kind of plaster, which renders the whole very durable
and solid ; various kinds of trees being planted around
it in regular order. Before it is placed a large and
long table of white marble, on the middle of which is
set a censer, accompanied with two vases, and the same
number of candlesticks of exquisite workmanship. Be¬
sides this a great number of figures, representing offi¬
cers, eunuchs, soldiers, saddled horses, camels, lions,
tortoises, &c. are ranged round the tombs in different
rows ; which F. du Halde assures us, produces a very
striking effect.
When a Chinese dies in a province in which he was
not born, his children have a right, nay it is their in¬
dispensable duty, to transport the body to the burying-
place of their ancestors. A son, who should be wanting
in this respect, would be disgraced, and his name never
placed in the hall of his ancestors. This is a vast build¬
ing, considered as common to all the branches of the
same family, and to which they all repair at a certain
season of the year. Sometimes they amount to seven
or eight thousand persons, whose fortune, dignity, and
rank in society, are all very different; but there no
distinction of rank is known ; age only gives prece¬
dence, and the oldest always takes place of all the rest,
though he should be the poorest in the company.
The distinguishing ornament of this hall is a long
table set against the wall, upon which is generally seen
the image of one of their ancestors, who has filled
some office of distinction in the empire with honour
to himself, or who has been rendered illustrious by his
talents and abilities. Sometimes it only contains the
names of men, women, and children belonging to the
family, inscribed upon tablets, together with their age,
the day of their death, and the dignities they enjoyed
at that time. These tablets are ranged in two rows
upon steps, and are only about a foot high each. In the
spring, and sometimes in the autumn, the relations of
the deceased repair to this hall, where the onlv privi¬
lege enjoyed by the richest is that of preparing an en¬
tertainment, and treating the whole family at their
own expence •, but they never allow themselves to taste
a bit of any thing until an offering has been first made
to their ancestors. This does not, however, excuse
them from visiting the real tomb of their ancestors once
or twice a-year, generally in the month of April. At
this time they pluck the weeds and bushes from around
the tomb, renew their expressions of grief, and conclude
by placing upon it wine and provisions, which serve to
dine their assistants.
The funeral ceremonies are considered by the Chi¬
nese as the most important of any. A few moments China,
after a person has expired, he is dressed out in his rich- ‘ ' v™1
est attire, and adorned with every badge of his dignity; pnn”°j
after which he is placed in the coffin. The prePara-cerem0.
tion of a coffin, in which his body may be inclosed af-nies.
ter death, is one of the chief objects of attention to a
Chinese during his life, and great expence is often
thrown out upon it ; insomuch that the poor will give
all they are worth, and the rich expend a thousand
crowns, nay, a son will sell himself for a slave in order
to purchase a coffin for his father. Sometimes the cof¬
fin, when purchased with all this labour and expence,
will remain twenty years useless in the family, and is
considered as the most valuable piece of furniture in bis
possession.
The manner of interment is as follows : First they
sprinkle some lime in the bottom of the coffin ; theiv
they lay the body in it, taking care to place the head
on a pillow, and to add a great deal of cotton, that it
may remain more steady, and be prevented from sha¬
king. In this manner the body remains exposed seven
days ; but the time may be reduced to three, if any
weighty reason makes it necessary; and, during this
interval, all the relations and friends, who are purpose¬
ly invited, come and pay their respects to the decea¬
sed, the nearest relations even remaining in the house.
The coffin is exposed in the hall of ceremony, which
is then hung with white, but some pieces of black or
violet-coloured silk are here and there interspersed,
as well as some other ornaments of mourning. Be¬
fore the coffin is placed a table, on which stands the
image of the deceased, or a carved ornament inscri¬
bed with his name ; and these are always accom¬
panied with flowers, perfumes, and lighted wax can¬
dles.
In the mean time those who enter the hall are ac¬
customed to salute the deceased as if he were still in
life. They prostrate themselves before the table, and
knock their foreheads several times against the earth ;
after which they place on the table some perfumes and
wax candles provided for the purpose. The saluta¬
tion which they have made to the deceased is return¬
ed by the eldest son accompanied by his brothers.
The latter come forth from behind a curtain, which
hangs on one side of the coffin, creeping along the
ground until they reach the spot where those stand
whom they are going to salute ; after which, without
rising up, they return to the place from whence they
came. The women are also concealed behind the
same curtain, from whence they every now and then
send forth dismal cries.
After a number of ceremonies and invitations, the
funeral procession at last commences. A troop of men
march in a file, carrying different figures made of
pasteboard, and representing slaves, lions, tigers, hor¬
ses, &c. Others follow, marching in two files ; some
of which carry standards, some flags or censers filled
with perfumes; while melancholy and plaintive airs
are played by others on different musical instruments.
These musicians immediately precede the coffin, which
is covered with a canopy in form of a dome, of violet-
coloured silk ; its four corners are ornamented with
tufts of white silk very neatly embroidered, and co¬
vered at the top with net-work. The coffin is placed
on the bottom of this machine, and is carried by 64
men..
CHI [ 38 1 CHI
China, men. The eldest son, clothed in a frock of canvas,
1 .1 liav|ng body bent and leaning on a staff, follows
near the coffin ; and behind him his brothers and ne¬
phews, but none of them clothed in canvas. Then
come the relations and friends, all clad in mourning,
and followed by a great number of chair’s covered with
white stuff, which contain the wives and female slaves
of the deceased. These make great show of sorrow
by their doleful cries } but M. Grosier observes, that,
in spite of all they can do, the lamentations of the
Chinese are so methodical, that an European would be
apt to conclude that they were the effects of art ra¬
ther than the natural effusions of a mind agitated and
oppressed with grief. When they arrive at the bury¬
ing place, the coffin is deposited in a tomb appropria¬
ted for it, not far from which there are tables arran¬
ged in different balls, and on which the assistants are
entertained with great splendour. The entertainment
is sometimes followed by fresh marks of homage to the
corpse; but these are often changed into thanks to the
eldest son 5 who, however, answers only by signs. But
if the deceased was a grandee of the empire, a certain
number of his relations never leave the tomb for a
month or two. There they reside in apartments pur¬
posely provided for them, and every day renew their
marks of grief in company with the children of the de¬
ceased. The magnificence of these funeral ceremo¬
nies is proportioned to the wealth or dignity of the
deceased. That of one of the brothers of the em¬
peror was attended by 16,000 people, each of whom
had a particular office assigned him relating to the
121 ceremony.
Mourning. Mourning continues in China for three years j and
during all this time they are obliged to abstain from
the use of flesh and wine; nor can they assist at any
entertainment of ceremony, or attend any public as¬
sembly. At first they are not even permitted to go
abroad j and when they do so they are carried in a
chair covered with a white cloth. Sometimes the filial
piety of the Chinese is carried to such a length, that
they preserve the bodies of their deceased fathers in
their houses for three or four years ; and those who do
so impose also upon themselves a great number of other
duties, using no other seat during the day but a stool
covered with white serge, and no other bed but a plain
122 mat made of reeds, which is placed near the coffin.
Diversions According to M. Grosier, the only diversions of the
of hunting Chinese are those of hunting and fishing, dancing not
and fishing, tamg practised, and gaming forbidden by law. Fish¬
ing is considered by them rather as an object of com¬
merce and industry than amusement. They catch fish
by various methods ; using nets in their great fisher¬
ies, but lines in the private. In certain provinces also
they use a certain kind of bird, whose plumage greatly
resembles that of a raven, but with a much longer bill,
very sharp and hooked. This method of fishing is
practised in boats, of which great numbers may be
seen on the river about sun-rising, with the fishing-
birds perched on their prows. These birds are taught
to catch fish almost in the same manner that dogs pur¬
sue game. The fishermen, after making several turns
with their boats, beat the water strongly with one of
their oars. This serves as a signal to the birds, who
instantly plunge into the water, and diving, swallow
as many small fishes as they can, repairing immediately
2
afterwards to the boat, and carrying a large one by the china.
middle in their bill. The small ones are prevented 1  v- <i «
from passing into the stomach by a ring placed on pur¬
pose to confine its gullet: and thus the fisherman by
stroaking its neck with the head downwards, makes
the bird disgorge all those small fish it has swallowed.
When they have done fishing, the rings are taken off,
and the birds allowed to feed. When the fish happens
to be too large for a single bird, the others have saga¬
city enough to assist it j one taking it by the tail, an¬
other by the head, &c. and thus they transport it to
their master.
Another method of fishing, practised only in China,
is as follows : They nail a board about two feet in
breadth, which is covered with a white shining kind of
varnish, upon the edges of a long narrow boat, from
one end to the other. This board is placed in such a
manner as to slope almost imperceptibly to the water.
It is used only in the night-time, and is always turned
towards the moon, that the reflection of light from the
luminary may increase the splendour ef the varnish.
The fish in sporting, often mistake this varnished board
for water j and endeavouring to throw themselves into
it, fall into the boat.
The soldiers have a particular method of fishing
with a bow and arrow; the latter of which is fixed
to the bow by a string, both to prevent it from being
lost, and to enable them to draw out the fish which
the arrow has pierced j others make use of tridents
to catch large fish which are sometimes found in the
mud.
Besides these diversions the Chinese have some stroll-
ing players, but no regular theatres j they have like¬
wise musicians and singers, but no operas, or indeed any
public spectacle worthy of notice. r
The language of the Chinese is not only very an-of the Chi-
cient, but, in M. Grosier’s opinion, is still spoken as in aese Ian-
the most early ages without any variation. His rea-guage.
sons for this opinion are, 1. We do not perceive in his¬
tory, nor even in the most fabulous traditions, a single
fact tending to occasion any doubt of the language
spoken by the ancient Chinese being different from
that used at present. 2. China has never changed its
inhabitants j and if revolutions have occasioned any
mixture of new languages, it appears that the ancient
language has always been predominant, and that the
new settlers have learned and spoken it, as the Man-
chew Tartars after their conquest. 3. The most in- .
telligent and discerning of the literati agree, that the
first chapters of the Chou-king were written under the
reign of Yao, 2300 years before Christ j and in these
several speeches of the first emperors are related word
for word $ and it is not probable that the language of
these princes was different from that of the historian.
4. A compliment paid to Yao by one of his subjects,
with the answer of that prince, are still preserved, as
well as two songs composed under the same reign.
5. The most ancient inscriptions in China are all in
the language spoken throughout the empire at this
day. 6. The Chinese have borrowed nothing from
other nations; and their attachment to their own cus¬
toms, and to antiquity, must undoubtedly be very un¬
favourable to any innovation. The language spoken
by the vulgar, indeed, must have undergone some
changes j but these may be accounted trivial, affecting
C H I
China.
only tlie pronunciation ; which indeed appears to he
varied in some few instances. It is certain, however,
that the Chinese players act theatrical pieces which
were written 1000 years ago, and that these are still
understood throughout the empire.
The language of China has no alphabet ; all the
words which compose it consist of one syllable only,
and are very few in number. These always remain
the same, and continue monosyllables even when two
are joined together, being united in the same manner
as the French words bon and jour are united to form
bon-jour. These monosyllables never form but one
sound. When written by an European, they begin
with the letters ch, tch,f g, orj, i, k, l, m, n, g, ng,
p, s, ts, v, ou ; the final letters being a, e, *, o, of, ou,
u'> h ni S71, ^ie middle of Chinese words consists of
vowels and consonants producing only one sound, and
pronounced always as monosyllables. The whole pri¬
mary words of the language are in number only about
330, though some dictionaries make them 484. The
sense of these words, however, is varied by the accents
and changes of the voice in pronouncing them almost
ad infinitum. Two principal accents are known in
China j the ping, that is, even, without elevating or
depressing the voice. This is divided into tsing, clear,
and teho, obscure ; or rather open and mute. The ac¬
cent tse is subdivided into tchang, sharp, kiu, grave,
and jou, re-entering. The tone is tchang when one
raises the voice at the end of a word, as when the ne¬
gative no is pronounced with great emphasis and force 5
it is kiu when one depresses the voice with an air of ti¬
midity. When the accent is jou, the voice is drawn
back as it were into the throat; and the aspiration
which takes place on certain words beginning with the
letters c, k, p, t, still adds to these varieties.
By these differences in pronunciation the significa¬
tion of the words is totally changed ; thus the word
tehu, pronounced by lengthening the u, and with a
clear tone of voice, signifies master or lord: if it is
pronounced in an uniform tone by lengthening the u,
it signifies hog ; when pronounced lightly and with ra¬
pidity, it signifies kitchen ; and when articulated with
a strong voice depressed towards the end, it signifies a
pillar.
By the conjunction and modification of these differ¬
ent monosyllables, a Chinese can express every thing
he has occasion for; and it may be easily seen what
variety must result from this art of multiplying words.
The Chinese language therefore has words expressive
of the smallest variation of circumstance, and which
cannot be expressed in the European languages with¬
out a circumlocution. Thus instead of the five words,
calf, bull, ox, heifer, cow, every time that a cow has
a calf she acquires a new name in the language of
this empire ; and still another when she becomes bar¬
ren. An ox fed for sacrifice has a particular name,
which is changed when he goes to the altar. In like
manner, a whole dictionary might be composed of the
words that are employed to express the different parts
of the empex-or’s palace, and those that are in a man¬
ner consecrated to it $ others being employed when the
palaces of princes or mandarins are spoken of. Thus
the number of their characters are augmented beyond
all bounds, so that the greater part of their literati
spend all their lives in studying them.
[ 39 ]
C H I
In the Chinese there are four different languages:
I. The Kou-ouen, or classical language. This is not
spoken at present, though it is generally believed to
have been the language of the early ages. It is so la¬
conic, and the ideas are so crowded, that it is very
difficult to be understood j however, the literati, who
can read and understand it, are much delighted with it.
2. The Ouen-tchang is the language used in com¬
positions where a noble and elevated style is requisite.
It is never spoken, but certain sentences and compli¬
mentary expressions are sometimes borrowed from it.
It approaches near to the laconic brevity and majestic
solemnity of the Kou-ouen, and is equally proper for
every kind of subject, excepting only the ambiguities
of metaphysics, and the formal rugged diction used in
treating of the abstract sciences.
3. The Kouan-ha is the language of the court, of
people in office, and of the literati. It admits of sy¬
nonymous expressions to moderate the brevity of mo¬
nosyllables , of pronouns and relatives; prepositions,
adverbs, and particles $ to supply the want of cases,
moods, tenses, and number's, which have place in other
languages.
4. Hing-tan is a kind of corrupted language, or
provincial dialect, spoken by the lower classes in Chi¬
na ; and of which every province, city, and almost eve¬
ry village, has its own. Besides the sense of the words,
which is changed in a great variety of places, they are
so altered by diversity of pronunciation as to be almost
unintelligible.
This language is so absolutely original, that no tra¬
ces of the most distant relation can be perceived, ei¬
ther in reference to the form of the character, the sy¬
stem on which it appears to have been constructed, or
its peculiar idiom, to any other known language to be
met with upon the face of the earth. Many attempts
indeed have been made by the learned and ingenious,
to discover some affinity between it and different lan¬
guages ; but we apprehend without success. Etymo¬
logical compai'isons are often fanciful and strained, and
seldom fail to lead to erroneous conclusions. It may
indeed be admitted that it is possible to trace a resem¬
blance between the sounds of the Chinese language and
those of other nations, yet no art or ingenuity, no ety¬
mological trick, as Mr Barrow expresses himself, will
ever be able to trace any analogy between their writ¬
ten characters, farther than that they axe made up of
points and lines, which might constitute an affinity be¬
tween the Chinese and any other language on the face
of the earth. It has no alphabetical arrangement, but
consists purely of a prodigious number of arbitrary
signs, settled by convention, and which have no exter-
nal affinity to the things they are meant to describe.
The ridiculous conjectures often made on this subject
by etymologists might he pardoned if they wei’e meant
to be satirical, like Dean Swift’s antiquity of the En¬
glish tongue, from which he makes the Hebrew, Greek,
and Latin, to be derivatives.
Such is the nature of the Chinese language, that it
would be absurd to expect among that people such high
attainments in every branch of literature as are to be
met with in Europe. In the opinion of some very
eminent men, their acquaintance with erudition of any
kind was as great 2000 years ago as it is at present,
while others are persuaded that they are rather on the
decline.
China.
China.
124
Chinese
writing.
I2S
Of their
poetry.
CHI .[ 4°
decline. They pretend indeed, but without adducing
' any satisfactory proof of its truth, that the monuments
of literature were destroyed by the tyrant She-whang-
te, 200 years before the Christian era, that succee mg
generations might consider him as the first civilize
emperor who had swayed the sceptre over that exten¬
sive country. The chief works at present among them
which are most valued, studied, and least understood,
are the five classics collected by their favourite Cong-
foo-tse, 450 years B. C. and which it seems had the good
fortune to escape the unlettered fury of She-whang-te.
These classics are enumerated by Mr Barrow in the
following order.
1. Shoo-king. A collection of records and annals of
■various princes, commencing more than 2000 years
B. C. * . r
2. Shee-king. Odes, sonnets, and maxims j most of
them so abundant in metaphor, and so obscure, that
much of the sense is to be made out by the transla¬
tor
'Ze-king, The perfect and the broken lines of
To-shee j the most ancient relick in China, and perhaps
the first attempt at written language: now perfectly
incomprehensible.
4. Chung-choo. Spring and autumn. The history
of some of the kings of Loo: the work principally of
Cong-foo-tse.
5. Lee-kee. Ceremonies and moral duties, a compi¬
lation of Cong-foo-tse.
Without a complete change of the Chinese language,
and a more extensive and friendly intercourse with fo¬
reign nations, it is not at all probable that that peo¬
ple will ever rank high for their knowledge of litera¬
ture.
There are five kinds of writing mentioned by the
Chinese literati j the most modern of which is a me¬
thod of tracing out the characters with a pencil. This
is difficult, and requires much experience j at any rate
it disfigures the characters greatly, and is therefore
only used in the prescriptions of physicians, prefaces to
books, and inscriptions of fancy. The tracing of cha¬
racters with neatness and accuracy, however, as we
have already had occasion to observe, is greatly admi¬
red in China. They are often preferred to the most
elegant painting ; and some will give a most exorbitant
price for a page of an old book, if it happens to be
neatly written. They pay particular attention to well
formed characters even in the most common books $
and if any of the leaves happen to fall oft’, will replace
them with the greatest attention. To apply them to
any vile purpose, tread them under foot, &c. would be
reckoned an unpardonable violation of decency and
politeness ; nay, it often happens, that workmen, such
-as masons and joiners, dare not tear a printed leaf of
paper fixed to the wall.
Punctuation was not formerly used in China, nor are
points as yet employed in works of an elevated style,
or such as are to be presented to the emperor. Poe¬
try is seldom an object of attention, though the taste
for it seems to be pretty general in China. Their ver¬
sification has its rules, and is no less difficult than that
of other nations. Only the most harmonious, energe¬
tic, and picturesque words, are to he employed, and
they must always be used in the same sense in which
they were used by the ancients. Each verse can con-
3
] CHI
tain only a certain number of words ; all of which china,
must be ranged according to the rules ol quantity, and " ' "l
terminate in rhyme. The number ol verses in a strophe
is not determined j but they must be uniform, and pre¬
sent the same distribution of rhymes. The small num¬
ber of poetical expressions contained in the Chinese
language has rendered it necessary to extend the poeti¬
cal licence to a great length in this respect. Hie Chi¬
nese poets are allowed to employ a blank verse in eve¬
ry four. They are acquainted with most kinds ol poe¬
try in use among us. They have stanzas, odes, ele¬
gies, idyls, eclogues, epigrams, satires, and even bouts
rimes. The common people have also ballads and
songs peculiar to themselves. Some of the most distin¬
guished of the literati have even thought it ol impor¬
tance enough to turn the most celebrated maxims of
morality, with the rules of civility, into verse. Their
poetry is seldom disgraced by any kind of obscenity ;
and indeed any such thing would be severely punished
by government. That severe attention with which
every thing tending to corrupt the morals is watched
in China, prohibits not only poems of this kind, but
likewise romances of all sorts. The police, however,
permits such novels as have a useful tendency, and in
which nothing is introduced prejudicial to sound mora¬
lity. Every author who writes against government is «
punished with death, as well as all those who have
had any hand in the printing or distribution of his
works. _ # . ,3(J
The arts of making paper and printing have been Chinese
long known among the Chinese. That kind ol paper paper,
now in use was first manufactured about 105 years be¬
fore the Christian era. Before that period they used
cloth, and various kinds of silk stuff, instead of paper j
and to this day they still preserve a custom of writing
the praises of the dead upon large pieces of silk, which
are suspended on one side of the coffin, and carried in
funeral processions j and of ornamenting their apart¬
ments with maxims and moral sentences written in the
same manner. In agfes still more early, they wrote
with a kind of style upon pieces of bamboo, or even
upon plates of metal. The first paper was invented
by a mandarin. He took the bark of trees, hemp, and
old pieces of silk-stuff, boiling them together until they
were reduced to a kind of paste, of which he formed
his paper $ which by degrees was brought to perfec¬
tion, and the art of whitening and giving it a lustre
found out. A great number of dift’erent substances
are now used in this empire for making paper j such
as the bamboo reed, the cotton shrub, the bark of the
plant called kou-chu, and of the mulberry tree ; hemp,
the straw of wheat and rice, parchment, the cods of
the silk-worm, and several other substances unknown
in Europe. In this manufacture the bark of trees and
shrubs is used, and the woody substance of the bamboo
and cotton tree, after it has been macerated and redu¬
ced to a thin paste. Most of the Chinese paper, how¬
ever, is attended with the disadvantage of being very
susceptible of moisture, readily attracts the dust, and
worms insensibly get into it: to prevent which incon¬
veniences, it is necessary to beat the books often, and
expose them to the sun. That made of eotton is the
prettiest, and most used of any. All of them, how¬
ever, are much softer and smoother than ours; which
is absolutely necessary for their method of writing with
China.
- Ink.
127
128
Their me¬
thod of
printing
CHI [
a pencil, in order that it may run with freedom, which
' it could not do upon ours. It is formed into sheets of
an enormous size ; so that it would be no difficult
matter to procure from the manufactories of this em¬
pire sheets of paper 30 or 40 feet long.
The Chinese ink came originally from Corea ; and
it was not until the year 900, that they hit upon the
method of making it to perfection. The best is made
in Hoei-tcheou in the province of Kiang-nan ; but its
composition is a secret, which the workmen conceal
not only from strangers but from their fellow-citizens.
When a Chinese has occasion to write, he places up¬
on his table a piece of polished marble, having a ca¬
vity at one of its extremities to contain a little wa¬
ter. In this he dips the end of his cake of ink, and
rubs it upon the smooth part of the marble 5 and as
he presses more or less strongly, the liquor acquires
a deeper or lighter tinge of black. When he has
done writing, the stone is carefully washed j for it
would be dishonoured by allowing the least spot to
remain. The pencils used in writing are commonly
made of the fur of a rabbit, and consequently very
soft.
The Chinese method of printing is exceedingly dif¬
ferent from ours ; and indeed it would be in a manner
impossible to have moveable types for such a number
of characters as their language requires. The whole
work which they intend to print is therefore engraved
upon blocks of wood; and their method of proceed¬
ing is as follows. They first employ an excellent wri¬
ter, who transcribes the whole upon very thin paper.
The engraver glues each of the leaves of the manu¬
script upon a piece of plank made of any hard wood:
he then traces over with a graver the strokes of the
writing, carves out the characters in relief, and cuts
down the intermediate part of the wood. Thus each
page of a book requires a separate plank 5 and the ex¬
cessive multiplication of these is no doubt a very great
inconvenience, one chamber being scarce sufficient to
preserve those employed for a single book. The ad¬
vantages are, that the work is thus free from typogra¬
phical errors, and the author has no occasion to cor¬
rect the proofs. Thus also the booksellers in China
have a decided advantage over those of Europe, as
they are able by this method of printing to throw off
copies according to their sale, without running the risk
of being ruined by too large an edition. In this
method the beauty of the work depends entirely up¬
on the skill of the writer previously employed. The
engravers are exceedingly dexterous, and imitate eve¬
ry stroke so exactly, that it is sometimes difficult to
distinguish a printe’d work from one that is only writ¬
ten.
The method of printing in China is not by a press
as in Europe, as neither their wooden planks "nor their
soft paper could sustain so much pressure. They first
place the plank level, and then fix it in that position.
I he printer is provided with two brushes, and with the
hardest daubs the plank with ink; and one daubing is
sufficient for four or five leaves. After a leaf has been
adjusted upon the plank, the workman takes the second
brush, which is softer than the former, and of an ob¬
long figure, and draws it gently over the paper, pres-
sing it down a little, that it may receive the ink. The
degree of pressure is to be regulated by the quantity
Vol. VI. Part I.
China
41 ] CHI
of ink upon the planks : and in this manner one man
is able to throw off almost 10,000 copies a day. The
ink used for printing is different from that formerly
described, and which is used in writing. The leaves,
on account of the thinness of the paper, are printed
only upon one side ; on which account each leaf of a
book is double, so that the fold stands uppermost, and
the opening is towards the back, where it is stitched.
Hence the Chinese books are not cut on the edges, but
on the back. They are generally bound in gray paste¬
board, which is very neat j and those who wish to have
them more elegantly done, get the pasteboard covered
with satin, flowered taffety, and sometimes with gold
and silver brocade. Their books are neither gilt nor
coloured on the edges like ours.
It has been so justly and so frequently observed,
that the liberty of the press must ever prove fatal to
the existence of tyranny and superstition, that it is a
circumstance peculiarly singular to behold the liberty
of the press flourishing under a despotic government j
yet this is actually the case in China, although its go¬
vernment may be said to be founded on error and sup¬
ported by oppression. It was the liberty of the press
which accomplished the overthrow of sacerdotal tyran¬
ny in many European countries, by enlightening the
minds of those who were enslaved. When the art of
printing first found its way into England, an intelli¬
gent person observed to the abbot of Westminster, “ If
you don’t take care to destroy that machine, it will
very soon destroy your trade.” It was fortunate, how¬
ever, for succeeding generations, that neither the ab¬
bot nor his sanctified contemporaries had the penetration
to discover the truth of this prediction, otherwise the
ages of darkness and superstition might perhaps have
been protracted to the present day.
The art of manufacturing silk, according to the best Vast quan-
authorities, was communicated by the Chinese to the lity of silk
Persians, and from them to the Greeks. The art hasproduced'
been known in this empire from the remotest antiqui¬
ty y and the breeding of silk-worms and making of silk
was one of the employments even of the empresses in
very early ages.
ihe most beautiful silk in the whole empire is that
of Tche-kiangy which is wrought by the manufactories
of Nanking. From these are brought all the stuffs
used by the emperor, and such as he distributes in pre¬
sents to his nobility. A great number of excellent
workmen are also drawn to the manufactories of Can¬
ton by the commerce with Europe and other parts of
Asia. Here are manufactured ribbons, stockings, and
buttons. A pair of silk stockings here costs little more
than 6s. sterling.
Ihe quantity of silk produced in China seems to be
almost inexhaustible j the internal consumption alone
being incredibly great, besides that which is exported
in the commerce with Europe and the rest of Asia.
In this empire all who possess a moderate fortune wear
silk clothes j none but the lower class of people wear¬
ing cotton stuffs, which are commonly dyed blue. The
principal stuffs manufactured by them are plain and
flowered gauzes, of which they make summer dresses j
damask of all colours 5 striped and black satins 5 naped,
flowered, striped, clouded, and pinked taffeties ; crapes,
brocades, plush, different kinds of velvet, and a mul¬
titude of other stuffs unknown in Europe. They make
F particular
China.
130
CHI [42
particular use of two kinds j one named touan-tse, a
kind of satin much stronger, but which has less lustre,
than that of Europe j the other a kind ol taflety, 01
which they make drawers and linings. It is woven
exceedingly close, and is yet so pliable that h may be
rumpled and rubbed between the hands without any
crease ; and even when washed like cotton-cloth, it
loses very little of its lustre. They manufacture also
a kind of gold brocades, but of such a slight nature,
that they cannot be worn in clothes : they are lubrica¬
ted by wrapping fine slips of gilt paper round the
threads of silk.
Porcelain. Porcelain is another great branch of Chinese manu¬
facture, and employs avast number ol workmen. . I he
finest is made in a village called King-te-Chwg in the
province of Kiang-su Manufactories have also been
erected in the provinces of Eo-kien and Canton, but
their produce is not esteemed : and one which the em¬
peror caused to be erected at Peking, in order to be
under his own inspection, miscarried entirely.
The Chinese divide their porcelain into several clas¬
ses, according to its different degrees of fineness and
beauty. The whole of the first is reserved for the use
of the emperor, so that none of it ever comes into the
hands of other persons, unless it happen to be cracked
or otherwise damaged in such a manner as to be un¬
worthy of being presented to the sovereign. Among
that sent to the emperor, however, there is some por¬
celain of an inferior quality, which he disposes of in
presents. There is some doubt, therefore, whether any
of the finest Chinese porcelain was ever seen in Europe.
Some value, however, is now put upon the European
porcelain by the Chinese themselves.
The use of glass is very ancient in China, though
it does not appear that great value was ever put upon
this kind of ware, the art of manufacturing it having
been frequently lost and revived again in this empire.
They greatly admire the workmanship of the Euro¬
pean crystal, but prefer their own porcelain, which
stands hot liquors, and is much less liable to be broken.
The little estimation in which this substance was held,
is even mentioned by their own writers in speaking of
the false pearls, mirrors, and other toys which were
made in former ages. The remembrance of a very
large glass veesel, however, which was made in 627, is
still preserved j and of which it was said that a mule
could as easily enter it as a gnat could enter a pitcher.
In order to transport this monstrous vessel from the
place where it was manufactured to the emperor’s pa¬
lace, it was necessary to inclose it in a net, the four
corners of which were fixed to four carriages. The
same indifference with regard to glass is still entertain¬
ed by the present emperors ; however, a glass-house is
established at Peking, where a number of vases and
other works are made j and these are so much the more
difficult in the execution, as none of them are blown.
This manufactory, as well as many others, is consider¬
ed only as an appendage of the court, destined for the
purposes of pomp and magnificence.
It seems evident that medicine must have been one
of the earliest studies to which mankind turned their
attention, at least when they had attained to some de¬
gree of civilization. It is the common lot of humanity
to be born to trouble as the sparks fly upward, and there¬
fore an assiduous application to the study of those diseases
13*
Glass of
little esti
mation.
13a
Medicine.
] CHI
to which man is subject, either with a view to effect a china,
radical cure, or even to mitigate the virulence of their -y—
symptoms, must have secured to such characters the
esteem and admiration of the world. Even savages
have discovered respect for such of their own nation as
could remove obstructions, heal bruises, or administer
relief to the miserable in any shape whatever. The
Chinese in this respect are perfectly unique, and seem
to differ from every nation under heaven in their no¬
tions of medicine. They have no public seminaries
where the healing art may be taught, because they
do not consider the knowledge of any branch of
medicine as in the smallest degree necessary. The
very best performances of this nature to be met with
in China, are little more than mere enumerations
of the names and supposed qualities of different plants,
—a sufficient stock of knowledge for constituting a
Chinese physician. In a country where the people are
so credulous, and the medical art at such a low ebb, it
would be a singular circumstance to find no quacks.
In every city, therefore, of this vast empire, multi¬
tudes are to he met with continually vending nostrums,
as pretended specifics for some disease or other, and the
easy credulity of the people affords them a comfortable
subsistence.
Were the Chinese perpetual strangers to every spe- „ -
cies of disease, it would enable us to account for their
unnatural apathy or indifference about the study of
physic } hut it will remain an inexplicable paradox,
when we are assured upon undoubted authority, that
they are subject to a multiplicity of distempers. The
smallpox, ophthalmia, contagious fevers, sometimes
the venereal or Canton ulcer, as it is denominated by
themselves, are a few of the maladies incident to the
Chinese, which might constitute a powerful stimulus,
one would imagine, to the study of physic, with unre¬
mitting assiduity, which it is certain they do not, as
appears from the subsequent assertion of Dr Gregory.
“ In the greatest, most ancient, and most civilized
empire on the face of the earth, an empire that was
great, populous, and highly civilized 2000 years ago,
when this country was as savage as New Zealand is at
present, no such good medical aid can be obtained a-
mong the people of it, as a smart boy of 16, who had
been but 12 months apprentice to a good and well em¬
ployed Edinburgh surgeon, might reasonably be expect¬
ed to afford.” This gives us a melancholy picture of
the state of medicine in China, which, however, is
confirmed by the united testimony of Sir George
Staunton and Mr Barrow.
The people of China are said to be in the possession
of a method for ascertaining whether a man has been
murdered, or committed an act of suicide, of the^ pro¬
bability of which our readers will be able to judge
from the following process. The body to be examin¬
ed is washed with vinegar. A large fire is kindled in
a pit dug for the purpose, six feet long, three wide,
and the same in depth. The fire receives new acces¬
sion of fuel till the pit acquires the temperature of a
heated oven, when the whole of the remaining fuel is
taken out, and a large quantity of wine is poured into
the pit. The body is then placed at full length on
osier twigs over the mouth of it, and covered with a
cloth for two hours, that the steam of the wine may
act upon the body in all directions. The Chinese, ifc
is
CHI [ 43 ] CHI
China, said, assert that if the blows given the body were so
*■—■“v-"”-1' violent as to occasion death, this process makes the
marks of them clearly appear, let the state of the bo¬
dy, when subjected to this test, be ever'so cadave¬
rous.
Of their With regard to the music of the Chinese, we have
mu>ic. the. same stories related as of the Greeks and Egyp¬
tians, viz. that in former ages the musicians could
make brute animals leap at the sound of their instru¬
ments. Our author, M. Grosier, indeed does not
quote any Chinese author who asserts that the ancient
music could make trees dance, or stones arrange them¬
selves into a city ; hut he quotes them asserting, “that
the musicians could call down superior spirits of every
age from the ethereal regions; raise up the manes of
departed beings ; inspire men with a love of virtue ;
and lead them to the practice of their duty.” Effects
of this supernatural kind are attributed to the sacred
music by the inspired writers; as in the case of Saul,
out of whom an evil spirit departed at the sound of
David’s harp; and of Elisha, who was inspired with
the spirit of prophecy at the sound of a musical in¬
strument. It is probable, therefore, that the relations
both of the Greeks and Chinese are founded upon
facts of this kind; and we cannot from thence infer,
that the music of early ages was at all superior to
that which followed. According to those who have
employed much time in these researches, the ancient
Chinese were acquainted with the division of the oc¬
tave into twelve semitones; and that before the time
of Pythagoras, or even Mercury himself: that the
lyre of Pythagoras, his invention of the diatonic tetra-
chords, and the formation of his grand system, were
merely borrowed from the ancient Chinese. In short,
it is maintained, that the Greeks, even Pythagoras
himself, did nothing but apply to strings that theory
which the Chinese had before formed, and applied to
pipes.
At present the Chinese are not acquainted with the
use of our musical notes ; they have not that diversity
of signs which distinguish the different tones, and the
gradual elevation or depression of the voice, nor any
thing to point out the various modifications, of sound
to produce harmony. They have only a few charac¬
ters to mark'the principal notes; and all the airs they
learn are repeated merely by rote. The emperor
Kang-hi was therefore greatly astonished at the facili¬
ty with which an European could catch and remember
an air the first time he heard it. In 1679 sent for
^Fathers Grimaldi and Pereira, to play some tunes on
the harpsichord, of which they had before made him a
present. He was greatly entertained with their music,
but altogether astonished when he found that F. Perei¬
ra could take down a Chinese air while the musicians
were playing it, and then repeat the whole without
omitting a single note. Having made several trials of
this kind in order to satisfy himself, he bestowed the
highest encomiums upon the European music, and the
means furnished by it to facilitate and lessen the la¬
bour of the memory. “ I must confess (says he) that
the European music is incomparable, and that the like
of this F. Pereira is not to be found in my whole kim*-
134 d°m.”
strulT1/11' The CllInese have alwa.ys distinguished eight differ¬
ent sounds ; and they believe that nature, in order to
produce these, formed eight different kinds of sono- China,
rous bodies. The order in which they distribute these '"rm‘
sounds, and the instruments they have contrived to pro¬
duce them, are, 1. The sounds of skin produced by
drums ; 2. rlhat of stone produced by the king; 3. The
sound of metal by bells ; That of baked earth b
the huien; 5. Of silk by the kin and che; 6. Of
wood by the yu and tchou; 7. Of the bamboo by the
koany and different flutes ; 8. That of a gourd by the
cheng.
The drums were originally composed of a box made
of baked earth, and covered at the extremities with
the skin of some animal; but on account of the brit¬
tleness of baked earth, wood was soon substituted in its
stead. Most of these instruments are shaped like our
barrels, but some are cylindrical.
The instruments formed of the sonorous stones are
called king, distinguished into tse-king and pien-king.
The tse-king consists only of one stone, and therefore
produces only one note. The pien-king consists of 16
stones suspended together, and thus forming an in¬
strument capable of producing all the tones admitted
into the music of the ancient Chinese. They are cut
into the form of a carpenter’s square ; their tone is flat¬
tened by diminishing their thickness, and is made sharp¬
er by abridging their length.
Although in the estimation of the Chinese, universal
nature has been forced to contribute towards the per¬
fection of their music, by furnishing them with the skins
of different animals, metals, stones, baked earths, and
the fibrous parts of plants, Mr Barrow could discover
no instrument among them of a musical nature, the
tones of which would have been even tolerable to a de¬
licate European ear ; and only one person in the course
of his investigations and researches could with any pro¬
priety be said to sing from tenderness and feeling. Yet
without the smallest authority for such a bold asser¬
tion, a certain Jesuit has maintained, that the musical
system of the Chinese was borrowed from them by the
Greeks and Egyptians before the time of Orpheus !
He who can believe this extravagant assertion, after
comparing the music of these countries together at any
given period, will find it an easy matter to give credit
to any thing whatever.
The bells jn China have always been made of a Belief im¬
mixture of tin and copper. They are of different mense siee.
shapes, and those of the ancients were not round but
flattened, and in the lower part resembling a crescent.
An instrument, corresponding to the king, already
mentioned, is composed of 16 bells of different sizes.
Some of their hells used on public occasions are of
enormous magnitudes. One at Peking is described as
13! feet in diameter, I2f in height, and 42 in cir¬
cumference ; the weight being upwards of 120,000
pounds. It is used for announcing the hours or watches
of the night; and its sound, which is prodigiously
loud and strong, has a most awful effect in the night¬
time, by reverberating round the walls ar*l the echo
of the surrounding country. There are several others
likewise of vast size in the same city; one of which
deserves greatly to be admired on account of the beau¬
tiful characters with which it is covered; and which
are as neat and perfect as if traced out by the hand of
the finest writer, or formed by means of a stamp
upon wax. F. le Compte tells us, that in all the cities
F 2 0f
CHI [ 44 ] CHI
China of China there are bells for marking the hours and
<*.. —v■»../ watches of the night. They generally divide the
night into live watches, beginning at seven or eight
in the evening. On the commencement of the first
they give one stroke, which is repeated a moment al¬
ter •, and thus they continue for two hours till the be¬
ginning of the second : they then give two strokes,
which are repeated at equal intervals till the beginning
of the third watch ; and thus they proceed to the fourth
and fifth, always increasing the number of the strokes.
For the same purpose also they use enormous drums,
which they beat in a similar manner. F. Magaillans
mentions one at Peking upwards of 40 feet in circum¬
ference.
The instrument called huien, which is made of baked
earth, is highly esteemed by the Chinese on account of
its antiquity. It is distinguished into two kinds, the
great and small ; the former being of the size of a
goose’s egg j the latter of that of a hen’s. It has six
holes for the notes, and a seventh for the mouth.
The kin and tche have been known from the re¬
motest antiquity. The kin has seven strings made of
silk, and is distinguished into three kinds, differing
only in size. The body is formed of a kind of wood
■varnished black, and its whole length is about five feet
five inches. The tche is about nine feet in length, has
25 strings, and is divided into 25 kinds. F. Amiot
assures us, that we have no instrument in Europe which
deserves to be preferred to it.
The instruments which emit the sound of wood are
the tchou, the yu, and the tchoung-ton. The first is
shaped like a bushel, and is beat on the inside with a
hammer j the second, which represents a tyger squat¬
ting, is made to sound by scraping its back gently
with a rod j the third is a collection of twelve pieces of
boards tied together, which are used for beating time,
by holding them in the right’ hand, and knocking them
gently against the palm of the left.
Many instruments are constructed of the bamboo.
These consist of pipes joined together, or separate, and
pierced with more or fewer holes. The principal of
all these wind instruments is the cheng, which emits the
sound of a gourd. This is formed by cutting off the
neck of a gourd, and reserving only the lower part.
To this a cover is fitted, having as many holes as are
equal to the number of sounds required. In each of
these holes a pipe made of bamboo is fixed, and shorter
or longer according to the tone intended. The mouth
of the instrument is formed of another pipe shaped like
the neck of a goose j which is fixed to the gourd on one
side j and serves to convey the air to all the pipes it
contains. The ancient cheng varied in the number of
their pipes $ those used at present have only 13.
Chinese ^ie Pa^n^ng °f the Chinese is undoubtedly inferior
paintings. t° that ol the Europeans, though we are not by any
means to judge of the abilities of the painters of this
empire by the performances which are brought to
Europe. M. Grosier remarks, that the works of the
eminent Chinese painters are never brought to Can¬
ton, because they cannot find purchasers among the
European merchants. The latter delight only in ob¬
scene pictures, which are not permitted by government,
nor indeed will any artist of character execute them,
though they prevail upon some of the inferior daubers
to gratify them in this respect. It seems, however,
to be universally agreed, that the Chinese have no no- China,
tion of correctness or perspective, and little knowledge y—^
of the proportions of the human body, though it can¬
not be denied that they excel in painting flowers and
animals. In these they pride themselves in a scrupu¬
lously exact imitation of nature, insomuch that it is no
uncommon thing to hear a painter ask his pupil how
many scales there are between the head and tail of a
carp.
Painting was formerly much esteemed in China, but
has now fallen into disrepute on account of its political
inutility. The cabinets and galleries of the emperor,
however, are filled with Eui’opean paintings, and the
celebrated artists Castiglioni and Attiret were both em¬
ployed ; but their offer of erecting a school of painting
was rejected, lest they should by this means revive the
taste for that art which it had been formerly thought
prudent to suppress.
Painting in fresco was known in China long before
the Christian era ; and, like the Grecians, the Chinese
boast much of their celebrated painters of antiquity.
Thus we are told of a door painted by Fan-hien, which
was so perfect an imitation, that the people who enter¬
ed the temple where it was, attempted to go out by it,
unless prevented by those who had seen it before.
The present emperor has in his park an European vil¬
lage painted in fresco, which produced the most agree¬
able deception. The remaining part of the wall re¬
presents a landscape and little hills, which are so happi¬
ly blended with the distant mountains, that nothing can
be conceived more agreeable. This was the produc¬
tion of Chinese painters, and executed from designs
sketched but for them.
After this account of the state of painting in China,,
chiefly on the authority of M. Grosier, we beg leave
to remark, upon the authority of more recent, and seem¬
ingly more competent as well as more inquisitive ob¬
servers, that painting in China is at a low ebb, which,
made a certain artist once exclaim, “ These Chinese
are fit for nothing but weighing silver, and eating
rice.” They can copy with tolerable exactness what
is laid before them, but so deficient are they in respect
to a judicious alternation of light and shade 5 and there¬
fore without discovering a single symptom of taste, beau¬
ties and defects are alike slavishly imitated. Their
supposed excellence in drawing flowers, birds, and in¬
sects to the life, is most remarkable in the city of Can¬
ton j from which Mr Barrow conjectures that they ac¬
quire their eminence by copying the productions of
Europe, occasionally sent over to be transferred to thft
porcelain designed for exportation.
Engraving in three, four, or five colours, is very an- Engraviag,
cient among the Chinese, and was known in this em¬
pire long before its discovery in Europe.
Sculpture is very little known in this empire j nor Sculpture,
is there a single statue in any of the squares or public
edifices of Peking, not even in the emperor’s palace.
The only real statues to be met with in the empire are
those which, for the sake of ceremonious distinction,
are used to ornament the avenues leading to the tombs
of princes and men of great rank j or those that are
placed near the emperor’s coffin, and that of his sons
and daughters, in the interior part of the vault, where
their remains are deposited. 139
The Chinese architecture is entirely different from Architec-
thatture*
CHI [ 45 ] CHI
China, that of the Greeks or Romans ; but has nevertheless
—y*— > certain proportions of its own, and a beauty peculiar
to itself. The habitations of the emperor are real pa¬
laces, and announce in a striking manner the majesty
and grandeur of the master who inhabits them. All
the missionaries who had access to the inside of the
emperor’s palace at Peking, agreed, that if each of its
parts, taken separately, does not afford so much delight
to the eye as some pieces of the grand architecture of
Europe, the whole presents a sight superior to any
thing they had ever seen before. In the Chinese ar¬
chitecture, when a pillar is two feet in diameter at the
base, its height must be 14 feet j and by measures
of this kind the height of every building is deter¬
mined.
Almost all the houses and buildings in China are
constructed of wood. One reason of this may be the
dread of earthquakes $ but, besides this, such buildings
are rendered eligible by the heat and dampness of the
southern provinces, and the excessive cold in the nor¬
thern, which would render stone houses almost unin¬
habitable. Even at Peking, where the rains are but
of short duration, it is found necessary to cover the
small marble staircases belonging to the imperial pa¬
lace with pieces of felt $ the humidity of the air
moistens and soaks into every thing. During winter
the cold is so excessively severe, that no window can
be opened to the north; and water continues constantly
frozen to the depth of a foot and a half for more than
three months. For the same reasons a variety of
stories are not used in the Chinese buildings j as nei¬
ther a second nor- third story would be habitable du¬
ring the great heats of summer or the rigorous cold
of winter. Though Peking is situated in the northern
part of the empire, the heat there, during the dogdays,
is so intolerably scorching, that the police obliges
tradesmen and shopkeepers to sleep in the open air in
the piazzas of their houses, lest they should be stifled
by retiring into their inner apartments. The habita¬
tions of people of rank, or of those in easy circumstan¬
ces, generally consist of five large courts, inclosed with
buildings on every side. The method of building with
several stories was, however, followed for several centu¬
ries, when the court resided in the southern provinces 5
and the taste for this kind of building was carried to
such a height, that immense edifices were erected from
150 to 200 feet in height, and the pavilions or towers
at the extremities rose upwards of 300 feet. This kind
of building, however, at length became disgusting;
though either to preserve the remembrance of it, or
for the sake of variety, there are still some buildings to
be seen several stories high in the palaces belonging to
1^0 the emperor.
Bridges. A multiplicity of bridges is rendered necessary in
China by the vast number of canals and rivers which
intersect the empire. Anciently, however, the Chinese
bridges were much more ingenious as well as magnifi¬
cent than they are at present. Some of them were so
contrived that they could be erected in one day to
supply the place ot others which might happen to be
broken down, or lor other purposes. At that time
they had bridges which derived their name from their
figure ; as resembling the rainbow; draw-bridges,
bridges to move with pulleys, compass-bridges, &c. with
many others entirely unknown at present. The building China.
ot bridges indeed was once a luxurious folly of the em- — y 
perors ; so that they were multiplied from whim or ca¬
price, without any necessity, and without use. Still,
however, many of them are extremely beautiful and
magnificent. The arches of some are very lofty and
acute, with easy stairs on each side, the steps of which
are not quite three inches in thickness, for the greater
facility of ascending and descending; others have no
arches, but are composed of large stones, sometimes
18 leet in length, placed transversely upon piles like
planks. Some ol these bridges are constructed of
stone, marble, or brick ; others of wood ; and some
are formed of a certain number of barks joined toge¬
ther by very strong iron chains. These are known by
the name of floating bridges, and several of them are
to be seen on the large rivers Kiang and Hoang-ho.
For several centuries the Chinese have made no pro-ship-build*
gress in ship-building. Their vessels have neither mi-nig,
zen, bowsprit, nor top-mast. They have-only a main
and fore-mast, to which is sometimes added a small top¬
gallant-mast. The main-mast is placed almost in the
same part of the deck as ours ; but the fore-mast stands
much farther forward. The latter is to the former in
the proportion of two to three ; and the mainmast is
generally two-thirds of the length of the vessel. They
use mats for sails, strengthening them with whol©
bamboos equal in length to the breadth of the sail, and
extended across it at the distance of a foot from one
another. Two pieces of wood are fixed to the top and
bottom of the sail; the upper serves as a sail-yard ; and
the lower, which is about five or six inches in thick¬
ness, keeps the sail stretched when it is necessary to
hoist or lower it. This kind of sail may be folded or
unfolded like a screen. For caulking their vessels they
do not use pitch, but a particular kind of gum mixed
with lime, which forms a composition of such excellent
quality, that one or two wells in the hold are sufficient
to keep the vessel dry. They have not yet adopted the
use of pumps, and therefore draw up the water with
buckets. Their anchors are made of the hard wood
called iron wood, which they say is much superior to
the metal, because the latter sometimes bend, but the
former never do.
The Chinese pretend to have been the first inventors
of the mariners compass, but seem to have little incli¬
nation to improve such an important instrument ; how¬
ever, they are expert in manoeuvring a vessel, and make
excellent coasting pilots, though bad sailors in an open
sea. See China, Supplement.
China-Root, in the Materia Medica, the root of a
species of Smilax, brought both from the East and
West Indies ; and thence distinguished into oriental
and occidental. Both sorts are longish, full of joints,
of a pale reddish colour, with no smell, and very little
taste. The oriental, which is the most esteemed, is
considerably harder, and paler-coloured than the other*
Such should be chosen as is fresh, close, heavy, and
upon being chewed appears full of a fat unctuous juice.
It is generally supposed to promote insensible perspira¬
tion and the urinary discharge, and by its unctuous
quality to obtund acrimonious juices. China-root was
first brought into Europe in the year 1535, and
used as a specific against venereal and cutaneous
disorders^
CHI [ 4*5 ] CHI
China- disorders. With this view it was made use of for some
Root time $ but has long since given place to more powerful
H medicines.
ch'one- . CmNA-TFare. See Porcelain.
CHINCA, a sea-port town in Peru in South Ame¬
rica, situated in an extensive valley of the same name,
in W. Long. 76* o. S. Lat. 13. o.
CHINCOUGH, a convulsive kind of cough to
which children are generally subject. See Medicine
Index.
CHINESE, in general, denotes any thing belong¬
ing to China or its inhabitants.
Chinese Swanpan. See Abacus.
CHINKAPIN. See Eagus, Botany Index.
CHINNOR, a musical instrument among the He¬
brews, consisting of 32 chords. Kircher has given a
figure of it, which is copied on Plate CXLV.
CHINON, an ancient town of Totirrain in France,
remarkable for the death of Henry II. king of Eng¬
land, and for the birth of the famous Rabelais. It is
seated on the river Vienne, in the department of Indre
and Loire. E. Long. o. 18. N. Lat. 47. 2.
CHIO, or Chios, an Asiatic island lying near the
coast of Natolia, opposite to the peninsula of Ionia.
It was known to the ancients by the name of Ethalia,
Maoris, Pithyusa, &c. as well as that of Chios. Ac¬
cording to Herodotus, the island of Chios was peopled
originally from Ionia. It was at first governed by
kings: but afterwards the government assumed a re¬
publican form, which by the direction of Isocrates
r was modelled after that of Athens. They were, how¬
ever, soon enslaved by tyrants, and afterwards conquer¬
ed by Cyrus king of Persia. They joined the other
Grecians in the Ionian revolt j but were shamefully
abandoned by the Samians, Lesbians, and others of their
allies: so that they were again reduced under the yoke
of the Persians, who treated them with the utmost se¬
verity. They continued subject to them till the battle
of Mycale, when they were restored to their ancient
liberty : this they enjoyed till the downfal of the Per¬
sian empire, when they became subject to the Macedo¬
nian princes. In the time of the emperor Vespasian
the island was reduced to the form of a Roman pro¬
vince 5 but the inhabitants were allowed to live accord¬
ing to their own laws under the superintendence of a
praetor. It is now subject to the Turks, and is called
Scio. See that article.
CHICOCCA. See Botany Index.
CHIONANTHUS, the Snow-drop or Fringe-
tree. See Botany Index.
CHIONE, in fabulous history, was daughter of
Daedalion, of whom Apollo and Mercury became en¬
amoured. To enjoy her company, Mercury lulled
her to sleep with his caduceus j and Apollo, in the
night under the form of an old woman, obtained
the same favours as Mercury. From this embrace
Chione became mother of Philammon and Autoly-
cus ; the former of whom, as being son of Apollo,
became an excellent musician } and the latter was
equally notorious for his robberies, of which his father
Mercury was the patron. Chione grew so proud of
her commerce with the gods, that she even preferred
her beauty to that of Juno j for which impiety she was
killed by the goddess and changed into a hawk. 
Another of the same name was daughter of Boreas and
Orithia, who had Eumolpus by Neptune. She threw cbione
her son into the sea j but he ivas preserved by his fa- jj
ther. Chipping,
CHIOS. See Chio and Scio.
CHIOURLIC, an ancient town of Turkey in Eu¬
rope, and in Romania, with a see of a Greek bishop.
It is seated on a river of the same name, in E. Long.
7. 47. N. Lat. 41. 18.
CHIOZZQ, an ancient and handsome town of Italy
in the Venetian territories of Austria, and in a small
island, near the Lagunes, with a podesta, a bishop’s
see, and a harbour defended by a fort. E. Long. 12.
23. N. Lat. 45. 17.
CHIPPENHAM, a town of Wiltshire, seated on
the river Avon, containing 3410 inhabitants in 1811.
It has a handsome stone bridge over the river, consisting
of 21 arches ; and sends two members to parliament.
There is here a manufacture of the best superfine woollen
cloth in England. W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 51. 25.
CHIPPING, a phrase used by the potters and
china men to express that common accident both of
our own stone and earthen ware, and the porcelain of
China, the flying off of small pieces, or breaking at
the edges. Our earthen wares are particularly subject
to this, and are always spoiled by it before any other
flaw appears in them. Our stone wares escape it bet¬
ter than these ; but not so well as the porcelain of
China, which is less subject to it than any other manu¬
facture in the world. The method by which the Chi¬
nese defend their ware from this accident, is this :
They carefully burn some small bamboo canes to a sort
of charcoal, which is very light, and very black ; this
they reduce to a fine powder, and then mix it into a
thin paste, with some of the varnish which they use
for their ware ; they next take the vessels when dried,
and not yet baked, to the wheel 5 and turning them
softly round, they, with a pencil dipt in this paste,
cover the w’hole circumference with a thin coat of it j
after this, the vessel is again dried j and the border
made with this paste appears of a pale grayish colour
when it is thoroughly dry. They work on it after¬
wards in the common way, covering both this edge
and the rest of the vessel with the common varnish.
When the whole is baked on, the colour given by the
ashes disappears, and the edges are as white as any
other part; only when the baking has not been suffi¬
cient, or the edges have not been covered with the se¬
cond varnishing, we sometimes find a dusky edge, as
in some of the ordinary thick tea-cups. It may be
a great advantage to our English manufacturers to at¬
tempt something of this kind. The willow is known
to make a very light and black charcoal: but the el¬
der, though a thing seldom used, greatly exceeds it.
The young green shoots of this shrub, which are al¬
most all pith, make the lightest and the blackest of all
charcoal j this readily mixes with any liquid, and might
be easily used in the same way that the Chinese use
the charcoal of the bamboo cane, which is a light
hollow vegetable, more resembling the elder shoots
than any other English plant. It is no wonder that
the fixed salt and oil contained in this charcoal should
be able to penetrate the yet raw edges of the ware,
and to give them in the subsequent baking a somewhat
difterent degree of vitrification from the other parts
of the vessel j which, though, if given to the whole,
it
CHI [ 47 1 CHI
Chipping it might take off from the true semivitrified state of
|) that ware, yet at the edges is not to be regarded, and
^1'r°11, , only serves to defend them from common accidents,
and keep them entire. The Chinese use two cautions
in this application : the first in the preparation ; the
second in the laying it on. They prepare the bam¬
boo canes for burning into charcoal, by peeling off the
rind. This might easily be done with our elder shoots,
which are so succulent, that the bark strips off with a
touch. The Chinese say, that if this is not done with
their bamboo, the edges touched with the paste will
burst in the baking : this does not seem indeed very
probable ; but the charcoal will certainly be lighter
made from the peeled sticks, and this is a known ad¬
vantage. The other caution is, never to touch the
vessel with hands that have any greasy or fatty sub¬
stance about them j for it this is done, they alwavs
find the vessel crack in that place.
CHIROGRAPH, was anciently a deed which, re¬
quiring a counterpart, was engrossed twice on the
same piece of parchment, counterwise ; leaving a space
between, wherein was written Chirograph ; through
the middle whereof the parchment was cut, some¬
times straight, sometimes indentedly ; and a moiety
given to each of the parties. This was afterwards
called divide nda, and char tee divisee; and was the same
with what we now call charter-party. See Charter-
Id arty. The first use of these chirographs, with us, was
in the time of Henry III.
Chirograph was also anciently used for a fine $
and the manner of engrossing the fines, and cutting
the parchment in two pieces, is still retained in the
office called the chirographer1 s office.
CHIROGRAPHLR of Fines, an officer in the
common pleas, who engrosses fines acknowledged in
that court into a perpetual record (after they have
been examined, and passed by other officers), and
writes and delivers the indentures thereof to the par¬
ty. He makes two indentures ; one for the buyer,
the other for the seller; and a third indented piece,
containing the effect of the fine, and called the foot of
the fine : and delivers it to the custos brevium.—The
same officer also, or his deputy, proclaims all fines in
court every term, and indorses the proclamations on
the backside of the foot ; keeping, withal, the writ of
covenant, and the writ of fine.
CHIROMANCY, a species of divination drawn
from the lines and lineaments of a person’s hand, by
which means, it is pretended, the dispositions may be
discovered. See Divination, N° 9.
CHIRON, a famous personage of antiquity; styled
by Plutarch, in his dialogue-on music, “ The wise Cen¬
taur.” Sir Isaac Newton places his birth in the first
age after Deucalion’s deluge, commonly called the
(fiilden Age ; and adds, that he formed the constella¬
tions for the use of the Argonauts, when he was 88
years old ; for he was a practical astronomer, as well
as his daughter Hippo : he may, therefore, be said to
have flourished in the earliest ages of Greece, as he
preceded the conquest of the Golden Fleece, and the
Trojan war. He is generally called the son of Saturn
and Phibyra; and is said to have been born in Thes¬
saly among the Centaurs, who were the first Greeks
that had acquired the art of breaking and riding hor¬
ses . whence the poets, painters, and sculptors, have
2
represented them as a compound of man and horse ; Chiron,
and perhaps it was at first imagined by the Greeks, v—.
as well as the Americans, when they first saw cavalry,
that the horse and the rider constituted the same ani¬
mal.
Chiron rvas represented by the ancients as one of Burney’s
the first inventors of medicine, botany, and chirur- ^st\ °f
gery; a word which some etymologists have derived ^uslc'
from his name. He inhabited a grotto or cave in the
foot of Mount Pelion, which, from his wisdom and
great knowledge of all kinds, became the most famous
and frequented school throughout Greece. Almost
all the heroes of his time were fond of receiving his
instructions; and Xenophon, who enumerates them,
names the following illustrious personages among his
disciples : Cephalus, iEsculapius, Melanion, Nestor,
Amphiaraus, Peleus, Telamon, Meleager, Theseus, Plip-
politus, Palamedes, Ulysses, Mnestheus, Diomedes, Ca¬
stor and Pollux, Machaon and Podalirius, Antilochus,
Hlneas, and Achilles. From this catalogue it appears,
that Chiron frequently instructed both fathers and
sons ; and Xenophon has given a short eulogium on
each, which may be read in his works, and which re¬
dounds to the honour of the preceptor. The Greek
historian, however, has omitted naming several of his
scholars, such as Bacchus, Phoenix, Cocytus, Arystaeus,
Jason, and his son Medeus, Ajax, and Protesilaus.
Of these we shall only take notice of such as interest
Chiron more particularly. It is pretended that the
Grecian Bacchus was the favourite scholar of the Cen¬
taur ; and that he learned of this master the revels,
orgies, bacchanalia, and other ceremonies of his wor¬
ship. According to Plutarch, it was likewise at the
school of Chiron that Hercules studied music, medicine,
and justice ; though Diodorus Siculus tells us, that
Linns was the music-master of this hero. But among
all the heroes who have been disciples of this Centaur,
no one reflected so much honour upon him as Achilles,
whose renown he in some measure shared ; and to
whose education he in a particular manner attended,
being his grandfather by the mother’s side. Apollo-
dorus tells us, that the study of music employed a con¬
siderable part of the time which he bestowed upon his
young pupil, as an incitement to virtuous actions, and
a bridle to the impetuosity of his temper. One of
the best remains of antique painting now existing, is
a picture upon this subject, dug out of the ruins of
Herculaneum, in which Chiron is teaching the young
Achilles to play on the lyre. The death of this phi¬
losophic musician was occasioned, at an extreme old
age, by an accidental wound in the knee with a poi¬
soned arrowed, shot by his scholar Hercules at another.
He was placed after his death by Musseus among the
constellations, through respect for his virtues, and in
gratitude for the great services which he had render¬
ed the people of Greece. Sir Isaac Newton says *, * ChronoL
in proof of the constellations being formed by Chiron^'I^1,
and Musseus for the use and honour of the Argonauts,
that nothing later than the expedition V'as delineated
on the sphere : according to the same author, Chiron
lived till after the Argonautic expedition, in which
he had two grandsons. The ancients have not failed to
attribute to him several writings; among which, ac¬
cording to Suidas, are precepts, virodnictt?, in verse, com¬
posed for the use of Achilles; and a medicinal trea¬
tise
CHI [ 48 ]
Chiruu tise on the diseases incident to horses and other qua¬
il drupeds, i-XTrictr^iwi j the lexicographer even pretends,
Chiton. t|iat it is from this work the Centaur derived his name.
^ ' Fabricius gives a list of the works attributed to Chi¬
ron, and discusses the claims which have been made for
others to the same writings : and in vol. xiii. he gives
him a distinguished place in Iris catalogue of ancient
physicians.
CH1RONIA. See Botany Index.
CHIRONOMY, in antiquity, the art of represent¬
ing any past transaction by the gestures of the body,
•fliore especially by the motions of the hands : this
made a part of liberal education j it had the approba¬
tion of Socrates, and was ranked by Plato among the
political virtues.
CHIROTONY, among ecclesiastical writers, de¬
notes the imposition of hands used in conferring priest¬
ly orders. However, it is proper to remark, that
chirotony originally was a method of electing magis¬
trates, by holding up the hands.
CHIRURGEON, or Surgeon. See Surgeon.
CHIRURGERY. See Surgery.
CHISLEY-land, in Agriculture, a soil of a middle
nature between sandy and clayey land, with a large ad¬
mixture of pebbles.
CHISON, Kison, or Kisson, (Judges iv. and v.)
a river of Galilee j said to rise in Mount Tabor, to run
by the town of Naim, and to fall into the Mediterra¬
nean between Mount Carmel and Ptolemais, (1 Kings
xviii. 40.).
CHISSEL, or Chisel, an instrument much used in
sculpture, masonry, joinery, carpentry, &c.
These are chissels of different kinds $ though their
chief difference lies in their different size and strength,
as being all made of steel well sharpened and tempered :
but they have different names, according to the difler-
ent uses to which they are applied. The chissels used
in carpentry and joinery are, 1. The former 5 which
is used first of all before the parting chissel, and just
after the work is scribed. 2. The paring chissel ;
which has a fine smooth edge, and is used to pare off
or smooth the irregularities which the former makes.
This is not struck with a mallet as the former is, but
is pressed with the shoulder of the workman. 3. Skew-
former: this is used for cleansing acute angles with the
point or corner of its narrow edge. 4. The mortise-
chissel; which is narrow, but very thick and strong,
to endure hard blows, and it is cut to a very broad
basil. Its use is to cut deep square holes in the wood
for mortises. 5. The gouge, which is a chissel with
a round edge $ one side whereof serves to prepare the
way for an augre, and the other to cut such wood as
is to be rounded, hollowed, &c. 6. Socket-chissels,
which are chiefly used by carpenters, &c. have their
shank made with a hollow socket at top; to receive a
strong wooden sprig, fitted into it with a shoulder.
These chissels are distinguished, according to the
breadth of the blade, into half-inch chissels, three
quarters of an inch chissels, &c. 7. Ripping chissels 5
which is a socket-chissel of an inch broad, having a
blunt edge, with no basil to it. Its use is to rip or tear
two pieces of wood asunder, by -forcing in the blunt
edge between them.
CHITON, in Zoology, a genus of the order of ver¬
mes testaceae. The name chiton is from lorica,
3
a coat of mail. The shell is plated, and consists of ma- chiton
ny parts lying upon each other transversely : the inha- ||
bitaut is a species of the DORIS. See CoNCHOLOGY Chivalry.
Index. ^ ,v
CHITTIM, in Ancient Geography, according to
Le Clerc, Calmet, and others, was the same with Ma¬
cedonia, peopled by Kittim the son of Javan and grand¬
son of Noah.
CHITTRICK’s MEDICINE FOR THE STONE. This
medicine was some years ago kept as a secret, and had
great reputation as a lithontriptic, which indeed it
seems in many cases to deserve. It was discovered by
l)r Blackrie to be no more than soap-lye y and the
following receipt for using it ivas procured by General
Dunbar: “ Take one tea-spoonful of the strongest
soap-lye, mixed in two table-spoonfuls of sweet milk,
an hour before breakfast, and at going to bed. Be¬
fore you take the medicine, take a sup of pure milk,
and immediately after you have swallowed the medicine
take another. If you find this agrees with you for
two or three days, you may add half as much more to
the dose.” r
CHIVALRY, (from “ a horse”) j an ab-Definition,
struct term, used to express the peculiar privileges, ob¬
ligations, and turn of mind, with all the other distin¬
guishing characteristics of that order of men who flou¬
rished in Europe in the dark ages, during the vigour
of the feudal systems of government, under the name
of Knights or Knights Hr rant. a
To ascertain the period at which the order sprung Difficulty
up, and the circumstances to which its origin was ow- ot tra<;ing
ing, is no easy task. In the history of society, such of^pfalrv
a multiplicity of collateral facts appear interwoven
together, and causes and eflects run into each other
by a gradation so imperceptible, that it is exceedingly
difficult, even for the nicest eye, to discern causes
from their immediate effects, or to distinguish to
which among a number of collateral ciscumstances the
origin of any particular event is to be referred. The
age to which we must look for the origin of chivalry
was singularly rude and illiterate. Even the principal
events of that period, emigrations, wars, and the esta¬
blishment of systems of laws and forms of government,
have been but imperfectly, and in many instances un¬
faithfully, recorded. But the transactions which took
place in the ordinary course of civil and domestic life,
and which, though less striking, must have always pre¬
pared the way for the more remarkable events, have
been generally thought unworthy of transmission to
posterity, and have very seldom found a historian.
Add to these difficulties which oppose our researches
on this subject, that the nations of Europe were in
that age a mixed multitude, consisting of the abori¬
ginal inhabitants, who, though either subdued by the
Roman arms, or at least compelled to retire to the
woods and mountains, still obstinately retained their
primitive manners and customs 5 Roman colonies, and
such of the original inhabitants of the countries in which
these were established, as had yielded not only to the
arms of the Romans, but also to the influence of their
laws, arts, and manners; and the barbarians, who pro¬
ceeding from the northern regions of Asia and Europe,
the wilds of Scythia and Germany, dissolved the fabric
of the Roman empire, and made themselves lords of
Europe. Amid this confusion of nations, institutions,
and
C H I
[ 49 ]
C H I
Chiralry. and customs, it becomes almost impossible to trace any
v-—-v   1 regular series of causes and effects.
Yet as the history of that period is not entirely un¬
known to us, and the obscure and imperfect records
in which it is preserved, while they commemorate the
more remarkable events, throw a faint light on the
customs, manners, and ordinary transactions of the
age j we can at least collect some circumstances, which,
if they did not of themselves give rise to the institu¬
tion of chivalry, must certainly have co-operated with
others to that end. We may even be allowed, if we
proceed with due diffidence and caution, to deduce,
from a consideration of the effect, some inferences con¬
cerning the cause $ from those particulars of its history
which are known to us, we may venture to carry ima¬
gination backwards, under a proper restraint, to those
which are hid under the darkness of a rude and illite-
3 rate age.
Distinction Distinction of ranks appears to be essentially neces-
““ sary to the existence of civil order. Even in the sira-
part*of the P^est ant* rU(^est social establishments, we find not mere-
raechanism ly the natural distinctions of weak and strong, young
of society, and old, parent and child, husband and wife j these are
always accompanied with others which oy/e their insti¬
tution to the invention of man, and the consent, either
tacit or formal, of the society among whom they pre¬
vail. In peace and in war, such distinctions are equally
necessary j they constitute an essential and important
4 part of the mechanism of society.
The early One of the earliest artificial distinctions introduced
nence'of amon8 mankind, is that which separates the bold and
the Cmih'- warrior from those whose feebleness of body and
tary cha- mind renders them unable to excel in dexterity, stra-
racter. tagem, or valour. Among rude nations, who are but
imperfectly acquainted with the advantages of social
order, this distinction is more remarkably eminent
than in any other state of society. The ferocity of the
human character in such a period produces almost con¬
tinual hostilities among neighbouring tribes ; the ele¬
ments of nature, and the brute inhabitants of the forest,
are not yet reduced to be subservient to the will of
tnan } and these, with other concomitant circumstances,
render the warrior, who is equally distinguished .by
cunning and valour, more useful and respectable than
2 any other character.
Subordi- On the same principle, as the boundaries of society
Unction" f are en^arSe^> an(^ *ts k^m becomes more complex, the
rank intro- c^asses ’n^° which it is already distinguished are again
dueed into subdivided. The invention of arts, and the acquisi-
society. tion of property, are the chief causes of these new dis¬
tinctions which now arise among the orders of society ;
and they extend their influence equally through the
whole system. Difl’erence of armour, and different
modes of military discipline, produce distinction of or¬
ders among those who practise the arts of war j while
other circumstances, originating from the same general
Causes, occasion similar changes to take place amidst the
,j scenes of peace.
The dis- None of the new distinctions which are introduced
trodaeed”1"am°n^ men> resPect to the discipline and con-
intoUuTe war’ consequence of the acquisition of pro-
railitary or-Perty and the invention of arts, is more remarkable
der by the than that occasioned by the use of horses in military
use of ca- expeditions, and the training of them to the evolu-
a ry* tions of the military art. Fire-arms, it is true, give
VOL. VI. Parti. +
to those who are acquainted with them a greater su- ciurahy.
periority over those to whom their use is unknown, v—" ■'
than what the horseman possesses over him who fights
on foot. But the use of fire-arms is of such importance
in war, and the expence attending it so inconsiderable,
that wherever these have been introduced, they have
seldom been confined to one particular order in an
army j and, therefore, they produced indeed a remark¬
able, though transient, distinction among different na¬
tions, but establish no permanent distinctions in the
armies in any one nation. But to maintain a horse, to
equip him with costly furniture, to manage him with-
dexterity and vigour, are circumstances which have in¬
variably produced a standing and conspicuous distinc¬
tion among the military order, wherever bodies of ca¬
valry have been formed. The Homan eqm'tes, who,
though they became at length a body of usurers and
farmers-general, were originally the only body of ca¬
valry employed by the state, occupied a respectable
rank between the senators and the plebeians; and the
elegance and humanity of their manners were suitable
to their rank. In ancient Greece, and in the cele¬
brated monarchies of Asia, 'the same distinction pre¬
vailed at a similar period. j
Since the circumstances and principles on which Military
this distinction depends are not such as must be con-distincti°ns
fined in their influence to one particular nation, or one am0.ngtt“e
region oi the globe, we may hope to trace their effects Germans,
among the savage warriors of Scythia and Germany,
as well as among the Greeks or Romans. From the
valuable treatise of Tacitus de Moribus Gervianorum,
we learn that, among the German warriors, a distinc¬
tion somewhat of this nature, did actually subsist $ not
so much indeed a distinction between the warrior who
fought on horseback and those who fought on foot, as
between those whom vigour of body and energy of
mind enabled to brave all the dangers of war, and such
as, from the imbecility of youth, the infirmities of
age, or the natural inferiority of their mental and bodi¬
ly powers, were unequal to scenes of hardship and
deeds of valour. The youth was not permitted to
take arms and join his warlike countrymen in their mi¬
litary expeditions whenever he himself thought proper:
there was certain age before which he could not be in¬
vested with armour. When he had attained that pe¬
riod, if not found deficient in strength, activity, or cou¬
rage, he was formally honoured with the shield and the
lance, called to the duties, and admitted to all the pri¬
vileges of a warrior. s
Another fact worthy of notice, respecting the man- Respecta-
ners of the barbarians of Germany before they esta- bility of the
Wished themselves in the cultivated provinces of ^ie vv0^ie"j1g*
Roman empire, is, that their women, contrary to whatQ°^an*
we find among many other rude nations, were treated
with a high degree of respect. They did not gene¬
rally vie with the men in deeds of valour, but they
animated them by their exhortations to distinguish
themselves in the field ; and virgins especially were con¬
sidered with a sacred veneration, as endowed with pro¬
phetic powers, capable of foreseeing events hid in the
womb of futurity, and even of influencing the will of
the deities. Hence, though domestic duties were their
peculiar province, yet they were not harshly treated nor
confined to a state of slavery. There appears indeed
a striking analogy between the condition of the womeir
G among
CHI [50
Clnvalry. among the rude soldiers of Sparta and the rank which
>-■1.-^—1 > they occupied among the warlike cantons of Germany.
Perhaps indeed the German were still more honourable
than the Spartan women ; as they were taught to wield
the magic weapons ot superstition, which in Greece
were appropriated to the priests.
It appears, therefore, that in the forests of Germany
at least, if not the more northern regions of Asia and
Europe, the conquerors of the Roman empire, before
they penetrated into its provinces, treated their women
with a degree of respect unknown to most of the na¬
tions of antiquity ; that the character of the warrior
was likewise highly honourable, being understood to
unite all those qualities which were jin the highest esti¬
mation ; and that it was only at a particular age, and
with certain forms, that the^ youth were admitted to
p bear arms.
Changes in When those nations sallied from their deserts and
the man- forests, overran the Roman empire, and established
°[ ^ themselves in its provinces, the changes which took
afteiMhey place in their circumstances were remarkable 5 and by
settled in a natural influence it could not but produce an equal-
the Roman ly remarkable change in their habits, customs, and
empire, manners. The great outlines might still remain : but
Wse^to chi6 they could not now fail to be filled up in a different
valry. manner. Here, however, the records of history are
peculiarly imperfect. We have no Caesar or 1 acitus
to supply facts or direct our reasonings 5 the Gothic
nations had not yet learned to read and write 5 and the
Romans were so depressed under a sense of their own
miseries, as to he negligent of the changes which hap¬
pened around them. Rut as soon as the light of history
begins again to dawn, we find that the leading features
of the barbarian character were not effaced, but only
modified in a particular manner, in consequence of their
mixing among a more polished people, becoming ac¬
quainted with the luxuries of life, and acquiring exten¬
sive power and property.
Those who fought on horseback now began to he
distinguished with peculiar honours. The manners of
the warrior too were become more cultivated, and his
spirit more humane. Leisure and opulence, with the
influence of a polished people, even though in a state
of slavery, taught those barbarians to aspire after more
refined pleasures and more splendid amusements than
those with which they had been before satisfied. The
influence of Christianity, too, which, though grossly
corrupted, was still favourable to the social happiness
of mankind, concurred to polish their manners and
exalt their character. Hence in the end of the tenth
and in the beginning of the eleventh century, we see
knight-errantry, with that romantic gallantry, piety,
and humanity, by which it was principally distinguish¬
ed, make its appearance. At the court of every prince,
count, or baron, jousts and tournaments became the
favourite amusements. At those entertainments, skill
in arms, devotion to the fair, and generous courtesy,
were all at once cultivated. About this period began
the crusades •, and these, to which alone some have re¬
ferred the origin of chivalry, though they could not
give rise to what was already in existence, yet mould¬
ed the form and directed the spirit of the institution
in such a manner, as to raise it, by a rapid progress
from infancy, as it were, to full vigour and maturity.
Its character, as it appeared when fully formed, is well
] CHI
described by an eloquent historian in the following tliivalry.
manner: ~ v
“ Between the age of Charlemagne and that of the GUbon,
crusades, a revolution had taken place among the Spa-'01-jd
niards, the Normans, and the Irench, which was gra-v*
dually extended to the rest of Europe. I he service
of the infantry was degraded to the plebeians *, the ca¬
valry formed the strength of the armies, and the ho¬
nourable name of miles, or soldier, was confined to the
gentlemen who served on horseback, and were invest¬
ed with the character of knighthood. The dukes and
counts, who had usurped the rights of sovereignty, di¬
vided the provinces among their faithful barons : the
barons distributed among their vassals their fiefs or be¬
nefices of their jurisdiction ; and these military tenants,
the peers of each other and of their lord, composed
the noble or equestrian order, which disdained to con¬
ceive the peasant or burgher as of the same species
with themselves. The dignity of their birth was pre¬
served by pure and equal alliances j their sons alone
who could produce four quarters or lines of ancestry,
without spot or reproach, might legally pretend to the
honour of knighthood ; but a valiant plebeian was
sometimes enriched and ennobled by the sword, and
became the father of a new race. A single knight
could impart, according to bis judgment, the character
which he received ; and the warlike sovereigns of Eu¬
rope derived more glory from this personal distinction
than from the lustre of their diadem. This ceremony
was in its own origin simple and profane j the candi¬
date, after some previous trial, was invested with his
sword and spurs ; and his cheek or shoulder was touch¬
ed with a slight blow, as an emblem of the last affront
which it was lawful for him to endure. But super¬
stition mingled in every public and private action of
life : In the holy wars, it sanctified the profession of
arms ; and the order of chivalry was assimilated in its
rights and privileges to the sacred orders of priesthood.
The bath and white garment of the novice were an
indecent copy of the regeneration of baptism : his
sword, which he offered on the altar, was blessed by
the ministers of religion ; bis solemn reception was
preceded by fasts and vigils j and he was created a
knight in the name of God, of St George, and of St
Michael the archangel. He swore to accomplish the
duties of his profession j and education, example, and
the public opinion were the inviolable guardians of his
oath. As the champion of God and the ladies, he
devoted himself to speak the truth ; to maintain the
right, to protect the distressed 5 to practise courtesy, a
virtue less familiar to the ancients $ to pursue the infi¬
dels •, to despise the allurements of ease and safety;
and to vindicate in every perilous adventure the ho¬
nour of his character. The abuse of the same spirit
provoked the illiterate knight to disdain the arts of
industry and peace ; to esteem himself the sole judge
and avenger of his own injuries ; and proudly to ne¬
glect the laws of civil society and military discipline.
Yet the benefits of this institution, to refine the temper
of barbarians, and to infuse some principles of faith,
justice, and humanity, were strongly felt, and have been
often observed. The asperity of national prejudice
was softened ; and the community of religion and arms
spread a similar colour and generous emulation over
the face of Christendom. Abroad, in enterprise and
pilgrimage 5,
CHI [ <
Chivalry, pilgrimage j at home, in martial exercise, the war-
riors of every country ivere perpetually associated j and
impartial taste must prefer a Gothic tournament to
the Olympic games of classic antiquity. Instead of the
naked spectacles which corrupted the manners of the
Greeks, and banished from the stadium the virgins
and matrons, the pompous decoration of the lists was
crowned with the presence of the chaste and high-born
beauty, from whose hands the conqueror received the
prize of his dexterity and courage. The skill and
strength that were exerted in wrestling and boxing
bear a distant and doubtful relation to the merit of a
soldier ; but the tournaments, as they were invented in
France, and eagerly adopted both in the east and west,
presented a lively image of the business of the field.
The single combat, the general skirmish, the defence
of a pass or castle, were rehearsed as in actual service;
and the contest, both in real and mimic war, was de¬
cided by the superior management of the horse and
lance. The lance was the proper and peculiar wea¬
pon of the knight: his horse was of a large and heavy
breed ; but this charger, till he was roused by the ap¬
proaching danger, was usually led by an attendant,
and he quietly rod a pad or palfrey of a more easy
pace. His helmet and sword, his greaves and buck¬
ler, it would be superfluous to describe ; but I may
remark, that at the period of the crusades, the armour
was less ponderous than in later times; and that, in¬
stead of a massy cuirass, his breast was defended by a
hauberk or coat of mail. When their long lances
were fixed in the rest, the warriors furiously spurred
their horses against the foe ; and the light cavalry of
the Turks and Arabs could seldom stand against the
direct and impetuous weight of their charge. Each
knight was attended to the field by his faithful squire,
a youth of equal birth and similar hopes ; he was fol¬
lowed by his archers and men at arms; and four, or
five, or six soldiers, were computed as the furniture of
a complete lance. In the expeditions to the neigh¬
bouring kingdoms or the Holy Land, the duties of
the feudal tenure no longer subsisted ; the voluntary
service of the knights and their followers was either
prompted by zeal or attachment, or purchased with re¬
wards and promises ; and the numbers of each squa¬
dron were measured by the power, the wealth, and
the fame of each independent chieftain. They were
distinguished by his banner, his armorial coat, and his
cry of war: and the most ancient families of Europe
must seek in these achievements the origin and proof
of their nobility.”
The respectable author of the Letters on Chivalry
and Romance, traces, with great ingenuity and erudi¬
tion, a strong resemblance between the manners of the
age of chivalry and those of the old heroic ages deli-
io neated by Homer.
The resem- There is, says he, a remarkable correspondence be-
tweenhe-" !:ween manners of the old heroic times, as painted
roic and ^ t,lfeJr great romancer Homer, and those which are
Gothic represented to us in the modern books of knight-er-
aanners. rantry. A fact of which no good account can be gi¬
ven, but by another not less certain ; that the political
state of Greece, in the earliest periods of its story,
was similar in many respects to that of Europe, as
broken by the feudal system into an infinite number of
petty independent governments.
;i ] CHI
Some obvious circumstances of agreement between the
heroic and Gothic manners may be worth putting down.
1. The military enthusiasm of the barons is but of
a piece with the fanaticism of the heroes. Hence the
same particularity of description in the accounts of
battles, wounds, deaths, in the Greek poet as in the
Gothic romancers. Hence the minute curiosity in
the display of (heir dresses, arms, accoutrements. The
minds of all men being occupied with warlike images
and ideas, were much gratified by those details, which
appear cold and unaffecting to modern readers.
We hear much of knights errant encountering gi¬
ants and quelling savages in books of chivalry. These
giants were oppressive feudal' lords ; and every lord
was to be met with, like the giant, in his strong-hold
or castle. Their dependents of a lower form, who
imitated the violence of their superiors, and had not
their castles but lurking places, were the savages of
romance. The greater lord was called <i giant for his
power ; the less, a savage for his brutality.
2. Another terror of the Gothic ages was monsters,
dragons, and serpents. Their stories were received in
those days for several reasons: i. From the vulgar be¬
lief of enchantments : 2. From their being reported
on the faith of eastern tradition, by adventurers from
the Holy Land : 3‘ later times, from the strange
things told and believed on the discovery of the new
world.
In all these respects, Greek antiquity resembles the
Gothic. For what are Homer’s Lsestrigons and Cy¬
clops, but bands of lawless savages, with each of them
a giant of enormous size at their head ? And what are
the Grecian Bacchus, Hercules, and Theseus, but
knights-errant, the exact counterparts of Sir Launce-
lot and Amadis de Gaul ?
3. The oppressions which it was the glory of the
knights to avenge, were frequently carried on, as we
are told, by the charms and enchantments of women.
These charms, we may suppose, are often metapho¬
rical; as expressing only the blandishments of the sex.
Sometimes they are taken to be real, the ignorance
of those ages acquiescing in such conceits. And are
not those stories matched by those of Calypso and
Circe, the enchantresses of the Greek poet ?
4. Robbery and piracy were honourable in both:
so far were they from reflecting any discredit on the
ancient or modern redressers of ivrongs. What ac¬
count can he given of this, but that, in the feudal
times, and in the early days of Greece, when govern¬
ment was weak, and unable to redress the injuries of
petty sovereigns, it would be glorious for private ad¬
venturers to undertake this work; and, if they could
accomplish it in no other way, to pay them in kind by
downright plunder and rapine ?
5. Bastardy was in credit with both. They were
extremely watchful over the chastity of their own wo¬
men ; but such as they could seize upon in the ene¬
my’s quarter, were lawful prize. Or if, at any time,
they transgressed in this sort at home, the fault was
covered by an ingenious fiction. The offspring was
reputed divine. Their greater heroes were the fruit
of goddesses approached by mortals ; just as we hear
of the doughtiest knights being born of fairies.
6. With the greatest fierceness and savageness of
character, the utmost generosity, hospitality, and cour-
- G 2 tesy,
Chivalry,
-——'
CHI
Chivalry. ^esyi were imputed to the heroic ages.. Achilles was
in ■■ u—i. at once the most relentless, vindictive, implacable, and
the friendliest of men. We have the very same repre¬
sentation in the Gothic romances. As in those law¬
less times, dangers and distresses of all kinds abounded,
there would be the same demand far compassion, gen¬
tleness, and generous attachment to the unfortunate,
those especially of their own clan, as of resentment,
rage, and animosity against their enemies.
7. Again, the martial games celebrated in ancient
Greece, on great and solemn occasions, had the same
origin and the same purpose as the tournaments ol the
Gothic warriors.
8. Lastly, the passion for adventures so natural in
their situation, would be as naturally attended with
the love of praise and glory. Hence the same encou¬
ragement, in the old Greek and Gothic times, to pa¬
negyrists and poets. In the aftairs of religion and
gallantry, indeed, the resemblance between the hero
and the knight is not so striking. But the religious
character of the knight was an accident ol the times,
and no proper effect ol his civil condition. And that
his devotion for the fair sex should so far surpass that of
the hero, is a confirmation of the system here advanced.
For the consideration had of the females in the feudal
constitution, will of itself account for this deference.
It made them capable of succeeding to fiefs, as well
as the men. And does not one instantly perceive what
respect and dependence this privilege would draw upon
them ?
It was of great consequence who should obtain the
favour of a rich heiress. And though, in the strict
feudal times, she was supposed to be in the power and
at the disposal of her superior lord, yet this rigid state
of things did not last long. Hence we find some di¬
stressed damsel was the spring and mover of every
knight’s adventure. She was to be rescued by his
arms, or won by the fame and admiration of his
prowess. The plain meaning of all which was this :
That as, in these turbulent times, a protector was neces¬
sary to the. weakness of the sex, so the courteous and
valorous knight was to approve himself fully qualified
for that purpose.
It may be observed, that the two poems of Homer
were intended to expose the mischiefs and inconve¬
niences arising from the political state of Old Greece ;
' the Iliad, the dissensions that naturally spring up a-
mong independent chiefs j and the Odyssey, the inso¬
lence of their greater subjects, more especially when
unrestrained by the presence of their sovereign. And
can any thing more exactly resemble the condition of
the feudal times, when, on occasion of any great en¬
terprise, as that of the crusades, the designs of the
confederate Christian states were perpetually frustra¬
ted, or interrupted at least, by the dissensions of their
leaders j and their affairs at home, as perpetually dis¬
ordered by the rebellious usurpations of their greater
vassals ? Jei’usalem was to the European what Troy
had been to the Grecian princes. See the article
Knight. See also Chivalry, Supplement.
Chivalry, in Law, is used for a tenure of lands
by knight’s service, whereby the knight was bound
to perform service in war unto the king, or the mesne
lord of whom he held by that tenure. And chivalry
was either general or special: general, when it was
[ 52 ] CHI.
only in the feoffment that the tenant held per servitium chivalry.
militare, without any specification of sergeantry, escu-
age, &c.} special, when it was declared particularly
by what kind of knight service the land was held.
For the better understanding of this tenure it hath
been observed, that there is no land but is holden me¬
diately or immediately of the crown by some service j
and therefore all freeholds that are to us and our heirs,
are called feuda orfeoda, “ fees j” as proceeding from
the king for some small yearly rent, and the perform¬
ance of such services as were originally laid upon the
land at the donation thereof. For as the king gave
to the great nobles, his immediate tenants, large posses¬
sions for ever, to hold of him for this or that service or
rent; so they in time parcelled out to such others as
they liked the same lands for rents and services as they
thought good ; and these services were by Littleton
divided into two kinds, chivalry and socage; the first
whereof was martial and military, the other rustical.
Chivalry, therefore, was a tenure of service, whereby
the tenant was obliged to perform some noble or mili¬
tary office unto his lord : and it was of twro kinds ; ei¬
ther regal, that is, held only of the king j or common,
where held of a common person. That which might
be held only of the king was called servitium or sergen-
tia j and was again divided into grand and petit ser-
jeantry. The grand serjeantry was where one held lands
of the king by service, which he ought to do in his
own person : as, to bear the king’s banner or spear, to
lead his host, to find men at arms to fight, &c. Petit
serjeantry was when a man held lands of the king, to
yield him annually some small thing towards his wars,
as a sword, dagger, bow, &c. Chivalry that might
be holden of a common person was termed scutagium,
“ escuage 5” that is, service of the shield ; which was
either uncertain or certain.
Escuage uncertain, was likewise two-fold: first, where
the tenant was bound to follow his lord, going in per¬
son to the king’s wars, either himself, or sending a suf¬
ficient man in his place, there to be maintained at his
expence, so long as was agreed upon between the lord
and his first tenant at the granting of the fee } and the
days of such service seem to have been rated by the
quantity of land so holden j as, if it extended to a whole
knight’s fee, then the tenant was to follow his lord 40
days 5 and if but to half a knight’s fee, then 20 days :
if a fourth part, then ten days, &c. The other kind
of this escuage was called castle ward, where the tenant
■was obliged, by himself, or some other, to defend a
castle as often as it should come to his turn. And these
were called escuage uncertain ; because it was uncertain
how often a man should be called to follow his lord to
the wars, or to defend a castle, and what his charge
would be therein.
Escuage certain, was where the tenure was set at a
certain sum of money to be paid in lieu of such ser¬
vice ', as that a man should pay yearly for every knight’s
fee 20s. for half a knight’s fee 10s. or some like rate j
and this service, because it is drawn to a certain rent,
groweth to be of a mixed nature, not merely socage,
and yet socage in effect, being now neither personal
service nor uncertain. The tenure called chivalry had
other conditions annexed to it: but there is a great,
alteration made in these things by the stat. 12 Car. II.
c. 24. whereby tenures by knight’s service of the king,
or
CHI
Chivalry, or any other person in capite, &c. and
» consequences thereof, are taken away and discharged j
and all tenures are to be construed and adjudged to be
free and common soccage, &c.
Court of Chivalry, a court formerly held before
the lord high constable and earl marshal of England
jointly, and having both civil and criminal jurisdic¬
tion ; but since the attainder of Stafford duke of Buck¬
ingham, under Henry VIII. and the consequent extin¬
guishment of the office of lord high constable, it hath
usually, with respect to civil matters, been heard be¬
fore the earl marshal only. This court by stat. 13.
Bich. II. c. 2. hath cognizance of contracts and other
matters touching deeds of arms and war, as well out
of the realm as in it. And from its sentences lies an
immediate appeal to the king in person. This court
was in great reputation in the times of pure chivalry;
.and afterwards during the English connexions with
the continent, by the territories which their princes
held in France 5 but it is now grown almost entirely
out of use, on account of the feebleness of its jurisdic¬
tion, and want of power to enforce its judgments j as
it can neither fine nor imprison, not being a court of
record.
I* The civil jurisdiction of this court of chivalry
is principally in two points j the redressing injuries of
honour, and correcting encroachments in matters of
coat- armour, precedency, and other distinctions of fa¬
milies. As a court of honour, it is to give satisfac¬
tion to all such as are aggrieved in that point ; a
point of a nature so nice and delicate, that its wrongs
and injuries escape the notice of the common law’,
and yet are fit to be redressed somewhere. Such, for
instance, as calling a man a coward, or giving him the
lie; for which, as they are productive of no immediate
damage to his person or property, no action will
lie in the courts at Westminster j and yet they are
such injuries as will prompt every man of spirit to de¬
mand some honourable amends 5 which, by the an¬
cient law of the land, was given in the court of chi¬
valry. But modern resolutions have determined, that
how much soever a jurisdiction may be expedient, yet
no action for words will at present lie therein. And
it hath always been most clearly holden, that as this
court cannot meddle with any thing determinable by
common law, it therefore can give no pecuniary satis¬
faction or damages $ inasmuch as the quantity and
determination thereof is ever of common law cog¬
nizance. And therefore this court of chivalry can at
most order reparation in point of honour j as to compel
the defendant mendacium sibi ipsi imponere, or to take
the lie that he has given upon himself* or to make
such other submission as the laws of honour may re¬
quire. As to the other point of its civil jurisdiction,
the redressing of usurpations and encroachments in mat¬
ters of heraldry and coat-armour; it is the business of
this court, accoruing to Sir Matthew Hale, to adjust
the right and armorial ensigns, bearings, crests, sup-
poiters, pennons, &c.; and also rights of places or
precedence, where the king’s patent or act of parlia¬
ment, which cannot be overruled by this court, have
not already determined it. The proceedings of this
court are^ by petition in a summary way ; and the trial
not by a jury of 12 men, but by witnesses, or by com-
r 53 ] chi
the fruits and bat. But as it cannot imprison, not being a court of Chivalry
record ; and as, by the resolutions of the superior
courts, it is now confined to so narrow and restrained
a jurisdiction, it has fallen into contempt. The mar¬
shalling of coat-armour, which was formerly the pride
and study of all the best families in the kingdom, is
now greatly disregarded ; and has fallen into the hands
of certain officers and attendants upon this court, cal¬
led/jmz/r/.?, who consider it only as a matter of lucre,
and not of justice ; whereby such falsity and confusion
have crept into their records (which ought to be the
standing evidence of families, descents, and coat-ar¬
mour), that though formerly some credit has been paid
to their testimony, now even their common seal will
not be received as evidence in any court of justice in
the kingdom. But their original visitation books, com¬
piled when progresses were solemnly and regularly
made in every part of the kingdom, to inquire into
the state of families, and to register such marriages
and descents as were verified to them upon oath, are al¬
lowed to be good evidence of pedigrees.
2. As a criminal court, when held -before the lord
high constable of England jointly with the earl mar¬
shal, it had jurisdiction over pleas of life and member,
arising in matters of arms and deeds of war, as well
out of the realm as within it. But the criminal as
well as civil part of its authority is fallen into entire
disuse, there having been no permanent high constable
of England (but only pro hac vice, at coronations and
the like), since the attainder and execution of Stafford
duke of Buckingham, in the 13th year of Henry VIII.;
the authority and charge, both in war and peace, be¬
ing deemed too ample for a subject ; so ample, that
when the chief justice Fineux was asked by King Hen-,
ry VIII. how far they extended ? he declined an¬
swering, and said, the decision of that question be¬
longed to the law of arms, and not to the law of Enir-
land. 5
CHIVES , or Stamina,, in Botany, are slender thread¬
like substances, generally placed within the blossom, and'
surrounding the Pointal, or Pisttllum. They are-
formed of the woody substance of the plant.
CH1UM marmor, in the natural history of the an¬
cients, the name of a black marble, called also the /«-
pis obsidianus. It is very hard, and of a fine black;
and, beside the many uses which the ancients put it to,
is well known among our goldsmiths by the name of
the touchstone; most of them being furnished with
nothing better for this purpose than a piece of this:
though the basaltes, which may be had plentifully
enough, is greatly preferable for those uses ; any black
marble, however, that is tolerably hard, will do. There
is a very fine and elegantly smooth marble, of a com¬
pact texture, and fine glossy black, but showing no
glittering particles when fresh broken, as most of the
black marbles do. It is extremely hard, and cuts w’ith
difficulty, but is capable of the highest polish of any
marble. 1 he ancients had it from Ethiopia, and the
island of Chios; we have it from Italy.
Chium Vmum, Chian Wine, or wine of the growth
of the island of Chios, now Scio, is commended bv
Hioscorides as affording good nourishment, fit to drink,
less disposed to intoxicate, endued with the virtue of
restraining defluxions, and a proper ingredient in oph¬
thalmic
C H O [ 54 I C H O
Chiura thalmic medicines. Hence Scribonius Largos directs
Vinum the dry ingredients in collyria for the eyes to be made
, li up with Chian wine.
' hocolate. or Chevan, in Hebrew antiquity. We
meet with this word in the prophet Amos, cited in the
Acts of the Apostles. St Luke reads the passage
thus : “ Ye took up the tabernacle of Moloch, and the
star of your god Remphan, figures which ye made to
worship them.” The import of the Hebrew is as fol¬
lows : “ Ye have borne the tabernacle of your kings,
and the pedestal (the chinnyui your images, the star ot
your gods, which ye made to yourselves.” The Sep-
tuagint in all probability read Repham or lievan, in¬
stead of Chiun or Chevan, and took the pedestal for a
god.
Some say that the Septuagint, who made their trans¬
lation in Egypt, changed the woi’d Chiun into that of
Remphan, because they had the same signification. M.
Basnage, in his book entitled Jewish Antiquities, after
having discoursed a good deal upon Chion, or Remphan,
concludes that Moloch was the sun, and Chion, Chiun,
or Remphan, the moon.
CHLAMYS, in antiquity, a military habit worn
by the ancients over the tunica. It belonged to the
patricians, and was the same in the time of war that
the toga was in the time of peace. This sort of gown
was called picta, from the rich embroidery with figures
in Phrygian work ; %x\iS.purpurea, because the ground¬
work was purple. The chlamydes of the emperors
were all purple, adorned with a golden and embroider¬
ed border.
CHLOEIA, in antiquity, a festival celebrated at
Athens in honour of Ceres, to whom, under the name
XAoj), i. e. grass, they sacrificed a ram.
CHLORA. See Botany Index.
CHLOROSIS, in Medicine, a disease, commonly
called the green sickness, incident to young girls. See
Medicine Index.
CHOCOLATE, in commerce, a kind of paste or
cake prepared of certain ingredients, the basis of which
is cacao. See Cacao.
The Indians, in their first making of chocolate, used
to roast the cacao in earthen pots •, and having after¬
wards cleared it of the husks, and bruised it between
two stones, they made it into cakes with their hands.
The Spaniards improved this method. When the cacao
is properly roasted and well cleaned, they pound it in
a mortar, to reduce it into a coarse mass, which they
afterwards grind on a stone till it be of the utmost fine¬
ness : the paste being sufficiently ground, is put quite
hot into tin moulds, in which it congeals in a very
little time. The form of these moulds is arbitrary j
the cylindrical ones, holding two or three pounds, are
the most proper, because the bigger the cakes are, the
longer they will keep. Observe, that these cakes are
very liable to take any good or bad scent, and there¬
fore they must be carefully wrapt up in paper, and
kept in a dry place. Complaints are made, that the
Spaniards mix with the cacao nuts too great a quanti¬
ty of cloves and cinnamon, besides other drugs with¬
out number, as musk, ambergris, &c. The grocers
of Paris use few or none of these ingredients *, they
only choose the best nuts, which are called cat'acca,
from the place from whence they are brought j and
with these they mix a very small quantity of cinnamon, Chocolate
the freshest vanilla, and the finest sugar, but very sel- !!
dom any cloves. In England the chocolate is made Choeiibus.
of the simple cacao, excepting that sometimes sugar
and sometimes vanilla is added.
Chocolate ready made, and cacao paste, are prohi¬
bited to be imported from any part beyond the seas.
If made and sold in Great Britain, it pays inland duty
is. 6d. per lb. avoirdupoise : it must be inclosed in pa¬
pers containing one pound each, and produced at the
excise office to be stamped. Upon three days no¬
tice given to the officer of excise, private families may
make chocolate for their own use, provided no less
than half an hundred weight of nuts be made at one
time.
The chocolate made in Portugal and Spain is not
near so well prepared as the English, depending per¬
haps on the machine employed there, viz. the double
cylinder, which seems very well calculated for exact
triture. If perfectly prepared, no oil appears on the
solution. London chocolate gives up no oil like the
foreign ; and it also may in some measure depend on
the thickness of the preparation. The solution requires
more care than is commonly imagined. It is proper
to break it down, and dissolve it thoroughly in cold
water by milling it with the chocolate stick. If heat
is applied, it should be done slowly ; for, if suddenly
the heat will not only coagulate it, but separate the
oil j and therefore much boiling after it is dissolved is
hurtful. Chocolate is commonly required by people of
weak stomachs j but often rejected for want of proper
preparation. When properly prepared, it is easily dis¬
solved 5 and an excellent food where a liquid nutrient
vegetable one is required, and is less flatulent than any
of the farinacea.
Mr Henly, an ingenious electrician, has lately dis¬
covered that chocolate, fresh from the mill, as it cools
in the tin pans into which it is received, becomes
strongly electrical ; and that it retains this property
for some time after it has been turned out of the pans,
but soon loses it by handling. The power may be once
or twice renewed by melting it again in an iron ladle,
and pouring it into the tin pans as at first 5 but when
it becomes dry and powdery, the power is not capable
of being revived by simple melting : but if a small
quantity of olive-oil be added, and well mixed with
the chocolate in the ladle, its electricity will be com¬
pletely restored by cooling it in the tin-pan as before.
From this experiment he conjectures, that there is a
great affinity between carbonic acid and the electric
fluid, if indeed they be not the same thing.
Chocolate Nut-tree. See Cacao.
CHOENIX, an ancient dry measure, con¬
taining the 48th part of a medimnus, or six bushels.
CHOERILUS, a tragic poet of Athens about the
64th Olympiad. He wrote 150 tragedies, of which
13 had obtained the prize.—-An historian of Samos.—
Two other poets, one of whom was very intimate with
Herodotus. He wrote a poem on the victory which
the Athenians had obtained over Xerxes ; and on ac¬
count of the excellence of the composition he received
a piece of gold for each verse from the Athenians.
The other was one of Alexander’s flatterers and
friends.
CHOERINiE,
C H O l 55 1 C H O
Choerins CHOERINiE, in antiquity, a kind cf sea-shells,
I! with which the ancient Greeks used to give their suf-
Chopine. frages
or vote.
CHOIR, that part of the church or cathedral where
choristers sing divine service ; it is separated from the
chancel where the communion is celebrated, and also
from the nave of the church where the people are
placed : the patron is said to be obliged to repair the
choir of the church. It was in the time of Constantine
that the choir was separated from the nave. In the
12th century they began to enclose it with walls ; but
the ancient ballustrades have been since restored, out
of a view to the beauty of architecture.
Choir, in nunneries, is a large hall adjoining to
the body of the church, separated by a grate, where
the nuns sing the office.
CHGISI, Francis Timoleon DE, dean of the ca¬
thedral of Bayeux, and one of the forty of the French
academy, was born at Paris in 1644. I*1 t*16 early
part of his life he was much distinguished by his frivo¬
lous manners, and particularly by appearing even at
court in a female dress. In 1685 he was sent with the
chevalier de Chaumont to the king of Siam, and was
ordained priest in the Indies by the apostolical vicar.
He wrote a great number of works, in a polite, florid,
and easy style ; the principal of which are, 1. Four
Dialogues on the Immortality of the Soul, &c. 2. Ac¬
count of a voyage to Siam. 3. An Ecclesiastical Hi¬
story, in 11 vols. 4to. 4. Life of David, with an In¬
terpretation of the Psalms. 5. Life of Solomon, &c.
He died at Paris in 1724.
CHOLEDOCHUS, in Anatomy, a term applied to
a canal or duct, called also ductus communis; formed
of the union of the porus biliarus and ductus cysticus.
The word comes from choler: and I re¬
ceive, or contain.
The choledochus ductus, passing obliquely to the
lower end of the duodenum, serves to convey the bile
from the liver to the intestines. See Anatomy In¬
dex.
CHOLER; See Bile.
CHOLERA morbus, a sudden eruption or over¬
flowing of the bile or bilious matters both upwards and
downwards. See Medicine Index.
CHOMER, or Omer. See Corus.
CHONDRILLA. See Botany Index.
CHONDROPTERYGII, in Ichthyology, a term
formerly applied to the order of fishes now called a?n-
phibia nantes by Linnaeus. See Amphibia.
CHOP-church, or Church-chopper, a name, or
rather a nick-name, given to parsons who make a prac¬
tice of exchanging benefices. See Permutation.
Chop-church occurs in an ancient statute as a lawful
trade or occupation ; and some of the judges say it was
a good addition. Brook holds, that it was no occupa¬
tion, but a thing permissible by law.
CHOPIN, or Chopine, a liquid measure used both
m Scotland and France, and equal to half their pint.
See Pint and Measure.
CHOPINE, Rene, a famous civilian born at Bail-
leul in Anjou in 1537. He was advocate in the parlia¬
ment of Paris, where he pleaded for a long time with
great reputation. He at last shut himself up in his
closet, and composed many works, which have been
2
collected together, and printed in 6 vols. folio. He Chopine
died at Paris in 1606. [j
CHORAL, signifies any person that, by virtue of t/hord.
any of the orders of the clergy, was in ancient times *
admitted to sit and serve God in the choir.
Dugdale, in his history of St Paul’s church, says,
that there were with the chorus formerly six vicars
choral .belonging to that church.
CHORASSAN, or KhorassaN, a province of Per-
sia, adjoining to Usbec Tartary. This was the ancient
Bactria, and the birth-place of Kouli-Khan.
CHORAX, or Charax. See Characene.
CHORAZIM, or Chorazin, (Luke, Matthew),
a town of Galilee, whose wretched incredulity Christ
deplores 5 now desolate, at two miles distance from Ca¬
pernaum.
CHORD, or Cord, primarily denotes a slender
rope or cordage *. The word is formed of the Latin, * See Cor-
chorda, and that from the Greek, a gut, whereoP^'
strings may be made.
Chord, in Geometry, a right line drawn from one
part of an arch of a circle to another. Hence,
Chort> of an Arch, is a right line joining the ex¬
tremes of that arch.
Chord, in M.usic, the union of two or more sounds
uttered at the same time, and forming together an en¬
tire harmony.
The natural harmony produced by the resonance of
a sounding body, is composed of three different sounds,
without reckoning their octaves $ which form among
themselves the most agreeable and perfect chord that
can possibly be heard: for which reason they are called,
on account of their excellence, perfect chords. Hence,
in order to render that harmony complete, it is ne¬
cessary that each chord should at least consist of three
sounds. The trio is likewise found by musicians to
include the perfection of harmony; whether because
in this all the chords, and each in its full perfection,
are used ; or, because upon such occasions as render
it improper to use them all, and each in its integri¬
ty, arts have been successfully practised to deceive
the ear, and to give it contrary persuasion, by de¬
luding it with the principal sounds of each chord, in
such a manner as to render it forgetful of the other
sounds necessary to their completion. Yet the octave
of the principal sound produces new relations, and
new consonances, by the completion of the intervals :
they commonly add this octave, to have the assem¬
blage of all the consonances in one and the same
chord; (see Consonance). Moreover, the addition
of the dissonance (see Discord), producing a fourth
sound superadded to the perfect chord, it becomes in¬
dispensably necessary, if we would render the chord
full, that we should include a fourth part to express
this dissonance. Thus, the series of chords can nei¬
ther be complete nor connected but by means of four
parts.
Chords are divided into perfect and imperfect. The
perfect chord is that which we have lately described 5
which is composed of the fundamental sound below,
of its third, its fifth, and its octave: they are likewise
subdivided into major and minor, according as the
thirds which enter into their composition are flat or
sharp : (See Interval). Some authors likewise give
the
C H O [ 56 1 C H O
the nanje of perfect to all chords, even to dissonances,
whose fundamental sounds are below. Imperfect chords
are those in which the sixth, instead of the fifth, pre¬
vails, and in general all those whose lowest are not
their fundamental sounds. These denominations, which
had been given before the fundamental bass was known,
are now most unhappily applied : those of chords di¬
rect and reversed are much more suitable in the same
sense.
Chords are once more divided into consonances and
dissonances. The chords denominated consonances, are
the perfect chord, and its derivatives j every other
chord is a dissonance.
A table of both, according to the system of M. Ra¬
meau, may be seen in Rousseau’s Musical Dictionary,
vol. i. p. 27.
After the table to which our readers have been re¬
mitted, Rousseau adds the following observations, which
are at the same time so just and so important, that we
should be very sorry if they escape the reader’s atten¬
tion.
At the words harmony, fundamental bass, composi¬
tion, &c. he promises to treat concerning the man¬
ner of using all the chords to form regular harmo¬
ny j and only adds, in this place, the subsequent reflec¬
tions.
1. It is a capital error to imagine, that the methods
of inverting the same chord are in all cases equal¬
ly eligible for the harmony and for the expression.
There is not one of these different arrangements but
had its proper character. Every one feels the con¬
trast between the softness of the false fifth, and the
grating sound of the tritone, though the one of these
intervals is produced by a method of inverting the
other. With the seventh diminished, and the second
redundant, the case is the same with the interval of the
second in general use, and the seventh. Who does
not feel how much more vocal and sonorous the fifth
appears when compared with the fourth ? The chord
ol the great sixth, and that of the lesser sixth minor,
are two forms of the same fundamental chord: but
how much less is the one harmonious than the other ?
On the contrary, the chord of the lesser sixth major is
rhuch more pleasing and cheerful than that of the
false fifth. And only to mention the most simple of
all chords, reflect on the majesty of the perfect chord,
the sweetness of that which is called the chord of the
sixth, and the insipidity of that which is composed of
a sixth and a fourth : all of them, however, compo¬
sed of the same sounds. In general, the redundant
intervals, the sharps on the higher part, are proper by
their severity to express violent emotions of mind,
such as anger and the rougher passions. On the con¬
trary, flats in the higher parts, and diminished inter¬
vals, form a plaintive harmony, which melts the heart.
There are a multitude of similar observations, of
which, when a musician knows how to avail himself,
he may command at will the affections of those who
hear him.
2. The choice of simple intervals is scarcely of less
importance than that of the chords, with regard to
the stations in which they ought to be placed. It is
for instance, in the lower parts that the fifth and oc¬
tave should be used in preference } in the upper parts,
the third and sixth are more proper. If you transpose
3
this order, the harmony will be ruined, even though the
same chords are preserved.
3. In a word, the chords are rendered still more
harmonious by being approximated and only divided
by the smallest practicable intervals, which are more
suitable to the capacity of the ear than such as are re¬
mote. This is what we call contracting the harmony;
an art which few composers have skill and abilities
enough to put in practice. The limits in the natural
compass of voices, afford an additional reason for les¬
sening the distance of the intervals, which compose
the harmony of the chorus, as much as possible. We
may affirm, that a chorus is improperly composed,
when the distance between the chords increases ; when
those who perform the different parts are obliged to
scream when the voices rise above their natural extent,
and are so remotely distant one from the other, that
the perception of harmonical relations between them is
lost.
We say likewise, that an instrument is in concord
when the intervals between its fixed sounds are what
they ought to be } we say in this sense, that the chords
of an instrument are true or false, that it preserves or
does not preserve its chords. The same form of speak¬
ing is used for two voices which sing together, or for
two sounds which are heard at the same time, whether
in unison or in parts.
Chords, or Cords of Musical Instruments, are
strings, by the vibration of which the sensation of
sound is excited, and by the divisions of which the se¬
veral degrees of tone are determined.
CHORDEE, in Medicine and Surgery, a symptom
attending a gonorrhoea, consisting in a violent pain
under the frenum, and along the duct of the urethra,
during the erection of the penis, which is incurvated
downwards. These erections are frequent and invo¬
luntary.
CHOREA Sancti Viti. See Vitus's Dance,
Medicine Index.
Chords
U
Choriam-
bus.
CHOREPISCOPUS, an officer in the ancient
church, about whose function the learned are much di¬
vided. The word comes from a region, or little
country, and e^crxr’raj, a bishop or overseer.
The Chorepiscopi were suffragan or local bishops,
holding a middle rank between bishops and presby¬
ters, and delegated to exercise episcopal jurisdiction
within certain districts, when the boundaries of parti¬
cular churches, over which separate bishops presided,
were considerably enlarged. It is not certain when
this office was first introduced $ some trace it to the
close of the first century : others tell us, that chore¬
piscopi were not known in the east till the beginning
of the fourth century •, and in the west about the year
439. They ceased both in the east and west in the
tenth century.
Chorepiscopus is also the name of a dignity still
subsisting in some cathedrals, particularly in Ger¬
many j signifying the same with chori episcopus, or
“ bishop of the choir.” The word, in this sense, does
not come from place, but choir, &c. In
the church of Cologne, &c. the first chanter is called
chorepiscopus.
CHOREUS, Xo^tag, a foot in the ancient poetry,
more commonly called trochceus. See Trochee.
CHORIAM BUS, in ancient poetry, a foot con¬
sisting
c H O [ 57 ] C H O
Choriam- sisting of four syllables, ■whereof the first and last are
bus long, and the two middle ones are short j or, which
H is the same thing, it is made up of a trochaeus and
^lorus‘ , iambus j such is the word nobilitas.
CHORION, in Anatomy, the exterior membrane
which invests the foetus in the uterus. See Foetus.
CHOROBATA, or Chorobates, a kind of water-
level among the ancients, of the figure of the letter
T, according to Vitruvius’s description.
CHOROGRAPHY, the art of making a map of
any country or province.
Chorography differs from geography, as the de¬
scription of a particular country differs from that of
the whole earth j and from topography, as the de¬
scription of a country is different from that of a town
or district. See the articles Geography, Topogra¬
phy, and Map.
CHOROIDES, or Choroeides, in Anatomy, a
term applied to several parts of the body, bearing
some resemblance to the chorion. The word is form¬
ed from wgitv, chorion, and likeness.
Choroides is particularly used for the inner mem¬
brane which immediately invests the brain ; so called
as being intermingled with a great number of blood¬
vessels, like the chorion : but more usually denominated
the pia mater or meninx tenuis.
Plexus or Lacis Chorotdes, is a knot of veins and
arteries in the anterior ventricle of the brain, woven
out of the branches of the carotid.
Choroides is also applied to the inner and poste¬
rior tunic of the eye, immediately under the scleroti¬
ca. It is soft, thin, and black : and its inner or con¬
cave surface is very smooth and polished. It has its
name from its being interspersed with vessels.
CHORUS, in dramatic poetry, one or more per¬
sons present on the stage during the representation,
and supposed to be by-standers without any share in
the action.
Tragedy in its origin was no more than a single
chorus, who trode the stage alone, and without any
actors, singing dithyrambics or hymns in honour of
Bacchus. Thespis, to relieve the chorus, added an
actor, who rehearsed the adventures of some of their
heroes; and iEschylus, finding a single person too dry
an entertainment, added a second, at the same time
reducing the singing of the chorus, to make more
room for the recitation. But when once tragedy be¬
gan to be formed, the recitative, which at first was in¬
tended only as an accessary part to give the chorus a
breathing time, became a principal part of the trage¬
dy. At length, however, the chorus became inserted
and incorporated into the action : sometimes it was
to speak \ and then their chief, whom they called co-
rypheeus, spoke in behalf of the rest : the singing was
performed by the whole company j so that when the
coryphaeus struck into a song, the chorus immediately
joined him.
The chorus sometimes also joined the actors, in the
course of the representation, with their plaints and la¬
mentations on account of any unhappy accidents that
befel them ; but the proper function, and that for which
it seemed chiefly retained, was to show the intervals of
the acts: while the actors were behind the scenes, the
chorus engaged the spectators j their songs usually
turned on what was exhibited, and were not to con-
Vol. VI. Part I. +
tain any thing but what was suited to the subject, and Chorus
had a natural connection with it; so that the chorus ||
concurred with the actors for advancing the action. Chous.
In the modern tragedies the chorus is laid aside, and ^
the fiddles supply its place. M. Hacier looks on this
retrenchment as of ill consequence, and thinks it robs
tragedy of a great deal of its lustre ; he therefore judges
it necessary to re-establish it, not only on account of the
regularity of the piece, but also to correct, by prudent
and virtuous reflections, any extravagancies that might
fall from the mouths of the actors when under any vio¬
lent passion.
M. Hacier observed also, that there was a chorus,
or grex, in the ancient comedy : but this is suppressed
in the new comedy, because it was used to reprove
vices by attacking particular persons; as the chorus
of the tragedy was laid aside to give the greater
probability to those kinds of intrigue which require
secrecy.
Chorus, in Music, is when, at certain periods of a
song, the whole company are to join the singer in re¬
peating certain couplets or verses.
CHOSE (FV.), “ a thing used in the common
law with divers epithets j as chose local, chose transi¬
tory, and chose in action. Chose local is such a thing
as is annexed to a place, as a mill and the like j chose
transitory is that thing which is moveable, and may be
taken away, or carried from place to place j and chose
in action is a thing incorporeal, and only a right, as an
obligation for debt, annuity, &c. And generally all
causes of suit for any debt, duty, or wrong, are to be
accounted choses in action : and it seems, chose in ac¬
tion may be also called chose in suspense ; because it hath
no real existence or being, nor can properly be said to
be in our possession.
CHOSROES I. the Great, king of Persia after
his father Cabades, A. D. 532. He made peace with
the Romans j but broke it the third year, and forced
Justinian to a disadvantageous peace. Afterwards, he
was so swelled with his victories, as to bid the empe¬
ror’s ambassador follow him for audience to Csesarea j
but Tiberius sent an army under Justinian, who made
himself master of the country, and put Chosroes to
death in 586.
Chosroes II. His subjects put his father Hormis-
das in prison, and the son upon the throne of Persia.
He used his father tenderly at first j but afterwards
caused him to be put to death. This, together with
his killing some of the nobility, obliged him to fly : he
gave his horse the bridle, which carried him into a
town of the Romans, where Mauricius the emperor
received him kindly, and sent an army under Narses
which set him again upon the throne. He took Jeru¬
salem ; after this he made himself master of Libya and
Egypt, and carried Carthage. Heraclius sued for
peace ; which wTas offered him on condition, That he
and his subjects should deny Jesus Christ: Hereupon
Heraclius attacked him with success, and put him to
flight. His own son pursued him, and he was starved
in prison in 627.
CHOUGH, in Ornithology, the trivial name of a
species of Coryus. See Ornithology Index.
CHOUS, in the eastern military orders, the title
of the messengers of the divan Janisaries. There
are several degrees of honour in this post. "When a
H person
C H R [ 58 ] C H R
Chou* person is first advanced to it, he is called a kuchuk, or
(I \hl\e c/wus; after this he is advanced to be the
Chrism, chous, that is, the messenger of ceremonies ; and from
" v " IL' this, having passed through the office of petelma^ or
procurator of the effects of the body, he is advanced to
be the has chous.
CHOWDER-BEER, a provincial phrase of Devon¬
shire, denoting a cheap and easily prepared drink,
highly commended for preventing the scurvy in long
voyages, or for the cure of it where it may have been
contracted. It is prepared in the following manner :
Take twelve gallons of water, in which put three
pounds and a half of black spruce : boil it for three
hours, and having taken out the fir or spruce, mix
with the liquor seven pounds of melasses, and just boil
it up j strain it through a sieve, and when milk-warm
put to it about four spoonfuls of yeast to work it. In
two or three days stop the bung of the cask : and in
five or six days, when fine, bottle it for drinking. Two
gallons of melasses are sufficient for a hogshead of li¬
quor ; but if melasses cannot be procured, treacle or
coarse sugar will answer the purpose.
CHREMNITZ, the principal of the mine towns in
Upper Hungary, situated about 68 miles north-east of
Presburg, and subject to the house of Austria. E. Long.
19. N. Lat. 48. 45.
CHRENECRUDA, a term occurring in writers
of the middle ages, and expressing a custom of those
times ; but its signification is doubtful. It is men¬
tioned in Lege Saliva, tit. 61. which says, he who kills
a man, and hath not wherewithal to satisfy the law or
pay the fine, makes oath that he hath delivered up every
thing he was possessed of; the truth of which must be
confirmed by the oaths of 12 other persons. Then he
invites his next relations by the father’s side to pay
off the remainder of the fine, having first made over
to them all his effects by the following ceremony. He
goes into his house, and taking in his hand a small
quantity of dust from each of the four corners, he re¬
turns to the door, and with his face inwards throws
the dust with his left hand over his shoulders upon his
nearest of kin. Which done, he strips to his shirt j
and coming out with a pole in his hand, jumps over
the hedge. His relations, whether one or several, are
upon this obliged to pay off the composition for the
murder. And if these (or any one of them) are not able
to pay iterum super ilium chrenecruda, qui pauperior
est,jactat, et ille totam legem componat. Whence it ap¬
pears, that chrenecruda jactare, is the same with throw¬
ing the dust gathered from the four corners of the
house. Goldastus and Spelman translate it viridem
herbam, “ green grass,” from the German kraut,
or from the Dutch gro£», “ green,” zn^grliid, “grass.”
Wendelinus is of a contrary opinion, who thinks that
by this word denotari purificationis approbationem, from
chrein, “ pure, chaste, clean j” and keuren, “ to prove j”
so that it must refer to the oaths of the twelve jurors.
Be this as it will, King Childebert reformed this law
by a decree, chap. 15. both because it savoured of
Pagan ceremonies, and because several persons were
thereby obliged to make over all their effects : De
cht'enecruda lex quam paganorum tempore observabant,
deinceps nunquam vale at, quia per ipsam cecidet multo-
rum potestas.
CHRISM (from xyv, I anoint), oil consecrated by
2
the bishop, and used in the Romish and Greek churches, Chrism j
in the administration of baptism, confirmation, ordina- S
tion, and extreme unction, which is prepared on holy , Christ.
Thursday with much ceremony. In Spain it was an- v ’
ciently the custom for the bishop to take one-third of
a sol for the chrism distributed to each church, on ac¬
count of the balsam that entered its composition.
Du Cange observes, that there are two kinds of
chrism j the one prepared of oil and balsam, used in
baptism, confirmation, and ordination j the other of
oil alone, consecrated by the bishop, usvd anciently for
the catechumens, and still in extreme unction. The
Maronites, before their reconciliation with Rome, be¬
sides oil and balsam, used musk, saffron, cinnamon,
roses, white frankincense, and several other drugs men¬
tioned by Rynaldus, m 1541, with the doses of each.
The Jesuit Dandini, who went to Mount Libanus in
quality of the pope’s nuncio, ordained, in a synod held
there in 1596, that chrism for the future should be
made only of two ingredients, oil and balsam the
one representing the human nature of Jesus Christ, the
other his divine nature. The action of imposing the
chrism is called chrismation : this the generality of tire
Romish divines hold to be the next matter of the sacra¬
ment of confirmation.
The chrismation in baptism is performed by the
priest j that in confirmation by the bishop j that in or¬
dination, &c. is fnore usually styled unction.
Chrism Pence, Chrismatis Denarii, or Chris-
males Denarii, a tribute anciently paid to the bishop
by the parish clergy, for their chrism, consecrated at
Easter for the ensuing year : this was afterwards con¬
demned as simoniacal.
CHRISOM, a white garment put upon a child by
the priest immediately after baptism, accompanied with
this devout prayer j “ Take this white vesture as a token
of the innocency which, by God’s grace in this holy
sacrament of baptism is given unto thee, and for a sign
whereby thou art admonished, so long as thou livest, to
give thyself to innocence of living, that after'this tran¬
sitory life thou mayest be partaker of life everlasting.
Amen.”
From this circumstance the white garment got the
name of chrisom, which, after being worn a few days,
was delivered to the priest as a sacred deposit, to be
produced in future as an evidence against the person,
should he be so impious as to renounce his baptismal
engagements. This ceremony continued in use for a
considerable time after the reformation in the church of
England, which required the mother of the child, when
churched, to offer the chrisom and other customary
oblations. On pronouncing the above mentioned pray¬
er, the priest anointed the head of the infant, saying,
“ Almighty God, the father of our Lord Jesus Christ,
who hath regenerated thee by water and the Holy
Ghost, and hath given unto thee the remission of all
thy sins, vouchsafe to anoint thee with the unction of
his Holy Spirit, and bring thee to the inheritance of
everlasting life. Amen.”
CHRIST, an appellation synonymous with Messiah,
usually added to Jesus: and, together therewith, de¬
nominating the Saviour of the world. See Christi¬
anity and Messiah.
The word ^{irrof signifies anointed, from inungo,
“ I anoint.” Sometimes the word Christ is used sin-
g1y»
C H It
[
Christ
II
Christia¬
nity.
Origin of
the word.
By what
name the
apostles
were first
distinguish
ed.
Helinea-
tion of
Christian¬
ity.
g]y, by way of antonomasis, to denote a person sent
from God, as an anointed prophet, king, or priest.
Order of Christ, a military order, founded by Dio-
nysius I. king of Portugal, to animate his nobles a-
gainst the Moors. The arms of this order are gules,
patriarchal cross charged with another cross argent:
they had their residence at first at Castromarin $ after¬
wards they removed to the city of Thomar, as being
nearer to the Moors of Andalusia and Estremadura.
Christ is also the name of a military order in Li¬
vonia, instituted in 1205 by Albert bishop of Riga.
The end of this institution was to defend the new
Christians who were converted every day in Livonia,
but were persecuted by the heathens. They wore on
their cloaks a sword with a cross over it, whence they
were also denominated brothers of the sword.
CHRIST-Burgh, a town of Poland, near the lake
Drausen, and about three Polish miles from Marien-
burgh.
CHRiST-Church, a borough town of Hampshire, 30
miles south-west of Winchester, near the sea-coast. W.
Long. 2. N. Lat. 50. 40. It sends two members to
parliament.
CHRisT-Thorn. See Rhamnus, Botany Index.
CHRISTIAN. See Christianity and Chris¬
tians.
Most Christian King, one of the titles of the for¬
mer kings of France.
The French antiquarians trace the origin of this
appellation up to Gregory the Great, who, writing a
letter to Charles Martel, occasionally gave him that
title, which his successors retained.
Christian Religion, that instituted by Jesus Christ.
See Christianity.
CHRISTIANITY, the religion of Christians.
The word is analogically derived, as other abstracts
from their concretes, from the adjective Christian.
This again is derived from the name Xg<o-re?, Christas,
from the word I anoint. Christ is called the an¬
ointed, from a custom which extensively prevailed in
antiquity, and was originally said to be of divine in¬
stitution, of anointing persons in the sacerdotal or re¬
gal character, as a public signal of their consecration
to their important offices, and as a testimony that
heaven itself was the guarantee of that relation which
then commenced between the persons thus consecrated
and their subordinates.
The disciples of Jesus, after the death of their teach¬
er, had for some time been called TKa'zarenesfvovn Na¬
zareth in Galilee, where he dwelt j which afterwards
became the designation of a particular sect. They,
who adopted the principles and professed the religion
which he taught, were first distinguished bv tbe name
of Christians at Antioch. That profession, and those
doctrines, we now proceed to delineate with as much
perspicuity as the limits of our plan will admit, yet
with the conciseness which a work so multiform and
extensive requires.
When a Christian is interrogated concerning the
nature and foundation of his faith and practice, bis
ultimate reference, his last appeal, is to the facts, the
doctrines, and the injunctions, contained in the books
of the Old and New Testament. From these, there¬
fore, and from these alone, must every fair account,
or the materials of which it is composed, be extracted
59 1 C H R
or reduced. Other formularies, or confessions of faith, Cliristia-
may, according to the Christian, deserve more or less mty.
attention, as they are more or less immediately con- v
tained or implied in the scriptures. But whatever is
not actually expressed in, or reduced by fair and ne¬
cessary consequence from, these writings, must be re¬
garded as merely human ; and can have no other title
to our assent and observation than what they derive
from their conformity with the scriptures, with the dic¬
tates and feelings of a reformed and cultivated mind,
or with those measures which are found expedient and
useful in human life. But as those books, from whence
the Christian investigates his principles of belief and
rules of conduct, have been variously interpreted by
different professors and commentators, these diversities
have given birth to a multiplicity of different sects.
It cannot, therefore, be expected, that any one who
undertakes to give an account of Christianity, should
comprehend all the writings and opinions which have
been propagated and exhibited by historical, systema¬
tical, or polemical authors. These, if at all contained
in such a work as this, should be ranged under their
proper articles, whether scientifical, controversial, or
biographical. It is our present business, if possible, to
confine ourselves to a detail of such facts and doctrines
as, in the strict and primitive sense of the word, are ca-
iholic, or, in other expressions, to such as uniformly
have been, and still are, recognized and admitted by
the whole body of Christians. 4
We have already said that these, or at least theAccouatof
greatest number of them, appeal to the scriptures 0f Uhristiam-
the Old and New Testament as the ultimate standard, [jedueibl^
the only infallible rule of faith and manners. If you
ask them, by what authority these books claim an ab¬
solute right to determine the consciences and under¬
standings of men with regard to what they should be¬
lieve and what they should do P They will answer you,
that all scripture, whether for doctrine, correction, or
reproof, was given by immediate inspiration from
God. j
If again you interrogate them how those books, The nature
which they call Scriptuj'e, are authenticated ? they re-of‘ts evi-
ply, that the evidences by which the Old and New d®11068,
Testament are proved to be the Word of God, are
either external or internal. The external may again
be divided into direct or collateral. The direct evi¬
dences are such as arise from the nature, consistency,
and probability, of the facts ; and from the simplicity,
uniformity, competency, and fidelity, of the testimonies
by which they are supported. The collateral events
are either the same occurrences supported by Hea¬
then testimonies, or others which concur with and
corroborate the history of Christianity. Its internal
evidence arises either from its exact conformity with
the character of God, from its aptitude to the frame
and circumstances of man, or from those supernatural
convictions and assistances which are impressed on the
mind by the immediate operation of the divine Spirit.
These can only be mentioned in a cursory manner in
a detail so concise as the present.
Such facts as are related in the history of his reli-How Cliris-
gion, the Christian asserts to be not only consistent tianity is
each with itself, but likewise one with another. Hence supported
it is, that, by a series of antecedents and consequen- facts-
ces, they corroborate each other, and form a chain
H 2 which
C H R
Christian
nity.
Natural
tacts, what,
and how
conducive
to the elu¬
cidation of
history.
which cannot be broken but by an absolute
sion of all historical authenticity. Nor is this all : lor,
according to him, the facts on which Christianity is
founded, not only constitute a series of themselves,
but are likewise in several periods the best resources
for supplying the chasms in the history ol our nature,
and preserving the tenor ot its annals entire. Ihe
facts themselves are either natural or supernatural.
By natural facts we mean such occurrences as happen
or may happen from the various operations ot mecha¬
nical powers, or from the interposition ol natural a-
gents without higher assistants. Such are all the com¬
mon occurrences of history, whether natural, biogra¬
phical, or civil. By supernatural facts, we mean such
as could not have been produced without the interpo¬
sition of Deity, or at least of powers superior to the
laws of mechanism or the agency ol embodied spirits.
Among these may be reckoned the immediate change
of w;ater into wine, the instantaneous cure ol diseases
without the intervention of medicine, the resuscitation
of the dead, and others of the same kind. In this or¬
der of occurrences may likewise be numbered the ex¬
ertions and exhibitions of prophetic power, where the
persons by whom these extraordinary talents were dis¬
played could neither by penetration nor conjecture un¬
ravel the mazes of futurity, and trace the events of
which they spoke from their primary causes to their
remote completions. So that they must have been the
passive organs of some superior Being, to whom the
whole concatenation of causes and effects which ope¬
rate from the origin to the consummation of nature,
was obvious at a glance of thought.
It has already been hinted, that the facts which we
, have calietl natural, not only agree with the analogy
of human events, and corroborate each other, but in
a great many emergencies nobly illustrate the history
of nature in general. For this a Christian might offer
one instance, of which philosophy will not perhaps be
able to produce any tolerable solution, without having
recourse to the facts upon which Christianity is found¬
ed. For if mankind were originally descended from
one pair alone, how should it have happened that long
before the date of authentic history every nation had
its own distinct language ? Oi’, if it be supposed, as
some late philosophers have maintained, that man is
an indigenous animal in every country ; or, that lie
was originally produced in, and created for, each par¬
ticular soil and climate which he inhabits j still it may
be demanded, whence the prodigious multiplicity, the
immense diversity of languages ? Is the language of
every nation intuitive, or were they dictated by exi¬
gences, and established by convention ? If the last of
these suppositions he true, what an immense period of
time must have passed ! How many revolutions of
material and intellectual nature must have happened !
What accessions of knowledge, refinement, civiliza¬
tion, must human intercourse have gained before the
formation and establishment even of the most simple,
imperfect, and barbarous language ! Why is a period
so vast obliterated so entirely as to escape the retrospect
of history, or tradition, and even of fable itself? Why
was the acquisition and improvement of other arts so
infinitely distant from that of language, that the era of
the latter is entirely lost, whilst we can trace the foiv
[ 6o ] C H R
subver- mer from their origin through the various gradations of Cl/iMia-
their progress. ^ ^‘ty*
These difficulties, inextricable by all the lights of' ^ '
history or philosophy, this more than Cimmerian dark-TLis obsc^
ness, is immediately dissipated by the Mosaic account rjty inex.
of the confusion of tongues j wisely intended to sepa-plicable
rate the tribes of men one from another, to replenish by t,ie
the surface of the globe, and to give its multiplied in- ac
habitants those opportunities of improvement which
might be derived from experiment and industry, va¬
riously exerted, according to the different situations in
which they were placed, and the different employ¬
ments which these situations dictated. Thus the time
of nature’s existence is limited to a period within the
ken of human intellect. Thus whatever has happen¬
ed might have happened during the present mode of
things ; whereas, if we deduce the origin and diversity
of language from a period so remotely distant as to be
absolutely lost, and entirely detached from all the
known occurrences and vicissitudes of time, we must
admit the present forms and arrangements of things
to have subsisted perhaps for a much longer duration
than any mechanical philosopher will allow to be pos¬
sible. Other instances equally pregnant with convic¬
tion might be multiplied j but precluded by the limits
of our plan, we proceed to a single observation upon the
facts which have been termed supernatural. ^
Of those changes which happen in sensible objects, Miracley,
sensation alone can be judge. lieason has nothing to how con¬
do in the matter. She may draw conclusions from duelve,to
the testimonies of sense, hut can never reluie iiicm. of
i» , . i prove the
;fute them. £rutll of
If, therefore, our senses inform us that snow is white, christiani-
in vain would the most learned and subtile philosopher ty.
endeavour to convince us, that it was of a contrary
colour. He might confound, but never could per¬
suade us. Such changes, therefore, as appear to hap¬
pen in sensible objects, must either be real or fallaci¬
ous. If real, the miracle is admitted j if fallacious,
there must be a cause of deception equally unaccount¬
able from the powers of nature, and therefore equally
miraculous. If the veracity or competency of the
witnesses be questioned, the Christian answers, that
they must he competent, because the facts which they
relate are not beyond their capacity to determine^
They must likewise be faithful, because they had no
secular motives for maintaining, but many for suppres¬
sing or disguising, what they testified. Now the Chris¬
tian appeals to the whole series of bistory and expe¬
rience, whether such a man is or can be found, as will
offer a voluntary, solemn, and deliberate sacrifice ot
truth at the shrine of caprice. But such facts as after
a long continuance of time have been found exactly evident by
agreeable to predictions formerly emitted, must su-its own na-
persede the fidelity of testimony, and infallibly prove
that the event was known to the Being by whom it 0
was foretold. In vain it has been urged, that prophe- cjeg>
cies are ambiguous and equivocal. For though they
may prefigure subordinate events, yet if the grand oc¬
currences to which they ultimately relate, can alone
fulfil them in their various circumstances, and in their
utmost extent, it is plain, that the Being by whom
they were revealed must have been actually prescient
of those events, and must have had them in view when
the predictions were uttered. For this see a learned
and
C H R
[ 61 ] C H R
Christia- an<^ ingenious Dissertation on the Credibility of Gos-
nity. pel-history, by Dr M‘Knight; where the evidences
* ' urged by the Christian in defence of his tenets, which
appear detached and scattered through innumerable
volumes, are assembled and arranged in such a manner
as to derive strength and lustre from the method in
which they are disposed, without diminishing the force
of each in particular. See also the works of Dr Hurd ;
consult likewise those of Newton, Sherlock, Chandler,
&c. For the evidences of those preternatural facts
which have been termed miracles, the reader may per¬
use a short but elegant and conclusive defence of these
astonishing phenomena, in answer to Mr Hume, by the
It Rev. George Campbell, D. D.
Properties It must be obvious to every reflecting mind, that
common to whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion
ohs ^ ~ ^priori, or contemplate those which have been already
exhibited, certain facts, principles, or data, must be pre-
established, from whence will result a particular frame
of mind and course of action, suitable to the character
and dignity of that being by whom the religion is en¬
joined, and adapted to the nature and situation of those
agents who are commanded to observe it. Hence
Christianity mny be divided into credenda or doctrines,
j 2 and agenda or precepts.
Christian As the great foundation of his religion, therefore,
theology, the Christian believes the existence and government
of one eternal and infinite Essence, which for ever re¬
tains in itself the cause of its own existence, and inhe¬
rently possesses all those perfections which are com¬
patible with its nature j such are, its almighty power,
omniscient wisdom, infinite justice, boundless good¬
ness, and universal presence. In this indivisible es¬
sence the Christian recognises three distinct subsist¬
ences, yet distinguished in such a manner as not to be
incompatible with essential unity or simplicity of be¬
ing. Nor is their essential union incompatible with
their personal distinction. Each of them possesses the
same nature and properties to the same extent. As,
therefore, they are constituents of one God, if we may
use the expression, there is none of them subordinate,
none supreme. The only way by which the Christian
can discriminate them is, by their various relations,
properties, and offices. Thus the Father is said eter¬
nally to beget the Son, the Son to be eternally begot¬
ten of the Father, and the Holy Ghost eternally to
proceed from both.
This infinite Being, though absolutely independent,
and for ever sufficient for his own beatitude, was gra¬
ciously pleased to create an universe replete with in¬
ferior intelligences, who might for ever contemplate
and enjoy his glory, participate his happiness, and imi¬
tate his perfections. But as freedom of will is essen¬
tial to the nature of moral agents, that they may co¬
operate with God in their own improvement and hap¬
piness, so their natures and powers are necessarily li¬
mited, and by that constitution rendered peccable.
This degeneracy first took place in a rank of intelli¬
gence superior to man. But guilt is never stationary.
Impatient in itself, and cursed with its own feelings, it
proceeds from bad to worse, whilst the poignancy of
its torments increases with the number of its perpe¬
trations. Such was the situation of Satan and his
apostate angels. They attempted to transfer their tur¬
pitude and misery to man $ and were, alas ! but too
successful. Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcile-
able principles which operate in his nature. Hence
that inexplicable medley of wisdom and folly, of rec¬
titude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of
sincerity and fraud, exhibited through his whole con¬
duct. Hence the darkness of his understanding, the
depravity of his will, the pollution of his heart, the ir¬
regularity of his affections, and the absolute subversion
ol his whole internal economy. These seeds of per¬
dition soon ripened into overt acts of guilt and horror.
All the hostilities of nature were confronted, and the
whole sublunary creation became a theatre of disorder
and mischief.
Here the Christian once more appeals to fact and
experience. If these things are so j if man is the
vessel of guilt and the victim of misery ; he demands
how this constitution of things can be accounted for ?
how can it be supposed, that a being so wicked and
unhappy should be the production of an infinitely per¬
fect Creator? He therefore insists, that human nature
must have been disarranged and contaminated by some
violent shock j and that, of consequence, without the
light diffused over the face of things by Christianity,
all nature must remain an inscrutable and inexplicable
mystery.
To redress these evils, to re-establish the empire of
virtue and happiness, to restore the nature of man
to its primitive rectitude, to satisfy the remonstran¬
ces of infinite justice, to purify every original or con¬
tracted stain, to expiate the guilt and destroy the
power of vice, the eternal Son of God, the second
Person of the sacred Trinity, the Logos or Divine
Word, the Redeemer or Saviour of the w’orld, the
Immanuel or God with us, from whom Christianity
takes its name, and to whom it owes its origin, de¬
scended from the bosom of his Father ; assumed the
human nature j became the representative of man j
endured a severe probation in that character j exhibit¬
ed a pattern of perfect righteousness j and at last ra¬
tified his doctrine, and fully accomplished all the ends
of his mission, by a cruel, unmerited, and ignominious
death. Before he left this world, he delivered the
doctrine of human salvation, and the rules of human
conduct, to his apostles, whom he empowered to in¬
struct the world in all that concerns their eternal fe¬
licity, and whom he invested with miraculous gifts to
ascertain the reality of what they taught. To them
he likewise promised another comforter, even the Di¬
vine Spirit, who should relume the darkness, console
the woes, and purify the stains, of human nature. Ha¬
ving remained for a part of three days under the power
of death, he rose again from the grave, discovered him¬
self to his disciples, conversed with them for some time,
then ascended to heaven ; from whence the Christian
expects him, according to his promise, to appear as
the Sovereign Judge of the living and the dead, from
whose awards there is no appeal, and by whose sentence
the destiny of the pious and the wicked shall be eter¬
nally fixed.
Soon after his departure to the right hand of his
Father, where, in his human nature, he sits supreme
of all created beings, and invested with the absolute
administration of heaven and earth, the Spirit of grace
and consolation descended on his apostles with visible
signatures of divine power and presence. Nor were
his-
Christia¬
nity.
Christia¬
nity.
13
The exter¬
nal means
of Christia¬
nity, what,
and how
promotive
of their
end.
, -14
Christian
morality.
C H R [
I113 salutary operations confined to them, but extended
to all the rational world, who did not by obstinate guilt
repel his influence, and provoke him to withdraw them.
These, indeed, were less conspicuous than at the glori¬
ous era when they were visibly exhibited in the persons
of the apostles ; but though his energy is less obser¬
vable, it is by no means less effectual to all the pur¬
poses of grace and mercy.
The Ch ristian is convinced, that there is and shall
continue to be a society upon earth, who worship God
as revealed in Jesus Christ 5 who believe his doctrines j
who observe his precepts j and who shall be saved by
his death, and by the use of these external means of sal¬
vation which he hath appointed.
These are few and simple. The sacraments of bap¬
tism and the eucharist, the interpretation and appli¬
cation of scripture, the habitual exercise of public
and private devotion, are obviously calculated to dit-
fuse and promote the interests of truth and virtue, by
superinducing the salutary habits of faith, love, and re¬
pentance.
The Christian is firmly persuaded, that at the con¬
summation of things, when the purposes of providence
in the various revolutions of progressive nature are
accomplished, the whole human race shall once more
issue from their graves j some to immortal felicity,
from the actual perception and enjoyment of their
Creator’s presence; others to everlasting shame and
misery.
It is worthy of observation, that all who profess to
believe the Christian system, do not subscribe to the
truth of everlasting misery. They conceive it impos¬
sible that a good and merciful being could create in¬
numerable intelligences with a view to make them
eternally wretched, else they apprehend that existence
would be a curse and not a blessing 5 and that although
man, by being created free, becomes amenable to God
for his conduct, yet they contend that this God must
have seen from eternity what use man would make of
his free agency, and have devised the most effectual
means for counteracting the evils resulting from moral
depravity, and resolved to bring final and eternal
good out of all the evil which now does, or which in
future may exist. Finally, they deny that any epithet
applied to the miseries of a future state denotes dura¬
tion without end, and they assert that all the judge¬
ments inflicted on nations and individuals here upon
earth, are manifestly the chastisements of a father for
the recovery of delinquents, in which light they also
consider the punishments to be inflicted in the world
to come. It is our province to give a candid statement
of both sides of a question, leaving it to our readers to
form a judgment for themselves.
The two grand principles of action, according to
the Christian, are, The love of God, which is the sove¬
reign passion in every perfect mind*, and the love of
man, which regulates our actions according to the va¬
rious relations in which we stand, whether to commu¬
nities or individuals. This sacred connection can ne¬
ver he totally extinguished by any temporary injury.
It ought to subsist in some degree even amongst ene¬
mies. It requires that we should pardon the offences
of others, as we expect .pardon for our own 5 and that
we should no farther resist evil than is necessary for the
preservation of personal rights and social happiness.
62 ] C H R
It dictates every relative and reciprocal duty between Christia-
parents and children, masters and servants, governors »ky* t
and subjects, friends and friends, men and men. Nor v
does it merely enjoin the observation of equity, but
likewise inspires the most sublime and extensive cha¬
rity, a boundless and disinterested effusion of tenderness
for the whole species, which feels their distress and ope¬
rates for their relief and improvement. These celestial
dispositions, and the different duties which are their
natural exertions, are the various gradations by which
the Christian hopes to attain the perfection of his na¬
ture and the most exquisite happiness of which it is
susceptible. . 15
Such are the speculative, and such the practical This sys-
principles of Christianity. From the former, its vo-te® assert-
taries contend, that the origin, economy
tions of intelligent nature alone
and revolu-^Vthe
^ be rationally cx-gUperjc>r jn
plained. From the latter they assert, that the na-theexcel-
ture of man, whether considered in its individual orleneeofits
social capacity, can alone be conducted to its highest^u^an®
perfection and happiness. With the determined A-dence 0f
theists they scarcely deign to expostulate. For, ac-reality, to
cording to them, philosophers who can deduce the all others,
origin and constitution of things from casual rencoun¬
ters or mechanical necessity, are capable of deducing
any conclusion from any premises. Nor can a more
glaring instance of absurdity be produced, than the
idea of a contingent or self-originated universe. When
Deists and other sectarians upbraid them with myste¬
rious or incompatible principles, they without hesita¬
tion remit such cavillers to the creed of natural re¬
ligion. They demand why any reasoner should re¬
fuse to believe three distirtct substances in one indivi¬
sible essence, who admits that a being may be omni¬
present without extension ; or that he can impress
motion upon other things, whilst he himself is neces¬
sarily immoveable. They ask the sage, why it should
be thought more extraordinary, that the Son of God
should be sent to this world, that he should unite the
human nature to his own, that he should suffer and die
for the relief of his degenerate creatures, than that an
existence whose felicity is eternal, inherent, and in¬
finite, should have any motive for creating beings ex¬
terior to himself? Is it not, says the Christian, equal¬
ly worthy of the divine interposition to restore order
and happiness where they are lost, as to communicate
them where they never have been ? Is not infinite
goodness equally conspicuous in relieving misery as in
diffusing happiness ? Is not the existence of what we
call evil in the world, under the tuition of an infinite¬
ly perfect Being, as inscrutable as the means exhibited
by Christianity for its abolition ? Vicarious punish¬
ment, imputed guilt and righteousness, merit or de¬
merit transferred, are certainly not less reconcileable
to human reason, a prion, than the existence of vice
and punishment in the productions of infinite wisdom,
power, and goodness : particularly when it is con¬
sidered, that the virtues exerted and displayed by a
perfect Being in a state of humiliation and suffering,
must be meritorious, and may therefore be rewarded
by the restored felicity of inferior creatures in propor¬
tion "to their glory and excellence j and that such me¬
rit may apply the blessings which it has deserved, in
whatever manner, in whatever degree, and to whom¬
soever it pleases, without being under any necessity to
violate
C H R
[ 63 ]
C H R
perhaps as
necessary,
as natural
events.
Christia- violate the freedom of moral agents, in recalling them
nily. to the paths of virtue and happiness by a mechanical
* » and irresistible force.
Miraca vvl^ granted to philosophy by the Christian,
lous as pos- that as no theory of mechanical nature can be formed
sihle, and without presupposing sacred and established laws, from
which she ought rarely if ever to deviate, so in fact
she tenaciously pursues these general institutions, and
from their constant observance result the order and
regularity of things. But he cannot admit, that the
important ends of moral and intellectual improvement
may be uniformly obtained by the same means. He
affirms, that if the hand of God should either remain
always entirely invisible, or at least only perceptible
in the operation of second causes, intelligent beings
would be apt in the course of time to resolve the inter¬
positions of Deity into the general laws of mechanism j
to forget his connexion with nature, and consequently
their dependence upon him. Hence, according to the
dictates of common sense, and to the unanimous voice
of every religion in every age or clime, for the pur¬
poses of wisdom and benevolence, God may not only
controul, but has actually controuled, the common
course and general operations of nature. So that, as in
the material world the law of cause and effect is general¬
ly and scrupulously observed for the purposes of natu¬
ral subsistence and accommodation : thus suspenses
and changes of that universal law are equally necessary
for the advancement of moral and intellectual perfec¬
tion.
But the disciple of Jesus not only contends, that no
tynot only system of religion has ever yet been exhibited so con-
explains sistent with itself, so congruous to philosophy and the
the pheno- common sense of mankind, as Christianity; he like-
wise avers that it is infinitely more productive of real
and sensible consolation than any other religious or
philosophical tenets, which have ever entered into the
soul, or been applied to the heart of man. For what
is death to that mind which considers eternity as the
career of its existence ? What are the frowns of for¬
tune to him who claims an eternal world as his inhe¬
ritance ? What is the loss of friends to that heart
which feels, with more than natural conviction, that
it shall quickly rejoin them in a more tender, intimate,
and permanent intercourse than any of which the pre¬
sent life is susceptible ? What are the fluctuations and
vicissitudes of external things to a mind which strongly
and uniformly anticipates a state of endless and immu¬
table felicity ? What are mortifications, disappoint¬
ments, and insults, to a spirit which is conscious of be¬
ing the original offspring and adopted child of God ;
which knows that its omnipotent Father will, in pro¬
per time, effectually assert the dignity and privileges
of its nature ? In a word, as earth is but a speck°of
creation, as time is not an instant in proportion to
eternity, such are the hopes and prospects of the Chri¬
stian in comparison of every sublunary misfortune or
difficulty. It is therefore, in his judgment, the eternal
wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man,
that a religion so worthy of God, so suitable to the
frame and circumstances of our natui'e, so consonant
to all the dictates of reason, so friendly to the dignity
and improvement of intelligent beings, pregnant with
genuine comfort and delight, should be rejected and
despised. Were there a possibility of suspense or hesi¬
!7 .
Christiani-
oonsoles
the mise¬
ries of hu
man na-
ture.
tation between tnis and any other religion extant, he Christia-
could freely trust the determination of a question so nity,
important to the candid decision of real virtue and im-
partial philosophy.
It must be allowed that the utmost extent of human
investigation and research into the doctrine of a future
life, reached no farther than splendid conjecture before
the promulgation of Christianity, at which period life
and immortality were clearly brought to light. It is
therefore a singular circumstance that the deist should
not perceive the wonderful superiority of the Christian
over every other system, if it had nothing else to boast
of but this single doctrine, so pregnant with unalloyed
felicity. If Christianity be false, the believer of it
has nothing to lose, since it inculcates a mode of con¬
duct which must ever be amiable in the eye of infinite
goodness ; but if it be true, he has every thing to gain :
while upon this hypothesis the deist has every thing to
lose and nothing to gain. I his is a momentous con¬
sideration, and that man must be truly infatuated who
can treat such an idea with contempt. is
Mr Gibbon, in his History of the Decline and Fall Mr Gib*
of the Roman Empire, mentions five secondary causes bon a.t"
to which he thinks the propagation of Christianity, pro^\hat
and all the remarkable circumstances which attended the propa-
it, may with good reason be ascribed. He seems to gabcm of
insinuate, that Divine Providence did not act in a sin- ehristiani-
gular or extraordinary manner in disseminating the iL'i^eau-*
religion of Jesus through the world j and that, if every ses from
other argument which has been adduced to prove the the opera-
sacred authority of this religion can be parried or re-tio1? of
futed, nothing can be deduced from this source to pre- no
vent it from sharing the same fate with other systems can bede-
of superstition. I he causes of its propagation were induced in
his opinion founded on the principles of human nature Proof of.Its
and the circumstances of society. If we ascribe not a-UlienU'
the propagation of Mahometism, or of the doctrines^’
of Zerdust, to an extraordinary intt:position of Divine
Providence, operating by an unperceived influence on
the dispositions of the human heart, and controuling
and confounding the ordinary laws of nature ; neither
can we, upon any reasonable grounds, refer the promul¬
gation of Christianity to such an interposition.
The secondary causes to which he ascribes these ef-Theeau-
fects are, 1. Ihe inflexible and intolerant zeal of the8es-
Christians j derived from the Jewish religion, but pu¬
rified from the narrow and unsocial spirit which, in¬
stead of inviting, deterred the Gentiles from embracing
the law of Moses. 2. The doctrine of a future life, im¬
proved by every additional circumstance which could
give weight and efficacy to that important truth.
3. The miraculous powers ascribed to the primitive
church. 4. flhe pure and austere morals of the Chri¬
stians. 5. The union and discipline of the Christian
republic, which gradually formed an independent and
increasing state in the heart of the Roman empire.
Before we enter on the examination of Mr Gibbon’s
causes in the order in which they are here enumerated,
we beg leave to remark, that we cannot perceive the
propriety of denominating some of these secondary
causes, since the miraculous powers ascribed to the pri¬
mitive church, if they were real, must have constituted
a primary cause, and if fallacious, could have been no
cause at all, if pot of its complete subversion. As lit¬
tle can we conceive how such an elegant and learned
author
23
Cause J.
C H It [64
Christia- author could imagine a zeal strictly and properly in-
nity flexible and intolerant, as qualified to produce any
-—r—'other effect than the destruction of the system which
they are allowed to have been anxious to promote.
But our sentiment of these causes assigned by Mr Gib¬
bon will be more fully developed as we proceed in our
candid and impartial examination of them.
In pointing out the connexion between the first of
these causes and the effects which he represents as ari¬
sing from it, this learned and ingenious writer observes,
that the religion of the Jews does not seem to have
been intended to be propagated among the Heathens,
and that the conversion of proselytes was rather acci¬
dental than consistent with the purport of the general
spirit of the institutions of Judaism. The Jews were,
of consequence, studious to preserve themselves a pecu¬
liar people. Their zeal for their own religion was in¬
tolerant, narrow, and unsocial.
In Christianity, when it made its appearance in the
wrorld, all the better part of the predominant spirit of
Judaism was retained j but whatever might have a ten¬
dency to confine its influence within narrow limits was
laid aside. Christians were to maintain the doctrines
and adhere to the constitutions of their religion with
sacred fidelity. They were not to violate their alle¬
giance to Jesus by entertaining or professing any reve¬
rence for Jupiter or any other of the Heathen deities ;
it was not even necessary for them to comply with the
positive and ceremonial institutions of the law of Mo¬
ses,—although these were acknowledged to have been
of divine origin. The zeal, therefore, which their reli¬
gion inculcated, was inflexible. It was even intolerant:
for they rvere not to content themselves with profess¬
ing Christianity and conforming to its laws $ they were
to labour with unremitting assiduity, and to expose
themselves to every difficulty and every danger, in
converting others to the same faith.
But the same circumstances which rendered it thus
intolerant, communicated to it a more liberal and a
less unsocial spirit than that of Judaism. The religion
of the Jews was intended only for the few tribes 5 Chri¬
stianity was to become a catholic religion; its advan¬
tages were to be offered to all mankind.
All the different sects which arose among the pri¬
mitive Christians uniformly maintained the same zeal
for the propagation of their own religion, and the same
abhorrence for every other. The orthodox, the Ebi-
onites, the Gnostics, were all equally animated with
the same exclusive zeal, and the same abhorrence of
idolatry, which had distinguished the Jews from other
3I nations.
Observa- Such is the general purport of what Mr Gibbon ad-
tions in an-vances concerning the influence of the first of those se-
swcr. condary causes in the propagation of Christianity. It
would be uncandid to deny, that his statement of facts
appears to be, in this instance, almost fair, and his de¬
ductions tolerably logical. The first Christians were
remarkable for their detestation of idolatry, and for
the generous disinterested zeal with which they labour¬
ed to convert others to the same faith. The first of
these principles, no doubt, contributed to maintain the
dignity and purity of Christianity ; and the second
to disseminate it through the world. But the facts
which he relates are scarce consistent throughout. He
seems to represent the zeal of the first Christians as so
3
]
CHE
hot and intolerant, that they could have no social in¬
tercourse with those who still adhered to the worship of
Heathen deities. In this case, how could they propa- '
gate their religion? Nay, we may even ask, How
could they live ? If they could not mingle with the
Heathens in the transactions either of peace or war j
nor witness the marriage or the funeral of the dearest
friend, if a heathen ; nor practise the elegant arts of
music, painting, eloquence, or poetry ; nor venture to
use freely in conversation the language of Greece or of
Rome 5—it is not easy to see what opportunities they
could have of disseminating their religious sentiments.
If, in such circumstances, and observing rigidly such
a tenor of conduct, they were yet able to propagate
their religion with such amazing success as they are
said to have done 5 they must surely either have prac¬
tised some wondrous arts unknown to us, or have
been assisted by the supernatural operation of divine
Christia¬
nity.
power.
But all the historical records of that period, whether
sacred or profane, concur to prove, that the primitive
Christians in general did not retire with such religious
horror from all intercourse with the Heathens. They
refused not to serve in the armies of the Roman em¬
pire : they appealed to Heathen magistrates, and sub¬
mitted respectfully to their decision j the husband was
often a Heathen, and the wife a Christian ; or, again,
the husband a Christian, and the wife a Heathen.
These are facts so universally known and believed, that
we need not quote authorities in proof of them.
This respectable writer appears therefore not to
have stated the facts which he produces under this head
with sufficient ingenuousness 5 and he has taken care to
exaggerate and improve those which he thinks useful
to his purpose with all the dazzling and delusive colours
of eloquence. But had the zeal of the first Christians
been so intolerant as he represents it, it must have
been highly unfavourable to the propagation of their
religion : all their wishes to make converts would, in
that case, have been counteracted by their unwilling¬
ness to mix in the ordinary intercourse of life, with
those who were to be converted. Their zeal and the
liberal spirit of their religion, were indeed secondary
causes which contributed to its propagation : but their
zeal was by no means so ridiculously intolerant as this
writer would have us believe ; if it had, it must have
produced effects directly opposite to those which he
ascribes to it.
In illustrating the influence of the second of these se- Cause jj,
condary causes to which he ascribes the propagation of
Christianity, Mr Gibbon displays no less ingenuity than
in tracing the nature and the effects of the first. The
doctrine of a future life, improved by every additional
circumstance which can give weight and efficacy to that
important truth, makes a conspicuous figure in the
Christian system ; and it is a doctrine highly flattering
to the natural hopes and wishes of the human heart.
Though the Heathen philosophers were not unac¬
quainted with this doctrine ; yet to them the spiritu¬
ality of the human soul, its capacity of existence in a
separate state from the body, its immortality, and its
prospect of lasting happiness in a future life, rather
appeared things possible and desirable, than truths
fully established upon solid grounds. These doctrines,
Mr Gibbon would persuade us, had no influence on
the
Christia¬
nity.
C H R [ 65 ]
the moral sentiments and general conduct of the Hea- event,
thens. Even the philosophers who amused themselves
with displaying their eloquence and ingenuity on those
splendid themes, did not allow them to influence the
tenor of their lives. The great body of the people,
who were occupied in pursuits very different from the
speculations of philosophy, and were unacquainted with
the questions discussed in the schools, were scarce ever
at pains to reflect whether they consisted of a material
and a spiritual part, or whether their existence was to
be prolonged beyond the term of the present life ; and
they could not regulate their lives by principles which
they did not know.
In the popular superstition of the Greeks and Ro¬
mans, the doctrine of a future state was not omitted.
Mankind were not only flattered with the hopes of
continuing to exist beyond the term of the present
life 5 but different conditions of existence were promi¬
sed or threatened, in which retributions for their con¬
duct in human life were to be enjoyed or suffered.
Some were exalted to heaven, and associated with the
gods; others were rewarded with less illustrious ho¬
nours, and a more moderate state of happiness, in
Elysium ; and those, again, who by their conduct in
life had not merited rewards, but punishments, were
consigned to Tartarus. Such were the ideas of a fu¬
ture state which made a part of the popular supersti¬
tion of the Greeks and Romans. But they produced
only a very faint impression on the minds of those
among whom they prevailed. They were not truths
supported by evidence ; they were not even plausible ;
they were a tissue of absurdities. They had not there¬
fore a more powerful influence on the morals, than
the more refined speculations of the philosophers.
Even the Jews, whose religion and legislature were
communicated from heaven, were in general, till with¬
in a very short time before the propagation of the go¬
spel, as imperfectly acquainted with the doctrine of a
future state as the Greeks and Romans. This doctrine
made no part of the law of;Moses. It is but darkly
and doubtfully insinuated through the other parts of
the Old Testament. Those among the Jews who
treated the sacred Scriptures with the highest reve¬
rence, always denied that such a doctrine could be de¬
duced from any thing which these taught; and main¬
tained that death is the final dissolution of man.
The rude tribes who inhabited ancient Gaul, and
some other nations not more civilized than they, en¬
tertained ideas of a future life, much clearer than
those of the Greeks, the Romans, or the Jews.
Christianity, however, explained and inculcated the
truth of this doctrine in all its splendour, and all its
dignity. It exhibited an alluring, yet not absurd, view
of the happiness of a future life. It conferred new hor¬
rors on the place of punishment, and added new seve¬
rity to the tortures to be inflicted, in another world.
The authority on which it taught those doctrines, and
displayed these views, was such as to silence inquiry and
doubt, and to command implicit belief. What added
to the influence of the doctrine of a future state of ex¬
istence^, thus explained and inculcated, was, that the
first Christians confidently ^'prophesied and sincerely
believed that the end of the world, the consummation of
all things, was fast approaching, and that the genera¬
tion then present should liye to witness that awful
Vol. VI. Part I. • I
Christia¬
nity.
C H R
Another circumstance which contributed to
render the same doctrine so favourable to the propaga¬
tion of Christianity was that the first Christians dealt
damnation without remorse, and almost without making
any exceptions, on all who died in the belief of the
absurdities of Heathen superstition. Thus taught, and
improved with these additional and heightened cir¬
cumstances, this doctrine, partly by presenting allur¬
ing prospects and exciting pleasing hopes, partly by
working upon the fears of the human heart with re¬
presentations of terror, operated in the most powerful
manner in extending the influence of the Christian
faith.
Here, too, facts are rather exaggerated, and the Observa
inferences scarce fairly deduced. It must be confessed t'01’8 *n 1111
that the speculations of the Heathen philosophers didsvvei*
not fully and undeniably establish the doctrine of the
immortality of the human soul ; nor can we presume to
assert, in contradiction to Mr Gibbon, that their argu¬
ments could impress such a conviction of this truth as
might influence in a very strong degree the moral sen¬
timents and conduct. They must, however, have pro¬
duced some influence on these. Some of the most il¬
lustrious among the Heathen philosophers appear to
have been so strongly impressed with the belief of the
soul’s immortality, and of a future state of retribution,
that their general conduct was constantly and in a high
degree influenced by that belief. Plato and Socrates
are eminent and well known instances. And if, in
such instances as these, the belief of these truths pro¬
duced such conspicuous effects, it might he fairly in¬
ferred, though we had no further evidence, that those
characters were far from being singular in this respect.
It is a truth acknowledged as unquestionable in the hi¬
story of arts and sciences, that wherever any one per¬
son has cultivated these with extraordinary success,
some among his contemporaries will always be found
to have rivalled his excellence, and a number of them
to have been engaged in the same pursuits. On this
occasion we may venture, without hesitation, to reason
upon the same principles. When the belief of the im¬
mortality of the human soul produced such illustrious
patterns of virtue as a Plato and a Socrates, it must
certainly have influenced the moral sentiments and con¬
duct of many others, although in an inferior degree.
We speculate, we ddubt, concerning the truth of ma¬
ny doctrines of Christianity ; many who profess that
they believe them, make this profession only because
they have never considered seriously whether they be
true or false. But, notwithstanding this, these truths
still exert a powerful influence on the sentiments and
manners of society in general. Thus, also, it appears
that the doctrines ol ancient philosophy concerning a
future life, and even the notions concerning Olympus,
Elysium, and Tartarus, which made a part of the po¬
pular superstition, did produce a certain influence on
the sentiments and manners of the Heathens in gene¬
ral. That influence was often indeed inconsiderable,
and not always happy ; but still it was somewhat
greater than Mr Gibbon seems willing to allow. Chri¬
stians have been sometimes at pains to exaggerate the
absurdities of Pagan superstition, in order that the ad¬
vantages of Christianity might acquire new value from
being contrasted with it. Here we find one who is ra¬
ther disposed to be the enemy of Christianity, display-
I i n or
/
C H R [ 66 ] C H R
Christia- ing, and even exaggerating, those absurdities for a very
nity. different purpose. But the truth may be safely admit-
ted $ it is only when exaggerated that it can serve any
purpose inimical to the sacred authority of our holy re¬
ligion. Mr Gibbon certainly represents the religious
doctrine of the ancient Gauls, in respect to the immor¬
tality of the human soul and a future state, in too fa¬
vourable a light. It is only because the whole system
of superstition which prevailed among the barbarians
is so imperfectly known, that it has been imagined to
consist of more sublime doctrines than those of the
popular superstition of the Greeks and Romans. 1 he
evidence which Mr Gibbon adduces in proof of what
he asserts concerning these opinions ol the ancient
Gauls, is partial, and far from satisfactory. They did
indeed assert and believe the soul to be immortal} but
this doctrine was blended among a number of absurdi¬
ties much grosser than those which characterize the
popular religion of the Greeks and Romans. TUie lat¬
ter was the superstition of a civilized people, among
whom reason was unfolded and improved by cultiva¬
tion, and whose manners were polished and liberal 5 the
former was that of barbarians, among whom reason was,
as it were, in its infancy, and who were strangers to
the improvements of civilization. When hasty obser¬
vers found that those barbarians were not absolutely
strangers to the idea of immorality, they were moved
to undue admiration j their surprise at finding what
they had not expected, confounded their understanding,
and led them to misconceive and misrepresent. What
we ought to ascribe to the savage ferocity of the cha¬
racter of those rude tribes, has been attributed by mis¬
take to the influence of their belief of a future state.
In the law of Moses, it must be allowed, that this
doctrine is not particularly explained nor earnestly
inculcated. The author of the Divine Legation of
Moses, &c. has founded upon this fact an ingenious
theory, which we shall elsewhere have occasion to
examine. The reasons why this doctrine was not
more fully explained to the Jews, we cannot pretend
to assign, at least in this place } yet we cannot help
thinking, that it was more generally known among
the Jews than Mr Gibbon and the author of the Di¬
vine Legation are willing to allow. Though it be
not strongly inculcated in their code of laws, yet there
is some reason to think that it was known and general¬
ly prevalent among them long before the Babylonish
captivity j even in different passages in the writings of
Moses, it is mentioned or alluded to in an unequivocal
manner. In the history of the patriarchs, it appears
that this doctrine was known to them; it appears to
have had a strong influence on the mind of Moses
himself. Was David, was Solomon, a stranger to this
doctrine ? We cannot here descend to very minute
particulars *, but surely all the efforts of ingenuity must
be insufficient to torture the sacred Scriptures of the
Old Testament, so as to prove that they contain no¬
thing concerning the doctrine of a future state any¬
where but in the writings of the later prophets, and
that even in these it is only darkly insinuated. Were
the Jews, in the earlier part of their history, so totally
secluded from all intercourse with other nations, that a
doctrine of so much importance, more or less known
to all around^ could not be communicated to them ?
The Pharisees did admit traditions, and set upon them
an undue value \ yet they appear to have been const- christia-
dered as the most orthodox of the different sects which ^ nity.
prevailed among the Jews the badducees were rather
regarded as innovators.
But though v/e are of opinion, that this ingenious
writer allows to the doctrine of the Greek and Roman
philosophers, concerning the immortality of the human
soul, as well as the notices concerning a future state,
which made a part of the popular superstitions of those
nations, less influence on the moral sentiments and con¬
duct of mankind than what they really exerted ; though
we cannot agree with him in allowing the ideas of the
immortality of the soul and of a future state, which
were entertained by the Gauls and some other rude
nations, to have been much superior in their nature, or
much happier in their influence, than those of the
Greeks and Romans ; and though, in consequence of
reading the Old Testament, we are disposed to think
that the Jews knew somewhat more concerning the im¬
mortality of the human soul, and concerning the fu¬
ture state in which human beings are destined to exist,
than Mr Gibbon represents them to have known : yet
still we are very sensible, and very well pleased to ad¬
mit, that “ life and immortality were brought to light
through the gospel.”
The doctrine of a future life, as it was preached by
the first Christians, Avas established on a more solid ba¬
sis than that on which it had been before maintained ;
was freed from every absurdity 5 and was, in short, so
much improved, that its influence, which, as it was
explained by Heathen poets and philosophers, must be
confessed to have been in many instances doubtful, now
became favourable only to the interests of piety and
virtue, and to them in a very high degree. It un¬
doubtedly contributed to the successful propagation of
Christianity ; for it was calculated to attract and please
both the speculating philosopher and the simple unen¬
lightened votary of the vulgar superstition. The views
which it exhibited were distinct; and all was plausible
and rational, and demonstrated by the fullest evidence.
But the happiness which it promised was of a less sen¬
sual nature than the enjoyments which the Heathens
expected on Olympus or in Elysium ; and would there¬
fore appear less alluring to those who were not very
capable of refined ideas, or preferred the gratifications
of the senses in the present life to every other species of-
good. If the first Christians rejoiced in the hope of
beholding all the votaries of Pagan idolatry afflicted
with the torments of hell in a future state, and boasted
of these hopes with inhuman exultation, they would in
all probability rather irritate than alarm those whom
they sought to convert from that superstition : the
Heathens would be moved to regard with indignant
scorn the preacher who pretended that those whom
they venerated as gods, heroes, and wise men, were
condemned to a state of unspeakable and lasting tor¬
ment. Would not every feeling of the heart revolt
against the idea, that a parent, a child, a husband, a
wife, a friend, a lover, or a mistress, but lately lost,
and still lamented, was consigned to eternal torments
for actions and opinions which they had deemed highly
agreeable to superior powers ?
We may conclude, then, with respect to the in¬
fluence of this secondary cause in promoting the pro¬
pagation of Christianity, that the circumstances of the
Heathen
Christia¬
nity.
24
Cause III.
*S
Ohserva
tions in re
ply.
C H R
Heathen world were less favourable to
than Mr Gibbon pretends; that the means by which he
represents the primitive Christians, as improving its
efficacy, were some of them not employed, and others
rather likely to weaken than to strengthen it 3 and that
therefore more is attributed to the operation of this
cause than it could possibly produce.
The third cause, the miraculous powers of the pri¬
mitive church, is with good reason represented as ha¬
ving conduced very often to the conviction of infidels.
Mr Gibbon’s reasonings under this head are, That nu¬
merous miraculous works of the most extraordinary
kind were ostentatiously performed by the first Chri¬
stians : that, however, from the difficulty of fixing the
period at which miraculous powers ceased to he com¬
municated to the Christian church, and from some
other circumstances, there is reason to suspect them to
have been merely the pretences of imposture 3 but this
(to use a phrase of his own) is only darkly insinuated :
and, lastly, that the Heathens having been happily
prepared to receive them as real by the many wonders
nearly of a similar nature to which they \yere accus¬
tomed in their former superstition, the miracles which
the first Christians employed to give a sanction to their
doctrines, contributed in the most effectual manner to
the propagation of Christianity.
In reply to what is here advanced, it may be sug-
"gested, that the miracles recorded in the New Testa¬
ment, as having been performed by the first Christians
when engaged in propagating their religion, as well
as a number of others recorded by the Fathers, are
established as true, upon the most indubitable evidence
which human testimony can afford for any fact. Mr
Hume, who was too fond of employing his ingenuity
in undermining truths generally received, has endea¬
voured to prove, that no human testimony, however
strong and unexceptionable, can afford sufficient evi¬
dence of the reality of a miracle. But his reasonings
on this head, which once excited doubt and wonder,
have been since completely refuted 3 and mankind still
continue to acknowledge, that though we are all lia¬
ble to mistakes and capable of deceit, yet human tes-
mony may afford the most convincing evidence of
the most extraordinary and even supernatural facts.
The reader will not expect us to enter, in this place,
into a particular examination of the miracles of our
Saviour and his apostles, and the primitive church.
An inquiry into these will be a capital object in ano¬
ther part of this work (Theology.) We may here
consider it as an undeniable and a generally acknow¬
ledged fact, that a certain part of those miracles were
real. Such as were real undoubtedly contributed, in
a very eminent manner, to the propagation of Chri¬
stianity 5 but they are not to be ranked among the na¬
tural and secondary causes.
It is difficult to distinguish at what period miracu¬
lous gifts ceased to be conferred on the members of the
primitive church 3 yet we may distinguish, if we take
pains to inquire with minute attention, at what period
the evidence ceases to be satisfactory. We can also, by
considering the circumstances of the church through
the several stages of its history, form some judgment
concerning the period during which the gifts of pro¬
phesying, and speaking with tongues, and working mi-
[ 67 ] C H R
that influence racles, were most necessary to Christians to enable them Christia-
to assert the truth and dignity of their religion. niiy.
The Heathens were no strangers to pretended mi- " v™”
racles and prophecies, and other seeming interpositions
of superior beings disturbing the ordinary course of
nature and of human affairs: but the miracles to which
they w’ere familiarized had been so often detected to
be tricks of imposture or pretences of mad enthusiasm,
that, instead of being prepared to witness or to receive
accounts of new miracles with easy credulity, they must
have been in general disposed to view them with jea¬
lousy and suspicion. Besides, the miracles to which
they had been accustomed, and those performed by the
apostles and the first preachers of Christianity, were di¬
rectly contradictory 3 and therefore the one could receive
no assistance from the other.
Yet we must acknowledge, notwithstanding what we
have above advanced, that as disagreements with re¬
spect to the principles and institutions of their reli¬
gion very early arose among Christians 3 so they like¬
wise sought to extend its influence, at a very early pe¬
riod, by the use of pious frauds. Pious frauds, too,
appear to have sometimes served the immediate pur¬
poses for which they were employed, though eventually
they have been highly injurious to the cause of Christi¬
anity.
We conclude, then, that Christianity was indebted
to the influence of miracles in a considerable degree
for its propagation : but that the real miracles of our
Saviour and his apostles, &c. were not among the se¬
condary causes of its success : that the Heathens who
were to be converted were not very happily prepared
for receiving the miracles of the gospel with blind cre¬
dulity : that, as it is possible to discern between suffi¬
cient and insufficient evidence, so it is not more diffi¬
cult to distinguish between true and false miracles 3 and,
lastly, that false miracles were soon employed by Chri¬
stians as engines to support and propagate their reli¬
gion, and perhaps not unsuccessfully 3 but were, upon
the whole, more injurious than serviceable to the cause
which they W’ere called in to maintain. 25
The fourth of this series of secondary causes, which Cause IV.
this author thinks to have been adequate to the propa¬
gation of Christianity, is the virtues of the primitive
Christians. These he is willing to attribute to other
and less generous motives, rather than to the pure in¬
fluence of the doctrines and precepts of their religion.
The first converts to Christianity were most of them
from among the lowest and most worthless characters.
The wise, the mighty, and those who were distinguish¬
ed by specious virtues, were in general perfectly satis¬
fied with their present circumstances and future pro¬
spects. People whose minds were naturally weak, un¬
enlightened, or oppressed with the sense of atrocious
guilt, and who were infamous or outcasts from society,
were eager to grasp at the hopes which the gospel held
out to them.
When, after enlisting under the banner of Christ,
they began to consider themselves as “ born again to
newness of life 3” remorse and fear, which easily pre¬
vail over weak minds 3 selfish hopes of regaining their
reputation, and attaining to the honours and happiness
of those mansions which Jesus was said to have gone to
prepare 3 with a desire to raise the honour and extend
I 2 the
Christia¬
nity.
27
Observa-
C H R [68
the influence of the society of which they were become
members : all together operated so powerfully as to
enable them to display both active and passive virtue
in a very extraordinary degree. Their virtues did not
flow from the purest and noblest source j yet they at¬
tracted the notice and moved the admiration of man¬
kind. Of those who admired, some were eager to
imitate ; and, in order to that, thought it necessary to
adopt the same principles of action.
Their virtues, too, were rather of that species which
excite wonder, because uncommon, and not of essen¬
tial utility in the ordinary intercourse of society ; than
of those which are indispensably necessary to the exist¬
ence of social order, and contribute to the ease and con¬
venience of life. Such virtues were well calculated to
engage the imitation of those who had failed egregious-
ly in the practice of the more social virtues.
Thus they practised extraordinary, but useless and
unsocial virtues* upon no very generous motives ; those
virtues drew upon them the eyes of the world, and in¬
duced numbers to embrace their faith.
We must, however unwillingly, declare that this is
tionj in an-plainly an uncandid account of the virtues of the pri¬
mitive Christians, and the motives from which they 0-
riginated. The social virtues are strongly recommend¬
ed through the gospel. No degree of mortification or
self-denial, or seclusion from the ordinary business and
amusements of social life, was recjuired of the early
converts to Christianity ; save what was indispensably
necessary to wean them from the irregular habits in
which they had before indulged, and which had ren¬
dered them nuisances in society, and to form them to
new habits equally necessary to their happiness and
their usefulness in life. We allow that they practised
virtues which in other circumstances would, however
splendid, have been unnecessary. But in the difficult
circumstances in which the first Christians were placed,
the virtues which they practised were in the highest
degree social. The most prominent feature in their
character was, “ their continuing to entertain senti¬
ments of generous benevolence, and to discharge scru¬
pulously alt the social duties,” towards those who ex¬
ercised neither charity nor humanity, and frequently not
even bare integrity and justice, in their conduct towards
them.
It cannot be said with truth, that such a proportion
of the primitive Christians were people whose charac¬
ters had been infamous and their circumstances despe¬
rate, as that the character of the religion which they
embraced can suffer from this circumstance. Nor were
they only the weak and illiterate whom the apostles and
their immediate successors converted by their preach¬
ing. The criminal, to be sure, rejoiced to hear that
he might obtain absolution of his crimes ; the mourner
was willing to receive comfort; minds of refined and
generous feelings were deeply affected with that good¬
ness which had induced the Son of God to submit to
the punishment due to sinners : but the simplicity, the
rationality, and the beauty of the Christian system, like¬
wise prevailed in numerous instances over the pride and
prejudices of the great and the wise : in so many in¬
stances, as are sufficient to vindicate the Christian church
from the aspersions by which it has been represented as
being in the first period ol its existence merely a body
of criminals and idiots.
Christia¬
nity.
2S
] C H R
The principles, too, from which the virtues of the
first Christians originated, were not peculiarly mean
and selfish ; nay, they seem to have been uncommonly
sublime and disinterested. Remorse in the guilty mind,
is a natural and reasonable sentiment ; the desire of
happiness in every human breast is equally so. It is
uncandid to cavil against the first Christians lor being,
like the rest of mankind, influenced by these senti¬
ments : And when we behold them overlooking tem¬
porary possessions and enjoyments, extending their
views to futurity, and “ living by faith when we
observe them >l doing good to those who hated them,
blessing those who cursed them, and praying for those
by whom they were despitefully used can we deny
their virtues to have been of the most generous and dis¬
interested kind.
We allow then that the virtues of the first Chri¬
stians must have contributed to the propagation of their
religion : but it is with pain that we observe this re¬
spectable writer studiously labouring to misrepresent the
principles from which those virtues arose j and not only
the principles from which they arose, but also their im¬
portance in society.
The fifth cause was the mode of church government Cause V,
adopted by the first Christians, by which they were with obser-
knit together in one society; who preferred the church vatl0I1K-
and its interests to their country and civil concerns.
We wish not to deny, that the mutual attachment of
the primitive Christians contributed to spread the in¬
fluence of their religion ; and the order which they
maintained, in consequence of being animated with this
spirit of brotherly love, and with such ardent zeal for
the glory of God, must no doubt have produced na
less happy effects among them than order and regula¬
rity produce on every other occasion on which they
are strictly observed. But whether the form of church-
government, which was gradually established in the
Christian church, was actually the happiest that could
possibly have been adopted j or whether, by establish¬
ing a distinct society, with separate interests, within
the Roman empire, it contributed to the dissolution of
that mighty fabric, we cannot here pretend to inquire.
These are subjects of discussion, with respect to which
we may with more propriety endeavour to satisfy our
readers elsewhere.
From the whole of this review of what Mr Gibbon General
has so speciously advanced concerning the influence of conclusion,
these five secondary causes in the propagation of the
gospel, we think ourselves warranted to conclude, flugllce of
That the zeal of the first Christians was not, as he re- the five
presents it, intolerant r That the doctrine of the im-causes,
mortality of the human soul was somewhat better un¬
derstood in the Heathen world, particularly among the
Greeks and Romans, and the Jews, than he represents
it to have been j and had an influence someryhat hap¬
pier than what he ascribes to it: That the additional
circumstances by which, he tells us, the first preachers
of Christianity improved the effects of this doctrine,
were far from being calculated to allure converts :
That the heathens, therefore, were not quite so well
prepared for an eager reception of this doctrine as he
would persuade us they were; and, of consequence,
could not be influenced by it in so considerable a de¬
gree in their conversion : That real, unquestionable mi¬
racles, performed by our Saviour, by his apostles, and
b7
C H It [ 69 ] C H R
Christfa- by tbelr successors, did contribute signally to the pro-
nity, pagation of Christianity ; but are not to be ranked
Christians, among the secondary causes: That weakness and blind
' v ' zeal did at times employ pretended miracles for the
same purpose not altogether ineffectually : That though
these despicable and wicked means might be in some
instances successful 5 yet they were, upon the whole,
much more injurious than beneficial : That the virtues
of the primitive Christians arose from the most gene¬
rous and noble motives, and were in their nature and
tendency highly favourable to social order, and to the
comfort of mankind in the social state : And, lastly,
That the order and regularity of church-government,
which were gradually established among the first Chri¬
stians, contributed greatly to maintain the dignity and
spread the influence of their religion j but do not ap¬
pear to have disjoined them from their fellow-subjects,
or to have rendered them inimical to the welfare of the
state of which they were members.
Upon the whole, then, we do not see that these se¬
condary causes were equal to the effects that have
been ascribed to then); and it seems undeniable, that
others of a superior kind co-operated with them. We
earnestly recommend to the perusal of the reader a
valuable performance of Lord Hailes’s, in which he
inquires into Mr Gibbon’s assertions and reasonings,
concerning the influence of these five causes, with the
utmost accuracy of information, strength, and clearness
of reasoning, and elegant simplicity of style, and with¬
out virulence or passion.
CHRISTIANS, those who pro fess the -religion of
Christ: See Christianity and Messiah.—The name
Christian was first given at Antioch, in the year 42, to
such as believed in Christ, as we read in the Acts: till
that time they were called disciples.
The first Christians distinguished themselves in the
most remarkable manner by their conduct and their
virtues. The faithful, whom the preaching of St Pe¬
ter had converted, hearkened attentively to the exhor¬
tations of the Apostles, who failed not carefully to in¬
struct them, as persons who were entering upon an
entirely new life. They went every day to the temple
with one heart and one mind, and continued in pray¬
ers $ doing nothing different from the other Jews, be¬
cause it was yet not time to separate from them. But
they made a still greater progress in virtue j for they
sold all that they possessed, and distributed their goods
in proportion to the wants of their brethren. They
ate their meat with gladness and singleness of heart,
praising God, and having favour with all the people.
St Chrysostom, examining from what source the emi¬
nent virtue of the first Christians flowed, ascribes it
principally to their divesting themselves of their pos¬
sessions : “ For (says the father) persons from whom
all that they have is taken away, are not subject to
“ sin : whereas, whoever has large possessions, wants
“ not a devil or a tempter to draw him into hell by a
“ thousand ways.”
The Jews were the first and the most inveterate
enemies the Christians had. They put them to death
as often as they had it in their power : and when
they revolted against the Romans in the time of the
emperor Adrian, Barcochebas, the head of that re¬
volt, employed against the Christians the most rigo¬
rous punishments to compel them to blaspheme and
renounce Jesus Christ. And we find that, even in the Christians,
third century, they endeavoured to get into their v——v—
hands Christian women, in order to scourge and stone
them in their synagogues. They cursed the Christians
solemnly three times a-day in their synagogues, and
their rabbins would not suffer them to converse with
Christians upon any occasion. Nor were they content¬
ed to hate and detest them ; but they despatched emis¬
saries all over the world to defame the Christians, and
spread all sorts of calumnies against them. They ac¬
cused them, among other things, of worshipping the
sun and the head of an ass. They reproached them
with idleness, and being an useless race of people.
They charged them with treason, and endeavouring
to erect a new monarchy against that of the Romans.
They affirmed, that, in celebrating their mysteries,
they used to kill a child and eat its flesh. They ac¬
cused them of the most shocking incests, and of intem¬
perance in their feasts of charity. But the lives and
behaviour of the first Christians were sufficient to re¬
lute all that was said against them, and evidently de¬
monstrated that these accusations were mere calumny
and the effect of inveterate malice.
Pliny the Younger, who was governor of Pontus
and Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a
very particular account of the Christians in that pro¬
vince, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Tra¬
jan, of which the following is an extract: “ I take
“ the liberty, Sir, to give you an account of every
“ difficulty which arises to me. 1 have never been
“ present at the examination of the Christians ; for
“ which reason I know not what questions have been
“ put to them, nor in what manner they have been
“ punished. My behaviour towards those who have
“ been accused to me has been this : I have interro-
“ gated them, in order to know whether they were
“ really Christians. When they have confessed it, I
“ have repeated the same question two or three times,
“ threatening them with death if they did not re-
“ nounce this religion. Those who have persisted
“ in their confession, have been, by my order, led to
“ punishment. I have even met with some Roman
“ citizens guilty of this phrensy, whom, in regard to
“ their quality, I have set apart from the rest, in or-
“ der to send them to Rome. These persons de-
“ blare, that their whole crime, if they are guilty,
“ consists in this j that, on certain days, they assem-
“ ble before sunrise, to sing alternately the praises
“ of Christ, as of a god, and to oblige themselves,
“ by the performance of their religious rites, not to
“ be guilty of theft, or adultery, to observe inviolably
“ their word, and to be true to their trust. This
“ deposition has obliged me to endeavour to inform
“ my.'df still farther of this matter, by putting to the
“ torture two of their women-servants, whom they
“ call deaconnesses; but I could learn nothing more
“ from them than that the superstition of these peo-
“ pie is as ridiculous as their attachment to it is asto-
“ nishing.”
There is extant a justification, or rather panegyric,
of the Christians, pronounced by the mouth of a Pa¬
gan prince. It is a letter of the emperor Antoninus,
written in the year 152, in answer to the States of
Asia, who had accused the Christians of being the
cause of some earthquakes which had happened in
that
C H R [ 7<
Christians, that part of the world. The emperor advises them
“ take care, lest, in torturing and punishing those
■whom they accused of Atheism (meaning the Chri¬
stians), they should render them more obstinate, in¬
stead of prevailing upon them to change their opinion 5
since their religion taught them to suffer with plea¬
sure for the sake of God.” As to the earthquakes
which had happened, he put them in mind, “ that
they themselves are always discouraged, and sink un¬
der such misfortunes 5 whereas the Christians never
discovered more cheerfulness and confluence in God
than upon such occasion.” He tells them, that
“ they pay no regard to religion, and neglect the
worship of the Eternal j and, because the Christians
honour and adore Him, therefore they are jealous ol
them, and persecute them even to death.” He con¬
cludes : “ Many of the governors of provinces have
formerly written to my father concerning them ; and
his answer always was, that they should not be molest¬
ed or disturbed, provided they quietly submitted to the
authority of the government. Many persons have like¬
wise consulted me upon this affair, and I have returned
the same answer to them all j namely, that if any one
accuses a Christian merely on account of his religion,
the accused person shall be acquitted, and the accuser
himself punished.” This ordinance, according to Eu¬
sebius, was publicly fixed up at Ephesus in an .assembly
of the states.
It is no difficult matter to discover the causes of the
many persecutions to which the Christians were ex¬
posed during the three first centuries. The purity of
the Christian morality, directly opposite to tire cor¬
ruption of the Pagans, was doubtless one of the most
powerful motives of the public aversion. To this may
be added, the many calumnies unjustly spread about
concerning them by their enemies, particularly the Jews.
And this occasioned so strong a prejudice against them,
that, the Pagans condemned them without inquiring in¬
to their doctrine, or permitting them to defend them¬
selves. Besides, their worshipping Jesus Christ as God,
was contrary to one of the most ancient laws ot the
Roman empire, which expressly forbade the acknow¬
ledging of any God which had not been approved by
the senate.
But notwithstanding the violent opposition made to
the establishment of the Christian religion, it gained
ground daily, and very soon made a surpi'ising pro¬
gress in the Koman empire. In the third century,
there were Christians in the camp, in the senate, in the
palace: in short everywhere, but in the temples and
the theatres : they filled the towns, the country, the
islands. Men and women of all ages and conditions,
and even those of the first dignities, embraced the faith j
insomuch that the Pagans complained that the reve¬
nues of their temples were ruined. They were in such
great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertullian ex¬
presses it) were they to have retired into another coun¬
try, they would have left the Romans only a frightful
solitude.
The primitive Christians were not only remarkable
for the practice of every virtue j they were also very
eminently distinguished by the many miraculous gifts
and graces bestowed by God upon them. “ Some
of the Christians (says Irenseus) drive out devils, not
in appearance only, but so as that they never return :
, ] C H R
whence it often happens, that those who are dispos- Christians,
sessed of evil spirits embrace the faith and are received v~~-'
into the church. Others know what is to come, see
visions, and deliver oracles as prophets. Others heal
the sick by laying their hands on them, and restore
them to perfect health : and we find some who even
raise the dead.—It is impossible to reckon up the gifts
and graces which the church has received from God——
what they have freely received they as freely bestow.
They obtain these gifts by prayer alone, and invoca¬
tion of the name of Jesus Christ, without any mixture
of enchantment or superstition.”
We shall here subjoin the remarkable story, attested
by Pagan authors themselves, concerning the Christian
Legion in the army of the emperor Marcus Aurelius.
That prince having led his forces against the Quadi,
a people on the other side of the Danube, was sur¬
rounded and hemmed in by the enemy in a disadvan¬
tageous place, and where they could find no water.
The Romans were greatly embarrassed, and, being
pressed by the enemy, were obliged to continue un¬
der arms, exposed to the violent heat of the sun, and
almost dead with thirst j when, on a sudden, the clouds
gathered, and the rain fell in great abundance. The
soldiers received the water in their bucklers and hel¬
mets, and satisfied both their own thirst and that of
their horses. The enemy, presently after, attacked
them 5 and so great was the advantage they had over
them, that the Romans must have been overthrown,
had not Heaven again interposed by a violent storm of
hail, mixed with lightning, which fell on the enemy,
and abliged them to retreat. It was found after¬
wards, that one of the legions, which consisted of
Christians, had by their prayers, which they ofl’ered
upon their knees before the battle, obtained this fa¬
vour from heaven : and from this event that legion
was surnamed The Thundering Legion. See, however,
the criticism of Mr Moyle on this story in his Works,
vol. ii. p. 81—390. See also Mosheim's Church Histo¬
ry, vol. i. p. 124.
Such were the primitive Christians, whose religion
has by degrees spread itself over all parts of the world,
though not with equal purity in all. And though, by
the providence of God, Mahometans and Idolaters
have been suffered to possess themselves of those places
in Greece, Asia, and Africa, where the Christian re¬
ligion formerly most flourished; yet there are still such
remains of the Christian religion among them as to
give them opportunity sufficient to be converted.
For, in the dominions of the Turk in Europe,, the
Christians make two third parts at least of the inha¬
bitants $ and in Constantinople itself there are above
twenty Christian churches, and above thirty in Thes-
salonica. Philadelphia, now called Ala-shahir, has no
fewer than twelve Christian churches. The whole
island of Chio is governed by Christians $ and some
islands of the Archipelago are inhabited by Christians
only. In Africa, besides the Christians living in E-
gypt, and in the kingdom of Congo and Angola, the
islands upon the western coasts are inhabited by Chri¬
stians j and the vast kingdom of Abyssinia, supposed
to'be as big as Germany, France, Spain, and Italy,
put together, is possessed by Christians. In Asia, most
part of the empire of Russia, the countries of Circassia
and Mingrelia, Georgia, and Mount Libanus, are. in¬
habited
C H R [
Christians habited only by Christians. In America, it is notori-
ti ons that the Christians are very numerous, and spread
Christina. ^ over most parts of that vast continent.
v Christians of St John, a sect of Christians very nu¬
merous in Balfara and the neighbouring towns : they
formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St
John baptized, and it was from thence they had their
name. They hold an anniversary feast of five days j
during which they all go to the bishop, who baptizes
them with the baptism of St John. Their baptism is
also performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays :
they have no notion of the third person in the Trinity;
nor have they any canonical book, but abundance full
of charms, &c. Their bishoprics descend by inheri¬
tance, as our estates do, though they have the cere¬
mony of an election.
Christians of St Thomas, a sort of Christians in a
peninsula of India on this side of the gulf: they in¬
habit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring
country: these admit of no images j and receive only
the cross, to which they pay a great veneration : they
affirm, that the souls of the saints do not see God till
after the day of judgment: they acknowledge but
three sacraments, viz. baptism, orders, and the eucha-
rist ; they make no use of holy oils in the administra¬
tion of baptism; but, after the ceremony, anoint the
infant with an unction composed of oil and walnuts,
without any benediction. In the eucharist, they con¬
secrate with little cakes made of oil and salt, and in¬
stead of wine make use of water in which raisins have
been infused.
CHRISTIANA, a town of Norway, in the province
of Aggerhuys, situated in a bay of the sea. E. Long.
10. 20. N. Lat. 59. 50.
CHRISTIANOPLE, a port-town of Sweden, situ¬
ated on the Baltic sea, in the territory of Bleckingen,
and province of South Gothland. E. Long. 15. 47. N.
Lat. 570.
CHRISTIANSTADT, a strong fortified towrn of
Sweden ; situated in the territory of Bleckingen and
province of South Gothland. It was built in 1614 by
Christian IV. king of Denmark, when this province
belonged to the Danes ; and finally ceded to the Swedes
by the peace of Roskild in 1658. The town is small
but neatly built, and is esteemed the strongest fortress
in Sweden. The houses are all of brick, and mostly
stuccoed white. It stands in a marshv plain, close to
the river Helgeia, which flows into the Baltic at Alius,
about the distance of 20 miles, and is navigable only
lor small craft of seven tons burden. English vessels an¬
nually resort to this port for alum, pitch, and tar. The
inhabitants have manufactures of cloth and silken stuffs,
and carry on a small degree of commerce. E. Long.
14. 40. N. Lat. 56. 10.
CHRISTINA, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus
king of Sweden, was born in 1626 ; and succeeded to
the. crown in 1633, when only seven years of age.
This princess discovered, even in her infancy, what she
afterwards expressed in her memoirs, an invincible an¬
tipathy for the employments and conversation of wo¬
men j and she had the natural awkwardness of a man
with respect to all the little works which generally fall
to their share. She was, on the contrary, fond of vio¬
lent exercises, and such amusements as consist in feats
of strength and activity. She had also both ability and
2
i ] C H R
taste for abstracted speculations j and amused herself Christina,
with language and the sciences, particularly that of
legislation and government. She derived her know¬
ledge of ancient history from its source j and Polybius
and Thucydides were her favourite authors. As she
was the sovereign of a powerful kingdom, it is not
strange that almost all the princes in Europe aspired
to her bed. Among others, were the prince of Den¬
mark, the elector Palatine, the elector of Branden¬
burg, the king of Spain, the king of the Romans, Don
John of Austria, Sigismund of Rockocci, count and
general of Cassovia $ Stanislaus king of Poland 5 John
Cassimir his brother ; and Charles Gustavus duke of
Deux Ponts, of the Bavarian Palatinate family, son of
her father the great Gustavus’s sister, and consequently
her first cousin. To this nobleman, as well as to all
his competitors, she constantly refused her hand ; but
she caused him to be appointed her successor by the
states. Political interests, differences of religion, and
contrariety of manners, furnished Christina with pre¬
tences for rejecting all her suitors j but her true mo¬
tives were the love of independence, and a strong aver¬
sion she had conceived, even in her infancy, from the
marriage yoke. “ Do not force me to marry (said
she to the states) j for if I should have a son, it is not
more probable that he should be an Augustus than a
Nero.”
An accident happened in the beginning of her reign,
which gave her a remarkable opportunity of displaying
the strength and equanimity of her mind. As she was
at the chapel of the castle of Stockholm, assisting at
divine service with the principal lords of her court, a
poor wretch, who was disordered in his mind, came
to the place with a design to assassinate her. This man,
who was preceptor of the college, and in the full vi¬
gour of his age, chose, for the execution of his de¬
sign, the moment in which the assembly was perform¬
ing what in the Swedish church is called an act of re¬
collection ; a silent and separate act of devotion, per¬
formed by each individual kneeling and hiding the face
with the hand. Taking this opportunity, he rushed
through the crowd, and mounted a ballustrade within
which the queen was upon her knees. The Baron
Braki, chief justice of Sweden, was alarmed, and cried
out; and the guards crossed their partisans, to prevent
his coming further : but he struck them furiously on
one side ; leaped over the barrier 5 and, being then
close to the queen, made a blow at her with a knife
which he had concealed without a sheath in his sleeve.
The queen avoided the blow, and pushed the captain
of her guards, who instantly threw himself upon the
assassin, and seized him by the hair. All this happen¬
ed in less than a moment of time. The man was known
to be mad, and therefore nobody supposed, he had any
accomplices : they therefore contented themselves with
locking him up; and the queen returned to her devo¬
tion without the least emotion that could be perceived
by the people, who were much more frightened than
herself.
One of the great affairs that employed Christina
while she wras upon the throne, was the peace of
Westphalia, in which many clashing interests were to
be reconciled, and many claims to he ascertained. It
was concluded in the month of October 1648. The
success of the Swedish arms rendered Christina the ar-
bitress
C H R [ 7:
Christina, bitress of this treaty ; at least as to the affairs of Svve-
1 ■ '-v    den, to which this peace confirmed the. possession of
many important countries. No public event of im¬
portance took, place during the rest of Christina’s
reign ; for there were neither wars abroad, nor trou¬
bles at home. This quiet might be the effect ot
chance j but it might also be the effect of a good ad¬
ministration, and the great reputation of the queen ;
and the love her people had for her ought to lead us
to this determination. Her reign was that of learn¬
ing and genius. She drew about her, wherever she
was, all the distinguished characters of her time : Gro-
tius, Paschal, Bochart, Hescartes, Gassendi, Saumaise,
Naude, Vossius, Heinsius, Meibom, Scudery, Me¬
nage, Lucas, Holstentius, Lambecius, Bayle, Madame
Hacier, Filicaia, and many others. The arts never
fail to immortalize the prince who protects them *, and
almost all these illustrious persons have celebrated Chris¬
tina, either in poems, letters, or literary productions
of some other kind, the greater part of which are now
forgotten. They form, however, a general cry of
praise, and a mass of testimonials which may be consi¬
dered as a solid basis of reputation. Christina, how¬
ever, may be justly reproached with want of taste, in
not properly assigning the rank of all these persons,
whose merits, though acknowledged, were yet une¬
qual ; particularly for not having been sufficiently sen¬
sible of the superiority of Descartes, whom she disgust¬
ed, and at last wholly neglected. The rapid fortune
which the adventurer Michon, known by the name of
Bourdelot, acquired by her countenance and liberality,
was also a great scandal to literature. He had no pre¬
tensions to learning j and though sprightly was yet in¬
decent. He was brought to court by the learned Sau¬
maise •, and, for a time, drove literary merit out of it,
making learning the object of his ridicule, and exact¬
ing from Christina an exorbitant tribute to the weak¬
ness and inconstancy of her sex 5 for even Christina,
with respect to this man, showed herself to be weak
and inconstant. At last she was compelled, by the
public indignation, to banish this unworthy minion :
and he was no sooner gone than her regard for him
was at an end. She was ashamed of the favour she had
shown him ; and, in a short time, thought of him with
hatred or contempt. This Bourdelot, during his as¬
cendency over the queen, had supplanted Count Mag¬
nus de la Gardie, son of the constable of Sweden, who
was a relation, a favourite, and perhaps the lover of
Christina. M. de Mottville, who had seen him ambas¬
sador in France, says, in his memoirs, that he spoke
of his queen in terms so passionate and respectful, that
every one concluded his attachment to her to be more
ardent and tender than a mere sense of duty can
produce. This nobleman fell into disgrace because he
showed an inclination to govern ; while M. Bourdelot
seemed to aim at nothing more than to amuse 5 and
concealed, under the unsuspected character of a droll,
the real ascendency which he exercised over the queen’s
mind.
-About this time, an accident happened to Christina
which brought her into still greater danger than that
which has been related already. Having given or¬
ders for some ships of war to be built at the port of
Stockholm, she went to see them when they were fi¬
nished $ and as she was going on board of them, cross
3
] C H R
a narrow plank, with Admiral Fleming, his foot slip*. Christina.
ping, he fell, and drew the queen with him into the  v"—J
sea, which in that place was near 90 feet deep. An¬
thony Steinberg, the queen’s first equerry, instantly
threw himself into the water, laid hold of her robe,
and, with such assistance as was given him, got the
queen ashore : during this accident, her recollection
was such, that the moment her lips were above water,
she cried out, “ Take care of the admiral.” When
she was got out of the water, she discovered no emo¬
tion either by her gesture or countenance ; and she
dined the same day in public, where she gave a hu¬
morous account of her adventure.
But though at first she was fond of the power and
splendour of royalty, yet she began at length to feel that
it embarrassed her j and the same love of indepen¬
dency and liberty which had determined her against
marriage, at last made her weary of the crown. As,
after her first disgust, it grew more and more irksome
to her, she resolved to abdicate j and, in 1652, com¬
municated her resolution to the senate. The senate
zealously remonstrated against it ; and was joined by
the people 5 and even by Charles Gustavus himself,
who was to succeed her: she yielded to their importu¬
nities, and continued to sacrifice her own pleasure to
the will of the public till the year 1654, and then she
carried her design into execution. It appears by one
of her letters to M. Canut, in whom she put great con¬
fidence, that she had meditated this project for more
than eight years 5 and that she had communicated it
to him five years before it took place.
The ceremony of her abdication was a mournful so¬
lemnity, a mixture of pomp and sadness, in which
scarce any eyes but her own were dry. She conti¬
nued firm and composed through the whole; and, as
soon as it was over, prepared to remove into a coun¬
try more favourable to science than Sweden was.
Concerning the merit of this action, the world has al¬
ways been divided in opinion ; it has been condemned
alike both by the ignorant and the learned, the trifler
and the sage. It was admired, however, by the
great Conde : “ How great was the magnanimity of
this princess (said he), who could so easily give up
that for which the rest of mankind are continually
destroying each other, and which so many through¬
out their whole lives pursue without attaining!” It
appears, by the works of St Evremond, that the abdi¬
cation of Christina was at that time the universal to¬
pic of speculation and debate in France. Christina,
besides abdicating her crown, abjured her religion :
but this act was universally approved by one party
and censured by another; the Papists triumphed, and
the Protestants were ofl’ended. No prince, after a
long imprisonment, ever showed so much joy upon
being restored to his kingdom, as Christina did in
quitting hers. When she came to a little brook, which
separates Sweden from Denmark, she got out of her
carriage ; and leaping on the other side, cried out in
a transport of joy, “ At last I am free, and out of
Sweden, whither, I hope, I shall never return.”
She dismissed her women, and laid by the habit of
her sex : “ I would become a man (said she) j yet I
do not love men because they are men, but because
they are not women.” She made her abjuration at
Brussels j where she saw the great Conde, who, after
hi*
C H R [ 73 ] C H R
Christina. I’i9 defection, made that city his asylum. “ Cousin,
— -v—■ > (said she), who would have thought, ten years ago,
that we should have met at this distance from our
countries ?”
The inconstancy of Christina’s temper appeared in
her going continually from place to place : from Brus¬
sels she went to Rome; from Rome to France, and
from France she returned to Rome again ; after this
she went to Sweden, where she was not very well re¬
ceived j from Sweden she went to Hamburgh, where
she continued a year, and then went again to Rome ;
from Rome she returned to Hamburgh ; and again
to Sweden, where she was still worse received than
before j upon which she went back to Hamburgh,
and from Hamburgh again to Rome. She intended
another journey to Sweden $ but it did not take place,
any more than an expedition to England, where
Cromwell did not seem well disposed to receive her ;
and after many wanderings, and many purposes of
wandering still more, she at last died at Rome in
1689.
It must be acknowledged, that her journeys to
Sweden had a motive of necessity; for her appoint¬
ments were very ill paid, though the states often con¬
firmed them after her abdication : but to other places
she was led merely by a roving disposition ; and,
what is more to her discredit, she always disturbed
the quiet of every place she came into, by exacting
greater deference to her rank as queen than she had
a right to expect, by her total non-conformity to the
customs of the place, and by continually exciting and
fomenting intrigues of state. She was indeed always
too busy, even when she was upon the throne j for
there was no event in Europe in which she was not
ambitious of acting a principal part. During the
troubles in France by the faction called the Fronde,
she wrote with great eagerness to all the interested
parties, officiously offering her mediation to recon¬
cile their interests, and calm their passions, the secret
springs of which it was impossible she should know.
This was first thought a dangerous, and afterwards a
ridiculous behaviour. During her residence in France
she gave universal disgust, not only by violating all the
customs of the country, but by practising others di¬
rectly opposite. She treated the ladies of the court
with the greatest rudeness and contempt : when they
came to embrace her, she being in man’s habit, cried
out, “ What a strange eagerness have these women to
kiss me ! is it because I look like a man ?”
But though she ridiculed the manners of the French
court, she was very solicitous to enter into its intrigues.
Louis XIV. then very young, was enamoured of Ma¬
demoiselle de Mancini, niece to Cardinal Mazarine ;
Christina flattered their passion, and offered her ser¬
vice. “ I would fain be your confidant (said she) j if
you love, you must marry.”
The murder of Monaldechi is, to this hour, an in¬
scrutable mystery. It is, however, of a piece with the
expressions constantly used by Christina in her letters,
with respect to those with whom she was offended j
for she scarce ever signified her displeasure without
threatening the life of the offender. “ If you fail in
your duty, (said she to her secretary, whom she sent to
Stockholm after her abdication), not all the pow'er of
the king of Sweden shall save your life, though you
Vol. VI. Part I. ' 6 J +
should take shelter in his arms.” A musician having Christina
quitted her service for that of the duke of Savoy, she []
was so transported with rage as to disgrace herself by Christo-
these words, in a letter written with her own hand : . P^er s-
“ He lives only for me : and if he does not sing for ’
me, he shall not sing long for any body.”
Bayle was also threatened for having said that the
letter which Christina wrote, upon the revocation of
the edict of Nantes, was “ a remain of Protestantism j”
but he made his peace by apologies and submission.
See the article Bayle.
Upon the whole, she appears to have been an un¬
common mixture of faults and great qualities j which,
however it might excite fear and respect, was by no
means amiable. She had wit, taste, parts, and learn¬
ing : she w'as indefatigable upon the throne ; great in
private life $ firm in misfortunes j impatient of contra¬
diction ; and, except in her love letters, inconstant
in her inclinations. The most remarkable instance of
this fickleness is, That after she had abdicated the
crown of Sweden, she intrigued for that of Poland.
She was, in every action and pursuit, violent and ar¬
dent in the highest degree j impetuous in her desires,
dreadful in her resentment, and fickle in her con¬
duct.
She says of herself, that, “ she was mistrustful, am¬
bitious, passionate, haughty, impatient, contemptuous,
satirical, incredulous, undevout, of an ardent and vio¬
lent temper, and extremely amorous;” a disposition,
however, to which, if she may be believed, her pride
and her virtue were always superior. In general, her
failings were those of her sex, and her virtues the vir¬
tues of ours.
Santa Christina, one of the Marquesas Islands.
CHRISTMAS day, a festival of the Christian
church; observed on the 25th of December, in me¬
mory of the nativity or birth of Jesus Christ. As to
the antiquity of this festival, the first footsteps we find
of it are in the second century, about the time of the
emperor Commodus. The decretal epistles indeed
carry it up a little higher; and say that Telesphorus,
who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered di¬
vine service to be celebrated, and an angelical hymn to
be sung the night before the nativity of our Saviour.
However, that it was kept before the times of Con¬
stantine, we have a melancholy proof: for whilst the
persecution raged under Dioclesian, who then kept
his court at Nicomedia, that prince, among other acts
of cruelty, finding multitudes of Christians assembled
together to celebrate Christ’s nativity, commanded the
church doors where they w7ere met to be shut, and fire
to be put to it, which, in a short time, reduced them
and the church to ashes.
CHRISTOPHER’S, St, one of the Caribbee islands,
in America, lying on the north-west of Nevis, and
about 60 miles w’est of Antigua. It was formerly in¬
habited by the French and English ; but, in 1713, it
was ceded entirely to the latter. In 1782, it was
taken by the French, but restored to Britain at the
peace. It is about fifteen mile's in breadth, and four in
length, and contains 43,726 acres. It has high moun¬
tains in the middle, whence rivulets run down. Be¬
tween the mountains are horrid precipices, and thick
woods. The population was computed by Bryan Ed¬
wards in 1794 to be 4000 whites and 21,000 negroes*
K The
Christo¬
pher’s
II
Chromatic.
CHR [74] CHR
The air is good j the soil light, sandy, and fruitful $
but the island is subject to hurricanes. The produce
is chiefly sugar, cotton, ginger, indigo, and the tropical
fruits. W. Long. 62. 32. N. Lat. 17. 30.
CHRO AST ACES, an old term in Natural History,
applied to gems, and comprehending all those of vari¬
able colours, as viewed in dift’erent lights and in dif¬
ferent positions j of which kinds are the opal and the
asteria or cat’s eye.
CHROMATIC, a kind of music which proceeds
by several semitones in succession. The word is de¬
rived from the Greek which signifies colour.
For this denomination several causes are assigned, of
which none appear certain, and all equally unsatisfac¬
tory. Instead, therefore, of fixing upon any, we shall
offer a conjecture of our own $ which, however, we
do not impose upon the reader as more worthy of his
attention than any of the former. may per¬
haps not only signify a colour, but that of a shade of a
colour by which it melts into another, or what the
French call nuance. If this interpretation be admit¬
ted, it will be highly applicable to semitones j which
being the smallest interval allowed in the diatonic scale,
will most easily run one into another. To find the rea¬
sons assigned by the ancients for this denomination,
and their various divisions of the chromatic species, the
reader may have recourse to the same article in Rous¬
seau’s Musical Dictionary. At present, that species
consists in giving such a procedure to the fundamental
bass, that the parts in the harmony, or at least some
of them, may proceed by semitones, as well in rising
as descending ; which is most frequently found in the
minor mode, from the alterations to which the sixth and
seventh note are subjected, by the nature of the mode
itself*
The successive semitones used in the chromatic spe¬
cies are rarely of the same kind ; but alternately ma¬
jor and minor, that is to say, chromatic and diatonic :
for the interval of a minor tone contains a minor or
chromatic semitone, and another which is major or dia¬
tonic, a measure which temperament renders common
to all tones : so that we cannot proceed by two minor
semitones which are conjunctive in succession, without
entering into the enharmonic species *, but two major chromatic.
semitones twice follow each other in the chromatic or- 
der of the scale.
The most certain procedure of the fundamental bass
to generate the chromatic elements in ascent, is alter¬
nately to descend by thirds, and rise by fourths, whilst
all the chords carry the third major. If the funda¬
mental bass proceeds from dominant to dominant by
perfect cadences avoided, it produces the chromatic in
descending. To produce both at once, you interweave
the perfect and broken cadences, but at the same time
avoid them.
As at every note in the chromatic species one must
change the tone, that succession ought to be regulated
and limited for fear of deviation. For this purpose, it
will be proper to recollect, that the space most suitable
to chromatic movements, is between the extremes of the
dominant and the tonic in ascending, and between the
tonic and the dominant in descending. In the major
mode, one may also chromatically descend from the do¬
minant upon the second note. This transition is very
common in Italy 5 and, notwithstanding its beauty, be¬
gins to be a little too common amongst us.
The chromatic species is admirably fitted to express
grief and affliction j these sounds boldly struck in as¬
cending tear the soul. Their power is no less magi¬
cal in descending $ it is then that the ear seems to be
pierced with real groans. Attended with its proper
harmony, this species appears proper to express every
thing; but its completion, by concealing the melody,
sacrifices a part of its expression ; and for this dis¬
advantage, arising from the fulness of the harmony,
it can only be compensated by the nature and ge¬
nius of the movement. We may add, that in propor¬
tion to the energy of this species, the composer ought
to use it with greater caution and parsimony ; like
those elegant viands, which, when profusely admini¬
stered, immediately surfeit us with their abundance j
as much as they delight us when enjoyed with temper¬
ance, so much do they disgust when devoured with pro¬
digality.
Chromatic, Enharmonic. See Enharmonic.
CHROMATICS;
THAT part of optics which explains the several
properties of the colours of light, and of natural
x bodies.
Different Before the time of Sir Isaac Newton, we find no
hypothesis hypothesis concerning colours of any consequence,
eonceruing 'j'jjg opinions of the old philosophex*s, however, we
co 0UIS’ shall briefly mention, in order to gratify the curiosity
of our readers. The Pythagoreans called colour the
superfices of body. Plato said that it was a flame is¬
suing from them. According to Zeno, it is the first
configuration of matter ; and Aristotle said, it was that
which moved bodies actually transparent. Des Cartes
asserted, that colour is a modification of light; but he
imagined, that the difference of colour proceeds from
the prevalence of the direct or rotatory motion of the
particles of light* Father Grimaldi, Dechales, and
many others, thought the difference of colour depend¬
ed upon the quick or slow vibrations of a certain elas¬
tic medium filling the whole universe. Rohault ima¬
gined that the different colours were made by the rays
of light entering the ray at different angles with respect
to the optic axis ; and from the phenomena of the rain¬
bow, he pretended to calculate the precise quantity of
the angle that constituted each particular colour. Last¬
ly, Dr Elooke, the rival of Newton, imagined that co¬
lour is caused by the sensation of the oblique or uneven
pulse of light; and this being capable of no more than
two varieties, he concluded there could be no more than
two primary colours. 2
In the year 1666, Sir Isaac Newton began to inves-T™8.^'J
tigate this subject ; and finding the coloured image of^telfby
the sun, formed by a glass prism, to be of an oblong, sir Isaac
and Newton.
75
3
Colours
appearing
between
£wo glass
elates.
CHROMATICS.
and not of a circular form, as, according to the laws
of refraction, it ought to be, he began to conjecture
that light is not homogeneal; but that it consists of rays,
some of which are much more refrangible than others.
See this discovery fully explained and ascertained un-
dei; the article Optics.
This method of accounting for the different colours
of bodies, from their reflecting this or that kind of
rays most copiously, is so easy and natural, that Sir
Isaac’s system quickly overcame all objections, and to
this day continues to be almost universally believed.
It is now acknowledged, that the light of the sun,
which to us seems perfectly homogeneal and white, is
composed of no fewer than seven different colours, viz.
red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and violet
or indigo. A body which appears of a red colour hath
the property of reflecting the red rays more power¬
fully than any of the others j and so of the orange,
yellow, green, &c. A body which is of a black co¬
lour, instead of reflecting, absorbs all or the greatest
part of the rays that fall upon it; and on the contra¬
ry, a body which appears white reflects the greatest
part of the rays indiscriminately, without separating
the one from the other.
The foundation of a rational theory of colours be¬
ing thus laid, it next became natural to inquire, by
what peculiar mechanism in the structure of each par-
ticolar body it was fitted to reflect one kind of rays
more than another ? This Sir Isaac Newton attributes
to the density of these bodies. Dr Hook had remark¬
ed, that thin transparent substances, particularly water
and soap blown into bubbles, exhibited various colours
according to their thinness ; though, when they have
a considerable degree of thickness, they appear colour¬
less j and Sir Isaac himself had observed, that as he
was compressing two prisms hard together, in order to
make their sides (which happened to be a little con¬
vex) to touch one another, in the place of contact they
were both perfectly transparent, as if they had been
but one continued piece of glass. Hound the point of
contact, where the glasses were a little separated from
each other, rings of different colours appeared. To
observe more nicely the order of the colours produced
in this manner, he took two object-glasses 5 one of
them a plano-convex one belonging to a 14 feet re¬
fracting telescope, and the other a large double con¬
vex one for a telescope of about 50 feet j and laying
the former of them upon the latter, with its plain side
downwards, he pressed them strongly together ; by
which means the colours very soon emerged, and ap¬
peared distinct to a considerable distance. Next to
the pellucid centrical spot, made by the contact of the
glasses, succeeded blue, white, yellow, and red. The
blue was very little in quantity, nor could he discern
any violet in it j but the yellow and red were very co¬
pious, extending about as far as the white, and four
or five times as far as the blue. The next circuit im¬
mediately surrounding these, consisted of violet, blue,
green, yellow, and red : all these were copious and
vivid, except the green, which was very little in quan¬
tity, and seemed more faint and dilate than the other
colours. Of the other four the violet was the least in
extent; and the blue less than the yellow or red. The
third circle of colours was purple, blue, green, yellow,
and red. In this the purpld seemed more reddish than
the violet in the former circuit, and the green was
more conspicuous ; being as brisk and copious as any
of the other colours, except the yellow j but the red
began to be a little faded, inclining much to purple.
The fourth circle consisted of green and red j and of
these the green was very copious and lively, inclining
on the one side to blue, and on the other to yellow ;
but in this fourth circle there was neither violet, blue,
nor yellow, and the red was very imperfect and dirty.
All the succeeding colours grew more and more imper¬
fect and dilute, till after three or four revolutions they
ended in perfect whiteness. ^
As the colours were thus found to vary according Supposed
to the different distances of the glass plates from each to arise
other j our author thought that they proceeded from ftom (*en'
the different thickness of the plate of air interceptedSlty’
between the glasses ; this plate of air being, by the
mere circumstance of thinness or thickness, disposed
to reflect or transmit this or that particular colour.
From this he concluded, as already observed, that the
colours of all natural bodies depended on their den¬
sity, or the bigness of their component particles. He
also constructed a table, wherein the thickness of a
plate necessary to reflect any particular colour was
expressed in parts of an inch divided into 1,000,000
parts.
Sir Isaac Newton, pursuing his discoveries concern- Colours hy¬
ing the colours of thin substances, found that the same reflection,
were also produced by plates of a considerable thick¬
ness. There is no glass or speculum, he observes,
how well polished soever, but besides the light which
it refracts or reflects regularly, scatters every way ir¬
regularly a faint light $ by means of which the po¬
lished surface, when illuminated in a dark room by a
beam of the sun’s light, may easily be seen in all po¬
sitions of the eye. It was with this scattered light that
the colours in the following experiments were pro¬
duced.
The sun shining into his darkened chamber through
a hole in the shutter one inch wide, he let the beam of
light fall perpendicularly upon a glass speculum con¬
cave on one side and convex on the other, ground to a
sphere of five feet eleven inches radius, and quicksil¬
vered over on the convex side. Then holding a quire
of white paper at the centre of the sphere to which the
speculums were ground, in such a manner as that the
beam of light might pass through a little hole made in
the middle of the paper, to the speculum, and thence
be refracted back to the same hole, he observed on the
paper four or five concentric rings of colours like rain¬
bows, surrounding the hole, very much like those which
appeared in the thin plates above mentioned, but lar¬
ger and fainter. These rings, as they grew larger
and larger, became more dilute, so that the fifth was
hardly visible; and yet sometimes, when the sun shone
very clear, there appeared faint traces of a sixth and
seventh.
We have already taken notice, that the thin plates Colours by
made use of in the former experiments reflected some refraction
kinds of rays in particular parts, and transmitted an<l reflec-
others in the same parts. Hence the coloured rings t*on eilu"
appeared variously disposed, according as they weremer<Uci*'
viewed by transmitted or reflected light; that is, ac¬
cording as the plates were held up between the light
and the eye, or not. For the better understanding of
K % which
?6
General
theory of
colours by
Sir Isaac
Newton.
Light.
White
Yellowish-red
Black
Violet
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Bluish-green
Red
Bluish-green
Red
C H R O M
which we subjoin the following table, wherein on one
side are mentioned the colours appearing on the plates
by reflected light, and on the other those which were
opposite to them, and which became visible when the
glasses were held up between the eye and the window.
We have already observed, that the centre, when the
glasses were in full contact, was perfectly transparent.
This spot, therefore, when viewed by reflected light,
appeared black, because it transmitted all the rays j
and for the same reason it appeared white when view¬
ed by transmitted light.
Colours by Reflected Colours by Transmitted
Light.
Black
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Purple
Blue
Green
Yellow 7
Red $
Green
Red
Greenish-blue
Red
The colours of the rings produced from reflection
by the thick plates, followed the order of those pro¬
duced by transmission through the thin ones ; and by
the analogy of their phenomena with those produced
from the thin plates, Sir Isaac Newton concluded that
they were produced in a similar manner. For he
found, that if the quicksilver was rubbed off from the
back of the speculum, the glass alone would produce
the same rings, but much more faint than before; so
that the phenomenon did not depend upon the quick¬
silver, except in as far as, by increasing the reflection
at the back ef the glass, it increased the light of the
coloured rings. He also found that a speculum of me¬
tal only, produced none of these rings ; which made
him conclude, that they did not arise from one surface
only, but depended on the two surfaces of the plate of
glass of which the speculum was made, and upon the
thickness of the glass between them.
From these experiments and observations, it will be
easy to understand the Newtonian theory of colours.
Every substance in nature seems to be transparent,
provided it is made sufficiently thin. Gold, the most
dense substance we know, when reduced into thin
leaves, transmits a bluish-green light through it. If,
therefore, we suppose any body, gold, for instance, to
be divided into a vast number of plates, so thin as to
be almost perfectly transparent, it is evident that all
or greatest part of the rays will pass through the up¬
per plates, and when they lose their force will be re¬
flected from the under ones. They will then have
the same number of plates to pass through which they
had penetrated before j and thus, according to the
A T I C S.
number of those plates through which they are obli¬
ged to pass, the object appears of this or that colour,
just as the rings of colours appeared different in the
experiment of the two plates, according to their di¬
stance from one another, or the thickness of the plate
of air between them. 8
This theory is adopted by Edward Hussey Delaval, Mr Deta¬
in his Experimental Inquiry into the cause of thev.a*’8 exP&
changes of colours in opaque and coloured bodies. confirjna.
He endeavours to confirm it by a number of experi-tian 0f jt,
ments on the infusions of flowers of different colours j
but his strongest arguments seem to be those derived
from the different tinges given to glass by metallic
substances. Here he observes, that each metal gives a
tinge according to its specific density : The more dense
metals producing the less refrangible colours, and the
lighter ones those colours which are more easily refran¬
gible. Gold, which is the densest of all metals, im¬
parts a red colour to glass, whenever it can be divided
into particles so minute, that it is capable of being
mixed with the materials of which glass is made. It
seems indifferent by what means it is reduced to this
state, nor can it by any means be made to produce
another colour. If it is mixed in large masses without
being minutely divided, it imparts no colour to the
glass, but remains in its metallic form. Lead, the me¬
tal whose density is next in order to that of gold, af¬
fords a glass of the colour of the hyacinth j a gem
whose distinguishing characteristic is, that it is red
with an admixture of yellow, the same colour which
is usually called orange. Glass of lead is mentioned by
several authors as a composition proper, without the
addition of any other ingredient, for imitating the hy¬
acinth. Silver, next in density to lead, can only be
made to communicate a yellow colour to glass. If
the metal is calcined with sulphur, it readily commu¬
nicates this colour. Leaf-silver laid upon red hot glas,
likewise tinges it yellow. When we meet with au¬
thors who mention a blue or greenish colour commu¬
nicated by silver, the cause must have been, that the
silver used in such processes was mixed with copper.
Mr Delaval assures us, from his own experience, that
silver purified by the test retains so much copper, that,
when melted several times with nitre and borax, it al¬
ways imparted a green colour at the first and second
melting: though afterwards no such colour was ob¬
tainable from it. The only colour produced by cop¬
per is green. It is indifferent in what manner the
copper is prepared in order to tinge the glass, provided
it is exposed without any other ingredient to a suffi¬
cient degree of heat. If a quantity of salts is added
in the preparation, they will, by attenuating the mix¬
ture, make the glass incline to blue, the colour next
in order : but this happens only when the fire is mo¬
derate for, in a greater degree of heat, the redun¬
dant salts, even those of the most fixed nature, are ex¬
pelled. It is true, that copper is mentioned by some
writers as an ingredient in red glass and enamel: but
the m/, which is the colour of the metal not dissolved
or mixed with the glass, remains only while the com¬
position is exposed to such a degree of heat as is too
small to melt and incorporate it j for if it be suffered
to remain in the furnace a few minutes after the cop¬
per is added, the mass will turn out green instead of
red. Iron, the metal next in density to copper, is apt
to
77
9
Sir Isaac’s
theory de¬
fended by
Dr Priest¬
ley.
10
His experi
rnents.
n
Mr Can¬
ton’s expe¬
riments.
CHROMATICS.
to be calcined, or reduced to a ruddy crocus, similar
to that rust which it contracts spontaneously in the
air. In this state it requires a considerable degree of
heat to dissolve and incorporate it with glass : till that
heat is applied, it retains its ruddy colour: by in¬
creasing the heat, it passes through the intermediate
colours, till it arrives at its permanent one, which is
blue ; this being effected in the greatest degree of heat
the glass will bear, without losing all colour whatever.
Iron vitrified per se is converted into a blue glass. In
short, it is indubitable, that iron is the only metal
which will, without any addition, impart to the glass
a blue colour : for copper will not communicate that
colour without the addition of a considerable quan¬
tity of salts, or some other matter that attenuates it j
and the other metals cannot by any means be made to
produce it at all.
These are the principal of Mr Delaval’s arguments
in favour of Sir Isaac Newton’s theory of colours be¬
ing formed by density. Dr Priestley too hath men¬
tioned some which deserve attention. “ It was a
discovery of Sir Isaac Newton (says he), that the co¬
lours of bodies depend upon the thickness of the fine
plates which compose their surfaces. He hath shown,
that a change of the thickness of these plates occasions
a change in the colour of the body j rays of a differ¬
ent colour being thereby disposed to be transmitted
through it j and consequently rays of a difi’erent co¬
lour reflected at the same place, so as to represent an
image of a different colour to the eye. A variation
in the density occasions a variation in the colour: but
still a medium of any density will exhibit all the co¬
lours according to the thickness of it. These obser¬
vations he confirmed by experiments on plates of air,
water, and glass. He likewise mentions the colours
which arise on polished steel by heating it, as likewise
on bell-metal, and some other metalline substances,
when melted and poured on the ground, where they
may cool in the open air j and he ascribes them to
the scoriae or vitrified parts of the metal, which, he
says, most metals, when heated or melted, do continu¬
ally protrude and send out to their surfaces, covering
them in the form of a thin glassy skin. This great
discovery concerning the colours of bodies depending
on the thickness of the fine plates which compose their
surfaces, of whatever density these plates may be, I
have been so happy as to hit upon a method of illus¬
trating and confirming by means of electrical explo¬
sions. A number of these being received on the sur¬
face of any piece of metal, change the colour of it to
a considerable distance from the spot on which they
were discharged ; so that the whole circular space is
divided into a number of concentric rings, each of
which consists of all the prismatic colours, and per¬
haps as vivid as they can be produced in any method
whatever. Upon showing these coloured rings to Mr
Canton, I was agreeably surprised to find, that he had
likewise produced all the prismatic colours from all
the metals, but by a different operation. He ex¬
tended fine wires of all the different metals along the
surface of pieces of glass, ivory, wood, &c. j and
when the wire was exploded, he always found them
tinged with all the colours. They are not disposed
in so regular and beautiful a manner as in the rings I
produced, but they equally demonstrated that none of
the metals thus exploded discovers the least preference,
to one colour more than to another. In what manner
these colours are formed it may not be easy to conjec¬
ture. In Mr Canton’s method of producing them,
the metal, or the calcined and vitrified parts of it,
seem to he dispersed in all directions from the plate
of explosion, in the term of spheres of a very great
variety of sizes, tinged with all the variety of colours,
and some of them smaller than can he distinctly seen
by any magnifier. In my method of making these co¬
lours, they seem to be produced in a manner similar to
the production of colours on steel and other metals by
heat $ i. e. the surface is affected without the parts of
it being removed from their places, certain plates
or laminae being formed of a thickness proper to exhi¬
bit the respective colours.” ✓
But, however well supported this doctrine of the Newtonian
formation of colours by density may be, we find the tlie01'y
same author (Dr Priestley), whom we have just n0WQlf,p^e^
seen arguing for it in his history of electricity, arguing^
against it in his history of vision. “ There are (says
he) no optical experiments with which Sir Isaac New¬
ton seems to have taken more pains than those rela¬
ting to the rings of colours which appear in thin plates j
and in all his observations and investigations concern¬
ing them, he discovers the greatest sagacity both as a
philosopher and mathematician ; and yet in no object
to which he gave his attention, does he seem to have
overlooked more important circumstances in the ap¬
pearances he observed, or to have been more mista¬
ken with regard to their causes. The former will be
evident from the observations of those who succeeded
him in these inquiries, particularly those of the Abbe
Mazeas. This gentleman, endeavouring to give a Curious
very high polish to the flat side of an object glass, hap-^P61*^
pened to be rubbing it against another piece of flat
and smooth glass j when he was surprised to find, that Mazeas.
after this friction, they adhered very firmly together,
till at last he could not move the one above the other.
But he was much more surprised to observe the same
colours between these plane glasses that Newton ob¬
served between the convex object-glass of a telescope
and another that is plane. These colours between
the plane glasses, the Abbe observes, were in propor¬
tion to their adhesion. The resemblance between
them and tue colours produced by Newton, induced
him to give a very particular attention to them ; and
his observations and experiments were as follows :
“ If the surfaces of the pieces of glass are transpa¬
rent, and well polished, such as are used for mirrors,
and the pressure be as equal as possible on every part
of the two surfaces, a resistance, he says, will soon he
perceived when one of them is made to slide over the
other; sometimes towards the middle, and sometimes
towards the edges ; but wherever the resistance is felt,
two or three very fine curve lines will be perceived,
some of a pale red, and others of a faint green. Con¬
tinuing the friction, these red and green lines increase
in number at the place of contact, the colours being
sometimes mixed without any order, and sometimes
disposed in a regular manner. In the last case, the
coloured lines are generally concentric circles, or el¬
lipses, or rather ovals, more os- less elongated as the
surfaces ,
78
CHEOMATICS.
surfaces are more or less united. These figures will
not fail to appear, if the glasses are well wiped and
warmed before the friction.
“ When the colours are formed, the glasses adhere
with considerable force, and would always continue so
without any change in the colours. In the centre of
all those ovals, the longer diameter of which generally
exceeds ten lines, there appears a small plate of the
same figure, exactly like a plate of gold interposed be¬
tween the glasses j and in the centre of it there is often
a dark spot, which absorbs all the rays of light except
the violet: for this colour appears very vivid through
a prism.
“ If the glasses are separated suddenly, either by
sliding them horizontally over one another, or by the
action of fire, as will be explained hereafter, the co¬
lours will appear immediately upon their being put to¬
gether again, without the least friction.
“ Beginning by the slightest touch, and increasing
the pressure by insensible degrees, there first appears
an oval plate of a faint red, and in the midst of it a
spot of light green, which enlarges by the pressure, and
becomes a green oval, with a red spot in the centre ;
and this, enlarging in its turn, discovers a green spot
in its centre. Thus the red and the green succeed one
another in turns, assuming different shades, and having
other colours mixed with them, which will be distin¬
guished presently.
“ The greatest difference between these colours ex¬
hibited between plane surfaces and those formed by
curve ones is, that in the former case pressure alone
will not produce them, except in the case above men¬
tioned. With whatever force he compressed, them, his
attempts to produce the colours were in vain without
previous friction. But the reason of this plainly was,
that with sliding one of the glasses over the other, they
could not be brought to approach near enough for the
purpose.
u Having made these observations with plates of
glass whose sides were nearly parallel, he got two
prisms with very small refracting angles •, and rubbing
them together, when they were joined so as to form a
parallelepiped, the colours appeared with a surprising
lustre at the places of contact, owing, he did not
doubt, to the separation of the rays of light by the
prism. In this case, differently coloured ovals appear¬
ed, but the plate of gold in them was much whiter,
and only appeared yellow about its edges. The plate
having a black spot in its centre, was bordered by a
deep purple. He could not perceive any violet by his
naked eye, but it might be perceived by the help of *
a lens with a weak light. It appeared in a very small
quantity at the confines of the purple and the blue,
and seemed to him to be only a mixture of these two
colours. It was very visible in each of the coloured
rings by inclining the glasses to the light of the moon.
Next to the purple and violet appeared blue, orange,
red tinged with purple, light green, and faint purple.
The other rings appeared to the naked eye to con¬
sist of nothing but faint reds and greens •, and they
were so shaded that it was not easy to mark their tei-
minations. That the order of these may be compared
with Newton’s, he gives a view of both in the follow¬
ing table :
Order of the Colours in the
Plane Glasses.
TBlack spot
) Whitish oval
"l Yellow border
/Deep purple'
Order I.
Order II.
Order III.
1
1
Blue
Orange
Purple
Greenish blue
Yellow green
Purple red
Order IV.
Order V.
Order VI.
Order VII.
1
Green
Red
Faint green
Faint red
Weak green
Light red
Very faint green
Very faint red
Order of the Colours in
Newt. Object Glasses.
Black
Blue
White
Yellow
Red
Violet
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Purple
Blue
Green
Yellow
Red
Green
Red
Greenish blue
Red
Greenish blue
Red
Greenish blue
Pale red
“ When these coloured glasses were suspended over
the flame of a candle, the colours disappeared sudden¬
ly, though the glasses still continued to adhere to one
another, when they were parallel to the horizon. When
they were suffered to cool, the colours returned by de¬
grees to their former places, in the order of the pre¬
ceding table.
“ After this the Abbe took two plates much thicker
than the former, in order to observe at his leisure the
action of fire upon the matter which he supposed to
produce the colours $ and observed, that as they grew
warm, the colours retired to the edges of the glasses,
and there became narrower and narrower till they were
reduced to imperceptible lines. Withdrawing the
flame, they returned to their place. This experiment
he continued till the glasses were bent by the violence
of the heat. It was pleasant, he says, to observe these
colours glide over the surface of the glass as they were
pursued by the flame.
“ At the first our author had no doubt but that
these colours were owing to a thin plate of air between
the glasses, to which Newton has ascribed them : but
the remarkable difference in the circumstances attend¬
ing those produced by the flat-pieces, and those produced
by the object-glasses of Newton, convinced him that the
air was not the cause of this appearance. The colours
of the flat plates vanished at the approach of flame,
but those of the object-glasses did not. He even heat¬
ed the latter till that which was next the flame was
cracked by the heat, before he could observe the least
dilatation of the coloured rings. This difference was
not owing to the plane glasses being less compressed
than the convex ones j for though the former were
compressed ever so much by a pair of forceps, it did not
in the least hinder the effect of the flame.
“ Afterwards he put both the plane glasses and the
convex ones into the receiver of an air pump, suspend¬
ing the former by a thread, and keeping the latter com¬
pressed
79
CHROMATICS,
pressed by two strings ; but he observed no change in
the colours of either of them in the most perfect va¬
cuum he could make.
“ Notwithstanding these experiments seemed to be
conclusive against the hypothesis of these colours be¬
ing formed by a plate of air, the Abbe frankly ac¬
knowledges, that the air may adhere so obstinate¬
ly to the surface of the glasses as not to be sepa¬
rated from them by the force of the pump; which,
indeed, is agreeable to other appearances : but the
following experiments of our author make it still more
improbable that the air should be the cause of these
colours.
“ To try the utmost effect of heat upon these co¬
loured plates, after warming them gradually, he laid
them upon burning coals : but though they were near¬
ly red, yet when he rubbed them together by means
of an iron rod, he observed the same coloured circles
and ovals as before. When he ceased to press upon them,
the colours seemed to vanish ; but when he repeated
the friction, they returned, and continued till the pie¬
ces of glass began to be red hot, and their surfaces to
be united by fusion.
“ When the outward surface of one of his plates of
glass was quicksilvered, none of these colours were vi¬
sible, though the glasses continued to adhere with the
same force. This he ascribed to the stronger impres¬
sion made on the eye by the greater quantity of light
reflected from the quicksilver.
“ Judging from the resemblance between his ex¬
periments and those of Sir Isaac Newton, that the co¬
lours were owing to the thickness of some matter,
whatever that was, interposed between the glasses,
the Abb&, in order to verify his hypothesis, tried the
experiment on thicker substances. He put between
his glasses a little ball of suet, about a fourth of a line
in diameter, and pressed it between the two surfaces,
warming them at the same time, in order to disperse
the suet j but though he rubbed them together as be¬
fore, and used other soft substances besides suet, his
endeavours to produce the colours had no effect. But,
rubbing them with more violence in a circular man¬
ner, he was surprised on looking at a candle through
them, to see it surrounded with two or three concen¬
tric rings, very broad, and with very lively delicate
colours } namely, a red inclining to a yellow, and a
green inclining to that of an emerald. At that time
he observed only these two colours j but continuing the
friction, the rings assumed the colours of blue, yellow,
and violet, especially when he looked through the
glasses on bodies directly opposed to the sun. If, after
having rubbed the glasses, the thickness was conside¬
rably diminished, the colours grew weaker by trans¬
mitted light, but they seemed to be much stronger by
reflection, and to gain on one side what they lost on the
other.
Newtonian “ ^ur aut^or was confirmed in his opinion, that
hypothesis ^ierc must be some error in Newton’s hypothesis, by
opposed. considering, that, according to his measures, the co¬
lours of the plates varied with the difference of a
millionth part of an inch ; whereas he was satisfied
that there must have been much greater differences in
the distance between his glasses, when the colours re¬
mained unchanged,
“ If the colour depended upon the thickness only, he
thought that the matter interposed between the glasses
ought to have given the same colour when it was re¬
duced to a thin plate by simple fusion as well as by fric¬
tion, and that, in rubbing two plates together, warm¬
ing them at different times, and compressing them with
a considerable force, other colours would have appeared
besides those above mentioned. •
“ These circumstances made him suspect, that the
different thicknesses of the substance interposed be¬
tween the glasses served only to make them more or
less transparent; which was an essential condition in
the experiment; and he imagined that the friction
diffused over the surface of the thin substance a kind
of matter on which the colours are formed by reflected
light; for when he held the plates (which gave the
colours when the suet was between them) over the
flame of a small candle, the colours fled wilh great
precipitation, and returned to their place without
his being able to perceive the least alteration in the
suet.
“ He was confirmed in his conjectures, by frequent¬
ly observing, that when the glasses were separated, at
the moment the colours disappeared, they were cover¬
ed with the same greasy matter, and that it seemed to
be in the very same state as when they were separated
without warming. Besides, having often repeated
the same experiment with different kinds of matter, he
found that the degree of heat that dispersed the colours
was not always sufficient to melt it; which difference
was more sensible in proportion as the matter interposed
was made thinner.
“ Instead of the suet, he sometimes made use of
Spanish wax, resin, common wax, and the sediment
of uj-ine. He began with Spanish wax, on account of
its remarkable transparency in Mr Hauksbee’s electri¬
cal experiments ; but he had much difficulty in making
it sufficiently thin by friction, being often obliged to
warm his glasses, to seize the moment of fusion, which
continued but a short time, and to hazard the burning
of his fingers. ✓
“ The experiment at length succeeding, the Spa¬
nish wax appeared with its opacity and natural colour
when it reflected the light, but they both disappeared
in the transmitted light. He observed the same rings
in it as in the suet; and indeed he could perceive but
little difference between the colour of suet, Spanish
wax, common wax, or resin; except that this last sub¬
stance did not make the colours so vivid, on account of
the too great transparency of its particles.
“ The sediment of urine had something more par¬
ticular in its appearance, as its colours were more
lively. Holding it above the flame, its colour disap¬
peared ; and keeping it in that situation, there were
formed, upon its surface, ramifications, like those of
the hoar frost, which disappeared as the glasses grew
cold. There were the same ramifications both upon
the suet and the wax, but they were not so consider¬
able. The glasses which had Spanish wax and resin
between them adhered with so much force, that they
could not be separated without the help of fire ; and
when they began to grow warm, they separated with
a noise like that of glass breaking in the fire, though
the glasses were not broken, and the matter between
them was not melted.
“ Separating the glasses which he first used very
suddenly,
8o
C H R O M
suddenly, lie observed upon their surface very thin
vapours, which formed different colours, but present¬
ly vanished altogether.
“ To try the effect of vapour, he breathed upon
one of his plates of glass, and observed that the va¬
pours which adhered to the glasses sometimes formed,
before they were entirely dispersed, a surprising va¬
riety of colours. This experiment, he observes, does
not always succeed at the first trial. The glass must
be breathed upon several times, and care must be ta¬
ken to wipe it every time with one’s hand, both to
take off the moisture, and also to make upon the glass
a kind of furrows, which contribute very much to the
variety of colours, by making inequalities in the thick¬
nesses of the vapours. It is necessary also, that the
glasses on which these experiments are made have no
quicksilver upon them.
“ When the particles of water which formed this
vapour were too thick to exhibit these colours, he
struck them several times with his pencil, in order to
attenuate them $ and then he saw an infinity of small
coloured threads which succeeded one another with
great rapidity.
“ Putting a drop of water between two pieces of
common glass, he observed that the compression of them
produced no colour $ but if, while they were compres¬
sed, the water was made to pass from one place to an¬
other, it left behind it large spots, red, yellow, green,
purple, &c. and the spots assumed different colours with
a surprising rapidity, and presented to the eye a most
beautiful variety of shades.
“ In order to determine with greater certainty whe¬
ther they were vapours that caused the colours in his
first observations, he first breathed upon one of his plates
of glass, and then rubbed them against one another,
when the colours appeared in the same order as before,
but darker, and dispersed in confusion in the places oc¬
cupied by the vapours : but when he made use of fire,
to dissipate the watery particles, the colours resumed
their lustre.
“ Newton, having introduced a drop of water be¬
tween his two object-glasses, observed, that in propor¬
tion as the water insinuated itself between the glasses,
the colours grew fainter, and the rings were contract¬
ed : and ascribing these colours to the thickness of the
plate of water, as he ascribed the former to that of the
plate of air, he measured the diameters of the colour¬
ed rings made by the plate of water, and concluded
that the intervals between the glasses at the similar
rings of these two mediums were nearly as three to
four $ and thence he inferred, that in all cases, these
intervals would be as the sines of the refractions of these
mediums.
“ The Abbe Mazeas, in order to assure himself
whether, agreeable to this rule, the coloured rings of
his glasses depended upon the thickness of the water
only, dipped one of the edges of his coloured glasses
in a vessel of water, having taken care to wipe and
warm them well, before he produced his colours by
friction. The water was a considerable time in ri¬
sing as high as the glasses j and in proportion as it
ascended, he perceived a very thin plate of water, which
seemed to pass over the matter which he thought
produced the colours, without mixing with it $ for
beyond this plate of water, he still perceived the co-
3
A T I C S.
lours in the same place and order, but deeper and
darker; and holding the glasses above the flame of a
candle, he saw the colours go and come several times
as he moved them nearer to or farther from the flame.
He then moistened both the glasses more than before 5
and rubbing them as usual, he always saw the same
appearance ; and seizing the moment when the co¬
lours had disappeared to separate the glasses, he al¬
ways found that they were wet. On this account,
he thought that it could not be the water on which
the colour depended, but some substance much more
sensible to heat. He also thought that these coloured
rings could not be owing to the compression of the
glasses ; or that, if this circumstance did contribute
any thing to them, it served rather to modify than to
generate them. _ ig
“ M. du Tour gave particular attention to the pre-M. du
ceding observations of the Abbe Mazeas. He repeat-Tour’s ob-
ed the experiments with some variation of circum-serTaUons*
stances, particularly comparing them with those of
Sir Isaac Newton. He is so far from supposing a plate
of air to be necessary to the formation of these co¬
loured rings, that he thinks the reason of their not ap¬
pearing between the flat plates of glass is the adhe¬
ring of the air to their surfaces 5 and that mere pres¬
sure is not sufficient to expel it j except, as the Abbe
Mazeas observed, the rings had before been made in
the same place •, in which case, simple apposition with¬
out friction is sufficient *, the air, probably, not having
had time to apply itself so closely to the surface of the
glass. The contact of some other substances, M. du ,
Tour observes, is not so prejudicial in this experiment
as that of air ; for he found, that, if he only gave the
plates a slight coating of any kind of grease, the rings
would appear without friction. Also dipping them
slightly in water, or wiping them with his finger, would
answer the same purpose. He verified his conjectures
by means of the air-pump •, for, dipping two pieces
of glass in water, one of which had been wiped, and
the other not, the former appeared to have no bubbles
adhering to it when the air was exhausted, whereas the
other had.
“ When one of the glasses is convex, our author
observes, that the particles of air may more easily
make their escape by pressure only *, whereas their re¬
treat is in a manner cut off when they are compressed
between two flat surfaces. The air-pump, he found,
was not able to detach these particles of air from the
surfaces to which they adhere j leaving these flat plates
for a considerable time in an exhausted receiver, was
not sufficient to prepare them so well for the experi¬
ment as wiping them. 16
“ Besides the observations on the colours of thinExperi-
plates, it has been seen that Sir Isaac Newton ima-nients °'1
gined he could account for the colours exhibited b^°fl°“”on*
thick ones in some cases in a similar manner ; parti¬
cularly in those curious experiments in which he ad¬
mitted a beam of light through a hole in a piece of
pasteboard, and observed the rings of colours reflected
back upon it by a concave glass mirror of equal thick¬
ness in all places. These experiments were resumed,
and happily pursued by the duke de Chaulnes, who
ascribed these colours to the inflection of light*. Chance* See Op-
led the duke to observe, that when the nearer surfacefzCS'
of the glass mirror was clouded by breathing upon it,
80
C H R O M
so as lightly to tarnish it, a white diffused and vivid
light was seen upon the pasteboard, and all the colours
of the rings became much stronger, and more distinct.
This appearance he made constant by moistening the
surface of the mirror with a little milk and water, and
suffering it to dry upon it.
“ In all his experiments upon this subject, he found,
that when the rays fell converging on the surface of
the mirror, the rings were hardly visible; when they
fell parallel upon it, as they must have done in all the
experiments of Newton, they appeared sufficiently
distinct j but when, by means of a convex lens placed
in the hole of the window, they were made to diverge
from the centre of the sphere to which the mirror was
ground, so that they fell perpendicularly on the surface
of the mirror, the colours were as vivid as he could
make them. In this case he could remove the reflect¬
ed image to a great distance from the hole, without
making the rings disappear; and he could plainly per¬
ceive them to arise from their central spots, which chan-
had tarnished the convex surface, which in this position
was next to the light.
“ Turning the same glass the contrary way, so that
the plane surface was towards the pasteboard, he could
perceive none of the rings at the distance of six feet;
but they were visible at the distance of three feet ;
because at that distance the second surface reflected
the lays by its concavity directly towards the paste¬
board.
“ These two experiments demonstrate the use of the
second surface of the mirror, and show the manner of
placing it to most advantage. Those that follow show
the use of the first surface with respect to these rings ;
and he was led to make them by the casual observation
above mentioned.
“Newton, he observes, had remarked, that when he
made use of a mirror of the same focus with the first
he had used, but of twice the thickness, he found the
diameter of the rings much smaller than before. This
observation the duke thought favourable to his own
conclusions; for it, these rings depend upon the first
surface, the nearer it is to the second, which only re¬
flects the ray transmitted from it, the larger they ou<dit
to appear upon the pasteboard.
lo ascertain this fact, he thought of making use
of two moveable surfaces ; and to make use of a mi¬
crometer to measure the distance between them with
Vol. VI. Part I. +
A T I C S. j
exactness. For this purpose he took a metallic mirrof
belonging to a reflecting telescope, being part of a
sphere ot ten feet radius ; and he fixed it firm upon a
foot in which was a groove that carried a light frame,
to which was fastened a thin piece of talk tarnished
with milk and water. The frame that supported the
piece of talk could either be brought into contact with
the mirror, or be removed to the distance of eight or
nine inches from it, and the micrometer showed to the
utmost exactness the least motion of the frame.
“ Having placed this mirror ten feet from the paste¬
board, that is, at the distance of the radius of its own
sphere, he observed the rings to appear very distinct:
the form of his mirror being very true : but the dia¬
meter of the rings upon the pasteboard varied with the
distance of the talk from the mirror : so that they were
very large when the talk was near the mirror, and very
small when it was placed at the distance of seven or
'■:~l 1 inches.
These experiments proved that the rings were
iby the first surface, and reflected hy the se-
ut it still remained to be determined in what
they were formed. He imagined that the
ncils of rays that were transmitted through
;s of the glass, or any other transparent sub-
jmight suffer a kind of inflection, which might
the cylinder which they formed into a trun-
ne, either by means of their different degrees
ibility, or by the different distances at which
is by the edges of the small hole, through which
transmitted. Pursuing this idea, he thought
ng use of some body, the pores of which were
>wn and determined shape. Instead, therefore,
iece of talk, he placed a piece of fine linen in
ve-mentioned frame, stretching it as even as
k to make the pores formed by the threads more
and more permeable by the light; and he soon
. jJt 'v*th great pleasure, that his conjecture was
verified ; for instead of the circular rings which he had
before, they were now manifestly square, though their
angles were a little rounded ; and they were colour¬
ed as the others, though the light was not very vi¬
vid, on account of the quantity that was stopped by
the muslin.
“ When, instead of the muslin, he stretched across
his frame fine silver wires exactly parallel, at the di¬
stance of about three quarters of a line, or a whole
line from one another, without any other wires across
them; instead ef the rings which he had seen before,
there was nothing upon the pasteboard but a gleam of
white light, divided by many small streaks, coloured
in a very vivid manner, and in the same manner as the
rings.”
Ihus we have another hypothesis of the formation Another
of colours, namely, by the inflection of light in itstbeory of
passage out from between the solid and impenetrable colou,'s*
particles of which bodies are composed. It is, how¬
ever, very difficult, upon the hypothesis either of Sir
Isaac Newton, or that of the duke de Chaulnes, to
give a reason why bodies that are not entirely white,,
should not appear variously coloured. For it appears
from Sir Isaac Newton’s experiments, that plates of
different density are capable of exhibiting the same
colours ; and that where a plate is continually varying
in density, it will produce all the colours. Now it is
k evident,
C H R O M
suddenly, he observed upon their surface very thin
vapours, which formed different colours, but present¬
ly vanished altogether.
“ To try the effect of vapour, he breathed upon
one of his plates of glass, and observed that the va¬
pours which adhered to the glasses sometimes formed,
before they were entirely dispersed, a surprising va¬
riety of colours. This experiment, he observes, does
not always succeed at the first trial. The glass must
be breathed upon several times, and care must be ta¬
ken to wipe it every time with one’s hand, both to
take off the moisture, and also to make upon the glass
a kind of furrows, which contribute very much to the
variety of colours, by making inequalities in the thick¬
nesses of the vapours. It is necessary also, that the
glasses on which these experiments are made have no
quicksilver upon them.
“ When the particles of water which formed this
vapour were too thick to exhibit these colours, he
struck them several times with his pencil, in order to
attenuate them $ and then he saw an infinity of small
coloured threads which succeeded one another with
great rapidity.
“ Putting a drop of water
common glass, he observed that t
produced no colour } but if, whi
sed, the water was made to pass
other, it left behind it large spot^
purple, &c. and the spots assumec
a surprising rapidity, and presen
beautiful variety of shades.
“ In order to determine with
ther they were vapours that cau
first observations, he first breathed
of glass, and then rubbed them
when the colours appeared in the £
but darker, and dispersed in confu
copied by the vapours : but when
to dissipate the watery particles,
their lustre.
“ Newton, having introduced a wiop or water be
tween his two object-glasses, observed, that in propor¬
tion as the water insinuated itself between the glasses,
the colours grew fainter, and the rings were contract¬
ed : and ascribing these colours to the thickness of the
plate of water, as he ascribed the former to that of the
plate of air, he measured the diameters of the colour¬
ed rings made by the plate of water, and concluded
that the intervals between the glasses at the similar
rings of these two mediums were nearly as three to
four } and thence he inferred, that in all cases, these
intervals would be as the sines of the refractions of these
mediums.
“ The Abbe Mazeas, in order to assure himself
whether, agreeable to this rule, the coloured rings of
his glasses depended upon the thickness of the water
only, dipped one of the edges of his coloured glasses
in a vessel of water, having taken care to wipe and
warm them well, before he produced his colours by
friction. The water was a considerable time in ri¬
sing as high as the glasses j and in proportion as it
ascended, he perceived a very thin plate of water, which
seemed to pass over the matter which he thought
produced the colours, without mixing with it $ for
beyond this plate of water, he still perceived the co-
3
A T I C S.
lours in the same place and order, but deeper and
darker j and holding the glasses above the flame.of a
candle, he saw the colours go and come several times
as he moved them nearer to or farther from the flame.
He then moistened both the glasses more than before *,
and rubbing them as usual, he always saw the same
appearance j and seizing the moment when the co¬
lours had disappeared to separate the glasses, he al¬
ways found that they were wet. On this account,
he thought that it could not be the water on which
the colour depended, but some substance much more
sensible to heat. He also thought that these coloured
rings could not be owing to the compression of the
glasses', or that, if this circumstance did contribute
any thing to them, it served rather to modify than to
generate them. # 15
“ M. du Tour gave particular attention to the pre-M. du
ceding observations of the Abbe Mazeas. He repeat-Tour s ob-
ed the experiments with some variation of circum-servallons‘
stances, particularly comparing them with those of
Sir Isaac Newton. He is so far from supposing a plate
of air to be necessarv t® f * of these co-
SS * their not ap-
lis the adhe-
It mere pres-
las the Abbe
keen made in
ksition with-
1 not having
Irface of the
pees, M. du ,
experiment
ily gave the
?, the rings
Iping them
»ger, would
conjectures
two pieces
Iviped, and
—w  —r appeared to have no bubbles
adhering to it when the air was exhausted, whereas the
other had.
“ When one of the glasses is convex, our author
observes, that the particles of air may more easily
make their escape by pressure only ', whereas their re¬
treat is in a manner cut off when they are compressed
between two flat surfaces. The air-pump, he found,
was not able to detach these particles of air from the
surfaces to which they adhere j leaving these flat plates
for a considerable time in an exhausted receiver, was
not sufficient to prepare them so well for the experi¬
ment as wiping them. __ 16
“ Besides the observations on the colours of thinExperi-
plates, it has been seen that Sir Isaac Newton Jraa'nioe1^srs°^
gined he could account for the colours exhibited by^fl°“"on_
thick ones in some cases in a similar manner ; parti¬
cularly in those curious experiments in which he ad¬
mitted a beam of light through a hole in.a piece of
pasteboard, and observed the rings of colours reflected
back upon it by a concave glass mirror of equal thick¬
ness in all places. These experiments were resumed,
and happily pursued by the duke de Chaulnes, who
ascribed these colours to the inflection of light *. Chance * See P*
led the duke to observe, that when the nearer surface zCS‘
of the glass mirror was clouded by breathing upon it,
so
8i
€ H R O M
so as lightly to tarnish it, a white diffused and vivid
light was seen upon the pasteboard, and all the colours
of the rings became much stronger, and more distinct.
This appearance he made constant by moistening the
surface of the mirror with a little milk and water, and
suffering it to dry upon it.
“ In all his experiments upon this subject, he found,
that when the rays fell converging on the surface of
the mirror, the rings were hardly visible 5 when they
fell parallel upon it, as they must have done in all the
experiments of Newton, they appeared sufficiently
distinct $ but when, by means of a convey lens placed
ia the hole of the window, they were made to diverge
from the centre of the sphere to which the mirror was
ground, so that they fell perpendicularly on the surface
of the mirror, the colours were as vivid as he could
make them. In this case he could remove the reflect¬
ed image to a great distance from the hole, without
making the rings disappear; and he could plainly per¬
ceive them to arise from their central spots, which chan¬
ged their colours several times.
“ The effect of tarnishing the mirror convinced him,
that these coloured rings depended on the first surface
of the mirror ; and that the second surface, or that
which reflected them after they had passed the first,
only served to collect them and throw them upon the
pasteboard in a quantity sufficient to make them visi¬
ble ; and he was confirmed in his supposition by the
following experiments.
“ He took a plano-convex object-glass, of six feet
focus, and placed it six feet from the pasteboard with
its convex side towards it. By this means the rays
which fell upon that surface, after being refracted there,
were transmitted through the thickness of the glass,
parallel to one another, and fell perpendicularly on the
plane surface that reflected them, and, in their return,
would be collected upon the pasteboard. In these cir¬
cumstances the rings appeared very distinct after he
had tarnished the convex surface, which in this position
was next to the light.
“ Turning the same glass the contrary way, so that
the plane surface was towards the pasteboard, he could
perceive none of the rings at the distance of six feet j
but they were visible at the distance of three feet j
because at that distance the second surface reflected
the rays by its concavity directly towards the paste¬
board.
“ These two experiments demonstrate the use of the
second surface of the mirror, and show the manner of
placing it to most advantage. Those that follow show
the use of the first surface with respect to these rings ;
and he was led to make them by the casual observation
above mentioned.
“Newton, he observes, had remarked, that when he
made use of a mirror of the same focus with the flrst
he had used, but of twice the thickness, he found the
diameter of the rings much smaller than before. This
observation the duke thought favourable to bis own
conclusions; for if, these rings depend upon the first
surface, the nearer it is to the second, which only re¬
flects the ray transmitted from it, the larger they ought
to appear upon the pasteboard.
“ lo ascertain this fact, he thought of making use
of two moveable surfaces ; and to make use of a mi¬
crometer to measure the distance between them with
Vol. VI. Part I. +
A T I C S.
exactness. For this purpose he took a metallic mirror
belonging to a reflecting telescope, being part of a
sphere ot ten feet radius ; and he fixed it firm upon a
foot in which was a groove that carried a light frame,
to which was fastened a thin piece of talk tarnished
with milk and water. The frame that supported the
piece of talk could either be brought into contact with
the mirror, or be removed to the distance of eight or
nine inches from it, and the micrometer showed to the
utmost exactness the least motion of the frame.
“ Having placed this mirror ten feet from the paste¬
board, that is, at the distance, of the radius of its own
sphere, he observed the rings to appear very distinct:
the form of his mirror being very true : but the dia¬
meter of the rings upon the pasteboard varied with the
distance of the talk from the mirror : so that they were
very large when the talk was near the mirror, and very
small when it was placed at the distance of seven ol*
eight inches.
“ These experiments proved that the rings were
formed by the first surface, and reflected by the se¬
cond ; but it still remained to be determined in what
manner they were formed. He imagined that the
small pencils of rays that were transmitted through
the pores of the glass, or any other transparent sub¬
stance, might suffer a kind of inflection, which might
change the cylinder which they formed into a trun¬
cated cone, either by means of their different degrees
of inflexibility, or by the different distances at which
they pass by the edges of the small hole, through which
they are transmitted. Pursuing this idea, he thought
of making use of some body, the pores of which were
of a known and determined shape. Instead, therefore,
ot the piece of talk, he placed a piece of fine linen in
the above-mentioned frame, stretching it as even as
possible, to make the pores formed by the threads more
exact, and more permeable by the light; and he soon
found, with great pleasure, that his conjecture was
verified ; for instead of the circular rings which he had
before, they were now manifestly square, though their
angles were a little rounded ; and they were colour¬
ed as the others, though the light was not very vi¬
vid, on account of the quantity that was stopped by
the muslin.
“ When, instead of the muslin, he stretched across
his frame fine silver wires exactly parallel, at the di¬
stance of about three quarters of a line, or a whole
line from one another, without any other wires across
them j instead ef the rings which he had seen before,
there was nothing upon the pasteboard but a gleam of
white light, divided by many small streaks, coloured
in a very vivid manner, and in the same manner as the
rings.” (
Thus we have another hypothesis of the formation Another
of colours, namely, by the inflection of light in j'tstheory ef
passage out from between the solid and impenetrablecolourfc
particles of which bodies are composed. It is, how¬
ever, very difficult, upon the hypothesis either of Sir
Isaac Newton, or that of the duke de Chaulnes, to
give a reason why bodies that are not entirely white,*
should not appear variously coloured. For it appears
from Sir Isaac Newton’s experiments, that plates of
different density are capable of exhibiting the same
colours ; and that where a plate is continually varying
in density, it will produce all the colours. Now it is
L evident,
82
C H R O M
evident, that the plates of which we suppose all na¬
tural bodies to be composed, must be similar to one
that is perpetually varying in its thickness 5 for suppo¬
sing the plates of which any substance is composed to
be of any determinate thickness, 9 millionth parts of
an inch for instance $ such of the rays as are reflected
from this plate will be red. But if any of them pe¬
netrate to the depth of li£ of these parts, they will
be reflected by a violet colour, &c. and thus must al¬
loy and obscure the red $ and so of others. If we
suppose the colours to be produced by inflection, it
wTill be equally difficult to account for some particular
rays being inflected and others not ; seeing we ob¬
serve that all of them are capable of being inflected
by every substance whatever, when they pass very
near it. In some cases, too, colours are produced
when the light is neither refracted nor inflected, as far
as we can judge $ and this seems to obscure the theory
of chromatics more than any thing we have yet men¬
tioned.
As the experiments we are now about to mention are
of the greatest importance, and in direct terms contra¬
dict one of Sir Isaac Newton’s, we shall give a full ac¬
count of them, from Priestley’s History of Vision, &c.
j3 with his remarks thereon.
One of Sir The experiment in question is the eighth of Nerv-
Isaac New-ton’s second book of Optics: “ He (Sir Isaac New¬
tons expe- ton) found, he says, that when light goes out of air
found to be through several contiguous refracting mediums, as
erroneous, through water and glass, and thence goes out again
into air, whether the refracting surfaces be parallel or
inclined to one another, that light, as often as, by con¬
trary refractions, it is so corrected, that it emerges in
lines parallel to those in which it was incident, con¬
tinues ever after to be white 5 but if the emergent
rays be inclined to the incident, the whiteness of the
emerging light will, by degrees, in passing on from
the place of emergence, become tinged at its edges
with colours. This he tried by refracting light with
prisms of glass, placed within a prismatic vessel of wa¬
ter.
“ By theorems, deduced from this experiment, he
infers, that the refraction of the rays of every sort,
made out of any medium into air, are known by ha¬
ving the refraction of the rays of any one sort; and
also, that the refraction out of one medium into another
is found as often as we have the refractions out of them
both into any third medium.
“ On the contrary, a Swedish philosopher (M. Klin-
* Sived genstierna) observes *, that in this experiment, the
Abhand. rays of light, after passing through the water and the
yoL xvi. glass, though they come out parallel to the incident
P 3CQ* rays, will be coloured 5 but that the smaller the glass
prism is, the nearer will the result of it approach to
Newton’s description.
“ This paper of M. Klingenstierna, being communi¬
cated to Mr JDollond by M. Mallet, made him enter¬
tain doubts concerning Newton’s report of the result
of his experiment, and determined him to have re¬
course to experiments of his own.
“ He therefore cemented together two plates of
parallel glass, at their edges, so as to form a prismatic
vessel when stopped at the ends or bases 5 and the edge
being turned downwards, he placed in it a glass prism
with one of its edges upwards, and filled up the va-
A T I C S.
cancy with clear rvater ; so that the refraction of the
prism was contrived to be contrary to that of the wa¬
ter, in order that a ray of light, transmitted through
both these refracted mediums, might be effected by the
dift'erence only between the two refractions. As he
found the water to refract more or less than the glass
prism, he diminished or increased the angle between
the glass plates, till he found the two contrary refrac¬
tions to be equal, which he discovered by viewing an
object through this double prism. For when it ap¬
peared neither raised nor depressed, he was satisfied
that the refractions were equal, and that the emergent
rays were parallel to the incident.
“ Now, according to the prevailing opinion, he ob¬
serves, that the object should have appeared through
this double prism in its natural colour ; for if the dif¬
ference of refrangibility had been in all respects equal,
in the two equal refractions, they would have rectified I5
eacli other. But this experiment fully proved the fal-Colours
lacy of the received opinion, by showing the divergen-produced
cy of the light by the glass prism to be almost double without re-
of that by the water 5 for the image of the object,
though not at all refracted, was yet as much infected
with prismatic colours as though it had been seen
through a glass wedge only whose angle was near 30
degrees.
“ This experiment is the very same with that of Sir
Isaac Newton above mentioned, notwithstanding the
result was so remarkably different: but Mr Hollond
assures us, that he used all possible precaution and care
in his process; and he kept his apparatus by him, that
he might evince the truth of what he wrote, whenever
he should be properly required to do it.
“ He plainly saw, however, that if the refracting
angle of the water-vessel could have admitted of a suf¬
ficient increase, the divergency of the coloured rays
would have been greatly diminished, or entirely recti¬
fied ; and that there would have been a very great re¬
fraction without colour, as he had already produced a
great discolouring without refraction ; but the incon-
veniency of so large an angle as that of the prismatic
vessel must have been, to bring the light to an equal
divergency with that of the glass prism, whose angle
was about 6o°, made it necessary to try some experi¬
ments of the same kind with smaller angles.
“ Accordingly he got a wedge of plate-glass, the
angle of which was only nine degrees; and, using it
in the same circumstances, he increased the angle of
the water-wedge, in which it was placed, till the diver¬
gency of the light by the water was equal to that by
the glass ; that is, till the image of the object, though
considerably refracted by the excess of the refraction
of the water, appeared nevertheless quite free from any
colours proceeding from the different refrangibility of
the light.
“ Notwithstanding it evidently appeared, I may say Defcn“es ol;
to almost all philosophers, that Mr Dollond had made Sir Isaac. (
a real discovery of something not comprehended in
the optical principles of Sir Isaac Newton, it did not
appear to so sensible a man, and so good a mathema¬
tician as Mr Murdoch is universally acknowledged to
be. Upon this occasion he interposed in the defence,
as he imagined, of Sir Isaac Newton ; maintaining,
that Mr Hollond’s positions, which he says, he knows
not by what mishap have been deemed paradoxes in
Sir
CHROMATICS.
Sir Isaac’s theory of light, are really the necessary con¬
sequences of it. He also endeavours to show, that
Sir Isaac might not be mistaken in his account of
the experiment above mentioned. But admitting all
that be advances in this part of his defence, Newton
must have made use of a prism with a much smaller re¬
fracting angle than, from his own account of his expe¬
riments, we have any reason to believe he ever did make
use of.
“ The fact probably was, that Sir Isaac deceived
himself in this case, by attending to what he imagined
to be the clear consequences of his other experiments ;
and though the light be saw was certainly tinged with
colours, and he must have seen it to be so, yet he might
imagine that this circumstance arose from some imper¬
fection in his prisms, or in the disposition of them,
which he did not think it worth his while to exa¬
mine. It is also observable, that Sir Isaac is not so
particular in his description of his prisms, and other
parts of his apparatus, in his account of this experi¬
ment, as he generally is in other cases, and therefore
probably wrote his account of it from his memory
only.
P- S04. “ Much has been said on this experiment $ and it is
thought very extraordinary, that a man of Sir Isaac’s ac¬
curate attention should have overlooked a circumstance,
the effect of which now appears to be so considerable.
But it has happily occurred to Mr Mitchel, that, as Sir
Isaac Newton observes, he used to put saccharum sa-
turni into his water to increase its refractive power,
the lead, even in this form, might increase the dissi¬
pative refraction, as it does in the composition of glass j
and if so, that this would account for Newton’s not
finding his dissipative power of water less than that of
the glass prisims, which he otherwise ought to have
done, if he had tried tjie experiment as he said he did.
“ Accordingly he included a prism of glass in wa¬
ter, as highly impregnated with saccharum saturni
as it would bear, the proportion of saccharum to wa¬
ter being about as 5 to II. When the image, seen
through the water (so impregnated) and a glass prism,
was in its natural place, it still was coloured, though
very little : he thought not more than a fourth part
as much as when seen through the plain water, and the
prism in its natural place ; so that he had no doubt,
but that, if his prism had had a little less of the dis¬
persing power, its errors would have been perfectly cor¬
at rected.”
Mr Dela- Besides the experiments of Mr Delaval above rela-
[! rhneiUs^on an<^ were made on the colours of trans-
} the colour* Parent bodies, he has lately published an account of
! of opaque some made upon the permanent colours of opaque sub-
1 bodies. stances j the discovery of which must be of the ut¬
most consequence in the arts of colour-making and dye¬
ing. These arts, he observes, were in very remote
ages carried to the utmost height of perfection in the
countries of Phoenicia, Egypt, Palestine, India, &c.
and that the inhabitants of these countries also ex¬
celled in the art of imitating gems, and tinging glass
and enamel of various colours. The colours used in
very ancient paintings were as various as those now in
use, and greatly superior both in beauty and durabi¬
lity. The paints used by Apelles were so bright, that
he was obliged to glaze his pictures with a dark co¬
loured varnish, lest the eye should be offended by their
excessive brightness j and even these were inferior to
what had been used among the ancient Egyptians.
Pliny complains that the art of painting was greatly
decayed in his time 5 and the moderns were not fur¬
nished with any means of retrieving the art, until they
began to avail themselves of experimental observa¬
tions.
The changes of colour in permanently coloured bo-These co-
dies, our author observes, are produced by the same lours de-
laws which take place in transparent colourless sub-Pen<^
stances j and the experiments by which they can be
investigated consist chiefly of various methods of uni-t]le colour-
ting the colouring particles into larger, or dividinging parti-
them into smaller masses. Sir Isaac Newton made biscles>
experiments chiefly on transparent substances ; and in
the few places where he treats of others, acknowledges
his deficiency of experiments. He makes the follow¬
ing remark, however, on those bodies which reflect
one kind of light and transmit another, viz. that “ If
these glasses or liquors were so thick and massy that no
light could get through them, he questioned whether
they would not, like other opaque bodies, appear of
one and the same colour in all positions of the eye ;
though he could not yet affirm it from experience.”
It was the opinion of this great philosopher, that all
coloured matter reflects the rays of light, some reflect¬
ing the more refrangible, and others the less refrangible
rays more copiously $ and that this is not only a true
reason ol these colours, but likewise the only reason.
Pie was likewise of opinion, that opaque bodies reflect
the light from their interior surface by some power of
the body evenly diffused over and external to it. With
regard to transparent-coloured liquors, he expresses
himself in the following manner : “ A transparent
body, which looks of any colour by transmitted light,
mxy also look of the same colour by reflected light j
the light of that colour being reflected by the farther
surface of that body, or by the air beyond it: and then
the reflected colour will be diminished, and perhaps
cease, by making the body very thick, and pitching it
on the back side to diminish the reflection of its farther
surface, so that the light reflected from the tinging par¬
ticles may predominate. In such cases, the colour of the
reflected light will be apt to vary from that of the light
transmitted.
To investigate the truth of these opinions, Mr Dela¬
val entered upon a course of experiments with trans¬
parent coloured liquors and glasses, as well as with
opaque and semi-transparent bodies. From these he
discovered several remarkable properties of the colour¬
ing matter j particularly, that in transparent coloured
substances it does not reflect any light 3 and when, by
intercepting the light which was transmitted, it is hin¬
dered from passing through such substances, they do
not vary from their former colour to any other, but
become entirely black (a).
This incapacity of the colouring particles of trans-
L 2 parent
(a) Here our author observes, that he makes use of the word colour only to express those called primary;
such
84 C H R O M
23 parent bodies to reflect light, being deduced from very
No %ht numerous experiments, may therefore be held as a ge-
reflected neral law. It will appear the more extensive, if we
consider, that, for the most part, the tinging particles
particles. liquors or other transparent substances are extracted
from opaque bodies ; that the opaque bodies owe their
colours to those particles, in like manner as the trans¬
parent substances do •, and that by the loss of them they
24 are deprived of their colours.
Apparatus For making his experiments, Mr Delaval used small
for making p|]ja|g 0f flint-glass, whose form was a parallelepiped, and
rimcntT^0 ^eir height, exclusive of the neck, about two inches,
the base about an inch square, and the neck two inches
in length. The bottom and three sides of each of
these phials were covered with a black varnish ; the
cylindrical neck, and the anterior side, except at its
edges, being left uncovered. He was careful to avoid
any crevices in the varnish, that no light might be ad¬
mitted except through the neck or anterior side of the
phials.
In these experiments it is of importance to have the
phials perfectly clean j and as many of the liquors are
apt to deposit a sediment, they ought to be put into
the phials only at the time the experiments are to be
made. The uncovered side of the phials should not be
placed opposite to the window through which the light
is admitted ; because in that situation the light would
be reflected from the farther side of the phial 5 and our
author observes, that smooth black substances reflect
light very powerfully. But as it is a principal object
in the experiment, that no light be transmitted through
the liquor, this is best accomplished by placing the un¬
covered side of the phial in such a situation that it may
25 form a right angle with the window.
The colour- With these precautions, our author viewed a great
onf 'shows num^er solutions, both of coloured metallic salts and
itself by of the tinging matter of vegetables j universally observ-
transmitted ing, that the colour by reflection was black, whatever
light. it might be when viewed by transmitted light. If these
liquors, however, are spread thin upon any white ground,
they appear of the same colour as when viewed by trans¬
mitted light; but on a black ground they afford no co¬
lour, unless the black body be polished ; in which case
the reflection of the light through it produces the same
effect as transmission.
The experiments with tinged glasses were in many
respects analogous to those with transparent-coloured
liquors. For these he made several parcels of colour¬
less glasses, principally using one composed of equal
parts of borax and white sand. The glass was reduced
to powder, and afterwards ground, together •with the in¬
gredients by which the colours were imparted. “ This
method (says he) of incorporating the tinging particles
is greatly preferable to mixing them with the raw ma¬
terials ; and the glasses thus composed excel most others
in hardness, being scarcely inferior in lustre to real
gems.”
The result of all the experiments made in this man¬
ner was, that when matter is of such thinness, and the
tinge so diluted, that light can be transmitted through
A T I C S.
it, the glasses then appear vividly coloured ; but when
they are in larger masses, and the tinging matter is
more densely diffused through them, they appear black 3
for these, as well as the transparent-coloured liquors,
show their colour by transmission. The following ex¬
periments were made with a view to determine the pro¬
portion of tinging matter which produces colour or
blackness. 2(j
1. Glass wras tinged green by adding to it /oth ofExperi-
its weight of copper; and that whether the latter wasmentsto
used in its metallic or calcined state. the^ro"*
2. A blue glass was made by the addition of zaffre,
a purple one by manganese, a red glass by gold, andtjnging
yellow glasses by silver and calcined iron. A yellow matur.
glass resembling a topaz was likewise made by the ad¬
dition of a small quantity of charcoal in powder. The
same colour was likewise procured by the addition of
W’heat-flour, rosin, and several other inflammable mat¬
ters. Small pieces of each of these glasses being
ground by a lapidary, resembled gems, of their different
colours.
3. Having formed pieces of such glasses about two
inches thick, he inclosed them in black cloth on all
sides, except their farther and anterior surfaces. In
this situation each of them showed a vivid colour when
light was transmitted through them ; but when the
posterior surface was likewise covered with the cloth to
prevent this transmission, no other colour than black
was exhibited by any of them.
4. When plates of transparent-coloured glass, some¬
what thicker than common window-glass, were made
use of, they always exhibited their colours by trans¬
mitted light.
5. On intercepting the light transmitted through
these coloured plates, they as constantly appeared black
when placed in such a direction as to form a right
angle with the window.
From these phenomena Mr Delaval deduced the
following observations : 1. That the colouring particles
do not reflect any light. 2. That a medium, such as
Sir Isaac Newton has described, is diffused over both
the anterior and farther surfaces of the plates, where¬
by objects are equally and regularly reflected as by a
mirror. Hence, when it is said that light is reflected
by the surface of any substance, it should be understood
from this expression, that the reflection is effected by
the medium diffused over its surface.
6. When a lighted candle is placed near one of those On the re¬
coloured plates, the flame is reflected by the medium Section of
which is diffused over the anterior surface. The image ^
thus reflected entirely resembles the flame in size and^J^^^
colour; being scarcely diminished, and not in the least
tinged by the coloured glass.
7. If the plate be not so intensely coloured, or so
massy, as to hinder the transmission of the light of the
candle, there appears a secondary image of the flame,
which is reflected by the medium contiguous to the
farther surface of the glass ; and as the light thus re¬
flected passes through the coloured glass, it is tinged
very vividly.
' 8. When
such a mixture of them as does not compose whiteness, or any of the gradations between white and black ; such
as are called by Sir Isaac Newton, gray, dun, or russet brown.
85
IS
Experi¬
ments on
the pure
colouring
particles
CHROMATICS.
8. When the glass used In this experiment is of a
green colour, the image of the flame is always of a
bright green •, and when glasses of other colours are
used, that of the secondary flame is always the same
with that of the glass.
9. The secondary image is less than that reflected
from the anterior surface. This diminution is occa¬
sioned by the loss of that part of the light which is
absorbed in passing through the coloured glass. For
whenever any medium transmits one sort of rays more
copiously than the rest, it stops a great part of the dif¬
ferently coloured rays. Much more light also is lost in
passing through coloured than transparent substances.
In making these observations, it is proper to choose co¬
loured plates of glass which are not in every part of an
equal thickness, that the secondary image may not co¬
incide with that reflected from the anterior surface, and
be intercepted by it.
10. When the plates are so thick, and so copiously
coloured, that the light cannot penetrate to their far¬
ther surface, they appear intensely black in whatever
direction they are viewed, and afford no secondary
image, hut only reflect, from their anterior surface,
the flame, or any other objects that are opposed to
them. These objects are represented in their own
proper colours, and are as free from tinge as those re¬
flected from quicksilvered glass, or specula made of
white metals.
Hence again it is manifest, that the colouring parti¬
cles do not possess any share of reflective power ; for if
they had any share in this reflection, they would cer¬
tainly impart some share of colour to the light they re¬
flected. Hence also it appears, that transparent co¬
loured bodies, in a solid state, possess no more reflec¬
tive power than those in a fluid state.
Our author next considers the colouring particles
themselves, pure, and unmixed with other media. In
order to procure masses made up of such particles, se¬
veral transparent coloured liquors were reduced to a
solid consistence by evaporation. By employing a gen¬
tle heat, the colouring matter may thus remain unim¬
paired } and is capable of having its particles again se¬
parated by water or other liquids, and tinging them as
before.
In this state the colouring particles reflect no light,
and therefore appear uniformly black, whatever sub¬
stance they have been extracted from. In the course
of his experiments, Mr Helaval made use of the in¬
fusions of brazil wood, logwood, fustic, turmeric, red
saunders, alkanet, sap-green, kermes, and all the other
transparent coloured liquors he had tried before, a-
mong which were infusions of red and yellow flowers,
without observing the least variation in the result.
Some liquors are apt to become totally opaque by
evaporation j the reason of which may be the crystal¬
lization of saline matters, or the coalescence of the
particles into masses, difl’ering considerably in density
from the menstrua in which they were dissolved. When
this opacity takes place, our author has constantly ob¬
served, that they became incapable of entering the
pores of wool, silk, or other matters of that kind, or
o,f adhering to their surface ; and consequently unfit
for the purposes of dyeing. This he supposes to arise
from their increased bulk j for the attractive force by
which the particles cohere together is weakened in pro¬
portion as their bulk increases ; so that the degree of
magnitude of the colouring particles, which is essential
to the capacity of liquors, is inconsistent with the mi¬
nuteness requisite for dyeing. An instance of this is
given in an infusion of fustic. Having infused some of
this wood in such a quantity of water, that the latter
was saturated with the colouring particles, he evapo¬
rated the liquor to a solid consistence, with an unin¬
terrupted but very gentle heat. During every part
of the process the liquor continued transparent, and the
solid extract yielded by it transmitted a yellow colour
when spread thin, but appeared black when thicker
masses were viewed. Having prepared another pint
of this liquor, he evaporated half the water, and al¬
lowed the remainder to become cold. In this state it
became turbid and opaque 5 on filtering, a transparent
tincture passed through, an opaque fecula remaining on
the paper. This fecula did not adhere to the paper,
but was easily separable from it: on being dried, it
appeared white with a slight tinge of yellow 5 but was
nevertheless soluble in water, and by solution gave a
liquid in all respects similar to the original infusion.
“ From these circumstances (says he) it appears that
a given proportion of water, or a sufficient degree of
heat, is requisite to the solution of the colouring parti¬
cles of fustic. And experience evinces that those par¬
ticles which are too gross to pass through filtexing pa¬
per, are incapable of entering the pores, or firmly co¬
hering to the surface of bodies. Many ingredients,
such as the colouring particles of logwood, kermes,
and various other matters, are soluble in water in every
proportion ; and therefore their infusions are not sub¬
ject to become opaque or turbid during their evapora¬
tion. The solid extracts obtained by evaporation reflect
no colour, but are black.”
Our author also formed solid masses by mixing a
small quantity of drying oil with pigments which con¬
sist chiefly of colouring matter ; as Prussian blue, indi¬
go, and sap green. These paints likewise exhibit their
respective colours only by transmitted light, appearing
entirely black when viexved by reflection. Instances
of blackness arising from this density of the colouring
matter, may be observed in several kinds of fruits, as
black currants, cherries, &c. for the juices of these
appear red when spread thin on a white ground, or o-
therwise viewed by transmitted light.
Mr Delaval’s next attempt was to consider the acr
tion and properties of the colouring particles of opaque
bodies themselves, and the means by which these co¬
lours are produced. Here our author endeavours to
prove, that these colours of opaque bodies appear on
the same principles as those already mentioned, which
seem black when very dense, but show their proper
tinge when spread thin upon a white ground. On this
subject the following experiments were made : .
1. Grass, and other green leaves of plants, were di¬
gested in rectified spirit of wine ; by which means a
transparent green tinctui-e was obtained. One ol the
phials formerly mentioned being filled with this liquid,
it was observed to transmit a vivid gxeen colour ; but
the other part of the tincture, which was contiguous to
the uncovered side of the phial, reflected no light, and
therefore appeax-ed black.
2. Having poured some of the tincture into a China
cup, the bottom was thereby made to look green, ex¬
actly j
86
C H R O M
actly resembling the colour which had been extracted
from the leaves.
3. After the colour had been totally extracted by
the vinous spirit, the leaves remained apparently un¬
altered, either as to figure or texture } but were en¬
tirely white, or had their whiteness slightly tinged with
brown.
4. Red, purple, and blue flowers, were also digested
in spirit of wine, all of which yielded their colouring
matter to the spirit, and became white by being de¬
prived of it. From most of these flowers, however, the
spirit acquired either no tinge at all, or only a very
faint one j but when acidulated, it became red, and
by the addition of an alkali appeared blue, purple, or
green, according to the quantity of alkali, and the na¬
ture of the infusion. In these states, all of them, when
viewed by transmitted light, or poured upon a white
ground, showed their colours, but universally appeared
black by reflexion.
5. Red, purple, and blue flowers, were digested in
water slightly acidulated with nitrous acid. Thus, red
infusions were obtained, which, by saturation with sea-
salt, might be preserved for many years.
6. The same liquors were changed green, blue, or
purple, by the addition of an alkali : but here the case
was the same as before ; all of them yielding vivid co¬
lours by transmission, but none by reflection. In ma¬
king this experiment, care must be taken to add the al¬
kali very gradually j for if too much is put in at once
to the red liquor, the immediate colours between the
red and the green will be wanting. To half an ounce
of the red infusion it is proper to add, at once, only
the smallest quantity that can be taken upon the point
of a pen j repeating this addition slowly, until each of
the colours be produced.
7. The flowers, after having been repeatedly mace¬
rated in acidulated water, lost their colouring matter,
and became white.
8. Yellow flowers also communicated their colours
to water and to spirit of wine. The infusion and
tinctures of these flowers were subjected to the same
experiments as had been employed in the examination
of the liquors already mentioned ; and appeared yel¬
low by transmitted light, but did not reflect any co¬
lour.
9. White paper, linen, &c. may be tinged of any
©f these colours, by dipping them in the infusions j
and the consideration of the manner in which the co¬
lours are imparted to the linen, affords much insight
into the manner in which natural colours are produ¬
ced. It has already been observed, that, when the co¬
louring matter of plants is extracted from them, the
solid fibrous parts, thus divested of their covering, dis¬
play their natural whiteness. White linen, paper,
&c. are formed of such fibrous vegetable matter $
which is bleached by dissolving and detaching the he¬
terogeneous colouring particles. When these are dyed
or painted with vegetable colours, it is evident that
they do not differ in their manner of acting on the
rays of light from natural vegetable bodies j both
yielding their colours by transmitting, through the
transparent coloured matter, the light which is re¬
flected from the white ground. This white matter
frequently exists, without any considerable mixture, in
plants, while they are in a state of vegetation j as cot-
2
A T I C S. '
ton, white flowers, the pith, wood, seeds, roots, and
other parts of several kinds of vegetables. When de¬
cayed trees, &c. have been long exposed to the atmo¬
sphere, their coloured juices are sometimes so perfect¬
ly extracted, that the fibres appear white. This white
matter is not distinct from the vegetable earth to which
plants are reduced by burning. Mr Delaval has ren* j20w2^s|,
dered ashes intensely white, by carefully calcining ‘c
them, and afterwards grinding with a small proper-made jn. |
tion of nitre, and exposing them to such a degree of tensely
heat as would cause the nitre deflagrate with the re-white*
maining quantity of phlogiston. Lastly, the ashes were
digested with muriatic acid, in order to dissolve the fer¬
ruginous matter diffused through them, and repeated¬
ly washing the remainder in water. Mixing ashes thus
purified with borax, and applying a vitrifying heat, an
opaque enamel is obtained, remarkable for its white¬
ness. 20
Hence it appears, that the earth which forms the White
substance of plants is white, and separable from that earth of
substance which gives to earth its peculiar colour 5 that P^Jnts>
whenever it is pure and unmixed, or diffused through
colourless media, it shows its native whiteness j and isti,em thai
the only vegetable matter endowed with a reflective reflects thjj
power. It may be discovered, however, by otherbgkt.
means than that of burning : thus, roses may be
whitened by exposing them to the vapour of burning
sulphur : an effect which cannot be attributed to the
sulphuric acid, but to the phlogiston contained in that
vapour. This was proved to be the case, by exposing
several kinds of red and purple flowers to the phlogi¬
stic vapour issuing from hepar sulphuris j and by this
every one of them was whitened 5 their colour being af¬
terwards restored by the addition of an acid either mi¬
neral or vegetable. ^
“ Thus (says Mr Helaval) it appears, that the co-Colouring
louring matter of the flowers is not discharged or re-matter disl
moved, but only dissolved by carbonic acid j ands°lved fly
thereby divided into particles too minute to exhibit j
any colour. In this state, together with the vege¬
table juice in which they are diflused, they form a co¬
lourless transparent covering, through which the white
matter of the flowers is seen untinged. The colouring
particles of plants consist principally of inflammable
matter, and their solubility in carbonic acid, and union
with it, are analogous to the action of other inflam¬
mable bodies upon each other. Thus, aether dissolves
all essential and expressed oils, animal empyreumatic
oils and resins. Sulphur, camphor, and almost all sub¬
stances abounding in phlogiston, are soluble in oils,
ardent spirits, or other inflammable menstrua. The
manner in which the red colour of vegetable flowers
is restored, appears to be explicable from known che¬
mical laws. When acids are applied to the whitened
flowers, they unite with the phlogiston which the sul¬
phur had communicated, and disengage it from the
colouring particles $ which, being thus extricated, re¬
sume their original magnitude and hue. A change of
the same kind is also produced by fixed alkali, which,
like the acids, has a strong attraction for phlogiston,
always changes the whitened flowers to a blue, purple,
or green colour. ^
“ In like manner, the action of the rays of light Colours de
operates upon coloured bodies. Thus, dyed silk, orstroyed byj
other substances of that kind, when exposed to thet5ie
/ ' ■ .the sun.
87
CHROMATICS
sun’s light, are deprived of their colour in every part
on which the rays are allowed to act; whilst those pre¬
serve their colour which are defended from the light
by the folds of the cloth, or intervention of any opaque
body. The colours, thus impaired, may be restored,
if acids are applied while the injury is recent; but they
are afterwards apt to fly ofl’, on account of that volati¬
lity which is constantly imparted by inflammable mat¬
ter to any other with which it is united.”
Our author now proceeds, at considerable length, to
prove the identity of the solar light and carbonic acid ;
but as recent experiments have shown that these two
are essentially distinct, we omit his argumentation up¬
on this head. The error of his theory in this respect,
however, does not in the least affect the doctrine con¬
cerning colours above laid down : on the contrary, the
latest experiments have determined, that carbonic acid
in its grossest form, viz. that of common charcoal, mani¬
fests a surprising power of whitening various substan¬
ces ; which, according to Mr Delaval’s theory, pro¬
ceeds from the power it has of dissolving the colouring
matter with which they are impregnated. This sol¬
vent power, according to our outhor, is manifest in
many other instances besides those already mentioned.
Silk is whitened by the carbonated vapours of sulphur;
and this operation does not appear to differ from the
change effected on flowers by the same vapour. The
light of the sun is found to be a necessary and essential
agent in bleaching linen, wax, and various other sub¬
stances ; some part of the colouring matter which im¬
pairs the whiteness of these bodies not yielding to any
other solvent. Red flowers are whitened by the elec¬
tric spark, of whose inflammable nature we cannot en¬
tertain the least doubt; for the spark itself is a bright
flame, and yields the same smell which all other carbon¬
ated matters impart. The electric spark, in like man¬
ner, changes the blue infusion of turnsole to red (b).
The effects which it produces on the turnsole, and on
red flowers, do not differ from each other, except in
degree only. For when vegetable matter is dissolved,
it is changed from blue to red ; and, when farther dis¬
solved, it is divided into particles too minute to exhi-
33 bit any colour.
tow to di- Solutions effected by means of phlogiston frequently
he^solu1 are wrong1y attributed to the operation of supposed acid
ions made menstrua, as several kinds of substances are capable of
T carbone being dissolved indiscriminately both by acids and phlo-
rom those giston. For the purpose of distinguishing, therefore,
dds ' ^ *n any CaSe be*vveen the action of the acid solvents and
that of the inflammable menstrua, it is proper to exa¬
mine the nature of the matter by which either of these
principles are furnished. It appears from various che¬
mical processes, that alkalies are rendered mild, and
capable of crystallization, in proportion as they are
united to carbone. The carbonated alkaline lixi¬
vium, when saturated, is perfectly mild ; and by a
slight evaporation is reduced to a concrete crystalline
mass, which does not deliquesce or imbibe the least
moisture from the air, and no longer retains any alka¬
line property. M. Beaume, by an elegant and ingeni¬
ous experiment, has proved the presence of carbone
in mild alkalies, and has shown that their power of
crystallizing depends on their union with that prin*
ciple. He heated in a silver vessel a lixivium of mild
alkali, which imparted to the silver a covering or coat¬
ing of inflammable matter, by which its surface was
tarnished and became black. The lixivium was seve¬
ral times poured out of the silver vessel, and after the
surface of the metal had been freed from the tarriish,
the lixivium wTas replaced in it, and again heated, by
which the tarnish was renewed ; and this was repeated
till the lixivium no longer communicated any stain to
the silver. The causticity of the lixivium was increas¬
ed in proportion as it imparted its carbone to the
silver ; and at the end of the process the alkali became
perfectly caustic and incapable of crystallizing.
“ From the preceding experiments (says he) it ap¬
pears, that the colouring particles of flowers and leaves
are soluble in acid, alkaline, and carbonated menstrua.
The other parts of vegetables consist of materials simi¬
lar to those which are contained in their flowers and
leaves, and undergo the same changes from the same
causes. Having extracted from logwood its colouring
particles by repeatedly boiling it in water, the wood
wras thus deprived of its yellow colour, and assumed a
brown hue similar to that of oak wood. Some pieces
of it thus deprived of its colour were then macerated
in nitric acid; and after they had undergone the action
of that acid, they were washed in a sufficient quantity
of water. The wood tvas thus reduced to white¬
ness.”
Here our author observes, that though most authors Logwood
who treat of colouring substances describe logwood as affords only
of a red colour, he was never able to procure any
other colour from it than yellow. It imparts yellow vvjt|1 wa_
and orange colours to distilled water. Other waters ter.
extract a red tinge from it by means of the alkali
which they contain. These observations are also ap¬
plicable to the other dyeing woods, kermes, and va¬
rious other articles of the materia tinctoria. By a si¬
milar treatment, fustic wood also lost its colouring mat¬
ter, and became white.
The results of all the experiments above related are,
that the colouring matter of plants does not exhibit
any colour by reflection, but by transmission only ; that
their solid earthy substance is a white matter ; and
that it is the only part of vegetables which is endowed
with a reflective power; that the colours of vegetables
are produced by the light reflected from this white
matter, and transmitted from thence through the co¬
loured coat or covering which is formed on its surface
by the colouring particles ; that whenever the colour¬
ing matter is either discharged or divided by solution
into particles too minute to exhibit any colour, the
solid earthy substance is exposed to view, and displays
that whiteness which is its distinguishing characteri-
stic. < 35
Mr Delaval next proceeds to examine the coloured Colouring
parts of animal substances, and finds them exactly si-^^teij of
milar, with regard to the manner in which the colour staI]l|”gSSUo'
is
(b) This effect of the electric spark is now known to be produced, not by its carbonated nature, but by the
generation of an acid.
88
C H R O M
Is produced, to the vegetable bodies already treated of.
The tinctures and infusions of cochineal and of kermes
yield their colours when light is transmitted through
them, but show none by reflection. On diluting fresh
ox gall with water, and examining it in the phials al¬
ready mentioned, that part of it which was in the
neck of the phial, and viewed by transmitted light,
was yellow ; but the anterior surface was black, and
reflected no colour. Flesh derives its colour entirely
from the blood, and when deprived of it, the fibres and
vessels are perfectly white $ as are likewise the mem¬
branes, sinews, and bones, when freed from their aque¬
ous and volatile parts ; in which case they are a mere
earth, unalterable by fire, and capable of imparting an
opaque whiteness to glass.
On examining blood diluted with water in one of
phials formerly described, it transmitted a red co-
Wood. lour, and the anterior surface was almost, but not en¬
tirely, black.; for it received a slight hue of brown
from some coagulated particles that were suspended in
the liquor. In order to procure blood sufficiently di¬
luted, and at the same time equably and perfectly dis¬
solved, he mixed as much cruor with spirit of sal am¬
moniac as imparted a bright colour to it. The liquor
being then viewed in the phial, that part which was
contained in the neck, and transmitted the light, ap¬
peared of a fine red ; but the anterior part reflecting
no light, was intensely black. Hence it appears, that
the florid red colour of the flesh arises from the light
which is reflected from the white fibrous substance,
and transmitted back through the red transparent co¬
vering which the blood forms on every part of it.
Blood, when recently drawn, does not assume the
appearance common to transparent coloured liquors;
for these, when too massy to transmit light from their
farther surfaces, always appear black ; but blood, when
recently drawn, always shows a fine red colour, in
whatever way it be viewed. This is occasioned by a
white matter diffused through the blood ; and which
is easily separated from the cruor, by dividing it after
coagulation into a number of thin pieces, and washing
in a sufficient quantity of pure water. Thus the water
acquires a red colour, and ought to be changed daily.
In a few days it will acquire no more tinge ; and the
remaining masses of the cruor are no longer red, but
white.
Ofth^h 11 manner> recl colour of the shells of lob-
of lobsters sters» after boiling, is no more than a mere superficial
covering spread over the white calcareous earth of
which the shells are composed, and may be easily re¬
moved from the surface by scraping or filing. Before
the application of heat, this superficial covering is
much denser, insomuch that, in some parts of the shell,
it appears quite black, being too thick to admit the
passage of the light to the shell and back again ; but
where this transparent blue colour of the unboiled lob¬
ster is thinner, it constantly appears like a blue film.
In like manner, the colours of the eggs of certain
birds are entirely superficial, and may be scraped off,
leaving the white calcareous earth exposed to view.
3s The case is the same with feathers, which owe their
Of feftUieis*colours entirely to a very thin layer of some transpa¬
rent matter upon a white ground. Our author ascer¬
tained this by scraping off the superficial colours from
certain feathers which were strong enough to bear the
3
A T I C S.
operation ; and thus separated the coloured layers from
the white ground on which they had been naturally
spread. The lateral fibres of the feathers cannot indeed
have their surfaces separated in this manner ; but their
texture, when viewed by a microscope, seems to indi¬
cate, that the colours are produced upon them by no
other means than those already related. In the exa¬
mination of some animal subjects, where the colouring
matter could not be separated by chemical means, our
author had recourse to mechanical division ; but this
can only be employed when the principal part of the
white substance is unmixed with the coloured, coat or
covering which is spread upon its surface. All ot
them, however, by whatever means their colours could
be separated, showed that they were produced in the
same manner, namely, by the transmission of light
from a white ground through a transparent coloured
medium. ^
The coloured substances of the mineral kingdom are Of the co-
very numerous, and belong principally to two classes,Iohi-s of mi.!
vix. earths and metals. The former, when pure, arenera^su’>'
all perfectly white, and their colours arise from car-stanccs'
bonic or metallic mixtures. Calcareous earths, when
indurated, constitute marble, and may be tinged with
various colours by means of metallic solutions: all
which are similar in their nature to the dyes put upon
silk, cotton, or linen, and invariably proceed from the
same cause, viz. the transmission of light through a
very thin and transparent coloured medium. Flints
are formed from siliceous earths, and owe their colour
to carbone. When sufficiently heated, they are ren¬
dered white by the loss of the inflammable matter
which produced their colour. When impregnated
with metals, they form agates, cornelians, jasper, and
coloured crystals. The coloured gems also receive their
difl'erent hues from metals : and all of them may be
imitated by glasses tinged with such carbonic or me¬
tallic matters as enter into the composition of the ori¬
ginal substances.
Thus our author concludes, that the coloured earths, Of metal*,
gems, &c. exhibit their various tints in the same
manner with other substances ; viz. by the transmission
of light reflected from a white ground. Our author,
however, proceeds farther ; and asserts, that even the
colours of metals themselves are produced in the same
manner.
“ Gold (says he) exhibits a white light, which is
tinged with yellow. I have used this expression, be¬
cause it appears from experiment that gold reflects a
white light, and that its yellow colour is a tinge super-
added to its whiteness. The experiment is thus set
forth by Sir Isaac Newton. Gold in this light (that
is, a beam of white light) appears of the same yellow
colour as in day light, but by intercepting at the lens
a due quantity of the yellow-making rays, it will ap¬
pear white like silver, as I have tried ; which shows
that its yellowness arises from the excess of the inter¬
cepted rays, tinging that whiteness with their colour
when they are let pass.
“ I. have already shown, by numerous experiments,
in what manner coloured tinges are produced ; and it
uniformly appears, from all these experiments, that
colours do not arise from reflection, but from trans¬
mission only. A solution of silver is pellucid and co-
lourlesss. A solution of gold transmits yellow, but re¬
flects
C H R O M
fleets no colour. This metal also, when united with
glass, yields no colour by reflection, but by transmis¬
sion only. All these circumstances seem to indicate,
that the yellow colour of gold arises from a yellow
transparent matter, which is a constituent part of that
metal 5 that it is equally mixed with the white parti¬
cles of the gold, and transmits the light which is re¬
flected by them, in like manner as when silver is gilt,
or foils are made by covering white metals with trans¬
parent colours. But these factitious coverings are
only superficial ; whereas the yellow matter of gold is
diffused throughout the whole substance of the metal,
and appears to envelope and cover each of the white
particles. In whatsoever manner the yellow matter
of gold is united to its white substance, it exists in a
rare state ; for it bears only the same proportion to the
white particles of the gold as that of the yellow-making
rays which were intercepted bear to all the other rays
comprised in the white light of the sun.
“ Sir Isaac Newton has shown, that when spaces or
interstices of bodies are replenished with media of dif¬
ferent densities, the bodies are opaque; that those su-
perfices of transparent bodies reflect the greatest quan¬
tity of light which intercede media that differ most in
their refractive densities j and that the reflections
of very thin transparent substances are considerably
stronger than those made by the same substances of a
greater thickness. Hence the minute portions of air,
or of the rarer medium which occupies spaces void of
other matter, reflect a vivid white light whenever
their surfaces are contiguous to media whose densities
differ considerably from their own ; so that every small
mass of air, or of the rarer medium which fills the
pores or interstices of dense bodies, is a minute white
substance. This is manifest in the whiteness of froth,
and of all pellucid colourless bodies; such as glass,
crystal or salts, reduced to powder, or otherwise flaw¬
ed : for in all these instances a white light is reflected
from the air or rarer medium which intercede the par¬
ticles of the denser substances whose interstices they
occupy.”
From these principles our author takes occasion to
explain the reason why the particles of metals, which
yield no colour by incident light when suspended in
their solvents, are disposed to exhibit colours when
sepai-ated from them. Hence also we see why opaque
white substances are rendered pellucid by being re¬
duced to uniform masses, whose component parts are
everywhere nearly of the same density j for as all pel¬
lucid substances are rendered opaque and white by the
admixture of pellucid colourless media of considerably
different densities, they are again deprived of their
opacity by extricating these media which kept their
particles at a distance from each other : thus froth or
snow, when resolved into water, lose their whiteness,
and assume their former pellucid appearance. In
like manner, by proper fluxes, the opaque white
earths are reduced to pellucid colourless glasses j be¬
cause all reflections are made at the surfaces of bodies
differing in density from the ambient medium, and in
the confines of equally dense media there is no reflec¬
tion. ,
As the oxides of metals are enabled to reflect their
colours by the intervention of the particles of air ; so,
when mixed with oil in the making of paint, they al-
Vol. VI. Parti. b * ’ J f
A T I C S. &9
ways assume a darker colour, because the excess of the
density of oil over that of air forms a sensible difference
when comparatively considered with respect to the spe¬
cific gravity of the rarer metals. From this cause per¬
ceptibly less light is reflected from the moleculae of oil
than from those of air, and consequently the mass ap¬
pears darker. The case, however, is different with such
paints as are formed of the denser metals $ as vermi¬
lion, minium, &c.; for though oil differs very consider¬
ably from air in its specific density, yet it also differs
very much in this respect from the denser metallic
powders : and the moleculse of oil which divide their
particles, act upon the light so strongly, that the re¬
flection occasioned by them cannot be distinguished
from those which are caused by rarer media. Hence
though we mix vermilion or minium with oil, the colour
is not less sensibly altered.
This part of our author’s theory, however, seems Objections
liable to objection j for though it be true that the ox-t0 bis theo-
ides of some metals are denser than others, yet that is,ry 0< me'
comparatively speaking, but in a very small proper-c0*
tion} nor is even the difference of density between oil
and the oxides of the heavier metals at all comparable
to that between the density of air and oil. Thus,
though the oxide of iron may be 10 or 11 times more
dense than oil $ yet as the latter is between 500 or 600
times denser than air, the small difference between the
oil and metallic oxide ought to be imperceptible. In
this respect, indeed, there are considerable differences
with regard to the oils employed, which cannot be sup¬
posed to arise from the mere circumstances of density.
Th us the colour of vermilion, when mixed with tur¬
pentine-varnish, is much brighter than with linseed oil j
and yet the difference between the densities of linseed
oil and turpentine-varnish is very trifling. The mere
action of heat likewise has a surprising effect in this
case. Thus the red oxide of iron, called scarlet-okery
by being only heated a certain degree, appears of a very
dark purple, resuming its red colour when cold ; and
this variation may be induced as often as we please by
only heating it over the fire in a shovel. In like man¬
ner, by gradually heating red lead, it may be made to
assume a most beautiful crimson colour ; which grow¬
ing gradually darker, becomes at last almost quite
black. On cooling, if the heat has not been raised too
high, it gradually returns through the same shades of
colour, until at last it fixes in its original hue. These' ‘
immense differences in colour cannot by any means be
attributed either to the expulsion of air, or to an alte¬
ration in density. The fire indeed dpes certainly ex¬
pand these oxides as w'ell as other bodies $ but as the
medium interspersed between their particles is thus
also expanded, the colour ought at least to remain the
same, if not to become lighter, on account of the su¬
perior expansion of air to that of metal by the same
degree of heat. It would seem, therefore, that the ac¬
tion of the element of fire itself has a considerable
share in the production of colours; and indeed its
share in the operations of nature is so great, that we
might well think it strange if it should be entirely ex¬
cluded from this.
With regard to semipellucid substances, which aP*oftheco
pear of one colour by incident, and another by trans-]ourg 0f se.
mitted light, our author likewise endeavours to show mipellucid
that no reflection is made by the coloured matter, but substances.
M onl v
9°
CHROMATICS.
only by the white or colourless particles. They con¬
sist of pellucid media, throughout which white or co¬
lourless opaque particles are dispersed. The Jitter are
disposed at such distances from each other, that some
of the incident rays of light are capable of passing
through the intervals which intercede them, and thus
are transmitted through the semipellucid mass. Some
sorts of rays penetrate through such masses, while
others, which differ from them in their refrangibility,
are reffected by the light or colourless particles ; and
from thence are transmitted through the pellucid part
of the medium which intervenes between the reflecting
particles and the anterior surface of the mass. On the
same principle our author explains the blue colour of
the sky, the green colour of the sea, and other natural
4,3 phenomena : and from his numerous experiments on
IIow co- jjjjs sui3ject at last concludes, “ that the power by which
shown by t^ie several rays °f light are transmitted through differ-
transmitted cut media is inherent in the particles themselves, and
light. therefore is not confined to the surfaces of such media.
For if the transmissive force was exerted at the surface
only, the thinner plates of coloured substances would
act upon the rays as powerfully as thicker masses. But
it appears from experiment, that in proportion as the
rays pass through different thicknesses of coloured me¬
dia, they exhibit colours differing not only in degree,
but frequently in species also.
“ The sun’s light, by which bodies are illuminated,
consists of all the rays of which a white light is com¬
pounded. These rays, in their entire and undivided
state, are incident upon the opaque particles of semi¬
pellucid substances, and upon the colouring particles
of transparent coloured substances, whenever these
media are exposed to the light. When the rays accede
to the opaque particles of semipellucid substances,
some sorts of them are reflected back from the ante¬
rior surface of these particles : the other sorts of rays,
which are not reflected back, are diverted from the
direction which is opposite to the anterior surface
of the opaque particles, and passing through the inter¬
vals between the particles, are transmitted through
the mass.
“ When the rays are incident upon the particles of
transparent coloured bodies, none of them are reflected
back $ because the colouring particles are not endowed
with any reflective power $ but some of the rays are
either stopped at the interior surface of the particles,
or are diverted into such directions as render them in¬
capable of passing towards the further side of the mass j
and consequently such rays cannot be transmitted. The
rays which are thus intercepted or dispersed, are
transmitted in the same manner as those which pass
through semipellucid media. Thus it is evident, that
the coloured rays which are transmitted through semi¬
pellucid substances, are inflected by the opaque particles j
and those which are transmitted through transparent-
coloured substances are inflected by the colouring par¬
ticles. From the preceding observations likewise it ap¬
pears, that the particles of coloured media inflect the
several sorts of rays according to the several sizes and
densities of the particles ; also in proportion to the in¬
flammability of the media which owe their colour to
them ; and it is manifest that the transmission of co¬
loured rays depends upon their inflection. All these ob¬
servations are conformable to Sir Isaac Newton’s doc-
2
trine that the rays of light are reflected, refracted, and
inflected, by one and the same principle acting vari¬
ously in various circumstances.”
The most remarkable part of Mr Delaval’s doctrine
is that concerning the metals ; for the better under¬
standing of which we shall premise a short abstract of
his general doctrine concerning white bodies, and the
manner in which light is reflected by them. “All the Of the
earths, (he observes), which in their natural state are manner ini
of a pure white, constitute transparent colourless media lig!
when vitrified with proper fluxes, or when dissolved in l
colourless menstrua j and the saline masses obtainable bodies. '
from their solutions are transparent and colourless,
while they retain the water which is essential to their
crystallization, and are not flawed or reduced to pow¬
der j but after their pores and interstices are opened
in such a manner as to admit the air, they become
then white and opaque by the entrance of that rare
medium. The earthy particles which form the solid
parts of bodies generally exceed the other in density j
consequently these particles, when contiguous to the
rare media already mentioned, must reflect the rays of
light with a force proportionate to their density. The
reflective power of bodies does not depend merely upon
their excess of density, but upon their difference of
density with respect to the surrounding media. Trans¬
parent colourless particles, whose density is greatly in¬
ferior to that of the media they come between, also
powerfully reflect all sorts of rays, and thereby become
white. Of this kind are the air or other rare fluids
which occupy the interstices of liquors *, and in gene¬
ral of all denser media in whose interstices such rare
particles are admitted.
Hence we may conclude, that white opaque bodies
are constituted by the union or contiguity of two or
more transparent colourless media differing consider¬
ably from each other in their reflective powers. Of
these substances we have examples in froth, emulsions,
or other imperfect combinations of pellucid liquors,
milk, snow, calcined or pulverized salts, glass or cry¬
stal reduced to powder, white earths, paper, linen, and
even those metals which are called white by mineralo¬
gists and chemists : for the metals just mentioned do
not appear white unless their surfaces be rough j as in
that case only there are interstices on their surfaces suf¬
ficient to admit the air, and thus make a reflection of a
white and vivid light.
“ But the polished surfaces of metallic mirrors re¬
flect the incident rays equably and regularly, accord¬
ing to their several angles of incidence ; so that the
reflected rays do not interfere with each other, but
remain separate and unmixed, and therefore distinctly
exhibit their several colours. Hence it is evident,
that white surfaces cannot act upon the light as mir¬
rors j because all the rays which are reflected from
them are blended in a promiscuous and disorderly
manner. ^
“The above mentioned phenomena give much in-Of the
sight into the nature aud cause of opacity : as they cause of
clearly show, that even the rarest transparent colour- 0Pacity‘
less substances, when their surfaces are adjacent to me¬
dia diffe ring greatly from them in refractive power,
may thereby acquire a perfect opacity, and may assume
a resplendency and hue so similar to that of white me¬
tals, that the rarer pellucid substances cannot by the
sight
9r
C H R O M
sight he distinguished from the dense opaque metals.
And this similarity to the surfaces of metals, occurs
in the rare pellucid substances, not only when, from
the roughness of their surfaces, they resemble unpo¬
lished metals in whiteness, but also when, from their
smoothness, they resemble the polished surfaces of me¬
tals. ’
“ Metals seem to consist entirely of transparent mat¬
ter, and to derive their apparent opacity and lustre
solely from the copious reflection of light from their
surfaces. The analogy between tire metals and trans¬
parent media, as far as respects their optical properties,
will appear from the following considerations.
“ l. All metals dissolved in their proper menstrua
are transparent. 2. By the union of two or more trans¬
parent media, substances are constituted which are si¬
milar to metals in their opacity and lustre, as plumbago
and marcasites. 3. The transparent substances of me¬
tals, as well as those of minerals, by their union with
carbone, acquire their strong reflective powers from
which their lustre and opacity arise. 4. The surfaces
of pellucid media, such as glass or water, assume a me¬
tallic appearance, when by their smoothness, differ¬
ence of density with respect to the contiguous media,
or any other cause, they are disposed copiously to re¬
flect the light.
“ From all these considerations it is evident, that
opaque substances are constituted by the union or con¬
tiguity of transparent colourless media, differing from
one another in their reflective powers 5 and that, when
the common surface, which comes between such media,
is plane, equal, and smooth, it reflects the incident
rays equally and regularly as a mirror j but when the
surface is rough and unequal, or divided into minute
particles, it reflects the incident rays irregularly and
promiscuously in different directions, and consequent-
ly appears white.”
Theory of From all these experiments we can only conclude,
oolonrs still that the theory of fcolours seems not yet to be deter-
uncertain. mined with certainty $ and very formidable, perhaps
unanswerable objections might be brought against every
hypothesis of this subject that hath been invented. The
discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton, however, are sufficient
to justify the following
APHORISMS.
1. All the colours in nature .proceed from the rays
of light.
2. There are seven primary colours j which are red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
3. Every ray of light may be separated into the
seven primary colours.
4. The rays of light in passing through the same
medium have different degrees of refrangibility.
J. T.he difference in the colours of light arises from
its different refrangibility : that which is the least re¬
frangible producing red 5 and that which is the most
refrangible, violet.
6. By compounding any of the true primary colours,
(c) From hence it arises, that black bodies, when
others.
A T I C S.
as red and yellow, or yellow and blue, the intermediate
colour, as orange or green, may be produced.
7. The colours of bodies arise from their dispositions
to reflect one sort of rays and to absorb the other ; those
that reflect the least refrangible rays appearing red $
and those thst reflect the most refrangible, violet.
8. Such bodies as reflect two or more sorts of rays
appear of various colours.
9. The whiteness of bodies arises from their disposi¬
tion to reflect all the rays of light promiscuously.
10. The blackness of bodies proceeds from their in¬
capacity to reflect any of the rays of light (c).
Entertaining Experiments, on the preceding
Principles.
I. Out of a single colourless ray of light to produce
seven other rays, which shall paint, on a white body,
the seven primary colours of nature.
PROCURE from an optician a large glass prism DEF,
(fig. I.), well polished, two of whose sides must contain Fig. 1.'
an angle ofJ about sixty-four degrees. Make a room
quite dark, and in the window-shutter AB, cut a round
hole, about one-third of an inch in diameter, at C,
through which a ray of light LI passing, falls on tire
prism DEF} by that it is refracted out of the direc¬
tion IT, in which it would have proceeded, into another
GH j and, falling on the paper MNSX, will there
form an oblong spectrum PQ, whose ends will be semi¬
circular, and its sides straight j and if the distance of
the prism from the paper be about eighteen feet, it will
be ten inches long, and two inches wide. This spec¬
trum will exhibit all the primary colours $ the rays be¬
tween P and V, which are the most refracted, will paint
a deep violet; those between V and I, indigo; those
between I and B, blue ; those between B and G, green ;
those between G and Y, yellow j those between Y and
O, orange *, and those between O and R, being the least
refracted, an intense red. The colours between these
spaces will not be everywhere equally intense, but will
incline to the neighbouring colour: thus the part of the
orange next to R will incline to a red, that next to Y
to a yellow j and so of the rest.
II. From two or more of the primary colours, to com¬
pose others that shall, in appearance, resemble those
of the former.
By mixing the two homogeneous colours red and
yellow, an orange will be produced, similar in appear¬
ance to that in the series of primary colours j but the
light of the one being homogeneous, and that of the
other heterogeneous, if the former be viewed through a
prism it will remain unaltered, but the other will be
resolved into its component colours, red and yellow.
In like manner, other contiguous homogeneous colours
may compound new colours 5 as by mixing yellow and
green, a colour between them is formed } and if blue
be added, there will appear a green, that is the middle
M 2 colour
exposed to the sun, become sooner heated than all
92
Tig; 2.
CHROMATICS.
colour of those three. For the yellow and blue, if
they are equal in quantity, will draw the intermediate
green equally toward them, and keep it, as it were, in
equilibrio, that it verge not more to the one than to
the other. To this compound green there may be
added some red and violet; and yet the green will not
immediately cease, but grow less vivid $ till by adding
mere red and violet it will become more diluted ; and
at last, by the prevalence of the added colours, it will
be overcome, and turned into some anomalous colour.
If the sun’s white, composed of all kinds of rays, be
added to any homogeneous colour, that colour will not
vanish, nor change its species, but be diluted j and by
adding more white, it will become continually more
diluted. Lastly, if red and violet be mixed, there will
be generated, according to their various proportions,
various purples, such as are not like, in appearance,
to the colour of any homogeneous light; and of these
purples, mixed with blue and yellow, other new colours
may be composed.
III. Out of three of the primary colours, red, yelloiv,
and blue, to produce all the other prismatic colours,
and all that are intermediate to them.
Provide three panes of glass (fig. 2.) of about five
inches square ; and divide each of them, by parallel
lines, into five equal parts. Take three sheets of very
thin paper •, which you must paint lightly, one blue,
another yellow, and the third red (d). Then paste on
one of the glasses five pieces of the red paper, one of
which must cover the whole glass, the second only the
four lower divisions, the third the three lower, the
fourth the two lowest, and the fifth the last division
only. On the other glasses five pieces of the blue and
yellow papers must be pasted in like manner. You must
also have a box of about six inches long, and the same
depth and width as the glasses ; it must be black on
the inside: let one end be quite open, and in the
opposite end there must be a hole large enough to see
the glasses completely. It must also open at the top,
that the glasses may be placed in it conveniently.
When you have put any one of these glasses in the
box, and the open end is turned toward the sun, you
will see five distinct shades of the colour it contains.
If you place thq blue and yellow glasses together, in a
similar direction, you will see five shades of green dis¬
tinctly formed. When the blue and red glasses are
placed, a bright violet will be produced: and by the
red and yellow, the several shades of orange.
If, instead of placing these glasses in a similar posi-Fig. 3.
tion, you place the side AB of the yellow glass against
the side BD of the blue, you will see all the various
greens that are produced by nature (e) } if the blue
and red glasses be placed in that manner, you will have
all the possible varieties of purples, violets, &c. ; and,
lastly, if the red and orange glasses be so placed, there
will be all the intermediate colours, as the marygold,
aurora, &c.
IV. By means of the three prhnary colours, red, yellow,
and blue, together with light and shade, to produce
all the gradations of the prismatic colours.
On seven square panes of glass, paste papers that
are painted with the seven prismatic colours, in the same
manner as the last experiment. The colours for the
orange, green, indigo, and violet, may be made by
mixing the other three. Then with bistre (F,) well
diluted, shade a sheet of very thin paper, by laying it
light on both its sides. With pieces of this paper cover
four-fifths of a glass, of the same size with the others,
by laying one piece on the four lowest divisions, an¬
other on the three lowest, a third on the two lowest,
and the fourth on the lowest division only, and leaving
the top division quite uncovered. When one of the
coloured glasses is placed in the box, together with the
glass of shades, so that the side AB of the one be ap¬
plied to the side BC of the other, as in fig. 3. the se¬
veral gradations of colours will appear shaded in the
same manner as a drapery judiciously painted with that
colour.
It is on this principle that certain French artists
have proceeded in their endeavours to imitate, by de¬
signs printed in colours, paintings in oil: which they
do by four plates of the same size, on each of which is
engraved the same design. One of these contains all
the shades that are to be represented, and which are
painted either black or with a dark gray. One of the
three other plates is covered with blue, another with
red, and the third with yellow each of them being
engraved on those parts only which are to represent
that colour (g) j and the engraving is either stronger
or weaker, in proportion to the tone of colour that is
to be represented (h).
These four plates are then passed alternately under
the
(d) Water-colours must be used for this purpose : the blue may be that of Prussia, and very bright j the red,
carmine; and the yellow, gamboge, mixed with a little saffron. These colours must be laid very light and even
on both sides of the paper.
(e) In the first position of the glasses, the quantity of blue and yellow being equal, the same sort of green was
constantly visible j but by thus inverting the glasses, the quantity of the colours being constantly unequal, a
very pleasing variety of tints is produced.
(f) The bistre here used must be made of soot, not that in stone.
(g) When a red drapery is required, it is engraved on the plate assigned to that colour ; and so of yellow
and blue : but if one ol the other colours be wanting, suppose violet, it must be engraved on those that print the
red blue; and so ot the rest. 1 he plates of this kind have been hitherto engraved in the manner of mezzotinto j
but these, unless they are skilfully managed, are soon effaced. Engravings in the manner of crayon will per¬
haps answer better.
(h) The principal difficulty in this sort of engraving arises from want of skilful management, in giving
each plate that precise degree of engraving which will produce the tone of colour required. If a bright green
is
93
CHROMATICS.
the press, and the mixture of their colours produces a
print that bears no small resemblance to a painting.
It must be confessed, however, that what has been hi¬
therto done of this kind falls far short of that degree
of perfection of which this art appears susceptible. If
they who engrave the best in the manner of the crayon,
were to apply themselves to this art, there is reason to
expect they would produce far more finished pieces than
we have hitherto seen.
Y. To make figures appear of different colours succes¬
sively.
Fig-4. Make a hole in the window-shutter of a dark room,
through which a broad beam of light may pass, that is
to be refracted by the large glass prism ABC, (fig. 4.),
which may be made of pieces of mirrors cemented to¬
gether, and filled with water. Provide another prism
DEF, made of three pieces of wood : through the mid¬
dle of this there must pass an axis on which it is to re¬
volve. This prism must be covered with white paper j
and each of its sides cut through in several places, so
as to represent different figures •, and those of each side
should likewise be different. The inside of this prism
is to be hollow, and made quite black, that it may not
reflect any of the light that passes through the sides in¬
to it. When this prism is placed near to that of glass,
as in the figure, with one of its sides EF perpendicular
to the ray of light, the figures on that side will appear
perfectly white: but when it comes into the position
g h, the figures will appear yellow and red ; and when
it is in the position k /, they will appear blue and vio¬
let. As the prism is turned round its axis, the other
sides will have a similar appearance. If, instead of a
prism, a four or five-sided figure be here used, the ap¬
pearances will be still further diversified.
This phenomenon arises from the different refrangi-
bility of the rays of light. For when the side EF is in
the position g h, it is more strongly illuminated by
the least refrangible rays ; and wherever they are pre¬
dominant, the object will appear red or yellow. But
when it is on the position k l, the more refrangible rays
being then predominant, it will appear tinged with blue
and violet.
VI. The solar magic lanthorn.
Procure a box, of about a foot high, and eighteen
inches wide, or such other similar dimensions as you
shall think fit, and about three inches deep. Two of
the opposite sides of this box must be quite open ; and
in each of the other sides let there be a groove, wide
enough to pass a stiff paper or pasteboard. This box
must be fastened against a window on which the sun’s
rays fall direct. The rest of the window should be
closed up, that no light may enter. Provide several
sheets ot stiff paper, which must be blacked on one
side. On these papers cut out such figures as you
shall think proper; and placing them alternately in
the grooves of the box, with their blacked sides to¬
wards you, look at them through a large and clear
glass prism : and if the light be strong, they will ap¬
pear to be painted with the most lively colours in
nature. If yon cut on one of these papers the form of
the rainbow, about three quarters of an inch wide, you
will have a lively representation of that in the atmo¬
sphere.
This experiment may be farther diversified, by
pasting very thin papers, lightly painted with difl'erent
colours, over some of the parts that are cut out:
which will appear to change their colours when viewed
through the prism, and to stand out from the paper,
at different distances, according to the dift’erent degrees
of refrangihility of the colours with which they are
painted. For greater convenience, the prism may be
placed in a stand on a table, at the height of your eye,
and made to turn round on an axis, that when you have
got an agreeable prospect, you may fix it in that posi¬
tion.
VII. The prismatic camera obscura.
Make two holes, F,y^ (fig. 5.) in the shutter of a Fig. 5.
dark chamber, near to each other; and against each
hole place a prism ABC, and a be, in a perpendicular
direction, that their spectrums NM may be cast on the
paper in a horizontal line, and coincide with each
other ; the red and violet of the one being in the
same part with those of the other. The paper should
be placed at such a distance from the prisms that the
spectrum may be sufficiently dilated. Provide several
papers nearly of the same dimensions with the spectrum;
cross these papers, and draw lines parallel to the divi¬
sions of the colours. In these divisions cut out such
figures as you shall find will have an agreeable effect,
as flowers, trees, animals, &c. When you have placed
one of these papers in its proper position, hang a black
cloth or paper behind it, that none of the rays that pass
through may be reflected and confuse the phenomena.
The figures cut on the paper will then appear strong¬
ly illuminated with all the original colours of nature.
If, while one of the prisms remains at rest, the other
be revolved on its axis, the continual alteration of the
colours will afford a pleasing variety ; which may be
further increased by turning the prism round in differ¬
ent directions.
When the prisms are so placed that the two spec¬
trums become coincident in an inverted order of their
colours, the red end of one failing on the violet end of
the other; if they be then viewed through a third
prism DH, held parallel to their length, they will no
longer appear coincident, but in the form of two di¬
stinct spectrums, p t and ?i m (fig. 6.), crossing one an-p.-g ^
other in the middle, like the letter X : the red of one
spectrum and violet of the other, which were coincident
at NM, being parted from each other by a greater re¬
fraction of the violet \.o p and 771, than that of the red
to 7i and t.
This experiment may be further diversified by add¬
ing two other prisms, that shall form a spectrum in the
same line, and contiguous to the other ; by which not
only the variety of figures, but the vicissitude of colours,
will be considerably augmented.
VIII.
is to be lepresented, there should be an equal quantity of engraving on the red and yellow plates: but if an olive
green, the yellow plate should be engraved much deeper than the red.
94
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
CHROMATICS.
VIII. The diatonic scale of colours.
The illustrious Newton, in the course of his investi¬
gations of the properties of light, discovered that the
length of the spaces which the seven primary colours
possess in the spectrum, exactly corresponds to those
of chords that sound the seven notes in the diatonic
scale of music: As is evident by the following experi¬
ment.
On a paper in a dark chamber, let a ray of light be
largely refracted into the spectrum AFTMGP (fig.
7.), and mark the precise boundaries of the several
colours, as o, &, c, &c. Draw lines from those points
perpendicular to the opposite side, and you will find
that the spaces M ryT, by which the red is bounded $
r g ef by which the orange is bounded $ q p e d, by
which the yellow is bounded, &c. will be in exact pro¬
portion to the divisions of a musical chord for the notes
of an octave ; that is, as the intervals of these numbers
T> S'* toi S'
IX. Colorific music.
Father Castel, a Frenchman, in a curious book he
has published on chromatics, supposes the note ut to
answer to blue in the prismatic colours $ the note re to
yellow, and mi to red. The other tones he refers to the
intermediate colours 5 from whence he constructs the
following gamut of colorific music :
Ut
Ut sharp
Ee
Ee sharp
Mi
Fa
Fa sharp
Sol
Sol sharp
La
La sharp
Si
Ut
Blue
Sea green
Bright green
Olive green
Yellow
Aurora
Orange
Bed
Crimson
Violet
Blue Violet
Sky blue
Blue
This gamut, according to this plan, is to be conti¬
nued in the same manner for the following octave j ex¬
cept that the colours are to be more vivid.
He supposes that these colours, by striking the eye
in the same succession as the sounds (to which he
makes them analogous) do the ear, and in the same
order of time, they will produce correspondent sen¬
sations of pleasure in the mind. It is on these general
principles, which F. Castel has elucidated in his trea¬
tise, that he has endeavoured, though with little success,
to establish his ocular harpsichord.
The construction of this instrument, as here ex¬
plained, will show that the effects produced by colours
by no means answer those of sounds, and that the
principal relation there is between them consists in
the duration of the time that they respectively affect the
senses.
Between two circles of pasteboard, of ten inches dia¬
meter, AB and CD, (fig. 8.), inclose a hollow paste¬
board cylinder E, 18 inches long. Divide this cylin¬
der into spaces half an inch wide, by a spiral line that
runs round it from the top to the bottom, and divide
its surface into six equal parts by parallel lines drawn
between its two extremities : as is expressed in the
figure.
Let the circle AB, at top, be open, and let that at
bottom, CD, be closed, and supported by an axis or
screw, of half an inch diameter, which must turn free¬
ly in a nut placed at the bottom of a box we shall
presently describe. To the axis just mentioned adjust
a wooden wheel G, of two inches and a half in dia¬
meter, and that has 12 or 15 teeth, which take the
endless screw H. Let this cylinder be inclosed in a
box ILMN (fig. 9.) whose base is square, and at
whose bottom there is a nut, in which the axis F
turns. Observe that the endless screw H should come
out of the box, that it may receive the handle O, by
which the cylinder is to be turned.
This box being closed all round, place over it a tin
covering A, which will be perforated in different
parts $ from this cover there must hang three or four
lights, so placed that they may strongly illumine the
inside of the cylinder. In one side of this box (which
should be covered with pasteboard) cut eight apertures,
«, b, c, d, e,f g, h, (fig. 9.) of half an inch wide, and Fig. 9:
y of an inch high $ they must be directly over each
other, and the distance between them must be exactly
two inches. It is by these openings, which here
correspond to the musical notes, that the various co¬
lours analogous to them are to appear j and which
being placed on the pasteboard cylinder, as we have
shown, are reflected by means of the lights placed
within it.
It is easy to conceive, that when the handle O is
turned, the cylinder in consequence rising half an
inch, if it be turned five times round, it will succes¬
sively show7, at the openings made in the side of the
box, all those that are in the cylinder itself, and which
are ranged according to the direction of the inclined
lines drawn on it. It is therefore according to the
duration of the notes which are to be expressed, that
the apertures on the cylinder are to be cut. Observe,
that the space between two of the parallel lines drawn
vertically on the cylinder, is equal to one measure of
time ; therefore, for every turn of the cylinder, there
are six measures, and thirty measures for the air that
is to be played by this instrument.
The several apertures being made in the side of the
cylinder, in conformity to the notes of the tune that
is to be expressed, they are to be covered with double
pieces of very thin paper, painted on both sides with
the colours that are to represent the musical notes.
This experiment might be executed in a diflerent
manner, and with much greater extent; but as the en¬
tertainment would not equal the trouble and expence,
we have thought it sufficient to give the above, by which .
the reader will be enabled to judge how far the analogy
supposed by F. Castel really exists. See the article
Chromatics in the Supplement.
CHRONIC,
Cm^vo/t
Ur/fft/nv// CsstCJ^s:
Chromatics .
/‘a, r/s:\zj r:
n iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiini; niiinii^ \r
Cm rr/j/A '&itEN'i or
f1?// 6
, p
XX
/// i/trovPf/
C >/iV 7: \//y<j/tc\xri y//(
&y,5.
u A
FC/,2-
S'///
X Q
F .f e d
7,
EMttcA^ayZu//^!
C H R [ 95 1 C H R
Chronic CHRONIC, or Chronical, among physicians, an
Chronicle, appellation given to diseases that continue a long time j
in contradistinction to those that soon terminate, and
are called acute.
CHRONICLE, in matters of literature, a species
or kind of history disposed according to the order of
time, and agreeing in most respects with annals. See
Annals.
Parian Chronicle. See Arundelian Marbles.
Since that article was printed, in which an abstract was
given of Mr Robertson’s doubts and observations respect¬
ing the authenticity of the Parian Chronicle, one or
two publications have appeared in answer, but none
of them calculated to remove the objections, or mate¬
rially to affect the arguments that had been stated with
so much learning and ingenuity against it. The fol¬
lowing strictures, however, with which the Monthly
Reviewers have concluded their critique of Mr Robert¬
son’s performance, seem to merit consideration.
Monthly On Objection I. T/iat the characters have no certain
Review. or unequivocal marksof antiquity, the Reviewers remark,
Jan. 17S9. t[iat seems rather to be an answer to a defender of
the inscription, than an objection. If a zealous parti-
zan of the marble should appeal to its characters and
orthography, as decisive proofs of its being genuine, it
would be proper enough to answer, that these circum¬
stances afford no certain criterion of authenticity. But
in this word certain sculks an unlucky ambiguity. If
it means demonstrative, it must be allowed that no in¬
scription can be proved to be certainly .genuine from
these appearances ; but if it means no more than high¬
ly probable, many inscriptions possess sufficient inter¬
nal evidence to give their claims this degree of cer¬
tainty. The true question is, Has not the Parian
Chronicle every mark of antiquity that can be expect¬
ed in a monument claiming the age of 2000 years ?
The letters r and £ are, by Mr R.’s own confession,
such as occur in genuine inscriptions j and to say in an¬
swer, that an impostor might copy the forms of these
letters from other inscriptions, is already to suppose
the inscription forged, before it is rendered probable
by argument. The learned author of the Dissertation
seems to betray some doubt of his own conclusion:
for he adds, p. 56. “ that the antiquity of an inscrip¬
tion can never be proved by the mere form of the let¬
ters, because the most ancient characters are as easily
counterfeited as the modern.” But this objection is
equally applicable to all other ancient inscriptions j
and is not to the purpose, if the present inscription has
any peculiar marks of imposture in its characters and
orthography. “ The characters do not resemble the
Sigean, the Nemean, or the Delian inscriptions.” Mr
R. answers this objection himself, by adding, “ which
are supposed to be of a more ancient date.” The op¬
posite reason to this will be a sufficient answer to the
other objection, “ that they do not resemble the Far-
nesian pillars or the Alexandrian MS.” If “ they
differ in many respects from the Marmor Sandvicense,”
they may be presumed to agree in many. “ They
seem to resemble more than any other, the alphabet
taken by Montfau^on from the marmor Cyzicenum.”
Ihus it appears that the Parian Chronicle most nearly
resembles the two inscriptions, to whose age it most
nearly approaches.
When Mr R. adds, that the letters u are such as
an ordinary stone-cutter would probably make, if he Chronicle.
were employed to engrave a Greek inscription, accord- '   *
ing to the alphabet now in use,” he must be under¬
stood cum grano salis. The engraver of a fac-simile
generally omits some nice and minute touches in ta¬
king his copy; but, even with this abatement, we dare
appeal to any adept in Greek calligraphy, whether the
specimen facing p. 56. will justify our author’s obser¬
vation ? “ The small letters (O, 0, n,) intermixed
among the larger, have an air of affectation and arti¬
fice.” Then has the greater part of ancient inscrip¬
tions an air of affectation and artifice, For the O is
perpetually engraved in this diminutive size ; and fit
being of a kindred sound, and 0 of a kindred shape,
how can we wonder that all three should be represent¬
ed of the same magnitude ? In the inscription which
immediately follows the marble in Dr Chandler’s edi¬
tion, No. xxiv. these very three letters are never so
large as the rest, and often much smaller 5 of which
there are instances in the three first lines. See also
two medals in the second part of Dorville’s Sicula,
Tab. xvi. Numb. 7. 9.
“ From the archaisms, such as iy ty Kv/3eA«<j,
tg Ilxgai, &c. &c. no conclusion can be drawn in fa¬
vour of the authenticity of the inscription.” Yet sure¬
ly every thing common to it with other inscriptions,
confessedly genuine, creates a reasonable presump¬
tion in its favour. “ But what reason could there be
for these archaisms in the Parian Chronicle ? We do
not usually find them in Greek writers of the same
age, or even of a more early date.” The reason is,
according to our opinion, that such archaisms were
then in use : this we know from other inscriptions, in
which such archaisms (or, as our author afterwards
calls them, barbarisms) are frequent. Nothing can
be inferred from the Greek writers, unless we had
their autographs. The present system of orthography
in our printed Greek books is out of the question. A-
gain, “ The inscription sometimes adopts and some¬
times neglects these archaisms, as in lines 4, 12, 27,
52, 63, 67.” This inconsistency either is no valid
objection, or if it be valid, will demolish not only al¬
most every other inscription, but almost every writing
whatsoever. For example, in the inscription just
quoted, No. xxiv. we find raN fixm'Kicc, 1. 20. and or«M,
TtipK-oi, 24. A little farther, N° xxvi. 1. 31. we have
eF Mxyvtirtces, 57. 73. 81. iK Mctyvnncts, and 106, 108.
sKT Mceywrixs. The Corcyrean inscription (Montfau-
900, Diar. Ital. p. 420.) promiscuously uses
and In English, who is surprised to find
has and hath, a hand and an hand, a useful and an use¬
ful, in the works of the same author P We could pro¬
duce instances of this inaccuracy from the same page,
nay from the same sentence.
“ The authenticity of those inscriptions, in which
these archaisms appear, must be established, before
they can be produced in opposition to the present ar¬
gument.” This is, we cannot help thinking, rather
too severe a restriction. If no inscription may be
quoted before it be proved genuine, the learned author
of the Dissertation need not be afraid of being con¬
futed j for nobody will engage with him on such con¬
ditions. Perhaps the reverse of the rule will be thought
more equitable j that every inscription be allowed to
be genuine, till its authenticity be rendered doubtful
by
1
C H R [ 96 ] C H R
Chronicle, probable arguments. We will conclude this head
l-—with two short observations. In Selden’s copy, 1. 26.
was written IIOHSIN, which the latter editions have al¬
tered to IlOIHSIN, but without reason, the other be¬
ing the more ancient way of writing, common in MSS.
and sometimes found on inscriptions. (See G. Koen’s
Notes on Gregorius de Dialectis, p. 30.) In 1.83. the
marble has KaAAjov, for which Palmer wished to
substitute K«tAA;«v. Dr Taylor refutes him from the
Marmor Sandvicense, observing at the same time, that
this orthography occurs in no other place whatever,
except in these twm monuments. Is it likely that two
engravers should by chance coincide in the same mis¬
take, or that the forger of the Parian Chronicle (it it
be forged) should have seen the Marmor Samlvicense,
and taken notice of this peculiarity with the intention
of afterwards employing it in the fabrication of an im¬
posture ?
The reviewers next proceed to consider, but more
briefly, the other objections.
II. It is not probable, that the Chronicle was engraved
for private use.—1. Because it was such an expence, as
few learned Greeks ivere able to afford If only a few
were able to afford it, some one of those few might be
willing to incur it. But let Mr R, consider how like¬
ly it is that a modern, and probably a needy Greek,
should be more able to afford it in the last century, than
a learned Greek 2000 years ago ! 2. A manuscript is
more readily circulated. Do men never prefer cumbrous
splendor to cheapness and convenience P And if this
composition, instead of being engraved on marble, had
been committed to parchment, would it have had a
better chance of coming down to the present age ?
Such a flying sheet would soon be lost 5 or, if a copy
had, by miracle, been preserved to us, the objections
to its being genuine would be more plausible than any
that have been urged against the inscription. What
Mr R. says about the errors to which an inscription is
liable, &c. will only prove that chronological inscrip¬
tions ought not to be engraved j but not that they ne¬
ver were. We allow that the common method of wri¬
ting in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus was not on
STONES. Rut it was common enough to occur to the
mind of any person who wished to leave behind him a
memorial at once of his learning and magnificence.
III. This objection, that the marble does not appear
to be engraved by public authority, we shall readily ad¬
mit, though Bentley (Diss. on Phalaris, p. 251.) leans
to the contrary opinion. In explaining this objection,
the learned dissertator observes, that though the ex¬
pression, iy. Uu^ui, would lead us to suppose that
the inscription related to Paros, not a single circum¬
stance in the history of that island is mentioned. But
this expression only shows that the author was an in¬
habitant of Paros, and intended to give his readers a
clue, or parapcgma, by the aid of which they might
adjust the general chronology of Greece to the dates
of their own history. “ It is as absurd as would be a
marble in Jamaica containing the revolutions of Eng¬
land.” We see no absurdity in supposing a book to
be written in Jamaica containing the revolutions of
England. The natives of Paros were not uninterested
in events relating to the general history of Greece,
particularly of Athens j and how can we tell whether
the author werejm inquilinus, or a native of the island j
3
whether he thought it a place beneath his care $ or chrom'd’
whether he had devoted a separate inscription to the »< ■ v ^
chronology of Paros P
IV. It has been frequently observed, that the earlier
periods of the Grecian history areinvolvedin darknessand
confusion. Granted. It follows, then, that “ an author
who should attempt to settle the dates of the earlier pe¬
riods would frequently contradict preceding, and be con¬
tradicted by subsequent, writers ; that he would natu¬
rally fall into mistakes $ and at best could only hope to
adopt the most probable system. But the difficulty of
the task, or the impossibility of success, are not sufficient
to prove that no man has been rash or mad enough to
make the attempt.” On the contrary, we know that
many have made it. What a number of discordant
opinions has Mr R. himself given us from the ancients
concerning the age of Homer ? This consideration
will in part obviate another objection, that the Parian
Chronicle does not agree with any ancient author.
For if the ancients contradict one another, how could
it follow more than one of them ? and why might not
the author, without any imputation of ignorance or
rashness, sometimes depart from them all ? If indeed
he disagrees with them when they are unanimous, it
might furnish matter for suspicion : though even this
would be far from a decisive argument, unless the an¬
cients were so extremely unlike the moderns, as never
to be fond of singular and paradoxical positions.
V. This Chronicle is not once mentioned by any writer
of antiquity. How many of those inscriptions, which
are preserved to the present day, are mentioned by
classical authors ? Verrius Flaccus composed a Roman
kalendar, which, as a monument of his learning and
industry, was engraved on marble, and fixed in the most
public part of Preneste. Fragments of this very ka¬
lendar were lately dug up at Preneste, and have been
published by a learned Italian. Now if the passage
of Suetonius, which informs us of this circumstance,
had been lost, would the silence of the Latin writers
prove that the fragments were not genuine remains of
antiquity ? It may be said that the cases are not pa¬
rallel 5 for not a single author mentions the Parian
Chronicle, whereas Suetonius does mention Verrius’s
Roman kalendar. To this we answer, It is dangerous
to deny the authenticity of any monument on the
slender probability of its being casually mentioned by
a single author. We shall also observe, that this fact
of the Hemicyclium of Verrius will answersome part of
the Dissertator’s second objection : “ The Parian Chro¬
nicle is not an inscription that might have been con¬
cealed in a private library.” Why not P it is of no
extraordinary bulk; and might formerly have been
concealed in a private library, or in a private room,
with as much ease as many inscriptions are now con¬
cealed in very narrow spaces. But unless this monu¬
ment were placed in some conspicuous part of the
island, and obtruded itself on the notice of every tra¬
veller, the wonder will in great measure cease why'it
is never quoted by the ancients. Of the nine authors
named in p. 109, had any one ever visited Paros ? If
Pausanias had travelled thither, and published his de¬
scription of the place, we might perhaps expect to
find some mention of this marble in so curious and in¬
quisitive a writer. But though the inscription existed,
and were famous at Paros, there seems no necessity for
anv
* ^ is
c H R f 97 i C H R
Chreniclc. any °f the authors whose works are still extant to have
<— "y "ii known or recorded it. If there be, let this learned
antagonist point out the place where this mention
ought to have been made. If any persons were bound
by a stronger obligation than others to speak of the
Parian inscription, they must be the professed chrono-
logers; but alas! we have not the entire works of so
much as a single ancient chronologer: it is therefore
impossible to determine whether this Chronicle were
quoted by any ancient. And supposing it had been
seen by some ancient, whose writings still remain, why
should he make particular mention of it ? Many au¬
thors, as we know from their remains, very freely co¬
pied their predecessors without naming them. Others,
finding only a collection of bare events in the inscrip¬
tion, without historical proofs or reasons, might entire¬
ly neglect it, as deserving no credit. Mr R. seems to
lay much stress on the precise, exact, and particular
specification of the events, p. 109. But he ought to
reflect, that this abrupt and positive method of speak¬
ing is not only usual, but necessary, in such short sy¬
stems of chronology as the marble contains, where
events only, and their dates, are set down, unaccompa¬
nied by any examination of evidences for and against,
without stating any computation of probabilities, or,
deduction of reasons. When therefore a chronological
writer had undertaken to reduce the general history of
Greece into a regular and consistent system, admitting
that he was acquainted with this inscription, what
grounds have we to believe that he would say any
thing about it ? Either his system coincided with the
Chronicle, or not: if it coincided, he would very pro¬
bably disdain to prop his own opinions with the un¬
supported assertions of another man, who, as far as he
knew, was not better informed than himself. On the
other hand, if he differed from the authority of the
marble, he might think it a superfluous exertion of
complaisance, to refute, by formal demonstration, a
writer who had chosen to give no reasons for his own
opinion. We shall pass hence to
Objection VII. With respect to the parachronisms
that Mr R. produces, we shall without hesitation grant
that the author of the inscription may have committed
some mistakes in his chronology, as perhaps concern¬
ing Phidon, whom he seems to have confounded with
another of the same name, &c. But these mistakes
will not conclude against the antiquity of the inscrip¬
tion, unless we at the same time reject many of the
principal Greek and Roman writers, who have been
convicted of similar errors. We return therefore to
Objection VI. Some of the facts seem to have been
taken from authors of a later date. We have endea¬
voured impartially to examine and compare the passages
quoted in proof of this objection 5 but we are obliged
to confess, that we do not perceive the faintest traces of
theft or imitation. One example only deserves to be
excepted j to which we shall therefore pay particular
attention.
“ The names of six, and, if the lacunae are proper¬
ly supplied, the names of twelve cities, appear to have
been engraved on the marble, exactly, as we find them
in ^Elian’s Various History. But there is not any
imaginable reason for this particular arrangement. It
does not correspond with the time of their foundation,
with their situation in Ionia, with their relative impor-
Vol. VI. Part I. +
tance, or with the order in which they .are placed by Chronicle,
other eminent historians.” v v"" •*
The chance of six names, says Mr R. being placed
by two authors in the same order, is as x to 720$ of
12, as 1 to 479,001,600. “ It is therefore utterly
improbable that these names would have been placed
in this order on the marble, if the author of the in¬
scription had not transcribed them from the historian.”
On this argument we shall observe, 1st, That the
very contrary conclusion might possibly be just, that
the historian transcribed from the inscription. Yet we
shall grant that in the present case this is improbable,
especially if the author of the Various History be the
same iElian, who, according to Philostratus, Vit. So¬
phist. II. 31. never quitted Italy in his life. But an
intermediate writer might have copied the marble, and
AEIian might have been indebted to him. 2dly, We
see no reason to allow that the lacunce are properly
supplied. Suppose we should assert, that the names
stood originally thus: Miletus, Ephesus, Erythrae,
Claxomene, Lebedos, Chios, Phocaea, Colophon, Myus,
Priene, Samos, Teos. In this arrangement, only four
names would be together in the same order with
-ZElian ; and from these Miletus must be excepted, be¬
cause there is an obvious reason for mentioning that
city first. Three only will then remain } and surely
that is too slight a resemblance to be construed into an
imitation. For Pausanias and Paterculus, quoted by
our author, p. 154, have both enumerated the same
twelve cities, and both agree in placing the five last in
the same order ; nay, the six last, if Vossius’s conjecture
that TEUM ought to be inserted in Paterculus after
Myum TEM, be as true as it is plausible. But who
imagines that Pausanias had either opportunity or in¬
clination to copy Paterculus ? 3dly, Allowing that the
names were engraved on the marble exactly in the or¬
der that ./Elian has chosen, is there no way of solving
the phenomenon but by supposing that one borrowed
from the other ? Seven authors at least (Mr R. seems
to say more, p. 154, 155.) mention the colonization of
the same cities: how many authors now lost may we
reasonably conjecture to have done the same P If there¬
fore the composer of the Chronicle and .Elian light¬
ed on the same authors, the former would probably
preserve the same arrangement that he found, because
in transcribing a list of names, he could have no temp¬
tation to deviate j and the latter would certainly ad¬
here faithfully to his original, because he is a notori¬
ous and servile plagiarist. Mr R. indeed thinks,
p. 158, that if a succeeding writer had borrowed the
words of the inscription, he would not have suppressed
the name of the author. This opinion must fall to the
ground, if it be shown that Elian was accustomed to
suppress the names of the authors to whom he was
obliged. Elian has given a list of fourteen celebra¬
ted gluttons; and elsewhere, another of twenty-eight
drunkards (from which, by the w’ay, it appears, that
people were apt to eat and drink rather too freely in
ancient as w'ell as modern times) ; and both these lists
contain exactly the same names in the same order
with Atheneus. Now it is observable, that four¬
teen names may be transposed 87,178,291,200 dif¬
ferent ways, and that twenty-eight names admit of
304,888,344,611,713,860,501,504,000,000 different
transpositions, &c. &c. Elian therefore transcribed
N them
C H R [ 98 ] C H R
Chronicle, them from Atheneiis : yet iElian never mentions Athe-
*. ynriis in his Various History. So that whether ^Elian
copied from the marble, or only drew from a common
source, he might, and very probably would, conceal his
authority.
VIII. The history of the discovery of the Marbles is
obscure and unsatisfactory.
In p. 169, it is said to be “ related with suspicious
circumstances, and without any of those clear and un¬
equivocal evidences which always discriminate truth
from falsehood.” The question is then finally decided.
If the inscription has not any of those evidences which
truth always possesses, and which falsehood always
wants, it is most certainly forged. The learned dis-
sertator seems for a moment to have forgotten the mo¬
dest character of a doubter^ and to personate the dog¬
matist. But waving this, we shall add, that, as far
as we can see, no appearance of fraud is discoverable
in any part of the transaction. The history of many
inscriptions is related in a manner equally unsatisfacto¬
ry ; and if it could be clearly proved that the marble
was dug up at Paros, what could be easier for a critic,
who is determined at any rate to object, than to say,
that it was buried there in order to be afterward dug
up ? If the person who brought this treasure to light
had been charged on the spot with forging it, or con¬
curring in the forgery, and had then refused to pro¬
duce the external evidences of its authenticity, we
should have a right to question, or perhaps to deny,
that it was genuine. But no such objection having
been made or hinted, at the original time of its disco¬
very, it is unreasonable to require such testimony as it
is now impossible to obtain. “ There is nothing said
of it in Sir T. Roe’s negotiations.” "What is the in¬
ference ? That Sir Thomas knew nothing of it, or be¬
lieved it to be spurious, or forged it, or was privy to
the forgery ? Surely nothing of this kind can be pre¬
tended. But let our author account for the circum¬
stance if he can. To us it seems of no consequence on
either side. “ Pieresc made no effort to recover this
precious relic $ and from this composure he seems to
have entertained some secret suspicions of its authenti¬
city.” Pieresc would have had no chance of recover¬
ing it after it was in the possession of Lord Arundel’s
agents. He was either a real or a pretended patron of
letters ; and it became him to affect to be pleased that
the inscription had come into England, and was illu¬
strated by his learned friend Selden. John F. Grono-
vius had, with great labour and expence, collated An¬
na Comnena’s Alexiades, and intended to publish them.
While he was waiting for some other collations, they
were intercepted, and the work was published by an¬
other. As soon as Gronovius heard this unpleasant
news, he answered, that learned men were engaged in
a common cause j that if one prevented another in any
publication, he ought rather to be thanked for light¬
ening the burden, than blamed for interfering. But
who would conclude from this answer, that Gronovius
thought the Alexiades spurious, or not worthy of any
regard ?
Mr R. calculates, that the venders of the marble re¬
ceived 200 pieces. But here again we are left in the
dark, unless we knew the precise value of these pieces.
Perhaps they might be equal to an hundred of our
pounds, perhaps only to fifty. Besides, as they at first
2
bargained with Samson, Pieresc’s supposed Jew agent, Chronicle.
for fifty pieces only, they could not have forged the ' '
inscription with the clear prospect of receiving more 5
neither does it appear that they were paid by Samson.
It is fully as reasonable to suppose fraud on the one
side as on the other $ and if Samson, after having the
marble in his possession, refused or delayed to pay the
sum stipulated, he might, in consequence of such refu¬
sal or delay, be thrown into prison, and might, in re¬
venge, damage the marble before the owners could re¬
cover it. We own this account of ours to be a ro¬
mance $ but it is lawful to combat romance with ro¬
mance.
IX. The world has been frequently imposed upon by
spurious books and inscriptions ; and therefore we should
be extremely cautious with regard to what we receive
under the venerable name of antiquity.
Much truth is observable in this remark. But the
danger lies in applying such general apophthegms to
particular cases. In the first place, it must be observ¬
ed, that no forged books will exactly suit Mr R.’s
purpose, but such as pretend to be the author’s own
hand-writing $ nor any inscriptions, but such as are
still extant on the original materials, or such as were
known to be extant at the time of their pretended dis¬
covery. Let the argument be bounded by these li¬
mits, and the number of forgeries will be very much
reduced. We are not in possession of Cyriacus Anco-
nitanus’s book *, but if we were governed by authority,
we should think that the testimony of Reinesius in his
favour greatly overbalances all that Augustinus has said
to his prejudice. The opinion of Reinesius is of the
more weight, because he suspects Ursinus of publishing
counterfeit monuments. We likewise find the most
eminent critics of the present age quoting Cyriacus
without suspicion (Yid. Ruhnken. in Timaei Lex. Plat,
p. 10. apud Koen, ad Gregor, p. 140.). The doctrine
advanced in the citation from Hardouin is exactly con¬
formable to that writer’s usual paradoxes. He wanted
to destroy the credit of all the Greek and Latin wri¬
ters. But inscriptions hnng like a millstone about the
neck of his project. He therefore resolved to make
sure work, and to deny the genuineness of as many as
he saw convenient : to effect which purpose, he in¬
trenches himself in a general accusation. If the author
of the dissertation had quoted a few more paragraphs
from Hardouin, in which he endeavours, after his man¬
ner, to show the forgery of some inscriptions, he would
at once have administered the poison and the antidote.
But to the reveries of that learned madman, respect¬
ing Greek supposititious compositions of this nature,
we shall content ourselves with opposing the sentiments
of a modern critic, whose judgment on the subject of
spurious inscriptions will not be disputed. Maffei, in
the introduction to the third book, c. 1. p. 51. of his
admirable, though unfinished, work, de Arte Critica
Lapidaria, uses these words: Inscriptionum Greece lo-
quentium commentitias, si cum Latinis comparcmus, de¬
yr chendi paucas ; neque enim ullurn omnino est, in tan-
ta debacchantium falsariorum libidine, monumentige-
nuSy in quod ii sibi minus licere putaverint. Argumento
est, paucissimas usque in hanc diem ah eruditis viris, et
in hoc literarum genere plurimum versatis rejectas esse,
falsique damnatas.
Books of Chronicles, a canonical writing of the
Old
C H R O N
Chronicles. Old Testament, It is uncertain which were written
—v~--' first, The Books of Kings, or The Chronicles, since they
each refer to the other. However it be, the latter is
often more full and comprehensive than the former.
Whence the Greek interpreters call these two books
n*gaA{i?rtytty(«, Supplements, Additions, or things omit¬
ted, because they contain some circumstances which are
omitted in the other historical books. The Jews make
but one book of the Chronicles, under the title of Di-
bre-Haianwn, i. e. Journals or Annals. Ezra is ge¬
nerally believed to be the author of these books. It is
certain they were written after the end of the Babylo¬
nish captivity and the first year of the reign of Cyrus,
of whom mention is made in the last chapter of the se¬
cond book.
The Chronicles, or Paraleipomena, are an abridge¬
ment of all the sacred history, from the beginning of
O L u G Y, p (
the Jewish nation to their first return from the capti- chrono-
vity, taken out of those hooks of the Bible which we gram,
still have, and out of other annals which the author Chrono-
had then by him. The design of the writer was to ,
give the Jews a series of their history. The first book v '"
relates to the rise and propagation of the people of
Israel from Adam, and gives a punctual and exact ac¬
count of the reign of David. The second book sets
down the progress and end of the kingdom of Judah,
to the very year of their return from the Babylonish
captivity.
CHRONOGRAM, a species of false wit, consist¬
ing in this, that a certain date or epocha is expressed
by numeral letters of one or more verses ; such is that
which makes the motto of a medal struck by Gustavus
Adolphus in 1632 :
ChrlstY* DVXj ergo trIVMphVs.
CHRONOLOGY,
nnREATS of time, the method of measuring its
parts, and adapting these, when distinguished by
proper marks and characters, to past transactions, for
the illustration of history. This science therefore con-
1 sists of two parts. The first treats of the proper mea-
Hw dm- surement of time, and the adjustment of its several di¬
visions ", the second, of fixing the dates of the various
events recorded in history, and ranging them accord¬
ing to the several divisions of time, in the order in
2 which they happened.
Chronology Chronology, comparatively speaking, is but of mo-
totheWn ^6rn ^ate* ^ie anc‘ent Poets appear to have been en-
cients^ tire,y unacquainted with it]; and Homer, the most ce¬
lebrated of them all, mentions nothing like a formal
kalendar in any part of his writings. In the most early
periods, the only measurement of time was by the sea¬
sons, the revolutions of the sun and moon $ and many
ages must have elapsed before the mode of computation
3 by dating events came into general use. Several cen-
Inaceurate furies intervened between the era of the Olympic games
methods of and the firsthistorians $ and several more between these
tinveaUirs ^ ^ ^r8t aut^ors chronology. When time first
made^se$t rechoned, we find its measures very inde-
of, terminate. The succession of Juno’s priestesses at Ar¬
gos served Hellanicus for the regulation of his narra¬
tive ; while Ephorus reckoned his matters by genera¬
tions. Even in the histories of Herodotus and Thucy¬
dides, we find no regular dates for the events record¬
ed : nor was there any attempt to establish a fixed era,
until the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who attempted
it by comparing and correcting the dates of the O-
lympiads, the kings of Sparta, and the succession of
the priestesses of Juno at Argos. Eratosthenes and A-
pollodorus digested the events recorded by them, ac¬
cording to the succession of the Olympiads and of the
Spartan kings.
The uncertainty of the measures of time in the most
early periods renders the histories of those times equa-
ly uncertain ; and even after the invention of dates
and eras, we find the ancient historians very inatten-
Lve to them, and inaccurate in their computations,
frequently their eras and year's were reckoned dif¬
ferently without their being sensible of it, or at least
without giving the reader any information concerning
it; a circumstance which has rendered the fragments
of their works now remaining of very little use to po¬
sterity. The Chaldean and Egyptian writers are ge¬
nerally acknowledged to be fabulous j and Strabo ac¬
quaints us, that Diodorus Siculus, and the other early ^
historians of Greece, were ill informed and credulous. Ancient hi-
Hence the disagreement among the ancient historians, storians not
and the extreme confusion and contradiction we meet ^ b<j cre'
with on comparing their works. Hellanicus and Acu- 1 e( ‘
silaus disagreed about their genealogies $ the latter re¬
jected the traditions of Hesiod. Timaeus accused E-
phorus of falsehood, and the rest of the world accused
Timaeus. The most fabulous legends were imposed
on the world by Herodotus ; and even Thucydides and
Diodorus, generally accounted ab'e historians, have
been convicted of error. The chronology of the La¬
tins is still more uncertain. The records of the Ro¬
mans were destroyed by the Gauls j and Fabius Pic-
tor, the most ancient of their historians, was obliged
to borrow the greatest part of his information from the
Greeks. In other European nations the chronology
is still more imperfect, and of a later date ; and even
in modern times, a considerable degree of confusion
and inaccuracy has arisen from want of attention in the
historians to ascertain the dates and epochs with preci¬
sion.
From these observations it is obvious how necessary ^.^.5 f
a proper system of chronology must be for the right chronology
understanding of history, and likewise how very diffi-]jst of chro-
cult it must be to establish such a system. In this, notogers,
however, several learned men have excelled, particu-^20*
larly Julius Africanus, Eusebius of Caesarea, George
Cyncelle, John of Antioch, Dennis, Petau, Cluviar,
Calvisius, Usher, Simson, Marsham, Blair, and Play¬
fair. It is founded, I. On astronomical observations,
particularly of the eclipses of the sun and moon, com¬
bined with the calculations of the eras and years of dif¬
ferent nations. 2. The testimonies of credible authors.
3. Those epochs in history which are so well attested
and determined, that they have never been contro-
N 2 verted.
100
6
Of the di¬
vision of
time into
dayi.
Civil, solar,
See. days
denned.
8
Different
■ways of
computing
the begin¬
ning of the
day.
9
Strange
method
igomputa-
tatiou in
Jjaly,
CHRONOLOGY.
verted. 4. Ancient medals, coins, monuments, and
inscriptions. None of these, however, can be suffi¬
ciently intelligible without an explanation of the first
part, which, we have already observed, considers the
divisions of time, and of which therefore we shall treat
in the first place.
The most obvious division of time is derived from the
apparent revolutions of the celestial bodies, particular¬
ly of the sun, which by the vicissitudes of day and
night becomes evident to the most barbarous and ig¬
norant nations. In strict propriety of speech, the word
day signifies only that portion of time during which
the sun diffuses light on any part of the earth ; but in
the most comprehensible sense, it includes the night
also, and is called by chronologers a civil day $ by
astronomers a natural^ and sometimes an artificial
day.
By a civil day is meant the interval betwixt the
sun’s departure from any given point in the heavens
and next return to the same, with as much more as
answers to its diurnal motion eastward, which is at the
Bate of 59 minutes and 8 seconds of a degree, or 3 mi¬
nutes and 57 seconds of time. It is also called a solar
day, and is longer than a sidereal one, insomuch that,
if the former be divided into 24 equal parts or hours,
the latter will consist only of 23 hours 56 minutes.
The apparent inequality of the sun’s motion, likewise,
arising from the obliquity of the ecliptic, produces an¬
other inequality in the length of the days : and hence
the difference betwixt real and apparent time, so that
the apparent motion of the sun cannot always be a true
measure of duration. These inequalities, however,
are capable of being reduced to a general standard,
which furnishes an exact measure throughout the year ;
whence arises the difierence between mean and appa¬
rent time, as is explained under the article Astro¬
nomy.
There have been very considerable differences among
nations with regard to the beginning and ending of
their days. The beginning of the day was counted
from sunrise by the Babylonians, Syrians, Persians,
and Indians. The civil day of the Jews was begun
from sunrise, and their sacred one from sunset; the
latter mode of computation being followed by the A-
thenians, Arabs, ancient Gauls and other European
nations. According to some, the Egyptians began
their day at sunset, while others are of opinion that
they computed from noon or fi-om sunrise ; and Pliny
informs us that they computed their civil day from one
midnight to another. It is probable, however, that
they had different modes of computation in different
provinces or cities. The Ausonians, the most ancient
inhabitants of Italy, computed the day from mid¬
night ; and the astronomers of Cathay and Oighur in
the East Indies reckoned in the same manner. This
mode of computation was adopted by Hipparchus,
Copernicus, and other astronomers, and is now in com¬
mon use among ourselves. The astronomical day, how¬
ever, as it is called, on account of its being used in
astronomical calculation, commences at noon, and
ends at the same time the following day. The Maho¬
metans reckon from one twilight to another. In Ita¬
ly, the civil day commences at some indeterminate
point after sunset; whence the time of noon varies with
toe season, of the year,. At the summer solstice, the
clock strikes 16 at noon, and 19 at the time of the
winter solstice. Thus also the length of each day dif¬
fers by several minutes from that immediately preced¬
ing or following it. This variation requires a consi¬
derable difficulty in adjusting their time by clocks. It
is accomplished, however, by a sudden movement
which corrects the difference when it amounts to a
quarter of an hour $ and this it does sometimes at the
end of eight days, sometimes at the end of 15, and
sometimes at the end of 40. Information ot all this is
given by a printed kalendar, which announces, that
from the 16th of February, for instance, to the 24th,
it will be noon at a quarter past 18 $ from the 24th of
February to the 6th of March, it will be noon at 18
o’clock precisely j from the first of June to the 13th of
July, the hour of noon will be at 16 o’clock $ on the
13th of July it will be at half an hour after 165 and
so on throughout the different months of the year.
This absurd method of measuring the day continues^
notwithstanding sevei’al attempts to suppress it,through¬
out the whole of Italy, a few provinces only ex¬
cepted. jo
The subdivisions of the day have not been less vari-Various
ous than the computations of the day itself- The most subdivision:
obvious division, and which could at no time, nor day-
no age, be mistaken, was that of morning and evening-
In process of time the two intermediate points of nooa
and midnight were determined $ and this division in¬
to quarters was in use long before the invention of
hours.
From this subdivision probably arose the method
used by the Jews and Romans of dividing the day and
night into four vigils or watches. The first began at
sunrising, or six in the morning ; the second at nine;
the third at twelve $ and the fourth at three in the af¬
ternoon. In like manner the night was divided into
four parts j the first beginning at six in the evening,
the second at nine, the third at twelve, and the fourth
at three in the morning. The first of these divisions
was called by the Jews the third hour of the day ; the-
second the sixth; the third the ninth ; and the fourth
the twelfth^ and sometimes the eleventh. Another di¬
vision in use, not only among the nations above men¬
tioned, but the Greeks also, was that which reckoned
the first quarter from sunset to midnight; the second
from midnight to sunrise ; the third, or morning watch,
from morning to noon; and the fourth from noon to
sunset. j,
It is uncertain at what time the more minute sub-Inventum
division of the day into hours first commenced. Jtof hours
does not appear from the writings of Moses that heunoertain'
was acquainted with it, as he mentions only the morn¬
ing, mid-day, evening, and sunset. Hence we may
conclude, that the Egyptians at that time knew no¬
thing of it, as Moses was well skilled in their learning.
According to Herodotus, the Greeks received the
knowledge of the twelve hours of the day from the
Babylonians. It is probable, however, that the divi- *
sion was actually known and in use before the name-
hour was applied to it j as Censorious informs us that
the term was not made use of in Rome for 300 years
after its foundation \ nor was it known at the time
the twelve tables were constructed.
The eastern nations divide the day and night in a
very singular.manner j ,the origin of which is not easily.
discovered.
IOI
CHRONOLOGY.
discovered. The Chinese have five watches in the night,
which are announced by a certain number of strokes
on a bell or drum. They begin by giving one stroke,
which is answered by another ; and this is repeated at
the distance of a minute or two, until the second watch
begin, which is announced by two strokes; and so on
throughout the rest of the watches. By the ancient
Tartars, Indians, and Persians, the day was divided
lt into eight parts, each of which contained seven hours
Method of and a half. The Indians on the coast of Malabar di-
computa- vide the day into six parts, called najika; each of
lion on the j[iese SJX parts is subdivided into 60 others, called ve-
Malabar naigas; the venaiga into 60 birpes i the birpe into 10
kenikans; the kenikan into four mattires; the mat-
tire into eight kaunimas or caignodes; which divi¬
sions, according to our mode of computation, stand as
follow:
Najika, Venaiga, JBirpe, Kenikan, Mattire, Caignode.
24 min. 24 sec. 4 sec. y sec. Tr^ sec. -g-V sec.
The day of the Chinese is begun at midnight, and
ends with the midnight following. It is divided into
twelve hours, each distinguished by a particular name
and figure. They also divide the natural day into
IOO parts, and each of these into 100 minutes j so
that the whole contains 10,000 minutes. In the north¬
ern parts of Europe, where only two seasons are
reckoned in the year, the divisions of the day and night
are considerably larger than with us. In Iceland the
24 hours are divided into eight parts ; the first of
which commences at three in the morning j the se¬
cond at five j the third at half an hour after eight; the
fourth at eleven j the fifth at three in the afternoon $
the sixth at six in the evening; the seventh at eight,
and the last at midnight. In the eastern part of Tur¬
kestan, the day is divided into twelve equal parts, each
of which is distinguished by the name of some animal.
These are subdivided into eight keh; so that the whole
24 hours contain 96 keh.
Divisions The modern divisions of the hour in use among us
of the hour are into minutes, seconds, thirds, fourths, &c. each
--c ke‘n£ a sixtieth part of the former subdivision. By
1 ’ the Chaldseans, Jews, and Arabians, the hour is di¬
vided into 1080 scruples ; so that one hour contains
60 minutes, and one minute, 18 scruples. The an¬
cient Persians and Arabs were likewise acquainted
with this division; but the Jews are so fond of it, that
they pretend to have received it in a supernatural man¬
ner. “ Issachar (say they) ascended into heaven, and
brought from thence 1080 parts for the benefit of the
nation.”
Methods of The division of the day being ascertained, it soon
announcing became an object to indicate in a public manner the
die hours, expiration of any particular hour or division ; as with¬
out some general knowledge of this kind, it would be
in a great measure impossible to carry on business.
The methods of announcing this have been likewise
very different. Among the Egyptians it was custo¬
mary for the priests to proclaim the hours like watch¬
men among us. The same method was followed at
Rome; nor was there any other method of knowing
the hours until the year "293 B. C. when Papirius
Cursor first set up a sun-dial in the Capitol. A simi¬
lar method is practised among the Turks, whose priests
proclaim from the top of their mostiues, the cock-
crowing, day-break, mid-day, three o’clock in the af¬
ternoon, and twilight, being their appointed times of
worship. 15
As this mode of proclaiming the hour could not but Invention
be very inconvenient, as well as imperfect, the introduc-of
tion of an instrument which every one could have ‘nthjSpUr_
his possession, and which might answer the same pur-p0ge-
pose, must have been considered as a valuable acquisi¬
tion. One of the first of these was the clepsydra or
water-clock*. Various kinds of these were in use * See C/ep-
among the Egyptians at a very early period. The in-
vention of the instrument is attributed to Thoth or
Mercury, and it was afterwards improved by Ctesibius
of Alexandria. It was a common measure of time
among the Greeks, Indians, and Chaldaeans, as well as
the Egyptians, hut was not introduced into Rome till
the time of Scipio Nasica. The Chinese astronomers
have long made use of it ; and by its means divided
the zodiac into twelve parts ; hut it is a very inac¬
curate measure of time, varying, not only according to
the quantity of water in the vessel, but according to
the state of the atmosphere.
The clepsydra was succeeded by the gnomon or
sun-dial—This at first was no more than a stile
erected perpendicularly to the horizon ; and it was a
long time before the principles of it came to be tho¬
roughly understood. The invention is with great
probability attributed to the Babylonians, from whom
the Jews received it before the time of Ahaz, when
we know that a sun-dial was already erected at Jeru¬
salem. The Chinese and Egyptians also were ac¬
quainted with the use of the dial at a very early pe¬
riod, and it was considerably improved by Anaximan¬
der or Anaximenes ; one of whom is for that reason
looked upon to be the inventor. Various kinds of
dials, however, were invented and made use of in dif¬
ferent nations long before their introduction at Rome.
The first erected in that city, as has been already men¬
tioned, was that by Papirius Cursor; and 30 years
after, Valerius Messala brought one from Sicily,
which was used in Rome for no less than 99 years,
though constructed for a Sicilian latitude, and con¬
sequently incapable of showing the hours exactly in
any other place ; but at last another was constructed
by L. Philippus, capable of measuring time with great¬
er accuracy.
It was long after the invention of dials before man¬
kind began to form any idea of clocks ; nor is it well
known at what period they were first invented. A
clock was sent by Pope Paul I. to Pepin king of
France, which at that time was supposed to be the
only one in the world. A very curious one was also
sent to Charles the Great from the caliph tlaroun Al-
raschid, which the historians cf the time speak of with
surprise and admiration : but the greatest improvement
was that of Mr Huygens, who added the pendulum to
it. Still, however, the instruments for dividing time
were found to be inaccurate for nice purposes. The
expansion of the materials by heat, and their contrac¬
tion by cold, would cause a very perceptible alteration
in the going of an instrument in the same place at dif¬
ferent times of the year, and much more if carried
from one climate to another. Various methods have
been contrived to correct this; which indeed can be
done very effectually at land by a certain construction
102
CHRONOLOGY.
16
Of weeks.
*7
Of holi¬
days.
of the pendulum ; but at sea, where a pendulum can¬
not be used, the inaccuracy is of consequence much
greater j nor was it thought possible to correct the er¬
rors arising from these causes in any tolerable degree,
until the late invention of Mr Harrison’s time-piece,
which may be considei’ed as making perhaps as near an
approach to perfection as possible.
Having thus given an account of the more minute
divisions of time, with the methods of measuring
them, we must now proceed to the larger *, which more
properly belong to chronology, and which must be
kept on record, as no instrument can be made to
point them out. Of these the division into weeks of
seven days is one of the most ancient, and probably
took place from the creation of the world. Some,
indeed are of opinion, that the week was invented
some time after for the more convenient notation of
time ; but whatever may be in this, we are certain
that it is of the highest antiquity, and even the most
rude and barbarous nations have made use of it. It is
singular indeed that the Greeks, notwithstanding their
learning, should have been ignorant of this division ;
and M. Goguet informs us, that they were almost the
only nation who were so. By them the month of 30
days was divided into three times 10, and the days of
it named accordingly. Thus the 15th day ot the
month was called the second fifth, or fifth of the se¬
cond tenth ; the 24th was called the thirdfourth, or
the fourth day of the third tenth. This method was
in use in the days of Hesiod, and it was not until se¬
veral ages had elapsed, that the use of weeks was re¬
ceived into Greece from the Egyptians. The inha¬
bitants of Cathay, in the northern part of China, were
likewise unacquainted with the week of seven days,
but divided the year into six parts of 60 days each.
They had also a cycle of 15 days, which they used
as a week. The week was likewise unknown to the
ancient Persians and to the Mexicans ; the former
having a different name for every day of the month,
and the latter making use of a cycle of 13 days. By
almost all other nations the week of seven days was
adopted.
It is remarkable, that one day in the week has al¬
ways been accounted as sacred by every nation. Thus
Saturday was consecrated to pious purposes among
the Jews, Friday by the Turks, Tuesday by the Afri¬
cans of Guinea, and Sunday by the Christians.
Hence also the origin of Fcrice or holidays frequent¬
ly made use of in Systems of Chronology j and which
arose from the following circumstance. In the church
of Rome the old ecclesiastical year began with Easter
week ; all the days of which were called Ferice or Fe-
riati, that is, holy or sacred days; and in process of
time the days of other weeks came to be distinguish¬
ed by the same appellation, for the two following rea¬
sons, 1. Because every day ought to be holy in the es¬
timation of a Christian. 2. Because all days are holy
to ecclesiastics, whose time ought to be entirely de¬
voted to religious worship.—The term week is some¬
times used to signify seven years, not only in the pro¬
phetical writings, but likewise by profane authors :
thus Varro, in his book inscribed Hebdomades, informs
us, that he had then entered the I2th week of his
13
Of months.
years.
The next division of time superior to weeks, is that
of months. This appears to have been, if not coeval
with the creation, at least in use before the flood. As
this division is naturally pointed out by the revolution
of the moon, the months of all nations were origi¬
nally lunar; until after some considerable advances
had been made in science, the revolutions of that lu¬
minary were compared with the sun, and thus the li¬
mits of the month fixed with greater accuracy. The
division of the year into 12 months, as being found¬
ed on the number of full revolutions of the moon in
that time, has also been very general; though Sir John
Chardin informs us, that the Persians divided the year
into 24 months; and the Mexicans into 18 months of
20 days each. The months generally contained 30
days, or 29 and 30 days alternately; though this rule
was far from being without exception. The months
of the Latins consisted of 16, 18, 22, or 36 days;
and Romulus gave his people a year of 10 months
and 304 days. The Kamtschatkadales divide the year
into 10 months; reckoning the time proper for la¬
bour to be nine months, and the winter season, when
they are obliged to remain inactive, only as one
month.
It has been a very ancient custom to give names to
the different months of the year, though this appears
to have been more modern than the departure of the
Israelites out of Egypt, as they would otherwise un¬
doubtedly have carried it with them ; but for a con¬
siderable time after their settlement in Canaan, they
distinguished the months only by the names of first,
second, &c. After their return from the Babylo¬
nish captivity, they adopted the names given to the
months by the Chaldaeans. Other nations adopted
various names, and arranged the months themselves
according to their fancy. From this last circumstance
arises the variety in the dates of the months ; for as
the year has been reckoned from different signs in the
ecliptic, neither the number nor the quantity of months
have been the same, and their situation has likewise
been altered by the intercalations necessary to be
made.
These intercalations became necessary on account
of the excess of the solar above the lunar year; and
the months composed of intercalary days are likewise
called embolismal. These embolismal months are either
natural or civil. By the former the solar and lunar
years are adjusted to one another ; and the latter arises
from the defect of the civil year itself. The adar of
the Jews, which always consists of 30 days, is an ex¬
ample of the natural embolismal month.
The Romans had a method of dividing their months
into kalends, nones, and ides. The first was derived
from an old word calo, “ to call;” because, at every new
moon, one of the lower class of priests assembled the
people, and called over, or announced, as many days as
intervened betwixt that and the nones, in order to no¬
tify the difference of time and the return of festivals.
The 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th of March, May,
July, and October, were the nones of these months ;
but in the other months were the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th
days only. Thus the 5th of January was its nones ;
the 4th was pridie nonarum ; the 3d, tertio nonarum.
See. The ides contained eight days in every month,
and were nine days distant from the nones. Thus the
15th day of the four mouths already mentioned was
C H R O N
the ules of them; but in the others the 13th was ac¬
counted as such ; the 1 2th was pridie iduiim, and the
nth tertio iduum. The ides were succeeded by the
kalends ; the 14th of January, for instance, being the
19th kalend of February; the 15th was the 18th ka-
]end ; and so on till the 31st of January, which was
I? pridie kalendarum ; and February 1st was the kalends.
AstronomW Among the European nations the month is either
cal and ci- astronomical or civil. The former is measured by
Til months, the motion of the heavenly bodies ; the civil consists of
a certain number of days specified by the laws, or by
the civil institutions of any nation or society. The
astronomical months, being for the most part regulated
by the motions of the sun and moon, are thus divided
into solar and lunar, of which the former is sometimes
also called civil. The astronomical solar month is the
time which the sun takes up in passing through a sign
of the ecliptic. The lunar month is periodical, syno¬
dical, sidereal, and civil. The synodical lunar month
is the time that passes between any conjunction of the
moon with the sun and the conjunction following. It
includes the motion of the sun eastward during that
time ; so that a mean lunation consists of 2pd. 12I1.
44' 2" 8921. The sidereal lunar month is the time
of the mean revolution of the moon with regard to the
fixed stars. As the equinoctial points go backwards
about 4' in the space of a lunar month, the moon must,
in consequence of this retrocession, arrive at the equi¬
nox sooner than at any fixed star, and consequently the
mean sidereal revolution must be longer than the mean
periodical one. The latter consists of 2yd. 'yh. 43'
4" 6840. The civil lunar month is computed from
the moon, to answer the ordinary purposes of life ;
and as it would have been inconvenient, in the com¬
putation of lunar months, to have reckoned odd parts
of days, they have been composed of 30 days, or of
29 and 30 alternately, as the nearest round numbers.
When the month is reckoned from the first appearance
of the moon after her conjunction, it is called the month
of illumination. The Arabs, Turks, and other nations,
who use the era of the Hegira, follow this method
of computation. As twelve lunar months, however,
are n days less than a solar year, Julius Caesar ordain¬
ed that the month should be reckoned from the course
of the sun and not of the moon ; and that they should
consist of 30 and 31 days alternately, February only
excepted, which was to consist of 28 commonly, and of
20 29 in leap years.
Of years. The highest natural division of time is into years.
At first, however, it is probable that the course of the
sun through the ecliptic would not be observed, but
that all nations would measure their time by the revo¬
lutions of the moon. We are certain, at least, that the
Egyptian year consisted originally of a single lunation ;
though at length it included two or three months, and
was determined by the stated returns of the seasons.
As the eastern nations, however, particularly the E-
gyptians, Chaldeans, and Indians, applied themselves
m very early periods to astronomy, they found, by
comparing the motions of the sun and moon together,
that one revolution of the former included nearly 12 of
the latter. Hence a year of 12 lunations was formed,
in every one of which were reckoned 30 days ; and
hence also the division of the ecliptic into 360 degrees,
he lunisolar year, consisting of 360 days, was in use
O L O G Y. io:
long before any regular intercalations were made;
and historians inform us, that the year of all ancient
nations was lunisolar. Herodotus relates, that the
Egyptians first divided the year into 12 parts by the
assistance of the stars, and that every part consisted of
30 days. The Thebans corrected this year by add¬
ing five intercalary days to it. The old Chaldean year
was also reformed by the Medes and Persians : and
some of the Chinese missionaries have informed us,
that the lunisolar year was also corrected in China ;
and that the solar year was ascertained in that country
to very considerable exactness. The Latin year, before
Numa’s correction of it, consisted of 360 days, of
which 304 were divided into ten months ; to which
were added two private months not mentioned in the
kalendar. 2i
The imperfection of this method of comparing time Explana-
is now very evident. The lunisolar year was about**011 °fa
jjp days shorter than the true solar year, and as much Pas8aSe 111
longer than the lunar. Hence the months could not ei° °tUS’
long correspond with the seasons ; and even in so short
a time as 34 years, the winter months would have
changed places with those of summer. From this ra¬
pid variation, Mr Playfair takes notice, that a passage
in Herodotus, by which the learned have been exceed-
ingly puzzled, may receive a satisfactory solution, viz.
that “ in the time of the ancient Egyptian kings, the
sun had twice arisen in the place where it had former¬
ly set, and twice set where it had arisen.” By this
he supposes it is meant, “ that the beginning of the
year had twice gone through all the signs of the eclip¬
tic ; and that the sun had risen and set twice in every
day and month in the year.” This, which some have
taken for a proof of most extravagant antiquity, he
further observes, might have happened in 138 years
only ; as in that period there would be a difference of
nearly two years between the solar and lunar year.
Such evident imperfections could not but produce a
reformation everywhere; and accordingly we find that
there was no nation which did not adopt the me¬
thod of adding a few intercalary days at certain inter¬
vals. We are ignorant, however, of the person who
was the first inventor of this method. The Theban
priests attributed the invention to Mercury or Thoth ;
and it is certain that they were acquainted with the
year of 365 days at a very early period. The length
of the solar year was represented by the celebrated
golden circle of Osymandyas of 365 cubits circumfe¬
rence ; and on every cubit of which was inscribed a
day of the year, together with the heliacal risings and
settings of the stars. That monarch is supposed to
have reigned in the Ilth or 12th century before the
Christian era.
The Egyptian solar year being almost six hours Great
shorter than the true one, this inaccuracy, in process Egyptian
of time, produced another revolution; some circum-yea!’> or
stances attending which serve to fix the date of the dis-®y”£ular
covery of the length of the year, and which, from the
above description of the golden circle, we may suppose
to have been made during the reign of Osymandyas.
The inundation of the Nile was annually announced
by the heliacal rising of Sirius, to which the reformers
of the kalendar adjusted the beginning of the year, sup¬
posing that it would remain immoveable. In a num¬
ber of years, however, it appeared that their supposi¬
tions
104
23
Of the
time when
it commen¬
ced.!
24 _
Unceitai il¬
ly of the
time when
the true
feolar year
was disco¬
vered.
23
Years of
the Jews,
See.
45
Reforma¬
tion of the
kalendar
by Julius
Csesar and
Pope Gie-
2017.
C H R O N
tlons of this were ill founded. By reason of the ine¬
quality above mentioned, the heliacal rising of Sirius
gradually advanced nearly at the rate of one day in
four years ; so that in 1461 years it completed a revo¬
lution, by arising on every succeeding day of the year,
and returning to the point originally fixed for the be¬
ginning of the year. This period, equal to 1460
Julian years, was termed the great Egyptian year, or
canicular cycle. From the accounts we have of the
time that the canicular cycle was renewed, the time of
its original commencement may be gathered with to¬
lerable certainty. This happened, according to Cen¬
sorious, in the 138th year of the Christian era. Rec¬
koning backward therefore from this time for 1460
years, we come to the year B. C. 1322, when the sun
was in Cancer, about 14 or 15 days after the summer
solstice, which happened on July 5th. The Egyptians
used no intercalation till the time of Augustus, when
the corrected Julian year was received at Alexandria
by his order ; but even this order'was obeyed only by
the Greeks and Romans who resided in that city } the
superstitious natives refusing to make any addition to
the length of a year which had been so long establish¬
ed among them.
We are not informed at what precise period the
true year wras observed to consist of nearly six hours
more than the 365 days. Though the priests of Thebes
claim the merit of the discovery, Herodotus makes
no mention of it j neither did Thales, who introduced
the year of 365 days into Greece, ever use any inter-
calatioa. Plato and Eudoxus are said to have obtain¬
ed it as a secret from the Egyptians about 80 years
after Herodotus, and to have carried it into Greece 5
which showed, that the knowledge of this form of the
year was at that time recent, and only known to a few
learned men.
The year of the ancient Jews was lunisolar $ and
we are informed by tradition, that Abraham preserved
in his family, and transmitted to posterity, the Chal¬
dean form of the year, consisting of 360 days $ which
remained the same without any correction until the
date of the Era of Nabonassar. The solar year was
adopted among them after their return from the Ba¬
bylonish captivity j but when subjected to the succes¬
sors of Alexander in Syria, they were obliged to admit
the lunar year into their kalendar. In order to adjust
this year to the course of the sun, they added at cer¬
tain periods a month to Adar, formerly mentioned,
and called it Ve Adar. They composed also a cycle
of 19 years, in seven of which they inserted the inter¬
calary month. This correction was intended to regu¬
late the months in such a manner, as to bring the 15th
of Nisan to the equinoctial point; and likewise the
courses of the seasons and feasts in such a manner, that
the corn might be ripe at the passover, as the law re¬
quired.
We shall not take up the reader’s time with any
further account of the years made use of by different
nations, all of which are resolved at last into the luni¬
solar ; it will he sufficient to mention the improve¬
ments in the kalendar made by the two great reformers
of it, Julius Caesar, and Pope Gregory XIII. The
institution of the Roman year by Romulus has been
already taken notice of; but as this was evidently very
imperfect, Numa, on his advancement to the throne,
3
O L O G Y.
undertook to reform it. With a design to make a
complete lunar year of it, he added 50 days to the
304 of Romulus j and from every one of his months,
which consisted of 31 and 30 days, he borrowed one
day. Of these additional days he composed two
months j calling the one January, and the other Fe¬
bruary. Various other corrections and adjustments
were made 5 but when Julius Caesar obtained the sove¬
reignty of Rome, he found that the months had con¬
siderably receded from the seasons to which Numa had
adjusted them. To bring them forward to their places,
he formed a year of 15 months, or 445 days $ which,
on account of its length, and the design with which it
was formed, has been called the year of confusion. It
terminated on the first of January 45 B. C. and
from this period the civil year and months were re¬
gulated by the course of the sun. The year of Nu¬
ma being ten days shorter than the solar year, two
days were added by Julius to every one of the months
of January, August, and December $ and one to April,
June, September, and November. He ordained like¬
wise, that an intercalary day should be added every
fourth year to the month of February, by reckoning
the 24th day, or sixth of the kalends of March, twice
over. Hence this year was styled bissextile, and also
leap year, from its leaping a day more than a common
year.
The Julian year has been used by modern chronolo-
gers, as being a measure of time extremely simple and
sufficiently accurate. It is still, however, somewhat
imperfect, for as the true solar year consists of 365d.
5b. 48' 451", it appears that in 131 years after the
Julian correction, the sun must have arrived one day
too soon at the equinoctial point. During Caesar’s
reign the vernal equinox had been observed by Sosi¬
genes on the 25th of March ; but by the time of the
Nicene council it had gone backward to the 2ist.
The cause of the error was not then known; but in
1582, when the equinox happened on the nth of
March, it was thought proper to give the kalendar its
last correction. Pope Gregory XIII. having invited
to Rome a considerable number of mathematicians and
astronomers, employed ten years in the examination of
their several formulae, and at last gave the preference
to that of Alosia and Antoninus Lelius, who were bro¬
thers. Ten days were now cut off in the month of
October, and the 4th of that month was reckoned the
15th. To prevent the seasons from receding in time
to come, he ordained that one day should be added
every fourth or bissextile year as before ; and that the
1600th year of the Christian era, and every fourth
century thereafter, should be a bissextile or leap year.
One day therefore is to be intercalated in the years
2000, 2400, 2800, &c. but in the other centuries, as
1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, &c. it is to be suppressed,
and these are to be reckoned as common years. Even
this correction, however, is not absolutely exact 5 but
the error must be very inconsiderable, and scarce a-
mounting to a day and a half in 5000 years. 27
The commencement of the year has been deter-CommeM
mined by the date of some memorable event or occur-nient 0
rence, such as the creation of the world, the universalyear*
deluge, a conjunction of planets, the incarnation of
our Saviour, &c. and of course has been referred to
different points in the ecliptic. The Chaldean and
the
C H R O N
the Egyptian years were dated from the autumnal
equinox. The ecclesiastical year of the Jews began in
the spring ; but, in civil affairs, they retained the epoch
of the Egyptian year. The ancient Chinese reckoned
from the new moon nearest the middle of Aquarius j
but according to some recent accounts, the beginning
of their year was transferred (B. C. 1740) to the new
moon nearest to the winter solstice. This likewise is
the date of the Japanese year. Diemschid, or Gem-
, schid, king of Persia, observed, on the day of his pu¬
blic entry into Persepolis, that the sun entered into A-
ries. In commemoration of this fortunate event and
coincidence, he ordained the beginning of the year to
be removed from the autumnal to the vernal equinox.
This epoch was denominated Neurwz, viz. new-day j
and is still celebrated with great pomp and festivity.
(See Epochs.) The ancient Swedish year commen¬
ced at the winter solstice, or rather at the time of the
sun’s appearance in the horizon, after an absence of
about 40 days. The feast of this epoch was solemnized
on the 20th day after the solstice. Some of the Gre¬
cian states computed from the vernal, some from the
autumnal equinox, and others from the summer tropic.
The year of Romulus commenced in March, and that
of Numa in January. The Turks and Arabs date the
year from the 16th of July: and the American In¬
dians reckon from the first appearance of the new
moon of the vernal equinox. The church of Rome
has fixed new year’s day on the Sunday that corre¬
sponds with the full moon of the same season. The
Venetians, Florentines, and Pisans in Italy, and the
inhabitants of Treves in Germany, begin the year at
the vernal equinox. The ancient clergy reckoned
from the 25th of March} and this method was ob¬
served in Britain, until the introduction of the new
style (A. D. 1752) j after which our year commenced
on the 1st day of January,
Of cycle* Besides these natural divisions of time arising imme¬
diately from the revolutions of the heavenly bodies,
there are others formed from some of the less obvious
consequences of these revolutions, which are called cy¬
cles, from the Greek kv*X*(, a circle. The most re¬
markable of these are the following.
1. The cycle of the sun is a revolution of 28 years, in
which time the days of the months return again to the
same days of the week ; the sun’s place to the same
signs and degrees of the ecliptic on the same months
and days, so as not to differ one degree in 100
years ; and the leap years begin the same course over
t again with respect to the days of the week on which
Golden ^ie ^a.vs ^ie montfi fell. The cycle of the moon,
Bomber. commonly called the golden number, is a revolution
of 19 years j in which time, the conjunctions, oppo¬
sitions, and other aspects of the moon, are within an
hour and a half of being the same as they were on the
same days of the months 19 years before. The in¬
diction is a revolution of 15 years, used only by the
Romans for indicating the times of cei'tain payments
made by the subjects to the republic : It was establish¬
ed by Constantine, A. D. 312.
To’find the .^ie year our Saviour’s birth, according to the
year of any vu%ar era, was the 9th year of the solar cycle, the
sycle. first year of the lunar cycle ; and the 312th year after
his birth was the first year of the Roman indiction.
Therefore, to find the year of the solar cycle, add o to
Vol. VI. Part I. 2
O L O G Y. 105
any given year of Christ, and divide the sum by 28, the
quotient is the number of cycles elapsed since his birth,
and the remainder is the cycle for the given year : If
nothing remains, the cycle is 28. To find the lunar
cycle, add one to the given year of Christ, and divide
the sum by 19 $ the quotient is the number of cycles
elapsed in the interval, and the remainder is the cycle
for the given year : If nothing remains, the cycle is 19,
Lastly, substract 312 from the given year of Christ,
and divide the remainder by 15; and what remains af¬
ter this division is the indiction for the given year : If
nothing remains, the indiction is 15.
Although the above deficiency in the lunar cycle of Variation
an hour and a half every 19 years be but small, yet inof l^e
time it becomes so sensible as to make a whole natural ^"snum*
day in 310 years. So that, although the cycle be of
use, when the golden numbers are rightly placed against
the days of the month in the kalendar, as in the Com¬
mon Prayer Books, for finding the days of the mean
conjunctions or oppositions of the sun and moon, and
consequently the time of Easter $ it will only serve for
310 years, old style. For as the new and full moons
anticipate a day in that time, the golden numbers ought
to be placed one day earlier in the kalendar for the next
310 years to come. These numbers were rightly pla¬
ced against the days of new moon in the kalendar by
the council of Nice, A. D. 325 : but the anticipation,
which has been neglected ever since, is now grown al¬
most into five days: And therefore all the golden
numbers ought now to be placed five days higher in
the kalendar for the old style, than they were at the
time of the said council ; or six days lower for the
new style, because at present it differs 11 days from the
old.
In the first of the following tables, the golden numbers t0
under the months stand against the days of new moon in golden
the left hand column, for the new style ; adapted chiefly numben
to the second year after leap-year, as being the nearest
mean for all the four j and will serve till the year 1900.
Therefore, to find the day of new moon in any month
of a given year till that time, look for the golden num¬
ber of that year under the desired month, and against
it you have the day of new moon in the left hand co¬
lumn. Thus, suppose it were required to find the day
of new moon in September 1789 •, the golden number
for that year is 4, which I look for .under September
and right against it, in the left-hand column, you will
find 19, which is the day of new moon in that month.
-N. B. If all the golden numbers, except 17 and 6,
were set one day lower in the table, it would serve from
the beginning of the year 1900 till the end of the year
2199. The table at the end of this section shows the
golden number for 4000 years after the birth of Christ,
by looking for the even hundreds of any given year at
the left-hand, and for the rest to make up that year at
the head of the table ; and where the columns meet,
you have the golden number (which is the same both
in old and new style) for the given year. Thus, sup¬
pose the golden number was wanted for the year 1789,
look for 1700 at the left hand of the table, and for 89
at the' top of it : then guiding your eye downward
from 89 to overgainst 1700, you will find 4, which
is the golden number for that year.
But because the lunar cycle of 19 years sometimes
includes five leap-years, and at other times only four,
O this
io6
CHRONOLOGY,
this table will sometimes vary a day from the truth in
leap-years after February. And it is impossible to have
one more correct, unless we extend it to four times 19
or 76 years $ in which there are 19 leap-years without
a remainder. But even then, to have it of perpetual
use, it must be adapted to the old style $ because, in
every centennial year not divisible by 4, the regular
course of leap-years is interrupted in the new ; as was
^ the case in the year 1800.
Dionysian 2. The cycle of Easter, also called the Dionsyian pe-
period, or riod, is a revolution of 532 years, found by multiplying
Eaiter^ ^le so^ar cyc^e by the lunar cycle 19. If the new
moons did not anticipate upon this cycle, Easter-day
would always be the Sunday next after the first full moon
which follows the 21st of March. But, on account ot
the above anticipation, to which no proper regard was
had before the late alteration of the style, the ecclesias¬
tic Easter has several times been a week different from
the true Easter within this last century *, which incon¬
venience is now remedied by making the table, which
used to find Easter for ever, in the Common Prayer
Book, of no longer use than the lunar difference from
the new style will admit of.
Dominical ^ie earl*est Easter possible is the 22d of March, the
letter. latest the 25th of April. Within these limits are 35
days, and the number belonging to each of them is call¬
ed the number of direction ; because thereby the time of
Easter is found for any given year.
The first seven letters of the alphabet are commonly
placed in the annual almanacks, to show on what days
of the week the days of the months fall throughout
the year. And because one of these seven letters must
necessarily stand against Sunday, it is printed in a
capital form, and called the dominical letter; the other
six being inserted in small characters, todenote the other
six days of the week. Now, since a common Julian
year contains 365 days, if this number be divided by
7 (the number of days in a week) there will remain
one day. If there had been no remainder, it is plain
the year would constantly begin on the same day of the
week 5 but since one remains, it is plain that the year
must begin and end on the same day of the week ; and
therefore the next year will begin on the day follow¬
ing. Hence, when January begins on Sunday, A is
the dominical or Sunday letter for that year: Then,
because the next year begins on Monday, the Sunday
will fall on the seventh day, to which is annexed the
seventh letter G, which therefore will be the domini¬
cal letter for all that year : and as the third year will
begin on Tuesday, the Sunday will fall on the sixth
day} therefore F will be the Sunday letter for that
year. Whence it is evident, that the Sunday letters
will go annually in a retrograde order thus, G, F, E,
D, C, B, A. And, in the course of seven years, if
they were all common ones, the same days of the week
and dominical letters would return to the same days oi
the months. But because there are 366 days in a leap-
year, if this number be divided by 7, there will remain
two days over and above the 52 weeks of which the
year consists. And therefore, if the leap-year begins
on Sunday, it will end on Monday : and the next year
will begin on Tuesday, the first Sunday whereof must
fall on the sixth of January, to which is annexed the
letter F, and not G, as in common years. By this
means, the leap-year returning every fourth year, the
order of the dominical letters is interrupted \ and the
series cannot return to its first state till after four times
seven, or 28 years ; and then the same days of the
months return in order to the same days of the week as
before.
TABLE I.
TABLE
CHRONOLOGY.
107
TABLE II.
Julian pe- From the multiplication of the solar cycle of 28
nod. years into the lunar cycle of 19 years, and the Roman
indiction of 15 years, arises the great Julian period,
consisting of 7980 years, which had its beginning 764
years before Strauchius’s supposed year of the creation
(for no later could all the three cycles begin together),
and it is not yet completed : And therefore it includes
all other cycles, periods, and eras. There is but one
year in the whole period that has the same numbers for
the three cycles of which it is made up : And there¬
fore, if historians had remarked in their writings the
cycles of each year, there had been no dispute&about
36 time of any action recorded by them.
To find the The Dionysian or vulgar era of Christ’s birth was
rear of the about the end of the year of the Julian period 4713 ;
riod. n^e" a,n^ conse<luently the first year of his age, according to
that account, was the 4714th year of the said period.
Therefore, if to the current year of Christ we add
47r3> ^Je sum will be found to be the Julian period.
So the year 1789 will be found to be the 6502d year
of that period. Or, to find the year of the Julian pe-
ri,0^lal!Swer,nS to !iny given year before the first year
of Christ, subtract the number of that given year from
4714, and the remainder will be the year of the Julian
period. Thus, the year 585 before the first year of
Christ (which was the 584th before his birth) was the
4129th year of the said period. Lastly, to find the
cycles of the sun, moon, and indiction for any given
year of this period, divide the given year by 28, 19,
and 15 $ the three remainders will be the cycles sought,
and the quotients the number of cycles run since the
beginning of the period. So in the above 4714th year
of the Julian period, the cycle of the sun was 10, the
cycle of the moon 2, and the cycle of indiction 4 j the
solar cycle having run through 168 courses, the lunar
248, and the indiction 314. ^
The vulgar era of Christ’s birth was never settled till Year of
the year 527, when Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman ab- Christ’s
bot, fixed it to the end of the 4713th year of the Julian b‘rt!1
pei’iod, which was four years too late ; for our Savioursett C<'
was born before the death of Herod, who sought to
kill him as soon as he heard of his birth. And accord¬
ing to the testimony of Josephus (B. xvii.cA. 8.), there
was an eclipse of the moon in the time of Herod’s last
illness j which eclipse appears by our astronomical tables
to have been in the year of the Julian period 4710,
March 13. at three hours past midnight, at Jerusalem.
Now, as our Saviour must have been born some months
before Herod’s death, since in the interval he was car¬
ried into Egypt, the latest time in which we can fix
O 2 the
ioB
C H R O N
the true era of his birth Is about the end of the 4*709111
year of the Julian period.
Eras or E- As there are certain fixed points in the heavens from
pochs, which astronomers begin their computations, so there
are certain points of time from which historians begin
to reckon ; and these points or roots of time are called
eras or epochs. The most remarkable eras are, those
of the Creation, the Greek Olympiads, the building
of Rome, the era of Nabonassar, the death of Alex¬
ander, the birth of Christ, the Arabian Hegira, and
the Persian Jesdegird : All which, together with se¬
veral others of less note, have their beginnings fixed
by chronologers to the years of the Julian period, to
the age of the world at those times, and to the years
before and after the year of Christ’s birth.
39
Histone HAVING thus treated as fully as our limits will ad-
c irono o^y. m;t, 0f t[ie varJ0US divisions of time, we must now con¬
sider the second part of chronology, viz. that which
more immediately relates to history, and which has
already been observed to have the four following foun¬
dations: 1. Astronomical observations, particularly ot
eclipses. 2. The testimonies of credible authors.
pochs in history universally allowed to be true. 4. An¬
cient medals, coins, monuments, and inscriptions. We
shall consider these four principal parts in the order
40 they here stand.
Of eclipses J. It is with great reason that the eclipses of the sun
of the sun and moon, and the aspects of the other planets, have
and moon. |jeen caUed public and celestial characters of the times,
as their calculations afford clmonologers infallible proofs
of the precise epochs in which a great number of the
most signal events in history have occurred. So that
in chronological matters we cannot make any great
progress, if we are ignorant of the use of astronomic
tables, and the calculation of eclipses. The ancients
regarded the latter as prognostics of the fall of em¬
pires, of the loss of battles, of the death of monarchs,
&c. And it is to this superstition, to this wretched
ignorance, that we happily owe the vast labour that
historians have taken to record so great a number of
them. The most able chronologers have collected
them with still greater labour. Calvisius, for example,
founds his chronology on 144 eclipses of the sun, and
127 of the moon, that he says he bad calculated. The
grand conjunction of the two superior planets, Saturn
and Jupiter, which, according to Kepler, occurs once
in 800 years in the same point of the zodiac, and which
has happened only eight times since the creation (the
last time in the month of December 1603), may also
furnish chronology with incontestable proofs. The
same may be said of the transit of Venus over the sun,
which has been observed in our days, and all the other
uncommon positions of the planets. But among these
celestial and natural characters of times, there are also
some that are named civ// or artificial, and which,
nevertheless, depend on astronomic calculation.
Such are the solar and lunar cycles j the Roman
indiction j the feast of Easter j the bissextile year-, the
jubilees j the sabbatic years j the combats and Olym¬
pic games of the Greeks, and Hegira of the Maho¬
metans, &c. And to these may be added the periods,
eras, epochs, and years of different nations, ancient
and modern. We shall only remark on this occasion.
O L O G Y.
that the period or era of the Jews commences with
the creation of the world $ that of the ancient Romans
with the foundation of the city of Rome •, that of the
Greeks at the establishment of the Olympic games j
that of Nabonassar, with the advancement of the first
king of Babylon to the throne j the Yezdegerdic
years, with the last king of the Persians of that name },
the Hegira of the Turks, with the flight of Mahomet
from Mecca to Medina, &c. The year of the birth
of Christ was the 4713th year of the Julian period,
according to the common method of reckoning. Astro¬
nomical chronology teaches us to calculate the precise
year of the Julian period in which each of these epochs
happened. _ 41
II. The testimony of authors is the second principal Of the tes-
part of historic chronology. Though no man
ever has a right to pretend to infallibility, or to be re¬
garded as a sacred oracle, it would, however, be ma¬
king a very unjust judgment of mankind, to treat them
all as dupes or impostors j and it would be an injury
offered to public integrity, were we to doubt the vera¬
city of authors universally esteemed, and of facts that
are in themselves highly worthy of belief. It would be
even a kind of infatuation to doubt that there have
been such cities as Athens, Sparta, Rome, Carthage,
&c. or that Xerxes reigned in Persia and Augustus
in Rome : whether Hannibal ever was in Italy $ or
that the emperor Constantine built Constantinople, &c.
The unanimous testimony of the most respectable his¬
torians will not admit any doubt of these matters.
When an historian is allowed to be completely able to
judge of an event, and to have no intent of deceiving
by his relation, his testimony is unexceptionable. But to
avoid the danger of adopting error for truth, and to be
satisfied of a fact that appears doubtful in history, we
may make use of the four following rules, as they are
founded in reason.
1. We ought to pay a particular regard to the tes¬
timonies of those who wrote at the same time the
events happened, and who have not been contradicted
by any cotemporary author of known authority. Who
can doubt, for example, of the truth of the facts re¬
lated by Admiral Anson, in the history of his voyage
round the world ? The admiral saw all the facts there
mentioned with his own eyes, and published his book
when two hundred companions of his voyage were still
living in London, and could have contradicted him im¬
mediately, if he had given any false or exaggerated
relations.
2. After the cotemporary authors, we should give
more credit to those who lived near the time the events
happened than those who lived at a distance.
3. Those doubtful histories, which are related by
authors that are but little known, can have no weight,
if they are at variance with reason, or established tra¬
dition.
4. We must distrust the truth of a history that is re¬
lated by modern authors, when they do not agree
among themselves in several circumstances, nor with
ancient historians, who are to be regarded as original
sources. We should especially doubt the truth of those
brilliant portraits, that are drawn at pleasure by such
as never knew the persons they are intended for, and
even made several centuries after their decease.
The
/
109
C H R 0 N
The most pure and most fruitful source of ancient
history is doubtless to be found in the Holy Bible. Let
us here for a moment cease to regard it as divine, and
let us presume to consider it as a common history.
Now, when we regard the writers of the books of the
Old Testament, and consider them sometimes as au¬
thors, sometimes as ocular witnesses, and sometimes as
respectable historians; whether we reflect on the sim¬
plicity of the narration, and the air of truth that is
there constantly visible ; or, when we consider the care
that the people, the governments, and the learned
men of all ages, have taken to preserve the true text
of the Bible j or that we have regard to the happy
conformity of the chronology of the holy scriptures
with that of profane history j or, if we observe the ad¬
mirable harmony that is between these books and the
most respectable historians, as Josephus and others:
and lastly, when we consider that the books ol the ho¬
ly scripture furnish us alone with an accurate history
of the world from the creation, through the line of pa¬
triarchs, judges, kings, and princes of the Hebrews $
and that we may, by its aid, form an almost entire se¬
ries of events down to the birth of Christ, or the time
of Augustus, which comprehends a space of about 4000
years, some small interruptions excepted, and which
are easily supplied by profane history j when all these
reflections are justly made, wre must constantly allow
that the scriptures form a book which merits the first
rank among all the sources of ancient history. It has
been objected, that this book contains contradictions j
but the most able interpreters have reconciled these
seeming contradictions. It has been said, that the
chronology of the Hebrew text and the Vulgate do
not agree with the chronology of the version of the
Septuagint; but the soundest critics have shown that
they may be made to agree. It has been observed,
moreover, that the Scriptures abound with miracles
and prodigies; but they are miracles that have really
happened: and what ancient history is there that is not
filled with miracles and other marvellous events ? And
do we for that reject their authority P Cannot the true
God be supposed to have performed those miracles
which Pagan historians have attributed to their false
divinities ? Must we pay no regard to the writings of
Livy, because his history contains many fabulous rela¬
tions ?
41 HI. The epochs form the third principal part of chro-
tpochs. nology. These are those fixed points in history that have
never been contested, and of which there can, in fact,
be no doubt. Chronologers fix on the events that are
to serve as epochs, in a manner quite arbitrary ; but
this is of little consequence, provided the dates of these
epochs agree, and that there is no contradiction in the
facts themselves. When we come to treat expressly
on history, we shall mention, in our progress, all the
principal epochs.
43 IV. Medals, monuments, and inscriptions, form the
Medals, fourth and last principal part of chi'onology. It is scarce
more than 150 years since close application has been
made to the study of these ; and we owe to the celebrat¬
ed Spanheim the greatest obligations, for the progress
that is made in this method : his excellent work, De
prcestantiu et usu numismatum antiquorum, has shown
the great advantages of it $ and it is evident that these
O L O G Y.
monuments are the most authentic witnesses that can he
produced. It is by the aid of medals that M. Vaillant
has composed his judicious history of the kings of Sy¬
ria, from the time of Alexander the Great to that of
Pompey : They have been, moreover, of the greatest
service in elucidating all ancient history, especially
that of the Romans; and even sometimes that of the
middle age. Their use is more fully spoken of in the
article Medals. What we here say of medals, is to
be understood equally, in its full force, of ancient in¬
scriptions, and of all other authentic documents that
have come down to us^
Every reader, endowed with a just discernment,
will readily allow that these four parts of chronology
afford clear lights, and are excellent guides to con¬
duct us through the thick darkness of antiquity. That
impartiality, however, which directs us to give a
faithful relation of that which is true and false, of the
certainty and uncertainty of all the sciences, obliges
us here freely to confess, that these guides are not in¬
fallible, nor the proofs that they afford mathematical
demonstrations. In fact, with regard to history in
general, and ancient history in particular, something
must be always left to conjecture and historic faith. It
would be an offence against common probity were
we to suffer ourselves to pass over in silence those
objections which authors of the greatest reputation
have made against the certainty of chronology. We
shall extract them from their own works 3 and we
hope that there is no magistrate, theologian, or pub¬
lic professor in Europe, who would be mean enough
to.accuse us of a crime, for not unworthily disguising
the truth.
1. The prodigious difference there is between the
Septuagint Bible and the Vulgate, in point of chrono¬
logy, occasions an embarrassment, which is the more
difficult to avoid, as we cannot positively say on W'hich
side the error lies. The Greek Bible counts, for ex¬
ample, from the creation of the world to the birth of
Abraham, 1500 years more than the Hebrew or La¬
tin Bibles, &c. 2. How difficult is it to ascertain the
years of the Judges of the Jewish nation, in the Bible ?
What darkness is spread over the succession of the
kings of Judah and Israel ? The calculation of time is
there so inaccurate, that the Scripture never marks if
they are current or complete years. For we cannot
suppose that a patriarch, judge, or king, lived ex¬
actly 60, 90, 100, or 969 years, without any odd
months or days. 3. The different names that the
Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, and Greeks, have gi¬
ven to the same prince, have contributed not a little
to embarrass all ancient chronology. Three or four
princes have borne the name of Assuerus, though they
had also other names. If we did not know that Na--
bucodonosor, Nabucodrosor, and Nabucolassar, were
the same name, or the name of the same man, we
should scarcely believe it. Sargon is Sennacherib j
Ozias is Azarius; Sedecias is Mathanias ^ Joachas is
also called Sellum j Asaraddon, which is pronounced
indifferently Esarhaddon and Asarhaddon, is called
Asenaphar by the Cuthaeans j and by an oddity of
which we do not know the origin, Sardanapalus is cal¬
led by the Greeks Tenos Concoleros. 4. There re¬
main to us but few monuments of the first monarchs of
the
no CHRONOLOGY.
Before the world. Numberless books have been lost, and
Christ, those which have come down to us are mutilated or
““V altered by transcribers. The Greeks began to write
very late. Herodotus, their first historian, was of a
credulous disposition, and believed all the fable's that
were related by the Egyptian priests. The Greeks
were in general vain, partial, and held no nation in
esteem but their own. The Romans were still more
infatuated with notions of their own merit and gran¬
deur : their historians were altogether as unjust as was
their senate, toward other nations that were frequently
far more respectable. 5. The eras, the years, the pe¬
riods, and epochs, were not the same in each nation $
and they, moreover, began at different seasons of the
year. All this has thrown so much obscurity over
chronology, that it appears to be beyond all human
capacity totally to disperse it.
Christianity itself had subsisted near 1200 years,
before they knew precisely how many years had passed
since the birth of our Saviour. They saw clearly that
the vulgar era was defective, but it was a long time
before they could comprehend that it required four
whole years to make up the true period. Abbe De¬
nis the Little, who in the year 532 was the first among
the Christians to form the era of that grand epoch,
and to count the years from that time, in order to
make their chronology altogether Christian, erred in
his calculation, and led all Europe into his error.
They count 13 2 contrary opinions of different authors
concerning the year in which the Messiah appeared on
the earth. M. Vallemont names 64 of them, and all
celebrated writers. Among all these authors, how¬
ever, there is none that reckon more than 7000, nor
less than 3700 years. But even this difference is enor¬
mous. The most moderate fix the birth of Christ in
the 4COOth year of the world. The reasons, however,
on which they found their opinion, appear to be suffi¬
ciently arbitrary.
Be these matters, however, as they may, the wis¬
dom of Providence has so disposed all things, that there
remain sufficient lights to enable us nearly to connect
the series of events : for in the first 3000 years of the
world, where profane history is defective, we have the
chronology of the Bible to direct us $ and after that
period, where we find more obscurity in the chronolo¬
gy of the Holy Scriptures, we have, on the other
hand, greater lights from profane authors. It is at
this period that begins the time which \ arro calls hi¬
storic ; as, since the time of the Olympiads, the truth
of such events as have happened shines clear in history.
Chronology, therefore, draws its principal lights from
history j and, in return, serves it as a guide. Refer¬
ring the reader, therefore, to the article History,
and the Chart thereto annexed, we shall conclude the
present article with
A Chrokological Table of Remarkable Events,
Discoveries, ixnd Inventions, from the Creation to
the year 1820.
Bef Christ.
4008 The Creation of the world and Adam and Eve.
4007 The birth of Cain, the first who was born of a
woman.
3017 Enoch, for his piety, is translated to heaven.
2352 The old world is destroyed by a deluge which Before
continued 377 days. Christ.
2247 The tower of Babel is built about this time by “V-*
Noah’s posterity, upon which God miraculous¬
ly confounds their language, and thus disperses
them into different nations.
2237 About this time, Noah is, with great probabili¬
ty, supposed to have parted from his rebelli¬
ous offspring, and to have led a colony of some
of the more tractable into the east, and there
either he or one of his successors to have
founded the Chinese monarchy.
2234 The celestial observations are begun at Babylon,
the city which first gave birth to learning and
the sciences.
2188 Misraim, the son of Ham, founds the kingdom
of Egypt, which lasted 1663 years, down to the
conquest of Cambyses, in 525 before Christ.
2059 Ninus, the son of Belus, founds the kingdom of
Assyria, which lasted above 1000 years, and
out of its ruins were formed the Assyrians of
Babylon, those of Nineveh, and the kingdom
of the Medes.
1985 The covenant of God made with Abram, when
he leaves Haran, to go into Canaan, which be¬
gins the 430 years of sojourning.
1961 The cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are destroyed
for their wickedness by fire from heaven.
1856 The kingdom of Argos, in Greece, begins un¬
der Inachus.
1822 Memnon, the Egyptian, invents the letters.
1715 Prometheus first struck fire from flints.
1635 Joseph dies in Egypt.
1574 Aaron born in Egypt; 1490, appointed by God
first high priest of the Israelites.
1571 Moses, brother to Aaron, born in Egypt, and
adopted by Pharaoh’s daughter, who educates
him in all the learning of the Egyptians.
1556 Cecrops brings a colony of Saites from Egypt
into Attica, and begins the kingdom of Athens
in Greece.
1555 Moses performs a number of miracles in Egypt,
and departs from that kingdom, together with
600,000 Israelites, besides children, which,
completed the 430 years of sojourning. They
miraculously pass through the Red sea, and
come to the desert of Sinai, where Moses re¬
ceives from God, and delivers to the people,
the Ten Commandments, and the other laws,
and sets up the Tabernacle, and in it the ark
of the covenant.
1546 Scamander comes from Crete into Phrygia, and
begins the kingdom of, Troy.
1515 The Israelites, after sojourning in the "Wilder¬
ness forty years, are led under Joshua into the
land of Canaan, where they fix themselves,
after having subdued the natives $ and the pe¬
riod of the sabbatical year commences.
I ^03 The deluge of Deucalion.
1496 The council of Amphictyons established at Ther-
mopylse.
1493 Cadmus carried the Phenician letters into Greece,
and built the citadel of Thebes.
1490 Sparta built by Lacedaemon.
M85
CHRONOLOGY.
Before The first ship that appeared in Greece was
Christ. brought from Egypt by Danaus, who arrived
—at Rhodes, and brought with him his fifty'
daughters.
1480 Troy built by Dardanus.
1452 The Pentateuch, or five first books of Moses, are
written in the land of Moab, where he died
the year following, aged 110.
1406 Iron is found in Greece, from an accidental burn¬
ing of the woods.
1344 The kingdom of Mycenae begins.
1325 Isthmian games instituted at Corinth.
The Egyptian canicular year began July 2©th.
1307 The Olympic games instituted by Pelops.
1300 The Lupercalia instituted.
1294 The first colony came from Italy to Sicily.
1264 The second colony came from Italy to Sicily.
1252 The city of Tyre built.
I243 A colony of Arcadians conducted by Evander
into Italy.
1233 Carthage founded by the Tyrians.
1225 The Argonautic expedition.
1204 The rape of Helen by Paris, which gave rise to
the Trojan war, ending with the destruction
of the city in 1184.
1176 Salamis in Cyprus built by Teucer.
1152 Ascanius builds Alba Longa.
1130 The kingdom of Sicyon ended.
1124 Thebes built by the Boeotians.
H15 The mariner’s compass known in China.
II04 The expedition of the Heraclidse into Pelopon¬
nesus ; the migration of the Dorians thither j
and the end of the kingdom of Mycenae.
1102 The kingdom of Sparta commenced.
1070 The kingdom of Athens ended.
1051 David besieged and took Jerusalem.
1044 Migration of the Ionian colonies.
1008 The Temple is solemnly dedicated by Solomon.
996 Solomon prepared a fleet on the Red sea to send
to Ophir.
986 Samos and Utica in Africa built.
979 The kingdom of Israel divided.
974 Jerusalem taken and plundered by Shishak king
of Egypt.
911 The prophet Elijah flourished.
894 Money first made of gold and silver at Argos.
884 Olympic games restored by Iphitus and Ly-
curgus.
873 The art of sculpture in marble found out.
869 Scales and measures invented by Phidon.
1864 The city of Carthage, in Africa, enlarged by
Queen Dido.
821 Nineveh taken by Arbaces.
814 The kingdom of Macedon begins.
801 The city of Capua in Campania built.
799 The kingdom of Lydia began.
786 The ships called Triremes invented by the Co¬
rinthians.
779 The race of kings in Corinth ended.
776 The era of the Olympiads began.
7^0 The Ephori established at Sparta.
758 Syracuse built by Archias of Corinth.
754 The government of Athens changed.
753 ■^'ra th® building of Rome in Italy by Romu¬
lus, first king of the Romans.
I I I
747 The era of Nabonassar commenced on the 26th Before
of February; the first day of Thoth. Christ.
746 The government of Corinth changed into a re- ' 'T-—^
public.
743 first war between the Messenians and Spar¬
tans.
742 Mycsenae reduced by the Spartans.
724 A colony of the Messenians settled at Rhegium
in Italy.
720 Samaria taken, after three years siege, and the
kingdom of Israel finished by Salmanazer king
of Assyria, who carries the ten tribes into cap¬
tivity.
The first eclipse of the moon on record.
713 Gela in Sicily built.
7°3 Corcyra, now Corfu, founded by the Corin¬
thians.
702 Ecbatan in Media built by Deioces.
685 The second Messenian war under Aristomenes.
670 Byzantium (now Constantinople) built by a co¬
lony of Athenians.
666 The city of Alba destroyed.
648 Cyrene in Africa founded.
634 Cyaxares besieges Nineveh, but is obliged to
raise the siege by an incursion of the Scythi¬
ans, who remained masters of Asia for 28
years.
624 Draco published his inhuman laws at Athens.
610 Pharaoh Necho attempted to make a canal from
the Nile to the Red sea, but was not able to
accomplish it.
607 By order of the same monarch, some Phenicians
sailed from the Red sea round Africa, and re¬
turned by the Mediterranean.
606 The first captivity of the Jews by Nebuchad¬
nezzar. Nineveh destroyed by Cyaxares.
600 Thales, of Miletus, travels into Egypt, consults
the priests of Memphis, acquires the knowledge
of geometry, astronomy, and philosophy ; re¬
turns to Greece, calculates eclipses, gives ge¬
neral notions of the universe, and maintains
that an only Supreme Intelligence regulates all
its motions.
Maps, globes, and the signs of the zodiac, in¬
vented by Anaximander, the scholar of Thales.
598 Jehoiakin, king of Judah, is carried away cap¬
tive, by Nebuchadnezzar, to Babylon.
594 Solon made Archon at Athens.
591 The Pythian games instituted in Greece, and
tragedy first acted.
588 The first irruption of the Gauls into Italy.
586 The city of Jerusalem taken after a siege of 18
months.
582 The last captivity of the Jews by Nebuchad¬
nezzar.
581 The Isthmian games restored.
580 Money first coined at Rome.
571 Tyre taken by Nebuchadnezzar after a siege of
13 years.
566 The first census at Rome, when the number of
citizens was found to be 84,000.
562 The first comedy at Athens acted upon a move-
able scaffold.
559 Uyros the first king of Persia.
538 The kingdom of Babylon finished j that city be¬
ing
112
CHRONOLOGY.
Before ing taken by Cyrus, who, in 536, gives an edict
Christ. for the return of the Jews.
 v—' 534 The foundation of the temple laid by the Jews.
526 Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a
public library first founded.
520 The second edict to rebuild Jerusalem.
515 The second temple at Jerusalem is finished under
Darius.
510 Hippias banished from Athens.
509 Tarquin, the seventh and last king of the Ho¬
mans, is expelled, and Rome is governed by two
consuls, and other republican magistrates, till
the battle of Pharsalia, being a space of 461
years.
508 The first alliance between the Romans and Car¬
thaginians.
507 The second census at Rome, 130,000 citizens.
504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians, which
gave occasion to the Persian invasion of Greece,
498 The first dictator appointed at Rome.
497 The Saturnalia instituted at Rome.
The number of citizens 150,700.
493 Tribunes created at Rome $ or, in 488.
490 The battle of Marathon, September 28.
486 ^Pischylus, the Greek poet, first gains the prize
of tragedy.
483 Questors created at Rome.
481 Xerxes, king of Persia, begins his expedition a-
gainst Greece.
480 The defence of Thermopylae by Leonidas, and
the sea-fight at Salamis.
476 The number of Roman citizens reduced to
103,000.
469 The third Messenian war.
466 The number of Roman citizens increased to
124,214.
458 Ezra is sent from Babylon to Jerusalem, with the
captive Jews and the vessels of gold and silver,
&c. being seventy weeks of years, or 490 years,
before the crucifixion of our Saviour.
456 The Ludi Seculares first celebrated at Rome.
454 The Romans sent to Athens for Solon’s laws.
451 The Decemvirs created at Rome, and the laws of
the twelve tables compiled and ratified.
449 The Decemvirs banished.
445 Military tribunes, with consular power, created
at Rome.
443 Censors created at Rome.
441 The battering ram invented by Artemones.
437 The Metonic cycle began July 15th.
431 The Peloponnesian war begun, and lasted 27
years.
430 The history of the Old Testament finishes about
this time.
A plague over all the known world.
Malachi the last of the prophets.
405 The Athenians entirely defeated by Lysander,
which occasions the loss of the city, and ruin
of the Athenian power.
40 x The retreat of the 10,000 Greeks under Xeno¬
phon. The 30 tyrants expelled from Athens,
and democratic government restored.
400 Socrates, the founder of moral philosophy among
the Greeks, believes the immortality of the soul,
a state of rewards and punishments $ for which
* 3
399
and other sublime doetrines, be is put to death
by the Athenians, who soon after repent, and
erect to his memory a statue of brass.
The feast of Lectisternium instituted. Catapult®
invented by Dionysius.
394 The Corinthian war begun.
390 Rome burnt by the Gauls.
387 The peace of Antalcidas between the Greeks and
Persians.
The number of Roman citizens amounted to
.I5M83- . „ .
384 Dionysius begins the Punio war.
379 The Boeotian war commences.
377 A general conspiracy of the Greek states against
the Lacedemonians.
373 A great earthquake in Peloponnesus.
371 The Lacedemonians defeated by Epaminondas at
Leuctra.
367 Prsetors established in Rome. The Licinian law
passed.
363 Epaminondas killed at the battle of Mantinea.
359 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed to be 230
49' 10".
358 The Social war began.
357 Dionysius expelled from Syracuse.
A transit of the moon over Mars observed.
356 The Sacred war begun in Greece.
Birth of Alexander the Great.
345 Dionysius II. expelled from Syracuse.
Commencement of the Syracusan era.
338 Philip of Macedon gains the battle of Ch®-
ron®a, and thus attains to the sovereignty of
Greece.
335 Thebes taken and rased by Alexander the
Great.
334 The Persians defeated at Granicus, May 22.
333 They are again defeated at Issus in Cilicia, Oc¬
tober.
332 Alexander takes Tyre, and marches to Jerusalem.
331 Alexandria bnilt.
Darius entirely defeated at Arbela.
330 Alexander takes Babylon, and the principal cities
of the Persian empire.
The Calippic period commences.
328 Alexander passes Mount Caucasus, and marches
into India.
327 He defeats Porus, an Indian prince, and founds
several cities.
326 The famous sedition of Corcyra.
324 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon.
323 His family exterminated, and his dominions part¬
ed by his officers.
Rhodes almost destroyed by an inundation.
The Appian way, aqueducts, &c. constructed at
Rome.
The cities of Greece recovered their liberties for
a short time
Antioch, Seleucia, Laodicea, and other cities,
founded by Seleucus.
Antigonus defeated and killed at Ipsus.
The first barbers came from Sicily to Rome.
294 The number of effective men in Rome amounts to
270,000.
The first sun-dial erected at Rome by Papirius
Cursor.
285
Before
Christ
315
311
308
307
301
299
293
C H R O N
Before 285 Dionysius of Alexandria began his astronomical
Christ. era on Monday June 26. being the first who
" » ' found the exact solar year to consist of 365
days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes.
The watch tower of Pharos at Alexandria built.
Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, employs 72
interpreters to translate the Old Testament
into the Greek language, which is called the
Septuagint.
284 The foundation of the Achaean republic laid.
283 The college and library founded at Alexan¬
dria.
282 The Tarentine war begins.
280 Pyrrhus invades Italy.
279 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
278,222.
269 The first coining of silver at Rome.
265 The number of Roman citizens augmented to
292,224.
264 The first Punic war begins, and continues 23
years. The chronology of the Arundelian mar¬
bles composed.
262 A transit of Mercury over the bull’s horn $ the
planet being in 230 of 8, and the sun in 290
30' rp.
260 Provincial questors established at Rome.
The Romans first concern themselves in naval af¬
fairs, and defeat the Carthaginians at sea.
255 Regulus, the Roman consul, defeated and taken
prisoner by the Carthaginians under Xantip-
pus.
252 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
297,897.
247 Another census. The number of citizens 251,212.
246 The records of China destroyed.
241 Conclusion of the first Punic war.
240 Comedies first acted at Rome.
237 Hamilcar, the Carthaginian, causes his son Han¬
nibal, at nine years old, to swear eternal enmi¬
ty to the Romans.
236 The Tartars expelled from China.
235 Rome at peace with other nations. The temple
of Janus shut.
231 Corsica and Sardinia subdued by the Romans.
The first divorce at Rome.
230 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Eratos¬
thenes to be 230 jl' 20".
224 The Colossus at Rhodes overturned by an earth¬
quake.
219 The art of surgery introduced at Rome.
218 Commencement of the second Punic war.
Hannibal passes the Alps, and invades Italy.
216 The Romans defeated at Cannae, May 21st.
214 Syracuse besieged by Marcell us.
209 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
227,107.
208 Asdrubal invades Italy j but is defeated and
killed.
206 Gold first coined at Rome.
202 Hannibal defeated by Scipio at Zama.
201 Conclusion of the second Punic war.
I94 Sparta and Hither Spain subdued by the Ro¬
mans.
192 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
243,704.
Vol. YI. Part I. f
O L O G Y.
191 Antiochus defeated by the Romans at Thermo¬
pylae.
190 The first Roman army enters Asia, and from the
spoils of Antiochus brings the Asiatic luxury
first to Rome.
188 The Spartans obliged to renounce the institu¬
tions of Lycurgus.
179 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
273,244.
173 The Jewish high-priesthood sold by Antiochus
Epiphanes.
170 Paper invented in China.
The temple of Jerusalem plundered by Antiochus.
169 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
212,805.
168 Macedon reduced to the form of a Roman pro¬
vince.
The first library erected at Rome.
165 The temple of Jerusalem purified by Judas Mac¬
cabeus.
164 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
327»°32*
162 Hipparchus began his astronomical observations
at Rhodes.
161 Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from
Rome.
150 The third Punic war commenced.
146 Corinth destroyed.
Carthage, the rival to Rome, is rased to the
ground by the Romans.
A remarkable comet appeared in Greece.
143 Hipparchus began his new cycle of the moon,
consisting of 111,035 days.
141 The Numantine war commenced.
135 The history of the Apocrypha ends.
133 Numantia destroyed by Scipio.
124 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
39°»736.
105 The Cimbri and Teutones defeated the Romans.
102 The Teutones and Ambrones defeated by Ma¬
rius.
88 Rome besieged by the chiefs of the Marian fac¬
tion.
82 Sylla created perpetual dictator at Rome.
69 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
450,000.
66 Catiline’s conspiracy.
55 Julius Caesar makes his first expedition into Bri1-
tain.
Crassus defeated and killed by the Parthians.
51 Gaul reduced to a Roman province.
50 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
320,000.
48 The battle of Pharsalia, between Caesar and Pom-
pey, in which the latter is defeated.
The Alexandrian library, consisting of 400,000
valuable books, burnt by accident.
45 The war of Africa, in which Cato kills himself.
The solar year introduced by Caesar.
44 Caesar, the greatest of the Roman conquerors,
after having fought 50 pitched battles, and
slain 1,192,000 men, is killed in the senate-
house by conspirators.
42 The republicans defeated at Philippi.
31 The battle of Actium fought, in which Mark
P Antony
H4
Before
Christ.
After
Christ.
CHRONOLOGY.
Antony and Cleopatra are totally defeated by
Octavius, nephew to Julius Caesar.
30 Alexandria, in Egypt, is taken by Octavius, upon
which Antony and Cleopatra put themselves to
death, and Egypt is reduced to a Roman pro¬
vince.
29 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
4,101,017.
27 Octavius, by a decree of the senate, obtains the
title of Augustus Caesar, and an absolute ex¬
emption from the laws, and is properly the first
Roman emperor.
The Pantheon at Rome built.
jp Rome at the height of its glory.
The temple of Jerusalem rebuilt by Herod.
Agrippa constructed the magnificent aqueducts at
Rome.
8 A census at Rome. The number of citizens
4>233>000*
5 The temple of Janus is shut by Augustus, as an
emblem of universal peace; and
JESUS CHRIST is born, on Monday, December
25.
I The vulgar Christian era commenced from Janu¬
ary 1. the Saviour of the world being then five
years of age.
8 Jesus Christ disputes with the doctors in the tem¬
ple.
14 A census at Rome, 4,370,000 citizens.
16 Mathematicians and magicians expelled from
Rome.
17 Twelve cities in Asia destroyed by an earth¬
quake.
27 Pilate made governor of Judea.
29 Jesus baptized in Jordan by John.
33 He is crucified at Jerusalem.
35 St Paul converted.
39 St Matthew writes his gospel.
Pontius Pilate kills himself.
A conjunction of Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars.
40 The name of Christians first given at Antioch to
the followers of Christ.
43 Claudius Caesar’s expedition into Britain.
44 St Mark writes his gospel.
50 London is founded by the Romans ; 368, surround¬
ed by ditto with a wall, some parts of which are
still observable.
51 Caractacus, the British king, is carried in chains
to Rome.
32 The council of the Apostles at Jerusalem.
55 St Luke writes his gospel.
56 Rotterdam built.
59 The emperor Nero puts his mother and brothers to
death.
      persecutes the Druids in Britain.
60 Christianity introduced into Britain.
61 Boadicea, the British queen, defeats the Romans ;
but is conquered soon after by Suetonius, gover¬
nor of Britain.
62 St Paul is sent in bonds to Rome—writes his epis¬
tles between 51 and 66.
63 The Acts of the Apostles written.
A great earthquake in Asia.
64 Rome set on fire, and burned for six days ; upon
which began (under Nero) the first persecution After
against the Christians. Clu;»t.
65 Many prodigies seen about Jerusalem. v'"""
66 St Peter and St Paul put to death.
70 While the factious Jews are destroying one ano¬
ther with mutual fury, Titus the Roman general
takes Jerusalem, which is rased to the ground,
and the plough made to pass over it.
73 The philosophers banished from Rome by Vespa¬
sian.
79 The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum destroy¬
ed by an eruption of Vesuvius.
80 The Capitol and Pantheon at Rome destroyed by
fire.
83 The philosophers expelled Rome by Domitian.
85 Julius Agricola, governor of South Britain, to
protect the civilized Britons from the incur¬
sions of the Caledonians, builds a line of forts
between the rivers Forth and Clyde *, defeats
the Caledonians under Galgacus on the Gram¬
pian hills ; and first sails round Britain, which
he discovers to be an island.
86 The Capitoline games instituted by Domitian.
88 The Secular games celebrated at Rome.
93 The empire of the Huns in Tartary destroyed by
the Chinese.
The Evangelist John banished to Patmos.
94 The second persecution of the Christians, under
Domitian.
96 St John the Evangelist wrote his Revelation—his
Gospel in 97.
103 Dacia reduced to a Roman province.
105 A great earthquake in Asia and Greece.
107 The third persecution of the Christians, under
Trajan.
114 Armenia reduced to a Roman province.
A great earthquake in China,
115 Assyria subdued by Trajan.
An insurrection of the Jews, who murder 200,000
Greeks and Romans.
A violent earthquake at Antioch.
120 Nicomedia and other cities swallowed up by an
earthquake.
121 The Caledonians reconquer from the Romans all
the southern parts of Scotland ; upon which the
emperor Adrian builds a wall between New¬
castle and Carlisle ; but this also proving inef¬
fectual, Lollius Urbicus, the Roman general,
about the year 134, repairs Agricola’s forts,
which he joins by a wall four yards thick.
130 Jerusalem rebuilt by Adrian.
132 The second Jewish war commenced.
135 The second Jewish war ends, when they were all
banished Judea.
139 Justin writes his first apology for the Christians.
141 A number of heresies appear about this time.
146 The worship of Serapis introduced at Rome.
152 The emperor Antoninus Pius stops the persecution,
against the Christians.
An inundation of the Tiber, and an earthquake
at Rhodes.
163 The fourth persecution of the Christians, under
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
166 The Romans sent ambassadors to China.
2
168
CHRONOLOGY.
After 168 A plague over the tvliole world.
Christ. 188 The Capitol at Rome destroyed hy lightning.
191 A great part of Rome destroyed by fire.
203 The fifth persecution of the Christians, under Se-
verus.
235 An earthquake in Wales.
2C9 Severus’s wall in Britain built.
218 Two comets appeared at Rome. The course of
the most remarkable from east to west.
222 About this time the Roman empire begins to de¬
cline. The barbarians begin their irruptions,
and the Goths have annual tribute not to molest
the empire.
225 Mathematicians allowed to teach publicly at
Rome.
236 The sixth persecution of the Christians under
Maximin.
241 The Franks first mentioned in history.
250 The seventh persecution, under Decius.
252 A dreadful pestilence broke out in Ethiopia, and
spread over the whole world.
The eighth persecution, under Gallos.
253 Europe ravaged hy the Scythians and Goths.
2^8 The ninth persecution, under Valerian.
260 Valerian is taken prisoner by Sapor king of Per¬
sia, and flayed alive.
The Scythians ravaged the Roman empire.
The temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt.
261 A great plague throughout the Roman empire.
262 Earthquakes in Europe, Asia, and Africa, and
three days of darkness.
273 The Romans took Palmyra.
274 Silk first brought from India ; the manufactory
of it introduced into Europe by some monks,
551 ; first worn by the clergy in England,
1534-
276 WTine first made in Britain.
277 The Franks settled in Gaul.
284 The Dioclesian era commenced August 29th, or
September 17th.
287 Carausius proclaimed emperor of Britain.
289 A great comet visible in Mesopotamia for 29
days.
291 Two emperors and two Caesars march to defend
the four quarters of the empire.
297 Alexandria destroyed by Dioclesian.
303 The tenth persecution under Dioclesian.
306 Constantine the Great begins his reign.
308 Cardinals first appointed.
312 Pestilence all over the East.
Cycle of indiction began.
313 The tenth persecution ends by an edict of Con¬
stantine, who favours the Christians, and gives
full liberty to their religion.
314 Three bishops, or fathers, are sent from Britain
to assist at the council of Arles.
315 Crucifixion abolished.
321 Observation of Sunday enjoined.
323 The first general council at Nice, when 318 fa¬
thers attended, against Arius, the founder of
Arianism, where was composed the famous Ni-
cene Creed, which we attribute to them.
328 Constantine removes the seat of empire from
Rome to Byzantium, which is thereafter called
Constantinople.
330 A dreadful persecution of the Christians in Persia,
which lasts 40 years.
333 Constantine orders all the heathen temples to be
destroyed.
334 Three hundred thousand Sarmatians revolted from
their masters.
341 The gospel propagated in Ethiopia by Frumen-
tius.
344 Neocaesarea ruined by an earthquake.
351 The heathens first called Pagans.
338 A hundred and fifty cities in Asia and Greece
overturned by an earthquake.
360 The first monastery founded near Poictiers in
France, by Martin.
363 The Roman emperor Julian, surnamed the Apos¬
tate, endeavours in vain to rebuild the temple
of Jerusalem.
364 The Roman empire is divided into the Eastern
(Constantinople the capital) and Western (of
which Rome continued to be the capital), each
being now under the government of different
emperors.
373 Tke Bible translated into the Gothic language.
376 The Goths settled in Thrace.
379 The cycle of Theophilus commenced.
390 A fiery column seen in the air for 30 days,
400 Bells invented by Bishop Paulinus of Campania.
401 Europe overrun by the Goths, under Alaric.
404 Another irruption of the Goths.
The kingdom of Caledonia, or Scotland, revives
under Fergus.
406 Third irruption of the Goths.
The Vandals, Alans, and Suevi, spread into France
and Spain, by a concession of Honorius, empe¬
ror of the West.
408 The Christian religion propagated in Persia.
4C9 Rome taken and plundered by the Goths, Au¬
gust 24.
412 The Vandals begin their kingdom in Spain.
413 The kingdom of Burgundy begun in Alsace.
415 The kingdom of Thoulouse founded by the Visi¬
goths.
417 The Alans extirpated by the Goths.
419 Many cities in Palestine destroyed by an earth¬
quake.
420 The kingdom of France begins upon the Lower
Rhine, under Pharamond.
421 The Salique law promulgated.
426 The Romans, reduced to extremities at home,
withdraw their troops from Britain, and never
return : advising the Britons to arm in their
own defence, and trust to their own valour.
432 The gospel preached in Ireland by St Patrick.
444 All Europe ravaged by the Huns.
446 The Britons, now left to themselves, are greatly
harassed by the Scots and Piets, upon which
they once more make their complaint to the
Romans (which they entitle, The Groans of the
Tritons'), but receive no assistance from that
quarter.
447 Attila (surnamed the Scourge of God) with his
Huns ravage the Roman empire.
449 Vortigern, king of the Britons, invites the
Saxons into Britain, against the Scots and
Piets.
P 2 452
,,6 C H R O N
After 452 The city of Venice founded.
Christ. 4jj5 The Saxons having repulsed the Scots and Piets,
——v-*--' invite over more of their countrymen, and be¬
gin to establish themselves in Kent, under
Hengist.
476 The western empire is finished, 523 years after
the battle of Pharsalia ; upon the ruins of
which several new states arise in Italy and other
parts, consisting of Goths, Vandals, Huns, and
other barbarians, under whom literature is ex¬
tinguished, and the works of the learned are
destroyed.
480 A great earthquake at Constantinople, which
lasted 40 days.
493 Italy reduced by Theodoric king of the Goths.
496 Clovis, king of France, baptized, and Christianity
begins in that kingdom.
506 The Jews talmud published.
508 Prince Arthur begins to reign over the Bri¬
tons.
510 Paris made the capital of the French dominions.
314 Constantinople besieged by \ italianus, whose
fleet is burnt by a speculum of brass made by
Proclus.
ijl6 The computing of time by the Christian era is in¬
troduced by Dionysius the monk.
517 Five years drought and famine in Palestine.
519 A bearded comet appears.
529 The codex of Justinian, the eastern emperor, is
published.
534 The kingdom of the Vandals in Africa comes to
an end, after having continued 105 years.
V36 The manufacture of silk introduced at Constanti¬
nople by two Indian monks.
540 Antioch destroyed by the Persians.
941 Basilius the last consul elected at Rome.
342 Antioch rebuilt.
An earthquake all over the world.
550 An earthquake in Palestine and Syria.
The kingdom of Poland founded.
5-51 An earthquake in Greece, attended with a great
commotion in the sea.
^53 The empire of the Goths in Italy destroyed by
Narses.
A great earthquake at Constantinople.
557 Another violent earthquake at Constantinople,
Rome, &c.
A terrible plague all over Europe, Asia, and A-
frica, which continues near 50 years.
568 The Lombards founded a kingdom in Italy.
369 The Turks first mentioned in history.
The exarchate of Ravenna begins.
373 The first monarchy founded in Bavaria.
380 Antioch destroyed by an earthquake.
c8l Latin ceased to be spoken about this time in
Italy.
384 The origin of fiefs in France.
388 The city of Paris destroyed by fire.
389 Rome overflowed by the Tiber.
393 The Gascons establish themselves in the country
called by their name.
596 John of Constantinople assumes the title of univer¬
sal bishop.
397 Augustine the monk comes into England with,
forty monks.
O L O G Y.
399 A dreadful pestilence in Africa. After
604 St Paul’s church in London founded. Christ.
603 The use of bells introduced into churches. » -
606 Here begins the power of the popes, by the con¬
cessions of Phocas, emperor of the East.
622 Mahomet, the false prophet, flies from Mecca to
Medina in Arabia, in the 44th year ol his age,
and 10th of his ministry, when he laid the
foundation of the Saracen empire, and from
whom the Mahometan princes to this day claim
their descent. His followers compute their
time from this era, which in Arabic is called
hegira, i. e. “ the Flight.”
628 An academy founded at Canterbury.
632 The era of Jesdegird commenced June 16th.
637 Jerusalem is taken by the Saracens, or followers
of Mahomet.
641 Alexandria in Egypt is taken by ditto, and the
grand library there burnt by order of Omar,
their caliph or prince.
643 The temple of Jerusalem converted into a Maho¬
metan mosque.
633 The Saracens now extend their conquests on every
side, and retaliate the barbarities of the Goths
and Vandals upon their posterity.
They take Rhodes, and destroy the famous Co¬
lossus.
England invaded by the Danes.
660 Organs first used in churches.
6,63 Glass invented by a bishop, and brought into Eng¬
land by a Benedictine monk.
669 Sicily invaded, and Syracuse destroyed by the Sa¬
racens,.
683 The Britons, after a brave struggle of near 130
years, are totally expelled by the Saxons, and
drove into Wales and Cornwall.
698 The Saracens take Carthage, and expel the Ro¬
mans from Africa.
700 Cracow built, and first prince of Poland elect¬
ed.
704 The first province given to the Pope.
713 The Saracens conquer Spain.
714 France governed by Charles Martel.
718 The kingdom of the Asturias in Spain founded
by Pelagio.
719 Christianity promulgated in Germany.
726 The controversy about images begins, and oc¬
casions many insurrections in the eastern em¬
pire.
727 Tax of Peter’s pence begun by Ina king of Wes¬
sex.
732 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens near Toux*s.
733 Institution of the office of Pope’s nuncio.
746 Three years pestilence in Europe and Asia.
748 The computing of years from the birth of Christ
began to be used in history.
749 The race of Abbas become caliphs of the Sara¬
cens, and encourage learning.
The empire of the Saracens divided into three.
732 The exarchate of Ravenna abolished by Astolphus
king of the Lombards.
733 Commencement of the Pope’s temporal domi¬
nion.
762 The city of Bagdad upon the Tigris is made the-
capital for the caliphs of the house of Abbas.
762
C H R O N
^62 Bunals, avMcIi formerly used to be in highways,
permitted in towns.
792 An academy founded in Paris.
794 The Huns extirpated by Charlemagne.
797 Seventeen days of unusual darkness.
Boo Charlemagne, king of France, begins the em¬
pire of Germany, afterwards called the West¬
ern empire; gives the present names to the
winds and months ; endeavours to restore learn¬
ing in Europe but mankind are not yet dis¬
posed for it, being solely engrossed in military
enterprises.
801 A great earthquake in France, Germany, and
Italy.
807 Jan. 31. Jupiter eclipsed by the moon. March
17. A large spot seen on the sun for eight
days.
808 The first descent of the Normans on France.
825 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Beni-
mula to be 230 55'.
826 Harold, king of Denmark, dethroned by his sub¬
jects for being a Christian.
The kingdoms of Navarre and Arragon founded.
832 Painters banished out of the eastern empire.
836 The Flemings trade to Scotland for fish.
840 The Scots and Piets have a decisive battle, in
which the former prevail, and both kingdoms
are united by Kenneth, which begins the se¬
cond period of the Scottish history.
842 Germany separated from the empire of the
Franks.
856 An earthquake over the greatest part of the known
world.
861 Ruric the first prince of Russia began to reign.
864 The Danes begin their ravages in England.
867 Christianity propagated in Bulgaria.
868 Egypt becomes independent on the caliphs of
Bagdad.
872 Bells and clocks first used in Constantinople.
873 France distressed by locusts and pestilence.
874 Iceland peopled by the Norwegians.
Scotland invaded by the Danes.
875 A bearded comet appears in France.
878 Alfred the Great, after subduing the Danish in¬
vaders (against whom he fought 56 battles by
sea and land), composes his body of laws ; di¬
vides England into counties, hundreds, tythings j
in 890 erects county-courts, having founded the
university of Oxford in 886.
880 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Alba-
tegni to be 230 35'.
889 The Hungarians settled near the Danube.
891 The first land-tax in England.
895 The monastery of Cluny founded.
905 A very remarkable comet appeared in China.
Rome taken by the Normans.
911 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Thebit
to be 230 33' 30".
912 The Normans establish themselves in Normandy.
913 The Danes become masters of England.
915 university of Cambridge founded.
923 Fiefs established in France.
925 Sigefroi elected first marquis of Brandenburg.
928 The marqulsate of Misnia established..
O L O G Y.
937 The Saracen empire is divided by usurpation in¬
to seven kingdoms.
941 Arithmetic brought into Europe.
961 Candia recovered from the Saracens.
967 Antioch recovered from the Saracens.
969 The race of Abbas extinguished in Egypt,
975 Pope Boniface VII. is deposed and banished for
his crimes.
977 Gl- eece, Macedon, and Thrace, ravaged by the
Bulgarians for ten years.
The Bohemians subdued by Otho.
979 Coronation oath first used in England.
Juries first instituted in ditto.
985 The Danes under Sueno invade England and
Scotland.
987 The Carlovingian race in France ended.
991 The figures in arithmetic are brought into Eu¬
rope by the Saracens from Arabia $ letters of
the alphabet were hitherto used.
993 A great eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
995 England invaded by the Danes and Norwegians.
996 Otho III. makes the empire of Germany elective.
999 Boleslaus the first king of Poland.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Aboul
Wasi and Abu Hamed to be 230 35'.
IOOO Paper made of cotton rags was in use j that of
linen rags in 1170J the manufactory introdu¬
ced into England at Deptford, 1588.
1002 The emperor Henry assumed the title of king of
the Romans.
1005 All the old churches are rebuilt about this time
in a new manner of architecture.
1006 A plague in Egypt for three years.
1007 A great eruption of Vesuvius.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Alba-
trunius to be 230 35'.
1014 Sueno the Dane becomes master of England.
Sept. 28. Almost all Flanders laid under water
by a storm.
1013 Children forbidden by law to be sold by their pa¬
rents in England.
1017 Rain of the colour of blood for three days in
Aquitain.
1022 A new species of music invented by Aretin.
1035 Togrul-Beg, or Taugrolipix, the Turkish sultan^
establishes himself in Korasan.
The kingdoms of Castile and Arragon began.
1040 The Danes, after several engagements with va¬
rious success, are about this time driven out of
Scotland, and never again return in a hostilo
manner.
Smyrna destroyed by an earthquake.
1041 The Saxon line restored under Edward the Con¬
fessor.
1043 The Turks become formidable and take posses¬
sion of Persia.
The Russians come from Scythia, and land in.
Thrace.
1054 ^jeo the first pope that kept up an army.
1055 The Turks take Bagdad, and overturn the em¬
pire of the Saracens.
1057 Malcolm HI. king of Scotland, kills the tyrant
Macbeth at Dunsinnan, and marries the prin¬
cess Margaret, sister to Edgar Atheling.
1061
u8
CHRONOLOGY.
After
Christ.
1061
1065
1066
1070
*075
1076
1080
1086
1090
icgi
3096
1098
1099
1110
1118
1119
1152
1*37
1141
1143
1144
3151
11.54
1156
1163
1164
Surnames appointed to be taken in Scotland by a
parliament held in Forfar.
The Turks take Jerusalem from the Saracens.
The conquest of England by William (surnamed
the bastard) duke of Normandy, in the battle
of Hastings, where Harold is slain.
The feudal law introduced into England.
Henry IV. emperor of Germany, and the pope,
quarrel about the nomination of the German
bishops. Henry, in penance, walks barefooted
to the pope towards the end of January.
Justices of the peace first appointed in England.
An earthquake in England.
Asia Minor, having been two years under the
power of Soliman, is from this time called
Turkey.
Doomsday-book began to be compiled by order
of William, from a survey of all the estates in
England, and finished in 1086.
The tower of London built by ditto, to curb his
English subjects 5 numbers of whom fly to
Scotland, where they introduce the Saxon or
English language, are protected by Malcolm,
and have lands given them.
The order of Carthusians established by Bruno.
The dynasty of Bathineens or Assassins begins in
Irak, and continues for 117 years.
The Saracens in Spain, being hard pressed by
the Spaniards, call to their assistance Joseph
king of Morocco ; by which the Moors get
possession of all the Saracen dominions in Spain.
The first crusade to the Holy Land is begun un¬
der several Christian princes, to drive the in¬
fidels from Jerusalem.
The order of St Benedict instituted.
Jerusalem taken by the crusaders ; Godfrey elect¬
ed king of it •, and the order of knights of St
John instituted.
Edgar Atheling, the last of the Saxon princes,
dies hi England, where he had been permitted
to reside as a subject.
Learning revived at Cambridge.
Writing on paper made of cotton common about
this time.
The order of the Knights Templars instituted
to defend the Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and to
protect Christian strangers.
Bohemia erected into a kingdom.
The kingdom of Portugal began.
The pandect of Justinian found in the ruins of
Amalphi.
The factions of the Guelphs and Gibellines pre¬
vailed about this time.
The Koran translated into Latin.
The Peripatetic philosophy introduced into Ger¬
many.
The canon law collected by Gratian, a monk of
Bologna.
Christianity introduced into Finland.
The city of Moscow in Russia founded.
The order of the Carmelites instituted.
London bridge, consisting of 19 small arches,
first built of stone.
The Teutonic order of religious knights begins
in Germany.
1171 The dynasty of the Fatemites ended in Egypt 5
the sovereigns of the country henceforth call¬
ed Sultans.
1172 Henry II. king of England (and first of the
Plantagenets), takes possession of Ireland;
which from that period has been governed by
an English viceroy or lord-lieutenant.
1176 England is divided by Henry into six circuits,
and justice is dispensed by itinerant judges.
1179 The university of Padua founded.
1180 Glass windows began to be used in private houses
in England.
1181 The laws of England are digested about this
time by Glanville.
1182 Pope Alexander III. compelled the kings of
England and France to hold the stirrups of
his saddle when he mounted his horse.
1183 Seven thousand Albigenses massacred by the in¬
habitants of Berry.
1186 A conjunction of all the planets at sunrise Sep¬
tember 16. The sun in 30° flg ; Jupiter in
2° 3' >Q: *, Venus in 30 49' j Saturn in 8° 6';
Mercury in 40 10'j Mars, 90 8'; tail of the
Dragon, 180 23' sQ=.
1187 Jerusalem taken by Saladin.
1192 The battle of Ascalon, in Judea, in which Ri¬
chard, king of England, defeats Saladin’s ar¬
my, consisting of 300,000 combatants.
1194 Dicu et vion Droit, first used as a motto by Ri¬
chard, on a victory over the French.
1195 Denmark and Norway laid waste by a dreadful
tempest.
1198 Institution of the order of the Holy Trinity.
1200 Chimneys were not known in England.
Surnames now began to be used j first among the
nobility.
University of Salamanca in Spain founded.
1204 Constantinople taken by the French and Vene¬
tians.
The inquisition established.
The empire of Trebizond established.
1208 London incorporated, and obtained their first
charter, for electing their lord mayor and
other magistrates, from King John.
The order oi Fratres Minores established.
The pope excommunicates King John.
1209 The works of Aristotle imported from Constan¬
tinople into Europe.
The silk manufacture imported from Greece in¬
to Venice.
1210 The works of Aristotle condemned to be burnt
at Paris.
The emperor Otho excommunicated by the
pope.
Violent persecution of the Albigenses.
1215 Magna Charta is signed by King John and the
harons of England.
Court of common pleas established.
Orders of the Dominicans and Knights Hospi¬
tallers founded.
The doctrine of transuhstantiation introdu¬
ced.
1216 King Alexander and the whole kingdom of
Scotland excommunicated by the pope’s le-
gate.
1220
1228
1230
1231
1233
2238
1239
1241
1245
1250
1251
12 53
1256
1258
1260
1263
1264
1268
1269
1272
1273
1274
1279
1282
C H R O N
Astronomy and geography brought into Europe
the Moors.
A great earthquake in Germany.
A comet of extraordinary magnitude appeared
in Denmark.
A league formed against the Albigenses by the
French king and many prelates and lords.
The Tartars under Jenghiz-khan emerge from
the northern parts of Asia, overrun all the
Sa racen empire, and carry death and deso¬
lation wherever they march.
The university of Thoulouse founded.
ihe kingdom of Denmark distressed by pesti¬
lence.
The kingdoms of Leon and Castile united.
Prussia subdued by the Teutonic knights.
University of Naples founded.
The Almagest of Ptolemy translated into Latin.
The Inquisition, begun in 1204, is now trusted
to the Dominicans.
The houses of London, and other cities in Eng¬
land, France, and Germany, still thatched
with straw.
The university of Vienna founded.
A writing of this year’s date on paper made of
rags still extant.
The Hanseatic league formed.
Tin mines discovered in Germany.
A clear red star, like Mars, appears in Capricorn.
Painting revived in Florence by Cimabue.
M ales subdued, and Magna Charta confirmed.
rIhe famous astronomical tables are composed by
Alonso king of Castile.
The order of the Augustines established.
The Tartars take Bagdad, which finishes the
empire of the Saracens.
The sect of Flagellantes appeared in Italy.
Acho king of Norway invades Scotland with
160 sail, and lands 20,000 men at the mouth
of the Clyde ; but they are cut to pieces by
Alexander III. who recovers the western isles.
The commons of England first summoned to par¬
liament about this time.
The T artars invade China.
The Hamburgh company incorporated in Eng¬
land.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Cezah
Nasirodni to be 230 30'.
Westminster abbey rebuilt, and consecrated in
the presence of Henry III.
The academy of Florence founded.
The empire of the present Austrian family be¬
gins in Germany.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Cheou-
king in China to be 230 33' 39//.
The first commercial treaty betwixt England and
Flanders.
King Edward renounced his right to Normandy.
Ihe mortmain act passed in England.
Lewellyn, prince of M ales, defeated and killed
by Edward I. who unites that principality to
England.
A great pestilence in Denmark.
8000 French murdered at the Sicilian vespers.
Academy del la Crusca founded.
O L O G Y.
1284 Ed ward II. horn at Caernarvon, is the first
prince of Wales.
1285 Alexander III. king of Scotland, dies, and that
kingdon) is disputed by twelve candidates, who
submit their claims to the arbitration of Ed-
ward king of England ; which lays the foun¬
dation of a long and desolating Avar between
both nations.
1290 The university of Lisbon founded.
1291 Ptolemais taken by the Turks. End of the
crusades.
1293 There is a regular succession of English parlia¬
ments from this year, being the 22d of Ed¬
ward I.
1294 Parliament established in Paris.
1298 The present Turkish empire begins in Bithynra
under Ottoman.
Silver-hafted knives, spoons, and cups, a great
luxury.
Tallow-candles so great a luxury, that splinters
of wood Avere used for lights.
Wine sold by apothecaries as a cordial.
The Scots defeated by the English at Falkirk.
1299 An earthquake in Germany.
Spectacles invented by a monk of Pisa.
The year of jubilee instituted by Boniface VIII.
1302 The. mariner’s compas invented er improved, by
Giovia of Naples.
The university of Avignon founded.
1307 The beginning of the Swiss cantons.
Coal first used in England.
1308 The popes removed to Avignon in France for
70 years.
1310 Lincoln’s Inn society established.
The knights of St John take possession of the
isle of Rhodes.
1314 The battle of Bannockburn betAveen Edward II.
and Robert Bruce, Avhich establishes the latter
on the throne of Scotland.
The cardinals set fire to the conclaA’e and separate.
A vacancy in the papal chair for Iavo years.
1315 Germany afflicted with famine and pestilence.
1319 The university of Dublin founded.
1320 Gold first coined in Christendom} 1344 ditto in
England.
An earthquake in England.
1323 A great eruption of Mount yEtna.
1325 The first treaty of commerce betwixt England
and Venice.
1330 Gunpowder invented by a monk of Cologne.
1332 The pope accused of heresy.
1336 Two Brabant weavers settled at York, Avhicb,
says Edward 111. may prove of great benefit
to us and our subjects.
1337 The first comet whose course is described Avitli
an astronomical exactness.
Europe infested by locusts.
1340 Heralds college instituted in England.
Copper money first used in Scotland and Ireland.
1344 The first creation to titles by patents used by
EdAvard III.
1345 Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which
gained him the battle of Cressy.
1347 The battle of Durham, in which David, king of
Scots, is taken prisoner.
119
After
Christ.
*349
I 20
CHRONOLOGY.
Alter 1349 The order of the Garter instituted in England,
Christ. by Edward III. altered in 1557, and consists
*” of 26 knights.
1352 The Turks first enter Europe.
1353 Asia and Africa desolated by locusts.
1334 The money in Scotland till now the same as in
England.
1356 The battle of Poictiers, in which King John of
France and his son are taken prisoners by
Edward the Black Prince.
1357 Coals first brought to London.
I5c8 Arms of England and France first quartered by
Edward ILL
University of Cologne founded.
Tamerlane began to reign in Persia.
1362 The law pleadings in England changed from
French to English in favour of Edward III.
to his people.
The military order of Janizaries established a-
mong the Turks.
1365 The universities of Vienna and Geneva founded.
1369 John Wickliffe, an Englishman, begins to call in
question the doctrines of the church of Rome
about this time, whose followers are called
Lollards.
1370 The office of grand visier established.
1377 Inundation of the sea in Flanders.
1378 Greenland discovered by a Venetian.
1381 Bills of exchange first used in England.
1384 The first act of navigation in England; no goods
to be exported or imported by Englishmen in
foreign bottoms.
1383 A company of linen weavers from the Nether¬
lands established in London.
Windsor castle built by Edward III.
1387 The first lord high admiral of England insti¬
tuted.
1388 The battle of Otterburn between Hotspur and
the earl of Douglas.
Bombs invented at Venloo.
1391 Cards invented in France for the king’s amuse¬
ment.
1399 Westminster abbey rebuilt and enlarged.—West¬
minster hall ditto.
Order of the Bath instituted at the coronation
of Henry IV. renewed in 1725, consisting of
84 knights.
1402 Tamerlane defeats and takes prisoner Bajazet
the Turkish sultan.
1405 The Canary islands discovered by Bathencourt a
Norman.
1410 Guildhall, London, built.
Painting in oil-colours invented at Bruges by
John Van-eyck.
-1411 The university of St Andrew’s in Scotland
founded.
1412 Algebra brought from Arabia into Europe.
1415 The battle of Agincourt gained over the French
by Henry V. of England.
1420 The island of Madeira discovered by the Portu¬
guese.
1421 The revenue of England amounted to 55,754!.
1428 The siege of Orleans, the first blow to the Eng¬
lish power in France.
1431 A great earthquake at Lisbon.
1432 Great inundations in Germany.
1427 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Ulug Christ.
Beg to be 230 30' 17". »,L~
1440 Printing invented by L. Koster at Haerlem in
Holland ; brought into England by W. Cax-
ton, a mercer of London, I471*
1446 The Vatican library founded at Rome.
The sea breaks in at Dort in Holland and drowns
100,000 people.
1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks* which ends
the eastern empire, 1123 years from its dedi¬
cation by Constantine the Great, and 2206
years from the foundation of Rome.
1454 The university of Glasgow in Scotland founded.
J457 Glass first manufactured in England.
1460 Engraving and etching on copper invented.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Pur-
bachius and Regiomontanus to be 230 29'.
1473 The study of the Greek language introduced in¬
to France.
1477 The university of Aberdeen in Scotland founded.
1479 Union of the kingdoms of Arragon and Castile.
1482 The coast of Guinea discovered by the Portu¬
guese.
A court of inquisition erected in Seville.
1485 Richard III. king of England, and last of the
Plantagenets, is defeated and killed at the
battle of Bosworth, by Henry (Tudor) VII.
which put an end to the civil wars between
the houses of York and Lancaster, after a con¬
test of 30 years, and the loss of 100,000 men.
1487 Henry establishes fifty yeomen of the guards, the
first standing army.
1489 Maps and sea charts first brought to England by
Barth. Columbus.
1490 William Groceyn introduces the study of the
Greek language into England.
The Moors, hitherto a formidable enemy to the
native Spaniards, are entirely subdued by Fer¬
dinand, and become subjects to that prince on
certain conditions, which are ill observed by
the Spaniards, whose clergy use the inquisitiotP.
in all its tortures; and in 1609, near one mil-
lion of the Moors were driven from Spain to
the opposite coast of Africa, from whence they
originally came.
1492 America first discovered by Columbus, a Ge¬
noese in the service of Spain.
The Moors expelled from Granada, whicli they
had possessed upwards of 800 years.
1495 The venereal disease introduced into Europe.
1496 The Jews and Moors banished out of Portugal.
1497 The Portuguese first sail to the East Indies by
the Cape of Good Hope.
South America discovered by Americus Vespu-
sius, from whom unjustly it has its name.
1499 North America discovered, for Henry VII. by
Cabot, a Venetian.
1508 Maximilian divides the empire of Germany in¬
to six circles, and adds four more in 1512.
Brazil discovered by the Portuguese. Florida
discovered by John Cabot an Englishman.
Painting in chiaro-obscuro discovered.
A great plague in England.
1505 Shillings first coined in England.
1507
I 21
CHRONOLOGY,
After 1507 The island of Madagascar discovered by the Por-
Jhrist. tuguese.
Gardening introduced into England from the
Netherlands, from whence vegetables were im¬
ported hitherto.
1510 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Werne-
nus to be 230 28' 30,/.
1513 The battle of Flowden, in which James IV.
king of Scotland is killed, with the flower of
his nobility.
1514 Cannon bullets of stone still in use.
1513 The first Polyglot Bible printed at Alcala.
The kingdom of Navarre annexed to that of
Castile by Ferdinand.
1516 The kingdom of Algiers seized by Barbarossa.
1517 Martin Luther began the reformation.
Egypt is conquered by the Turks.
The kingdom of the Mamelukes in Egypt over¬
thrown by the Turks.
1518 Discovery of New Spain, and the Straits of Ma¬
gellan.
1521 Henry VIII. for his writings in favour of popery,
receives the title of Defender of the Faith
from his Holiness.
1522 Rhodes taken by the Turks.
The first voyage round the wrorld performed by
a ship of Magellan’s squadron.
1526 The inquisition established in Portugal.
Lutheranism established in Germany.
1527 Rome taken and plundered by the Imperial
army.
1528 Popery abolished in Sweden.
1529 The name of Protestant takes its rise from the
reformers protesting against the church of
Rome, at the diet of Spires in Germany.
1530 Union of the Protestants at Smallcalde, Decem¬
ber 22.
3ecretary of State’s office established in England.
1531 A great earthquake at Lisbon.
1532 The Court of Session instituted in Scotland.
1533 Insurrection of the Anabaptists in Westphalia.
1334 The reformation takes place in England, under
Henry VIII.
Barbarossa seized on the kingdom of Tunis.
1 333 The reformation introduced into Ireland.
The society of Jesuits formed.
1339 The first English edition of the Bible authorised $
the present translation finished in 1611.
About this time cannon began to be used in
ships.
Six hundred and forty-five religious houses sup¬
pressed in England and Wales.
1340 The variation of the compass discovered by Se¬
bastian Cabot.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Coper¬
nicus to be 230 28' 8".
Society of Jesuits established, September 27.
1543 Silk stockings first worn by the French king j
first worn in England by Queen Eliz, 1361 ;
the steel frame for weaving invented by the
Rev. Mr Lee, of St John’s College, fcam-
bridge, 1389..
Pins first used in England, before which time
the ladies used skewers.
Iron cannon and mortars made in England.
Vol. VI. Part I. t
1544 Good lands let in England at one shilling per acre.
1343 The famous council of Trent begins, and conti¬
nues 18 years.
1347 First law in England establishing the interest of
money at 10 per cent.
1348 The Reformation gained ground in Poland.
1349 Lords lieutenants of counties instituted in Eng¬
land.
1330 Horse guards instituted in England.
The bank of Venice established about this time.
1332 Books of geography and astronomy destroyed in
England, as being infected with magic.
The book of Common Prayer established in Eng¬
land by act of parliament.
1334 The kingdom of Astracan conquered by the
Russians.
1333 The Russian company established in England.
1338 Queen Elizabeth begins her reign.
1360 The Reformation in Scotland completed by John
Knox.
1361 Livonia ceded to Poland.
1363 Knives first made in England.
1363 Revolt of the Low Countries.
Malta attacked by the Turks.
1366 The 39 articles of the church of England esta¬
blished.
1368 Queen Mary imprisoned in England.
Liberty of professing the reformed religion grant¬
ed to the Low Countries.
1369 Royal exchange first built.
1371 The island of Cyprus taken by the Turks.
They are defeated at Lepanto.
1372 The great massacre of Protestants at Paris.
A new star in Cassiopeia observed by Cornelius
Gemma. It appeared in November, and dis¬
appeared in March.
1376 The profession of the Protestant religion authori¬
sed in France. This toleration followed by a
civil war.
1378 The first treaty of alliance betwixt England and
the States General, January 7.
1379 The Dutch shake oft' the Spanish yoke, and the
republic of Holland begins.
English East India company incorporated—esta¬
blished 1600.
■ Turkey company incorporated.
1380 Sir Francis Drake returns from his voyage round
the world, being the first English circumnavi¬
gator.
Parochial register first appointed in England.
The kingdom of Portugal seized by Philip of
Spain.
1381 Copper first used in France.
1382 Pope Gregory introduces the New Style in Italy $
the 3th of October being counted the 13th.
1383 Tobacco first brought from Virginia into Eng¬
land.
The first proposal of settling a colony in Ame¬
rica.
1387 Mary Queen of Scots is beheaded by order of
Elizabeth, after 18 years imprisonment.
1388 The Spanish Armada destroyed by Drake and
other English admirals.
Henry IV. passes the edict of Nantes, tolerating
the Protestants.
Q 1388
After
Christ.
 v—
CHRONOLOGY.
After 1588 Duelling with small swords introduced into
Christ. England.
“•“v”—' 1589 Coaches first introduced into England j hackney
act 1693 *, increased to 1000 in 1770.
1590 Band of pensioners instituted in England.
Telescopes invented by Jansen, a spectacle-maker
in Germany.
1391 Trinity College, Dublin, founded.
1593 A great plague in London.
1594 The Jesuits expelled from France.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Byrgius
to be 230 30'.
1393 The same observed by Tycho Brahe to be 230
29' 23".
1396 A great earthquake at Japan,
1397 Watches first brought into England from Ger¬
many.
1398 The edict of Nantes by Henry IV. of France.
1602 Decimal arithmetic invented at Bruges.
1603 Queen Elizabeth (the last of the Tudors) dies,
and nominates James VI. of Scotland as her
successor 5 which unites both kingdoms under
the name of Great Britain.
1603 The Gunpowder plot discovered at Westminster ;
being a project to blow up the king and both
houses of parliament.
1606 Oaths of allegiance first administered in Britain.
1608 Colonies sent from Britain to Virginia.
1609 The independency of the United States acknow¬
ledged by Spain.
1610 Galileo, of Florence, first discovers the satellites
about the planet J upiter, by the telescope, late¬
ly invented in Germany.
Henry IV. is murdered at Paris, by Ravaillac, a
priest.
Thermometers invented by Drebel, a Dutchman.
1611 Baronets first created in Britain by James I.
May 22.
An earthquake in Constantinople; 200,000 per¬
sons died there of the plague.
1612 The north-west passage to China attempted in
vain by the British.
1614 Napier of Marcheston, in Scotland, invents the
logarithms.
Sir Hugh Middleton brings the New river to
London from Ware.
1616 The first permanent settlement in Virginia.
1619 W. Harvey, an Englishman, confirms the doc¬
trine of the circulation of the blood, which
had been first broached by Servetus, a French
physician, in 1333.
1620 The broad silk manufacture from raw silk, in*-
troduced into England.
Barbadoes discovered by Sir William Courteen.
Navarre united to France.
Copper-money first introduced in England.
1621 New England planted by the Puritans.
The two parties of Whigs and Tories formed in
Britain.
1622 The Palatinate reduced by the Imperialists.
1623 The Knights of Nova Scotia instituted.
1624 Massacre of the English at Amboyna.
1623 King James dies, and is succeeded by his son,
Charles I.
1623 The island of Barbadoes, the first British settle- After
ment in the West Indies, is planted. Christ.
1631 The transit of Mercury over the sun’s disk, first " v —
observed by Gassendi.
A great eruption of Vesuvius.
1632 The battle of Lutzen, in which Gustavus Adol¬
phus, king of Sweden, and head of the Pro¬
testants in Germany, is killed.
1633 Galileo condemned by the inquisition at Rome.
Louisiana discovered by the French.
1633 Province of Maryland planted by Lord Balti¬
more.
Regular posts established from London to Scot¬
land, Ireland, &c.
1636 A transit of Mercury over the sun’s disk obser¬
ved by Cassini.
1639 A transit of Venus over the sun’s disk, first obser¬
ved by Mr Horrox, November 24. O. S. 3 h.
13' P. M.
1640 King Charles disobliges his Scottish subjects j on
which their army, under General Lesley, en¬
ters England, and takes Newcastle, being en¬
couraged by the malecontents in England.
The massacre in Ireland, when 40,000 English
Protestants were killed.
The independency of Portugal recovered by John
duke of Braganza.
1642 King Charles impeaches five i*efractory members,
which begins the civil wars in England.
1643 Excise on beer, ale, &c. first imposed by parlia¬
ment.
Barometers invented by Torricelli.
1648 A new star observed in the tail of the Whale by
Fabricius.
1649 Charles I. beheaded by Cromwell at Whitehall,
January 30. aged 49.
Pendulums first applied to clocks by Huygens.
1631 The sect called Quakers appeared in England.
1632 The Dutch colony at the Cape of Good Hope
established.
1633 Cromwell assumes the protectorship.
The air-pump is invented by Otto Guericke of
Magdeburg.
1633 The English under Admiral Penn, take Jamaica
from the Spaniards.
One of Saturn’s satellites observed by Huygens.
1638 Cromwell dies, and is succeeded in the protector¬
ship by his son Richard.
1660 King Charles II. is restored by Monk, com¬
mander of the army, after an exile of twelve
years in France and Holland.
The people of Denmark, being oppressed by the
nobles, surrendered their privileges to Frederic
III. who becomes absolute.
1661 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Heve-
lius to be 230 29' 7".
1662 The royal society established at London by
Charles II.
1663 Carolina planted: 1728, divided into two se¬
parate governments.
Prussia declared independent of Poland.
1664 The New Netherlands in North America con¬
quered from the Swedes and Dutch by the
English.
1663
CHRONOLOGY.
1665 The plague rages in London, and carries ofF
68,000 persons.
The magic lantern invented by Kircher.
1666 The grfeat fire of London began Sept. 2. and
continued three days, in which were destroyed
13,000 houses and 400 streets.
Tea first used in England.
1667 The peace of Breda, which confirms to the Eng¬
lish the New' Netherlands, now known by the
names of Pennsylvania, New York, and New
Jersey.
1668     ditto, Alx-la-Chapelle.
St James’s Park planted and made a thorough¬
fare for public use by Charles II.
1669 The island of Candia taken by the Turks.
1670 The English Hudson’s Bay company incorpo¬
rated.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Mon¬
gol i to be 230 28' 24".
1672 Louis XIV. overruns great part of Holland,
when the Dutch open their sluices, being de¬
termined to drown their country, and retire to
their settlements in the East Indies.
African company established.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Bicher
to be 230 28' 54/'.
1677 The micrometer invented by Kircher.
1678 The peace of Nimeguen.
The habeas corpus act passed.
A strange darkness at noonday, Jan. 12.
1680 A great comet appeared, and from its nearness
to our earth alarmed the inhabitants. It con¬
tinued visible from Nov. 3. to March 9.
William Penn, a Quaker, receives a charter for
planting Pennsylvania.
1683 India stock sold from 360 to 500 per cent.
1685 Charles II. dies, aged 55, and is succeeded by
his brother James II.
The duke of Monmouth, natural son to Charles
II. raises a rebellion, but is defeated at the
battle of Sedgmore, and beheaded-.
The edict of Nantes is revoked by Louis XIV.
and the Protestants are greatly distressed.
1686 The Newtonian philosophy published.
1687 The palace of Versailles, near Paris, finished by
Louis XIV.
1688 The revolution in Great Britain begins Nov. 5.
King James abdicates, and retires to France,
December 23.M
King William and Queen Mary, daughter and
son-in-law to James, are proclaimed Februa-
ry 13.
Viscount Dundee stands out for James in Scotland,
but is killed by General Mackay at the battle
of Killycrankie; upon which the Highlanders,
wearied with repeated misfortunes, disperse.
Smyrna destroyed by an earthquake.
1689 The land-tax passed in England.
The toleration act passed in ditto.
William Fuller, who pretended to prove the
prince of Wales spurious, was voted by the
commons to be a notorious cheat, impostor,
and false accuser.
Several bishops are deprived for not taking the
oaths to William.
123
1689 Episcopacy abolished in Scotland. After
1690 The battle of the Boyne gained by William Christ.
against James, in Ireland. y—j
1691 The war in Ireland finished by the surrender of
Limeric to William.
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Flam-
stead to be 230 28' 32".
1692 The English and Dutch fleets, commanded by
Admiral Russel, defeat the French fleet off La
Hogue.
The massacre of Glencoe in Scotland, Jan. 31.
O. S.
Earthquakes in England and Jamaica, Septem¬
ber 8.
Hanover made an electorate of the empire.
1693 Bayonets at the end of loaded muskets first used
by the French against the confederates in the
battle of Turin.
Bank of England established by King William.
The first public lottery was drawn this year.
1694 Queen Mary dies at the age of 33, and William
reigns alone.
Stamp-duties instituted in England.
1697 The peace of Ryswick.
1699 The Scots settled a colony at the isthmus of Da¬
rien in America, and called it Caledonia.
1700 Charles XII. of Sweden begins his reign.
1701 King James II. dies at St Germains, in the 68th
year of his age.
Prussia erected into a kingdom.
Society for the propagation of the gospel in fo¬
reign parts established,
1702 King William dies, aged 50, and is succeeded by
Queen Anne, daughter to James II. who, with
the emperor and states general, renews the
war against France and Spain.
The French sent colonies to the Mississippi.
1703 The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Bian-
chini to be 230 28' 25".
1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards by Admiral
Rooke.
The battle of Blenheim won by the duke of
Marlborough and allies against the French.
The Court of Exchequer instituted in England.
1706 The treaty of union betwixt England and Scot¬
land, signed July 22.
The battle of Ramillies won by Marlborough
and the allies.
1707 The first British parliament.
The allies defeated at Almanza.
1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniards by General
Stanhope.
The battle of Oudenarde wron by Marlborough
and the allies.
1709 Peter the Great, czar of Moscovy, defeats Charles
XII. at Poltowa, who flies to Turkey.
The battle of Malplaquet won by Marlborough
and the allies.
1710 Queen Anne changes the Whig ministry for
others more favourable to the interest of her
brother the late pretender
The cathedral church of St Paul, London, rebuilt
by Sir Christopher Wren in 37 years, at one
million expence, by a duty on coals.
The English South sea company began.
Q 2
1712
124
CHRONOLOGY.
After 1712°f Hamilton and Lord Mohun killed !n a
duel in Hyde-park.
  '1713 The peace of Utrecht, whereby Newfoundland,
Nova Scotia, New Britain, and Hudson’s bay
in North America, were yielded to Great Bri¬
tain j Gibraltar and Minorca in Europe were
also confirmed to the said crown by this treaty.
1714 Queen Anne dies at the age of 50, and is suc¬
ceeded by George I.
Interest reduced to five per cent.
*1*5 Louis XIV. dies, and is succeeded by his great-
grandson Louis XV.
The rebellion in Scotland begins in September,
under the earl of Mar, ;n favour of the pre¬
tender. The action of Sheriffmuir, and the
surrender of Preston, both in November, when
the rebels disperse,
The obliquity of the ecliptic observed by Lou-
ville to be 230 28' 24".
1716 The Pretender married the princess of Sobieska,
' grand-daughter of John Sobieski, late king; of
Poland.
An act passed for septennial parliaments.
1718 Sardinia erected into a kingdom, and given to
the duke of Savoy.
1719 The Mississippi scheme at its height in France.
Lomb’s silk-throwing machine, containing
26,586 wheels, erected at Derby: takes up
one-eighth of a mile j one water-wheel moves
the rest j and in twenty-four hours it works
318,504,960 yards of organzine silk thread.
1720 The South-sea scheme in England begun April
7. was at its height at the end of June, and
quite sunk about September 29.
A great earthquake in China.
1724 An earthquake in Denmark.
2727 King George dies, in the 68th year of his age j
and is succeeded by his only son, George II.
Inoculation first tried on criminals with success.
Eussia, formerly a dukedom, is now established as
an empire.
The aberration of the fixed stars discovered and
_ accounted for by Dr Bradley.
1732 Kouli Khan usurps the Persian throne, conquers
the Mogul empire, and returns with two hun¬
dred and thirty one millions sterling.
Several public-spirited gentlemen begin the set¬
tlement of Georgia in North America.
1733 The Jesuits expelled from Paraguay.
1.736 Captain Porteous having ordered his soldiers to
fire upon the populace at the execution of a
smuggler, is himself hanged by the mob at
Edinburgh.
A transit ol Mercury observed by Cassini.
1737 A dreadful hurricane at the mouth of the Gan¬
ges, October 10.
1738 Westminster bridge, consisting of 15 arches, be¬
gun j finished in 1750 at the expence of
389,°ool. defrayed by parliament.
The order of St Januarius established at Naples.
*739 Letters of marque issued out in Britain against
Spain, July 21. and war declared, Oct. 23.
The empire of Indostan ruined by Kouli Khan.
An intense frost in Britain.
4743 The battle of Dettingen won by the English and
allies in favour of the queen of Hungary.
1744 A dreadful plague in Sicily.
1744 War declared against France.—Commodore An¬
son returns from his voyage round the world.
1745 The allies lose the battle of Fontenoy.
The rebellion breaks out in Scotland, and the
Pretender’s army defeated by the duke of
Cumberland at Culloden, April 16. 1746.
1746 British Linen Company erected.
Lima destroyed by an earthquake.
1747 Kouli Khan murdered.
1748 I he peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, by which a resti¬
tution of all places taken during the war was
to be made on all sides.
*749 The interest on the British funds reduced to
three per cent.
British herring-fishery incorporated.
The colony of Nova Scotia founded.
175° Earthquake in England.
*15* Frederic prince of Wales, father to his present
majesty, died.
Antiquarian Society at London incorporated.
1752 The new stile introduced into Great Britain j
the 3d ol September being counted the 14th.
*153 The British Museum erected at Montague-house.
Society of arts, manufactures, and commerce,
instituted in London.
A great earthquake at Constantinople, Cairo
&c. Sept. 2.
*155 Quito in Peru destroyed by an earthquake
April 28. u
Lisbon destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 1.
1756 146 Englishmen are confined in the Black Holt
at Calcutta in the East Indies by order of the
Nabob, and 123 found dead next morning.
Marine society established at London.
The king of Prussia commenced hostilities in the
month of August in Saxony. Defeats the Au¬
strians at La,
^.ami®n attempted to assassinate the French king,
Ihe king of Prussia invades Bohemia. Defeats
the Austrians at Reichenberg, April 21. ami
at Prague, May 6. Repulsed by Count Daur
at Kolin, June 18.
The allies defeated by the French at Hasten-
beck, July 26.
Convention of Closter-Seven, Sept. 8.
The king of Prussia defeats the French and Am
stnans at Rosbach, Nov. 5. The Prussians de-
feated dear Breslaw, Nov 22. The Austrians
defeated at Lissa, Dec. 5.
*758 Senegal taken by the British, May 1. They
take Louisbourg, July 27. ^
The king of Prussia defeats the Russians at Zorn,
dorl, Aug. 25. Is defeated by Count Dane
at rloch-kirchen, Oct. 14.
Goree taken by Commodore Keppel, Dec. 20.
Attempt to assassinate the king of Portugal
Dec. 3. 0 6 1
1759 General Wolfe is killed in the battle of Quebec
which is gained by the British
The French defeated by Prince Ferdinand at
Bergen, April 13.
Guadaloupe taken by the British, May 1
King of Prussia defeated by the Russians at Cu-
nersdorf, Aug. 12.
After
Christ.
*159
CHRONOLOGY.
125
After 1759 The French fleet defeated by Admiral Hawke,
Christ. Nov. 20.
—Y—* Balbec and Tripoli destroyed by an earthquake,
Dee. 5.
1760 King George II. dies, Oct. 25. in the 77th year
of his age, and is succeeded by his late ma¬
jesty, who, on the 2 2d September 1761, mar¬
ried the princess Charlotte of Mecklenburgh
Strelitz.
Blackfriars bridge, consisting of 9 arches, begun ;
finished 1770, at the expence of 152,840!. to
be discharged by a toll.
1761 A transit of Venus over the sun, June 6.
Earthquakes in Syria, Oct. 13.
The king of Prussia defeats the Austrians at
Torgau, Nov. 3.
Pondicherry taken by Col. Coote, Jan. 15.
Belleisle surrendered to the British, Feb. 4.
1762 War declared against Spain.
Peter III. emperor of Russia, is deposed, impri¬
soned, and murdered.
American philosophical society established in
Philadelphia.
George Augustus Frederic, prince of Wales, born
August 12.
Martinico surrendered to the British, Feb. 4.
Havannah surrendered to ditto, Aug. I 2.
Manilla taken by ditto, Oct. 6.
1763 The definitive treaty of peace between Great
Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, con¬
cluded at Paris, February 10th j which con¬
firms to Great Britain the extensive province
of Canada, East and West Florida, and part of
Eouisiana, in North America ; also the islands
of Grenada, St Vincent, Dominica, and Toba¬
go, in the West Indies.
The Jesuits expelled from France.
1764 The parliament granted io,oool. to Mr Har¬
rison for his discovery of the longitude by his
time-piece.
Famine and pestilence in Italy.
An earthquake at Lisbon.
1765 His majesty’s royal charter passed for incorpo¬
rating the society of artists.
An act passed annexing the sovereignty of the
island of Man to the crown of Great Britain.
1766 April 21st, a spot or macula of the sun, more
than thrice the bigness of our earth, passed the
sun’s centre.
The American stamp-act repealed, March 18.
A great earthquake at Constantinople.
The Jesuits expelled from Bohemia and Den¬
mark.
1767 The Jesuits expelled from Spain, Venice, and
Genoa, April 2d.
Martinico almost destroyed by an earthquake.
The Protestants tolerated in Poland, Nov. 2d.
1768 Academy of painting established in London.
The T urks imprison the Russian ambassador, and
declare war against that empire.
The Jesuits expelled from Naples, Malta, and
Parma.
1769 Paoli fled from Corsica, June 13. The island
then reduced by the French.
1770 An earthquake at St Domingo. After
1771 Dr Soiander and Mr Banks, in his majesty’s ship Christ.
the Endeavour, Lieut. Cook, return from a
voyage round the world, having made several
important discoveries in the South Seas.
An emigration of 500,000 Tourgouths from the
coasts of the Caspian sea to the frontiers of
China.
1772 The king of Sweden changes the constitution
from aristocracy to a limited monarchy.
The Pretender marries a princess of Germany,
grand-daughter of Thomas late earl of Ayles¬
bury.
The emperor of Germany, empress of Russia, and
the king of Prussia, strip the king of Poland
of a great part of bis dominions, which they di¬
vide among themselves, in violation of the most
solemn treaties.
1773 Captain Phipps is sent to explore the North pole;
but having made 81 degrees, is in danger of
being locked up by the ice, and his attempt
to discover a passage in that quarter proves
fruitless.
The English East India company having, by
conquest or treaty, acquired the extensive pro¬
vinces of Bengal, Orixa, and Bahar, contain¬
ing 15 millions of inhabitants, great irregula¬
rities are committed by their servants abroad ;
upon which government interferes, and sends
out judges, &c. for the better administration
of justice.
The war between the Russians and the Turks
proves disgraceful to the latter, who lose the
islands in the Archipelago, and by sea are
everywhere unsuccessful.
The society of Jesuits suppressed^by the pope’s
bull, Aug. 25.
1774 Peace is proclaimed between the Russians and
the Turks.
The British parliament having passed an act lay¬
ing a duty of 3d. per pound upon all teas im¬
ported into America, the colonists, consider¬
ing this as a grievance, deny the right of the
British parliament to tax them.
The American colonies send deputies to Phila¬
delphia, who assume the title of The Congress
of the Thirteen United Provinces, and all the
powers of government.
1775 The American war commences. Action at
Bunker’s Hill, June 7;
The Spaniards land near Algiei*s, and are de¬
feated, July 8.
1776 The congress declare the United States of A-
merica independent of the crown and parlia¬
ment of Great Britain.
The Americans receive a dreadful, defeat at
Long Island, Aug. 27.
1777 Philadelphia taken by the British, Oct. 3.
General Burgoyne with his army surrenders to,
the Americans.
1778 A most extraordinary eruption of Vesuvius, Au¬
gust 8.
The siege of Gibraltar begun by the Spaniards,
July 8.
1780;,
126
CHRONOLOGY.
1780 Jan. 14th, 6h. A. M. the thermometer suspend¬
ed in the open air at Glasgow, stood at 46°
below o.
The Spanish fleet defeated by Admiral Rodney,
Jan. 16th.
Charlestown surrendered to the British, May 12th.
A dreadful insurrection in London, and riots in
many other places of the kingdom.
A great number of British ships taken by the
combined fleets of France and Spain.
Lord Cornwallis defeats the Americans at Cam¬
den.
A dreadful hurricane in the Leeward islands,
Oct. 9.
An extraordinary storm of wind in England.
War declared against the Dutch, Dec. 20.
1781 A terrible engagement between the Dutch and
British fleets near the Dogger bank, August
5tL
Lord Cornwallis with his army surrenders to the
united forces of France and America, Oct.
18th.
1782 Minorca surrendered to the Spaniards, February
4th.
The French fleet under De Grasse defeated and
almost destroyed by Admiral Rodney, April
12th.
The Spanish floating batteries before Gibraltar
entirely destroyed, Sept. 12.
1783 Preliminaries of a general peace signed. Ame¬
rica declared independent, Jan. 20th.
A dreadful earthquake, attended with many
extraordinary circumstances, in Italy and Si¬
cily.
The sun obscured by a kind of fog during the
whole summer.
A volcanic eruption in Iceland surpassing any
thing recorded in history. The lava spouted
up in three places to a great height in the air,
and continued flowing for two months j during
which time it covered a tract of ground to a
great extent, and in some places more than
100 feet deep.
A large meteor appears to the northward of
Shetland, and takes its direction southward,
with a velocity little inferior to that of the
earth in its annual course round the sun. Its
track observed for more than 1000 miles.
>u Algiers bombarded by the Spaniards.
A great tumult at Philadelphia between the in¬
habitants and French soldiery.
An extraordinary aurora borealis seen at London.
Bednore taken by the English.
Magazine at Bencoolen blown up.
Bottles made of the lava of volcanoes.
Byrne, the Irish giant, eight feet four inches,
dies by intemperance.
Famine in the Carnatic.
Charles Gustavus prince of Sweden dies.
A father kills three of his children with the
thigh bone of a horse, after hearing a sermon
on the happiness of those who die young.
Sir Eyre Coote defeats Hyder Ally.
Cremnitz in Hungary destroyed by lightning.
Dartmouth East Indiaman lost.
1783 Definitive treaties between Britain and France, 4fter
Spain and America, concluded. Chnst.
The East India house robbed. I'~"—
Thanks to General Elliot voted by the house of
commons.
Embargo on salt in Ireland taken olf.
A forest in Poland suddenly disappears.
Island of Formosa destroyed by an earthquake.
Gold and silver lace prohibited in Denmark.
A conspiracy against the Grand Signior disco¬
vered.
Grosvenor Indiaman lost.
Mangalore surrenders to the British.
Five meteors or fire-balls seen at different places
in England.
Serious mutinies at Portsmouth, Jersey, Guern¬
sey, Dublin, &c.
A plague breaks out at Constantinople.
Powder mills at Ewell blown up.
A man in Moscow has 84 children alive out of
87 by three wives.
Queen Charlotte delivered of a princess.
1784 General Cornwallis made constable of the
Tower.
Sluices at Lillo opened by the Dutch.
Great earthquakes in Iceland, Grenoble, &c.
Fort Frederic at Grenada blown up.
Commodore Lindsay visited by the king and
queen of Naples.
Pennsylvania in extreme distress.
A general thanksgiving for peace with Ame¬
rica, &c.
Allan Ramsay, Esq. son of the celebrated poet
of the same name, dies at Dover.
St Augustine in I lorida declared a free port.
A gang of desperate robbers apprehended at
Glasgow.
A volcano discovered in the moon.
1785 Melancholy fate of two aeronauts.
A singular calamity at Barbadoes, by the sink¬
ing of the surface in different places.
A new comet discovered.
The queen of France is delivered of a son.
A remarkable accident happens at the court of
king’s bench.
A dreadful inundation happens at Vienna in
Germany. ,
1786 The Halsewell East Indiaman struck on the
rocks of Purbeck, and about 100 of the crew
perished, Jan. 6th.
Joiner’s works performed by a blind man in such
a masterly manner as to astonish the ablest
judges, at Hermanstadt in Transilvania.
The king of Prussia makes a handsome provision
during life for the widow and children of Co¬
lonel Vantroscke, a deserving officer. April.
The west tower of Hereford church, 125 feet
high, built in the 12th century, fell down on
the evening of 17th April, but none of the
people then in the church-yard received any
injury.
M. Blanchard ascends in a balloon 96 miles in
as many minutes. Writes a letter in the air,
dated April 18th, to the editors of the Paris
Journal.
1
1786
C H R O N
After 1^86 To the number of 6398 boys and girls clothed,
Christ. educated, and supported by voluntary contri-
■*~v " ‘ butions, assemble under the dome of St Paul’s
cathedral.
A small prayer-book composed by Queen Eli¬
zabeth, and in her own hand-writing, sold in
London for 100 guineas, June 7th.
The prince of Wales orders his whole stud to be
disposed of by auction, to enable him to liqui¬
date his debts.
1787 The king of Prussia establishes a court of ho¬
nour for the purpose of suppressing duelling.
A meeting of notables convened by the king
of France for reforming abuses relating to the
subject of finance, January 10th.
Two ships sailed from Gravesend with black
people on board, for a new settlement at Sier¬
ra Leone, January 9th. *
The king of Poland has an interview with her
Imperial majesty at Kiow, March 7th.
Nine ships sailed for Botany Bay from Spithead
with convicts, 2ist.
A motion in parliament for repealing the test
and corporation acts, 28.
M. de Calonne is dismissed from cffice, April 10th.
Mr Hastings impeached at the bar of the house
of lords, May 10th.
..  — petitions to be admitted to bail, 22d.
The sum of i6i,oool. voted for the liquidation
of the prince of Wales’s debts, 24th.
The Hartwell East Indiaman lost off the island
of Bona Vista, 24th.
Two satellites belonging to Georgium Sidus dis¬
covered by Dr Herschel, June 7th.
The Russian ambassador at Constantinople im¬
prisoned, August 16th.
The Prussian troops under the duke of Bruns¬
wick take possession of Utrecht, Sept. 17th.
Twenty-three sail of the line put into commis¬
sion, and seventeen new admirals appointed,
Sept. 24th.
The Prussians gain possession of Amsterdam,
October nth.
A most remarkable aurora borealis appears, 13th.
Lord George Gordon apprehended and com¬
mitted to Newgate, December 7th.
1788 Died at Bryngwyn in Radnorshire six persons
during the month of January, whose united
ages made up 644 years.
A new copper coinage of halfpence begins to
circulate in Britain, July 19th.
W illiam Brodie and George Smith tried for break¬
ing into the General excise office for Scotland,
and sentenced to be executed, September 1st.
A dreadful hurricane at Martinico laid many pa¬
rishes waste, and deprived multitudes of their
existence, August 14th.
The king of France abolished the torture, and
ordained that every accused person shall have
counsel immediately assigned him, October
18th. He ordered also, that a majority of one
may acquit the accused, while three are re¬
quired to condemn.
An iron barge built by John Wilkison, Esq.
at W;ilby wharf Shrewsbury, was launched,
O L O G Y. 127
drawing only eight inches water, and moving After
very easily on that element, November 7th. Christ.
His Britannic majesty is seized with a severe in- "Y”—
disposition, October 17th.
A new comet in tbe constellation of Ursa Ma¬
jor, discovered by M. Messier astronomer at
Paris, November 26th.
1789 Coins bearing date 1057 were found beneath
the foundation of the old market-house at Farn-
ham.
Another satellite discovered by Dr Herschel be-
longing to Saturn.
Earthquake at Comrie, November 3d.
Foundation stone of that magnificent structure
the university of Edinburgh, laid by the Right
Honourable Francis Lord Napier, grand mas¬
ter-mason of Scotland, November 16th.
Phipps (father and son) hanged for forgery,
September 5th.
Revolution of France is begun and gradually
advanced.
General Washington makes a splendid entrance
into the city of Philadelphia, where a sump¬
tuous entertainment is provided for him by
the joyful citizens, April 22d.
‘ An excellent and cheap dye invented in Germany.
Dr Withers sentenced to 12 months imprison¬
ment, to pay a fine of 50I. and to find secu¬
rity for five years, himself in 500I. and two
others in 250I. each for defaming the charac¬
ter of Mrs Fitzherbert, November 2ist.
The sum of 261I. 3s. voted to Brook Watson,
Esq. to defray the expences of a new invent¬
ed method of cultivating hemp, December
14th.
1790 Exile of the duke de Orleans.
Bed of justice instituted in France.
Calamitous state of affairs in that country.
The archbishop of Toulouse dismissed from of¬
fice.
A convention signed at the Escurial between his
Britannic majesty and the king of Spain, Oc¬
tober 28th.
A memorial of the court of Spain delivered t»:
Mr Fitzherbert, June 13th.
M. Montmorin’s letter to the national assembly
of France.
Louis XVI. delivers a speech to the national
assembly.
A blackbird’s nest with four eggs found Decem¬
ber 25th, near Nuneham in Oxfordshire.
1791 Serious riots at Paris.
The Tiers Etat constitute themselves a national
assembly.
Paris is surrounded by the military at the desire
of the king.
Prisons set open by the mob, and a great famine
in Paris, whether real or artificial is involved
in obscurity.
M. Necker is dismissed from office, and the Ba-
stile demolished.
M. La Fayette appointed commander in chief
of the national guard.
M. Necker is recalled with every demonstration
of joy.
1791
128 C H R O N
After 1791 A most horrid insurrection takes place on th«
Christ, 5th of October.
,J'|ie royal family comes from Versailles to Paris.
The abolition of orders decreed by the assembly.
The island of Corsica united to France.
The unpopular and oppressive tax on salt abo¬
lished.
M. Necker again resigns, about which time a
riot breaks out at Paris, and a serious mutiny
in the harbour of Brest.
Foreign powers combine against France.
The king of France flies, is apprehended, and
returns.
The city of Paris put under martial law.
The Netherlands revolt from Germany.
Peace is concluded between Austria and Prussia,
and between Prussia and Sweden.
The grand vizier is disgraced, and dies.
A peace concluded between Russia and Constan¬
tinople.
A convention is entered into with Spain relative
to Nootka Sound.
War carried on in India with Tippoo Saib.
The British parliament is dissolved, and the new
parliament is soon after opened by a speech
from the throne.
A bill is presented in the British parliament for
the relief of Protestant Catholics.
The French constitution settled by the assem¬
bly, and presented to the king, September
3d*
Accepted of by the king, 13th.
1792 Washington’s speech to both houses of congress,
October 25th.
A treaty between Britain and Prussia relative to
the marriage of the duke of York with Fre¬
derica Charlotte.
Gustavus III. of Sweden is assassinated by An-
karstrom.
General Dillon is inhumanly murdered by his
own soldiers.
M. Rochambeau resigns the command of the
French army in the north, and is succeeded
by M. Luckner.
Horrible outrages are committed in Paris on the
20th June.
The French arms are victorious in the Nether¬
lands.
A petition is presented to the assembly, praying
for the deposition of Louis XVI,
The palace is abandoned by the royal family of
France, and attacked by the federates, at
which time the Swiss guards are massacred.
Louis is deposed, and he and his family impri¬
soned.
War proclaimed by the assembly of France
against the king of Hungary and Bohemia,
April 20th.
The king of the French writes a confidential
letter to the king of Great Britain.
A manifesto against the French revolution by
the emperor of Germany and the king of
Prussia.
The French national assembly proceeds to the
trial of the king. He is condemned and exe-
3
O L O G Y.
cuted, Jan. 21. after which M. Chauvclin is 'After
dismissed from London. Christ.
Dumourier arrests the commissioners sent to ‘ v“-
bring him to the bar of the convention, and
sends them as prisoners to the Austrians. He
finally abandons the cause of France as hope¬
less and desperate. He is succeeded by Ge¬
neral Dampier.
The Brissotine party is denounced by the people
of Paris.
Marat is committed to the abbey, but soon re¬
leased, and assassinated at last by a female from
Normandy.
An expedition is undertaken against Dunkirk,
which is rendered abortive.
General Custine, the queen, the deputies of the
Gironde, Manuel, Houchard, Bailly, Bar-
nave, Rabaut, the duke of Orleans and Ma¬
dame Roland, are condemned and executed.
Earl Moira makes an unsuccessful descent on
the coast of France.
Toulon surrenders to the British, but is retaken
by the French.
1794 Earl Stanhope moves that the French republic
be acknowledged by Britain.
Mr Adam proposes to amend the criminal law
of Scotland, which gives rise to interesting
debates.
The first reading of a bill for suspending the Ha¬
beas Corpus act is protested against. May 22.
Protest against the vote of thanks to Lord Hood,
June 17.
The king of Prussia withdraws from the coali¬
tion.
A bill is brought into parliament for the aboli¬
tion of the slave-trade, and rejected by the
lords.
General Fitzpatrick moves for an inquiry into
the reasons of M. la Fayette’s imprisonment.
A motion for peace with France is made by the
duke of Bedford and Mr Fox.
Thanks are voted by both houses to Lord Howe,
Sir Charles Grey, and Sir John Jervis.
That valuable instrument the telegraph is invent¬
ed by the French.
The bold eloquence of Billaud Varennes, and
Tallien, opens the eyes of France respecting
the ambitious views of that sanguinary mon¬
ster Maximilian Robespierre, who is condemn¬
ed and executed (28th June), with about 20
of his diabolical coadjutors.
General Clairfait is defeated, and Louvain and
Namur are taken by the French.
A treaty is entered into between Sweden and
Denmark, and neutral powers oblige Britain
to indemnify them for their losses.
1795 La Pique of 38 guns captured by Vice-admiral
Caldwell, Jan. 4.
Admiral Hothman captures two French ships,
Ca-ira of 80, and the Censeur of 74 guns,
March 16.
Warren Hastings acquitted of the serious char¬
ges preferred against him, by a majority of
the house of peers, April 25.
The Boyne of 98 guns is blown up at Spithead,
but
CHRONOLOGY.
but not so much damage done to jkdjacent ves¬
sels as there was reason to dread, all her guns
being loaded, May 4.
Captain Anthony James Pye Molloy dismissed
from the command of the Caesar of 74 guns,
for neglect of duty.
Some ships of war belonging to the French taken
by the fleet under the command of Admiral
Bridport, 23d June.
Leopold brother to the emperor of Germany
-died August 10.
La Minerve of 42 guns captured by Captain
Towry, June 24.
The beautiful church of St Paul’s, Covent-gar¬
den, totally consumed by fire, Sept. 19.
A shock of an earthquake felt through most of
the town of Birmingham, Nov. 23.
1796 A stone was thrown at his Britannic majesty’s
carriage on his way from Pall-mall to Buck¬
ingham-house, which broke a window and
greatly alarmed Lady Harrington, Feb. 1.
A reward of 1000I. was offered for the ap¬
prehension of the criminal, but without ef¬
fect.
Admiral Cornwallis is tried on board the Orion,
for acting contrary to orders received from the
admiralty, and acquitted, April 17.
Sir Sidney Smith taken by the French at Havre,
April.
L’Unite, a French frigate of 38 guns, taken by
Captain Cole, and La Virginie of 44 by Sir
Edward Pellew, April 13. and'20.
Crossfield, for attempting to assassinate his maje¬
sty, was tried and acquitted, May 20.
Two houses fell down in Glare-market, in the
ruins of which 17 persons were unfortunately
buried, June 27.
The Amphion frigate of 32 guns blown up at
Plymouth, when about 260 lives were lost,
Sept. 22.
The empress Catharine II. of Bussia died at her
palace of an apoplectic fit, Nov. 17.
1797 Part of a French fleet came to anchor in Bantry
bay, having on board an army of 25,000 men,
under the command of General Hoche $ but
afterwards weighed and stood out to sea, Ja¬
nuary 2.
The steeple of a church near Norwich fell down
while the bell was ringing for public worship,
Jan. 8.
The city of Savannah nearly consumed to ashes
by fire.
Sir John Jervis, with a fleet of 15 sail, engages
a Spanish fleet of 27 sail of the line, which he
defeats, taking the Salvador del Mundo and
San Josef of n 2 guns each, the San Nicolas
of 80 and San Ysidro of 74 guns, February
M;
The island of Trinidad surrenders to the British
forces under the command of Sir Ralph Aber¬
crombie.
Alarming symptoms of a mutiny appear among
the seamen of the British fleet, May 7.
The nuptial ceremonies are solemnized between
Vol. VI. Part I.
I29
the prince of Wirtemberg Stutgard and Char- After
lotte Augusta Matilda, eldest daughter of his Christ.
Britannic majesty George III. May 18. ^
Lord Malmsbury appointed minister plenipoten¬
tiary from the court of Britain to France for
negotiating a treaty of peace, July 1.
About 30 French war vessels of different dimen¬
sions taken or destroyed by the squadron under
Sir J. B. Warren, between 17th July and 6th
of September.
A desperate engagement off Camperdown be¬
tween Admirals Duncan and De Winter, when
the latter is totally defeated by the former, with
the loss of 11 ships.
1798 A powder-mill belonging to Mr Harvey is blown
up, which demolishes several adjacent build¬
ings, and kills three of the workmen, April
25.
L’Hercule a French ship of 74 guns, captured
by the Mars, April 21.
Rebels in the Curragh of Kildare, Ireland, lay
down their arms, May 29.
Wexford rebels defeated with great loss and
slaughter, June 10.
Proposals of the Irish rebels rejected by General
Lake, June 22.
The Princess Amelia East Indiaman accidentally
burnt on the coast of Malabar, and 40 of her
crew perished, April 5.
An engagement at Castlebar between General
Lake and a party of French landed in Ireland,
August 27.
A dreadful engagement between the British fleet
under the command of Sir Horatio Nelson,
and the French fleet commanded by Admiral
Bruys, off the mouth of the Nile, when nine
sail of the line belonging to the French were
taken, three burnt, one sunk, and four escaped,
Aug. 1.
The yellow-fever, which carried off 3000 people
in New-York, in a few months, happily ceased
to rage, Nov. 15.
1799 A dreadful shock of an earthquake was felt at
Guernsey on the night of the 6th.
A desperate battle fought between the Arch¬
duke Charles and General Jourdan at Stockash,
March 25.
Three frigates captured by the Centaur, J. Wood
commander, June 19.
Mantua surrenders to the Austrians, June 30.
The British forces destined to invade Holland
begin to disembark, 27th August.
Seven ships of war, and 13 Indiamen and trans¬
ports, taken in the Nieuve Diep by Admiral
Mitchell, August 27.
Seringapatam surrenders to the British forces,
when Tippoo Sultan is slain, 4th May.
British and Russian forces obliged to evacuate
Holland, November.
1800 A convention between the ambassadors of the
Ottoman Porte and General Desaix, signed at
El Arisch, 24th January, by which the French
troops were permitted to return to their own
country.
R His
\
130
CHRONOLOGY.
His Britannic majesty shot at in the theatre,
May 16th, by a maniac of the name of Had-
field.
The Queen Charlotte of 100 guns is burnt off
Leghorn, and the gallant crew perish, 17th
March.
The French ship of war Guillaume Tell of 86
guns and 1000 men surrenders to the Lion,
Penelope, and Foudroyant, March 30.
Unsuccessful expedition against Ferrol, August.
His Britannic majesty’s ship Marlborough of 74
guns, was completely wrecked oft’ Belleisle,
4th November.
1801 An embargo laid on all Russian, Danish, and
Swedish vessels in the ports of Great Britain,
14th January.
The united parliament of Great Britain and Ire¬
land met for the first time, January 22.
The Invincible of 74 guns ran aground on the
coast of Norfolk, and was totally lost, when
about 400 souls perished, March.
A dreadful engagement off’ Copenhagen, be¬
tween the Danish line and the British fleet
under Admiral Parker j in which 943 of the
British were killed and wounded, April 2.
Aboukir surrenders to the British under the com¬
mand of Sir Ralph Abercrombie, who receiv¬
ed a mortal wound on the 21st March, of
which that great officer died on the 28th.
In an engagement between a French and British
squadron in the bay of Algeziras, the Hanni¬
bal unfortunately fell into the hands of the
enemy by taking the ground. The British
squadron rendered useless two of 84, one of
74 guns, and a large frigate, July 5.
A cessation of arms by sea and land between
Britain and the French republic, resulting from
the signing of preliminaries of peace by Lord
Hawkesbury, and M. Otto, October 1.
Alexandria surrenders to General Hutchinson
on the 2d September.
The Swiftsure captured by Admiral Gantheaume,
who treated the crew with the utmost huma¬
nity and tenderness.
1802 Mr Moore arrived with the definitive treaty of
peace signed at Amiens on the 27th March,
at four in the afternoon.
A dreadful fire broke out (May 13.) in the town
of Bedford, which destroyed 72 houses, and
deprived about 700 persons of their all.
A decision obliging booksellers to publish no
books without the name of the printer at the
beginning and end of them, was ratified, 20th
October.
1803 A serious rebellion suppressed in China, occa¬
sioned by the efforts of Ong Fong, a daring
chief, at the head of 50,000 men.
1804 Active measures taken in Dublin to secure the
country against invasion.
Duke D’Enghien and other emigrants seized,
sent to France, and executed, March 15.
Mr Addington’s administration dissolved, and a
new ministry appointed, with Mr Pitt at its
head.
Coronation of Bonaparte as emperor of France.
1805 Impeachment of Lord Melville, June 26.
Bonaparte crowned king of Italy.
Capitulation of General Mack, Oct. 20. ^
Austrians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz,
December 2.
The combined French and Spanish fleets defeat¬
ed by the British fleet under Lord Nelson at
Trafalgar, Oct. 21.
1806 Death of Mr Pitt, January 23.
Acquittal of Lord Melville, June 12.
The Prussians defeated by the French at Jena,
October 14.
The Cape of Good Hope taken from the Dutch
by the British, January 9.
Buenos Ayres taken by Sir Home Popham,
27th June.
Death of Mr Fox, September 7.
1807 Dissolution of the Whig ministry, duke of Port¬
land appointed first lord of the treasury, 25th
March.
Battle of Eylau between the Russians and the
French, February 7.
Siege of Copenhagen and surrender of the Danish
fleet, September 5.
Portuguese court sail for the Brazils, and the
French occupy Portugal, November 29.
Local militia established in Britain, April.
1808 Ferdinand signs a forced renunciation of the
Spanish crown at Bayonne, May 5.
1809 French defeated at Vimiera, August 21.
Colonel Wardle brings charges of mismanaging
the army against the duke of York, January
27.
.trench defeated at Talavera, July 27.
Austria declares war against France, April 6.
Battle of Aspern between the Austrians and
French, May 21.
Austrians defeated at Wagram, July 6.
Peace signed between France and Austria, Octo¬
ber 15.
King of Sweden deposed, March 13.
The Walcheren expedition sails, July 28.
Mr Maddison succeeds Mr Jefferson as president
of the United States, March.
Duel between Lord Castlereagh and Mr Canning,
September 22.
Marriage of Bonaparte with the archduchess
Maria Louisa, March II.
In the course of this year revolutionary movements
began in the Caraccas, and in the other Spa¬
nish American colonies.
George the Third affected by a mental disease,
November 1.
1811 French defeated by the British at Barrosa,
March 5.
Batavia taken by the British, August 26.
1812 United States declare war against Britain, June
12.
French defeated at Salamanca, July 22.
Russians defeated by the French at Smolensk,
August 16.
Russians defeated again at Moskwa, Sept. 7.
Napoleon quitted Moscow, October 19.
1813 French defeated at Vittoria, June 20.
   "■ii " defeated at Leipsic, October 16. *
1814
After.
Cl] list.
CHRONOLOGY.
After
Cliriit.j
1814 The allied sovereigns enter Paris, March 31.
General peace concluded, 30th May.
Peace concluded between the United States and
Great Britain, 24th December.
1815 Bonaparte lands in France from Elba, March 1.
The French defeated by the British and Prus¬
sians at Wateidoo, June 18.
1816 The fortifications of Algiers destroyed by a Bri¬
tish squadron under the command of Lord Ex¬
mouth, August 28.
1817 Death of the Princess Charlotte of Wales, No¬
vember 6.
1818 Evacuation of France by the foreign troops, No¬
vember 4.
Death of her majesty Queen Charlotte, Nov. 7.
1820 Death of George the Third, January 29.
A revolution eflected in the Spanish government
by the army, March 27.
A revolution effected in Naples, July 10.
A revolution effected in Portugal, October 1.
I
I
After
Christ.
€ H R
Chronome- CHRONOMETER, in general, denotes any in¬
ter. strument or machine used in measuring time ; such are
» dials, clocks, watches, &c. See Dial, &c.
The term chronometer, however, is generally used
in a more limited sense, for a kind of clock so contri¬
ved as to measure a small portion of time with great ex¬
actness, even to the sixteenth part of a second. Of such
a one there is a description in Desagulier’s experimental
philosophy, invented by the late ingenious Mr George
Graham 5 which must be allowed to be of great use for
measuring small portions of time in astronomical obser¬
vations, the time of the fall of bodies, the velocity of
running waters,*&c. But long spaces of time cannot
be measured by it with sufficient exactness, unless its
pendulum be made to vibrate in a cycloid 5 because
otherwise it is liable to err considerably, as all clocks
are which have short pendulums that swing in large
arches of a circle.
There have been several machines contrived for mea¬
suring time, under the name of chronometers, upon
principles very different from those on which clocks and
watches are constructed. *
Plate CXXXVII. Vol. V. fig. 1. represents an air-
chronometer, which is constructed in the following man¬
ner : Provide a glass tube of about an inch in diame¬
ter, and three or four feet long: the diameter of the
inside of this tube must be precisely equal in every part:
at the bottom must be a small hole, closely covered with
a valve. In the tube place a piston, E, fig. 2. which
is made to fit it exactly, and must be oiled, that it may
move in the tube with the greatest freedom j in this
piston there is a cock that shuts quite close ; and from
the top of it there goes a cord F, which passes through
the handle G. The cock of the piston being closed,
it is to be let down to the bottom of the tube, and be¬
ing then drawn up to the top the air will then rush in
by the valve at the bottom of the tube, and support the
piston. You are then to turn the cock, so as to make
a very small vent j and the air passing slowly through
that vent, the piston will gradually descend and show
the hour, either by lines cut in the tube with a dia¬
mond, or marked with paint, or by small slips of pa¬
per painted on the glass. If this chronometer should
go too fast or too slow, it may be easily regulated by
altering the position of the cock in the piston, as it is
on that the whole depends.
If, instead of marking the tube, you would have
the time shown by a dial, it may be easily effected by
placing an axis, to which the hand of the dial is fixed
directly over the tube, and winding the string to
C H R
which the piston is joined round that axis ; for then, as Chronome-
the piston descends, the axis will gradually turn the , ter‘
hand, and show the hour j but it must be observed, that v
as the descent of the piston is not constantly regular, on
account of the decrease of resistance from the quantity
of the subjacent air as the piston descends, the axis
therefore must not be a regular cylinder, but conical
like the fusee of a watch, as in fig. 3. by which means
the motion of the hand of the dial will be constant and
regular.
Fig. 4. represents a lamp-chronometer. It consists
of a chamber lamp A, which is a cylindrical vessel
about three inches high, and one inch diameter, placed
in the stand B. The inside of this vessel must be every¬
where exactly of the same diameter. To the stand
B is fixed the handle C, which supports the frame
DEFG, about 12 inches high, and four wide. This
frame is to be covered with oiled paper, and divided
into twelve equal parts by horizontal lines \ at the
end of which are wrote the numbers for the hours,
from 1 to 12, and between the horizontal lines are
diagonals that are divided into halves, quarters, &c.
On the handle B, and close to the glass, is fixed the
style or gnomon H. Now, as the distance of the style
from the flame of the lamp is only half an inch, if the
distance of the frame from the style is only six inches,
then, while the float that contains the light descends by
the decrease of the oil one inch, the shadow of the style
on the frame will ascend 12 inches, that is, its whole
length, and show by its progression, the regular increase
of the hours, with their several divisions. It is abso¬
lute y necessary, however, that the oil used in this lamp
be always of the same sort and quite pure, and that the
wick also be constantly of the same size and substance,
as it is on these circnmstances, and the uniform figure
of the vessel, that the regular progress of the shadow
depends.
Chronometer, among musicians, an instrument
invented by Lonlie, a French musician, for the pur¬
pose of measuring time by means of a pendulum. The
form of the instrument, as described by him, is that of
an Ionic pilaster, and is thus described by Malcolm in
his Treatise of Music, p. 407.—“ The chronometer
consists of a large ruler or board, six feet or 72 inches
long, to be set on end j it is divided into its inches,
and the numbers set so as to count upwards ; and at
every division there is a small round hole, through
whose centre the line of division runs. At the top of
this ruler, about an inch above the division 72, and
perpendicular to the ruler, is inserted a small piece of
R 2 wood,
C H R
[ 132 ]
C H R
Chronome¬
ter
n
Chrysalis.
wood, in the tipper side of which there is a groove,
hollowed along from the end that stands out to that
which is fixed in the ruler, and near each end of it a
hole is made: through these holes a pendulum cord is
drawn, which runs in the groove : at that end of the
cord which comes through the hole farthest from the
ruler, the ball is hung: and at the other end there is
a small wooden pin, which can be put in any of the
holes of the ruler: when the pin is in the uppermost hole
at 72, then the pendulum from the top to the centre
of the ball must be exactly 72 inches ; and therefore,
whatever hole of the ruler it is put in, the pendulum
will be just so many inches as that figure at the hole
denotes. The manner of using the machine is this:
The composer lengthens or shortens his pendulum, till
one vibration be equal to the designed length of his
bar, and then the pin stands at a certain division,
which marks the length of the pendulum j and this
number being set with the cliff at the beginning of
the song, is a direction for others how to use the
chronometer in measuring the time according to the
composer’s design: for with the number is set the
note, crotchet, or minim, whose value he would have
the vibration to be; which in brisk duple time is best,
a minim or half bar; or even a whole bar, when that
is but a minim ; and in slow time a crotchet. In
triple time, it would do well to be the third part, or
half, or fourth part of a bar ; and in the simple triples
that are allegro, let it be a whole bar. And if, in
every time that is allegro, the vibration is applied to
a whole or half bar, practice will teach us to subdi¬
vide it justly and equally. Observe, that, to make
this machine of universal use, some canonical measure
of the divisions must be agreed upon, that the figure
may give a certain direction for the length of the pen¬
dulum.
CHROSTASIMA, in Natural History, a genus of
pellucid gems, comprehending all those which appear
of one simple and permanent colour in all lights ; such
are the diamond, carbuncle, ruby, garnet, amethyst,
sapphire, beryl, emerald, and the topaz. See Dia¬
mond, Carbuncle, &c.
CHRYSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mysia,
on the sinus Adramyttenus ; extinct in Pliny’s time : it
had a temple of Apollo Smintheus, (Homer, Strabo).
The country of the fair Chryseis, who gave first rise to
the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles.
CHRYSALIS, or Aurelia, in Natural History, a
state of rest and seeming insensibility, which butterflies,
moths, and several others kinds of insects, must pass
through, before they arrive at their winged or most
perfect state.
In this state, no creatures afford so beautiful a va¬
riety as the butterfly kinds, and they all pass through
this middle state without one exception. The figure
of the aurelia or chrysalis generally approaches to that
of a cone ; or at least the hinder part of it is in this
shape ; and the creature, while in this state, seems to
have neither legs nor wings, nor to have any power of
walking. It seems indeed to have hardly so much as
life. It takes no nourishment in this state, nor has it any
organs for taking any ; and indeed its posterior part is
all that seems animated, this having a power of giving
itself some motions. The external covering of the
chrysalis is cartilaginous, and considerably large, and is
usually smooth and glossy : but some few of them have Chrysalis,
a few hairs ; some are also as hairy as the caterpillars ' t
from which they are produced ; and others are rough,
and, as it were, shagreened all over.
In all these there may be distinguished two sides ;
the one of which is the back, the other the belly, of
the animal. On the anterior part of the latter, there
may always be distinguished certain little elevations
running in ridges, and resembling the fillets wmund
about mummies : the part whence these have their ori¬
gin, is esteemed the head of the animal. The other
side, or back, is smooth, and of a rounded figure in
most of the chrysalises ; but some have ridges on the
anterior part, and sides of this part; and these usually
terminate in a point, and make an angular appearance
on the chrysalis.
Prom this difference is drawn the first general dis¬
tinction of these bodies. They are by this divided in¬
to two classes ; the round and the angular kinds. The
first are, by the French naturalists, called feves ; from
the common custom of calling the chrysalis of the silk-
wmrm, which is round, by this name.
There is something more regular in this distinction
than might at first be conceived ; for the division is
continued from the fly-state : the rounded chrysalises
being almost all produced by the phalence or moths ;
and the angular ones by the papilios, or day-flies.
There are several subordinate distinctions of these
kinds ; but, in general, they are less different from one
another than the caterpillars from whence they are
produced.
The head of those of the first class usually termi¬
nates itself by two angular parts, which stand separate
one from the other, and resemble a pair of horns. On
the back, eminences and marks are discovered, which
imagination may form into eyes, nose, chin, and other
parts of the human face.
There is a great variety and a great deal of beauty
in the figures and arrangement of the eminences amt
spots on the other parts of the body of the chrysalises of
difi'erent kinds. It is a general observation that those
chrysalises which are terminated by a single horn, af¬
ford day-butterflies of the kind of those which have
buttoned antennae, and whose wings, in a state of rest,
cover the under part of their body, and which use all
their six legs in walking, those of many other kinds
using only four of them. Those chrysalises which are
terminated by two angular bodies, and which are co¬
vered with a great number of spines, and have the fi¬
gure of a human face on their back in the greatest
perfection, afford butterflies of the day kind ; and of
that class the characters of which are, their walking
on four legs, and using the other tivo, that is, the an¬
terior part, in the manner of arms or hands. The
chrysalises which have two. angular bodies on their
heads, but shorter than those of the preceding, and
whose back shows but a faint sketch of the human face*
and which have fewer spines, and those less sharp,
always turn to that sort of butterfly, the upper wings
of which are divided into segments, one of which is
so long as to represent a tail, and whose under vrings
are folded over the upper part of the back. A careful
observation will establish many more rules of this kind,,
which are not so perfect as to be free from all excep¬
tions ; yet are of great use, as they teach us in gene¬
ral
C H R
[
ral what sort of fly we are to expect from the chrysalis,
of which we know not the caterpillar, and therefore
can only judge from appearances.
These are the principal differences of the angular
chrysalises} the round ones also have their different
marks not less regular than those.
The greater number of the round chrysalises have
the hinder part of their body of the figure of a cone j
but the upper end, which ought to be its circular plane
base, is usually bent and rounded into a sort of knee :
this is usually called the head of the chrysalis j but
there are also some of this kind, the head of which is
terminated by a nearly plane surface $ some of the
creeping ten-legged caterpillars give chrysalises of this
kind, which have each of them two eminences that
seem to bring them towards the angular kind.
Among the angular chrysalises there are some whose
colours seem as worthy our observation as the shapes
of the others. Many of them appear superbly clothed
in gold. These elegant species have obtained the
name of chrysalis and aurelia, which are derived from
Greek and Latin words, signifying gold ; and from
these all other bodies of the same kind have been cal¬
led by the same names, though less, or not at all, en¬
titled to them. As some kinds are thus gilded all
over, so others are ornamented with this gay appear¬
ance in a more sparing manner, having only a few
spots of it in different places on their back and belly.
These obvious marks, however, are not to be de¬
pended upon as certain characters of distinction 5 for
accidents in the formation of the chrysalis may alter
them; and those which naturally would have been
gilded all over, may be sometimes only so in part;
and either these or the others may, by accident, be so
formed, as to show nothing of this kind at all, but be
only of a dusky brown. Those, however, which have
neither silver nor gold to recommend them to your
eyes, do not want other colours, and those beautifully
variegated. Some of them are all over of an elegant
green, as in the chrysalis of the fennel caterpillar j
others of an elegant yellow; and some of a bright
greenish tinge, variegated with spots of a shining
black *, we have a very beautiful instance of this last
kind in the chrysalis of the elegant cabbage-caterpillar.
The general colour of the chrysalis of the common
buttarflies, however, is brown.
Some are also of a fine deep black •, and of these
many are so smooth and glossy, that they are equal to
the finest Indian japan. The common caterpillar of
the fig-tree gives an instance of one of these most
beautiful glossy ones; the caterpillar of the vine af¬
fords another of these fine black chrysalises.
The rounded chrysalises do not afford any thing of
that variety of colouring so remarkably beautiful in
the angular ones; they are usually of a dusky yellow,
in different shades, and are often variously spotted
with black; but these, as well as all other chrysalises
before they arrive at their fixed colour, pass through
several other temporary ones; some being of a differ¬
ent colour when first produced from the caterpillar,
from what they are a few days afterwards ; and some
varying so greatly, though only in degree, as not to
he distinguishable, even by the most conversant eye,
from what they were when first produced. The
33 ] C H R
green rough caterpillar of the cabbage has a chrysalis Chrysalis,
which is green at first; and from that gradually goes '
through all the shades of green to a faint yellow,
which is its lasting colour; and one of the oak cater¬
pillars yields a chrysalis beautifully spotted with red at
its first appearance ; but these spots change to brown
for their fixed colour: the third day from their for¬
mation usually fixes their lasting colours; and if they
are observed to turn black in any part after this time,
it is a sign that they are dead or dying.
The several species of insects, as a fly, spider, and
an ant, do not differ more evidently from one ano¬
ther in regard to appearance, than do a caterpillar,
its chrysalis, and a butterfly produced from it; yet
it is certain, that these are all the product of the same
individual egg; and nothing is more certain, than
that the creature which was for a while a caterpillar,
is, after a certain time, a chrysalis, and then a but¬
terfly. These great changes produced in so sudden a
manner, seem like the metamorphoses recorded in the
fables of the ancients; and indeed it is not improbable
that those fables first took their origin from such
changes-
The parts being distinguishable in the chrysalis, we
easily find the difference of the species of the fly that
is to proceed from it.. The naked eye shows whether
it be one of those that have, or of those that have not,
a trunk; and the assistance of a microscope shows the
antennae so distinctly, that we are able to discern whe¬
ther it belongs to the day or night class ; and often to
what genus, if not the very species : nay, in the plu¬
mose horned kinds, we may see, by the antennae,
whether a male or female phalaena is to be produced
from the chrysalis; the horns of the female being in
this state evidently narrower, and appearing less ele¬
vated above the common surface of the body, than
those of the male.
All these parts of the chrysalis, however, though
seen very distinctly, are laid close to one another, and
seem to form only one mass; each of them is covered
with its own peculiar membrane in this state, and all
are surrounded together by a common one; and it is
only through these that we see them ; or rather we
see on these the figures of all the parts moulded within,
and therefore it requires attention to distinguish them.
The chrysalis is soft when first produced, and is wet¬
ted on the front with a viscous liquor ; its skin, though
very tender at first, dries and hardens by degrees ;
but this viscous liquor, which surrounds the wings,
legs, &c. hardens almost immediately ; and in conse¬
quence fastens all those limbs, &c. into a mass, which
were before loose from one another \ this liquor, as
it hardens, loses its transparence, and becomes brown ;
so that it is only while it is yet moist that these parts
are to be seen distinct.
It is evident, from the whole, that the chrysalis is
no other than a butterfly, the parts of which are hid
under certain membranes which fasten them together;
and when the limbs are arrived at their due strength,
they become able to break through these membranes,,
and then expand and arrange themselves in their pror-
per order.
The first metamorphosis, therefore, differs, nothing
from the second, except that the butterfly comes from
C H R [ 134 ] C H R
Chrysalis, the body of the caterpillar in a weak state, with limbs
——v • ■ ■' unable to perform their offices, whereas it comes from
the chrysalis perfect.
Hist, of In. M. Reaumur has given us many curious observa-
sects, vol. 1. tioris on the structure and uses of the several cover-
p. 2.—28. jng3 tiiat attend the varieties of the caterpillar kind in
this state.
The creatures in general remain wholly immove¬
able in this state, and seem to have no business in it
but a patient attendance on the time when they are
to become butterflies •, and this is a change that can
happen to them, only as their parts, before extremely
soft and weak, are capable of hardening and becoming
firm by degrees, by the transpiration of that abundant
humidity which before kept them soft: and this is
proved by an experiment of M. Reaumur, who, inclo¬
sing some chrysalises in a glass tube, found, after some
time, a small quantity of water at the bottom of it $
which could have come there no other way, but from
the body of the inclosed animal. This transpiration
depends greatly on the temperature of the air ; it is
increased by heat, and diminished by cold j but it has
also its peculiarities in regard to the several species of
butterfly to which the chrysalis belongs.
According to these observations, the time of the
duration of the animal in the chrysalis state must be,
in different species, very different ; and there is in¬
deed this wide difference in the extremes, that some
species remain only eight days in this state, and others
eight months.
We know that the caterpillar changes its skin four
or five times during its living in that state; and that
all these skins are at first produced with it from the
egg, lying closely over one another. It parts with,
or throws off, all these one by one, as the butterfly,
which is the real animal, all this time within, grows
more and more perfect in the several first changes.
When it throws off one, it appears in another skin ex¬
actly of the same form ; but at its final change from
this appearance, that is, when it throws off the last
skin, as the creature within is now arrived at such a
degree of perfection as to need no farther taking of
nourishment, there is no farther need of teeth, or any
of the other parts of a caterpillar. The, creature, in
this last change, proceeds in the very same manner as
in all the former, the skin opening at the back, and
the animal making its way out in this shape. If a ca¬
terpillar, when about to throw off this last skin, be
thrown into spirits of wine, and left there for a few
days, the membranes within will harden, and the
creature may be afterwards carefully opened, and the
chrysalis taken out, in which the form of the tender
butterfly may be traced in all its lineaments, and its
eyes, legs, &c. evidently seen. It is not necessary,
however, to seize upon this exact time for proving
the existence of the chrysalis or butterfly in the cater¬
pillar : for if one of these animals be thrown into spi¬
rit of wine, or into vinegar, some days before that
time, and left there for the flesh to harden, it may af¬
terwards be dissected, and all the lineaments of the
butterfly traced out in it j the wings, legs, antennae, &c.
being as evident here, and as large, as in the chrysalis.
It is very plain from this, that the change of the
caterpillar into chrysalis is not the work of a moment,
but is carrying on for a long time before, even from
the very hatching of the creature from the egg. The Chmalk
parts of the butterfly, however, are not disposed ex- y--j
actly in the same manner while in the body of the ca¬
terpillar, as when left naked in the form of the chry¬
salis: for the wings are proportionally longer and
narrower, being wound up into the form of a cord j
and the antennae are rolled up on the head j the trunk
is also twisted up and laid upon the head j but this in
a very different manner from what it is in the perfect
animal, and very different from that in which it lies
within the chrysalis 5 so that the first formation of the
butterfly in the caterpillar, by time arrives at a pro¬
per change of the disposition of its parts, in order to
its being a chrysalis. The very eggs, hereafter to be
deposited by the butterfly, are also to be found, not
only in the chrysalis, but in the caterpillar itself, ar¬
ranged in their natural, regular order. They are in¬
deed in this state very small and transparent j but af¬
ter the change into the chrysalis, they have their pro¬
per colour.
As soon as the several parts of the butterfly, there¬
fore, are arrived at a state proper for being exposed
to the more open air, they are thrown out from the
body of the caterpillar surrounded only with their
membranes j and as soon as they are arrived after
this at a proper degree of strength and solidity, they
labour to break through these thinner coverings, and
to appear in their proper and natural form. The
time of their duration in this state of chrysalis is very
uncertain, some remaining in it only a few days,
others several months, and some almost a year in ap¬
pearance. But there is a fallacy in this that many are
not aware of. It is natural to think, that as soon as
the creature has inclosed itself in its shell, be that of
what matter it will, it undergoes its change into the
.chrysalis state. And this is the case with the gene¬
rality : yet there are some which are eight or nine
months in the shell before they become chrysalises, so
that their duration in the real chrysalis state is much
shorter than it naturally appears to be. M. Reaumur
carefully watched the auriculated caterpillar of the
oak in its several changes, and particularly from its
chrysalis, which is of this last kind, into the fly ; and
has given an account of the method of this, as an in¬
stance of the general course of nature in these opera¬
tions.
The membranes which envelope the creature in
this chrysalis state are at first tough and firm, and im¬
mediately touch the several parts of the inclosed ani¬
mal j but by degrees, as these parts harden, they be¬
come covered, some with hairs, and others with scales.
These, as they continue to grow, by degrees fall off
the several particular membranes which cover the
parts on which they are placed, to a greater distance,
and by degrees loosen them from the limbs. This is
one reason why those membranes dry and become
brittle.
The middle of the upper part of the CORSELET is
usually marked with a line which runs in a longitudi¬
nal direction ; and this part is always more elevated
than the rest, even in the conic kinds, which are no
otherwise angular. This line is in some very bold and
plain ; in others, it is so faint as not to be distinguish¬
able without glasses ; but it is always in the midst of that
line that the shell begins to open." The motion of the
head
C H R [ 135 ] C H R
rysalis. head of the butterfly backwards first occasions this
t -y-mmj crack j and a few repetitions of the same motion open
it the whole length of the line.
The clearing itself, however, entirely is a work
of more time in this case, than is the passing ol the
chrysalis out of the body of the caterpillar. In that
case there is a crack sufficiently large in the skin of the
back, and the whole chrysalis being loose comes out
at once. But in this case, every particular limb, and
part of the body, has its separate case 5 jind these are
almost inconceivably thin and tender, yet it is neces¬
sary that every part he drawn out of them before it
appear naked to the open air. As soon as all this is
effected, and the animal is at full liberty, it either con¬
tinues some time upon the remains of its covering, or
creeps a little way distant from it, and there rests.
The wings are what we principally admire in this crea¬
ture. These are at this time so extremely folded up,
and placed in so narrow a compass, that the creature
seems to have none at all j but they by degrees ex¬
pand and unfold themselves j and finally, in a quarter
of an hour, or half an hour at the utmost, they appear
at their full size, and in all their beauty. The man¬
ner of this sudden unfolding of the wings is this : the
small figure they make when the creature first comes
out of its membranes, does not prevent the observing
that they are at that time considerably thick. This is
owing to its being a large wing folded up in the nicest
manner, and with folds so arranged as to he by no
means sensible to the eye, for the wing is never seen
to unfold ; but, when observed in the most accurate
manner, seems to grow under the eye to this extent.
When the creature is first produced from the shell, it
is everywhere moist and tender; even its wings have
no strength or stiffness till they expand themselves;
but they then dry by degrees, and, with the other
parts, become rigid and firm. But if any accident
prevents the wings from expanding at their proper
time, that is, as soon as the creature is out of its shell,
they never afterwards are able to extend themselves $
but the creature continues to wear them in their con¬
tracted and wholly useless state ; and very often, when
the wings are in part extended before such an accident
happens, it stops them in a partial extension, and the
creature must be contented to pass its whole life with
them in that manner.
M. Reaumur has proved, that heat and cold make
great differences in the time of hatching the butterfly
from its chrysalis state : and this he particularly tried
with great accuracy and attention, by putting them in
vessels in warm rooms, and in ice-houses ; and it seem¬
ed wholly owing to the hastening or retarding the eva¬
poration of the abundant humidity of the animal in the
chrysalis state, that it sooner or later appeared in the
butterfly form. He varnished over some chrysalises,
in order to try what would be the effect of thus wholly
preventing their transpiration $ and the consequence
was, that the butterfly came forth from these two
months later than their natural time. Thus was the
duration of the animal in this state lengthened j that is,
its existence was lengthened : but without any advan¬
tage to the creature, since it was in the time of its
state of inaction, and probably of insensibility.
Though this was of no consequence, M. Reaumur
deduces a hint from it that seems to be of some use.
2
He observes, that hen’s eggs, of which we make so chrysalis
many uses, and eat in so many forms, are properly a ||
sort of chrysalis of the animal 5 their germ, after they Chrysogo-
are impregnated by the cock, containing the young , nu">~ t
animal alive j and waiting only a due degree of warmth
to be hatched, and appear in its proper form. Eggs
transpire notwithstanding the hardness of their shells;
and when they have been long kept, there is a void
found near one of their ends, between tbe shell and
the internal membrane, which is a mark of their being
stale, and is the effect of an evaporation of part of «
their humidity : and the same varnish which had been
used to the chrysalis, being tried on eggs, was found to
preserve them for two years, as fresh as if laid but the
same day, and such as the nicest palate could not di¬
stinguish from those that were so. See Eggs.
It is not yet known how much farther this useful
speculation might be carried, and whether it might
not Ive of great use even to human life, to Invent some¬
thing that should-act in the manner of this varnish, by
being rubbed over the body, as the athletce did of old,
and the savages of the West Indies do at this time,
without knowing why. But to return to the insects
which are the subjects of this article *, their third state,
that in which they are winged, is always very short,
and seems destined for no other action but the propa¬
gation of the species. See Entomology Index.
CHRYSANTHEMUM, Corn-Marygold : A
genus of the polygamia superflua order, belonging to the
syngenesia class of plants. See Botany Index.
CHRYSES, the priest of Apollo, father of Asty-
nome, called from him Chryseis. When Lyrnessus was
taken, and the spoils divided among the conquerors,
Chryseis fell to the share of Agamemnon. Chryses
upon this went to the Grecian camp to solicit his
daughter’s restoration j and when his prayers were
fruitless, he implored the aid of Apollo, who visited
the Greeks with a plague, and obliged them to restore
Chryseis.
CHRYSIPPUS, a Stoic philosopher, born at So¬
los in Cilicia, was disciple to Cleanthus, Zeno’s suc¬
cessor. He wrote many books, several of which re¬
lated to logic. None of the philosophers spoke in
stronger terms of the fatal necessity of every thing, nor
more pompously of the liberty ol man, than the Stoics,
Chrysippus in particular. He was so considerable
among them, as to establish it into a proverb, that if it
had not been for Chrysippus, the Porch had never been.
Yet the Stoics complained, as Cicero relates, that he
had collected so many arguments in favour of the scep¬
tical hypothesis, that he could not answer them him¬
self; and thus had furnished Carneades, their antago¬
nist, with weapons against them. There is an apoph¬
thegm of this philosopher preserved, which does him
honour. Being told that some persons spoke ill of him,
“ It is no matter (said he), I will live so that they
shall not be believed.
CHRYS1S, or Golden-fly. See Entomology
Index.
CHRYSITRIX. See Botany Index.
CHRYSOBOLANUS, Cocoa Plum. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CHRYSOCOMA, Goldy-locks. See Botany *
JC/iclcx *
CHRYSOGONUM. See Botany Index.
CHRYSOLARUS,
C H R [ 136 ] C H R
Chrysolarus CHRYSOLARUS, EmanuEL, one of those learn-
11 ed men in the 14th century who brought the Greek
CLrysopra- literature into the west. He was a man of rank ; and
. , descended from an ancient family, said to have removed
' T with Constantine from Rome to Byzantium. He was
sent into Europe by the emperor of the east to im¬
plore the assistance of Christian princes, Pie after¬
wards taught at Florence, Venice, Pavia, and Rome $
and died at Constantinople, in 1415, aged 47. He
wrote a Greek grammar, and some other small pieces.
CHRYSOLITE, or Yellowish-green Topaz ;
a precious stone of a grass-green colour, found in the
East Indies, Brazil, Bohemia, Saxony, Spain, in Au¬
vergne and Bourbon in France, and in Derbyshire in
England. Some are likewise found with volcanic la¬
vas, as in the Vivarais, where some large lumps have
been seen of 20 or 30 pounds weight j but it is re¬
markable, that some of these chrysolites are partly de¬
composed into an argillaceous substance. All chry¬
solites, however, are far from being of the same kind.
The oriental is the same with the peridot, and differs
only by its green hue from the sapphires, topazes, and
rubies of the same denomination. This becomes elec¬
tric by being rubbed 5 has a prismatic form of six, or
sometimes of five, striated faces j and does not lose its
colour or transparency in the fire, which the common
chrysolite often does j becoming either opaque, or
melting entirely in a strong heat. The instant it melts,
it emits a phosphoric light like the basis of alum and
gypseous spar: with borax it produces a thin colour¬
less glass. Its specific gravity is between 3.600 and
3.7005 according to Brisson it is 2.7821, or 2.6923 5
and that of the Spanish chrysolite 3.0989.
The substance of this precious stone is lamellated in
the direction of the axis of its primitive form 5 but the
chrysolite from Saxony is foliated in a perpendicular
direction to the same axis. The chrysolite uf the an¬
cients was the same gem which is now called topavs, and
the name, of itself, indicates that it ought to be so.—
Pliny says that the colour of the chrysolite is yellow
like gold.
CmiYSOLTTE-Paste, a kind of glass made in imita¬
tion of natural chrysolite, by mixing two ounces of
prepared crystal with ten ounces of red lead, adding 12
grains of crocus martis made with vinegar 5 and then
baking the whole for 24 hours, or longer, in a well
luted cucurbit.
CHRYSOMELA, a genus of insects belonging to
the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
CHRYSOPHYLLUM or Bully-tree. See Bo-
TANY Index.
CHRYSOPLENIUM. See Botany Index.
CHRYSOPRASUS, or Chrysoprasius, the 10th
of the precious stones mentioned in the Revelation, as
forming the foundation of the heavenly Jerusalem.
The chrysoprasius is by mineralogists reckoned to be a
variety of the chrysolite, and by Cronstedt called the
yellowish green and cloudy topa%. He conjectures that
it may perhaps be the substance which serves as a matrix
to the chrysolite; as those that he had seen were like
the clear-veined quartz, called in Sweden milk crystal,
which is the first degree of crystallization.
The chrysoprasus, according to M. Magellan, is of
a green colour, deeper than the chrysolite, but with a
yellowish tinge inclining to blue like the green leek.
M. Achard says that it is never found crystallized, Cbrycopra.
and that it is semi-transparent. By others it is rec- s“*
koned among the quartz, and its colour is supposed to
be owing to the mixture of cobalt, as it gives a fine ktom.
blue glass when melted with borax, or with fixed al- 1 
kali, M. Achard, however, found the glass of a deep
yellow when the fusion was made with borax 5 and
that it really contains some calx of copper instead of
cobalt. M. Dutens says, that some gold has been
found in this kind of stone 5 but this last belongs in
all probability, says M. Magellan, to another class of
substances, viz. the vitreous spars.
To the latter belongs most probably the aventurine,
whose colour is generally a yellow brown red 5 though
sometimes it inclines more to the yellow, or greenish,
than to the red. These stones are not quite transpa¬
rent : some indeed shine with such a brilliancy, as to
render them of considerable value, but they are very
rare. The common aventurine is but an artificial glass
of various colours, with which powder of gold has
been mixed 5 and these imitated aventurines so fre¬
quently excel the native ones in splendour, that the
esteem of the latter is now much lowered. With re¬
gard to the chrysoprasus, its name, from ?rg<*s-o», shows
it to be of a greenish blue colour, like the leaves of a
leek ; it only differs from the chrysolite in its bluish
hue.
CHRYSOSTOM, St John, a celebrated patri¬
arch of Constantinople, and one of the most admired
fathers of the Christian church, was born of a noble
family at Antioch, about the year 347. He studied
rhetoric under Libavius, and philosophy under Andra-
gathus, after which he spent some time in solitude in
the mountains near Antioch ; but the austerities he en¬
dured having impaired his health, he returned to An¬
tioch, where he was ordained deacon by Meletius.
Flavian, Meletius’s successor, raised him to the office
of presbyter five years after: when he distinguished
himself so greatly by his eloquence, that he obtained
the surname of Golden Mouth. Nectarius patriarch of
Constantinople dying in 397, St Chrysostom, whose
fame was spread throughout the whole empire, was
chosen in his room by the unanimous consent of both
the clergy and the people. The emperor Arcadius
confirmed this election, and caused him to leave An¬
tioch privately, where the people were very unwilling
to part with him. He was ordained bishop on the
26th of February 398 5 when he obtained an order
from the emperor against the Eunomians and Monta-
nists 5 reformed the abuses which subsisted amongst his
clergy 5 retrenched a great part of the expences in
which his predecessors had lived, in order to enable
him to feed the poor and build hospitals, and preached
with the utmost zeal against the pride, luxury, and
avarice of the great. But his pious liberty of speech
procured him many powerful enemies. He differed
with Theophilus of Alexandria, who got him deposed
and banished ; but he was soon recalled. After this,
declaiming against the dedication of a statue erected to
the empresp, she banished him into Cucusus in Arme¬
nia, a most barren inhospitable place 5 afterwards, as
they were removing him from Petyus, the soldiers
treated him so roughly, that he died by the way, A. D.
407. The best edition of his works is that published
at Paris in 1718, by Montfau^on.
CHRYSTAL,
C H U
s.. .. CHRYSTAL. See Crystal.
^hrBy CHUB, or Chubb, in Ichthyology. See Cyprinus,
church. Ichthyology Index.
—V—The resorts of this fish are easily found, tor they
are generally holes overshadowed by trees, and this fish
will be seen floating in such almost on the surface of
the water in a hot day in great numbers. I hey are
but a poor fish for the table, and are very full of bones 5
but they entertain the angler very much, and are ot
the number of those that are easily taken.
CHUBB, Thomas a noted polemical writer,
born at East Harnham, a village near Salisbury, in
1679. He was put apprentice to a glover at Salis¬
bury, and afterwards entered into partnership with a
tallow chandler. Being a man of strong natural parts,
he employed all his leisure in reading j and though a
stranger to the learned languages, became tolerably
versed in geography, mathematics, and other branches
of science. His favourite study was divinity *, and he
formed a little society for the purpose of debating up¬
on religious subjects, about the time that the Trini¬
tarian controversy was so warmly agitated between
Clarke and Waterland. This subject, therefore, fall¬
ing under the cognizance of Chubb’s theological as¬
sembly, he at their request drew up and arranged his
sentiments on it, in a kind of dissertation $ which was
afterwards published, under the title ol The Supremacy
of the Father asserted, &c. In this piece Mr Chubb
showed great talents in reasoning, and acquaed so
much reputation, that the late Sir Joseph Jekyll, ma¬
ster of the rolls, took him into his family to enjoy his
conversation: but though he is said to have been
tempted to remain with him by the offer of a genteel
allowance, he did not continue with him many years j
but chose to return to his friends at Salisbury. He pub¬
lished afterwards a 4to volume ol tracts, which Mr
Pope informs his friend Gay, he “ read through with
admiration of the writer, though not always with ap¬
probation of his doctrine.” He died a single man in
the 68th year of his age, and left behind him two vols.
of posthumous tracts, in which he appears to have
had little or no belief in revelation. But however li¬
centious his way of thinking may be deemed, nothing
irregular or immoral has been tairly imputed to him in
his life and actions.
CHUDLELGH, Lady Mary, was born in 1656,
and married to Sir George Chudleigh, Baronet, by
whom she had several children : her poems and essays
have been much admired for delicacy of style. She
died in 1710 j and is said to have written several dra¬
matic pieces, which, though not printed, are preserved
in the family.
CHUPMESSAHITES, a sect among the Maho¬
metans, who believe that Jesus Christ is God, and the
true Messiah, the Redeemer of the world j but without
rendering him any public or declared worship. Ihe
word in the Turkish language signifies Protector of the
Christians, llecaut says that there is abundance of these
Chupmessahites among the people of fashion in Turkey,
and some even in the seraglio.
CHURCH, has different significations, according
to the different subjects to which it is applied.
1. It is understood of the collective body of Chris¬
tians, or all those over the face of the whole earth
who profess to believe in Christ, and acknowledge him
Vol. VI. Part I. f
C H u
to be the Saviour of mankind. This is what the^an- Chinch,
cient writers call the catholic or universal church. Some-
times the word church is considered in a more exten¬
sive sense, and divided into several branches j as the
church militant, is the assembly of the faithful on the
earth j the church triumphant, that of the faithful al¬
ready in glory j to which the Papists add the church
patient; which, according to their doctrines, is that of
the faithful in purgatory.
2. Church is applied to any particular congregation
of Christians, who associate together and concur in the
participation of all the institutions of Jesus Christ, with
their proper pastors and ministers. Thus we read of
the church of Antioch, the church of Alexandria, the
church of Thessalonica, and the like.
3. Church denotes a particular sect of Christians,
distinguished by particular doctrines and ceremonies.
In this sense, we speak of the Romish church, the
Greek church, the Reformed church, the church of
England, &c.
The Latin or Western church, comprehends all the
churches of Italy, France, Spain, Africa, the north,
and all other countries whither the Romans carried
their language. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands
of Germany, and of the North, have been separated
from hence ever since the time of Henry VIII. j and
constitute what we call the Reformed Church, and what
the Romanists call the Western schism.
The Greek or Eastern church, comprehends the
churches of all the countries anciently subject to the
Greek or eastern empire, and through which their lan¬
guage was carried j that is, all the space extended from
Greece to Mesopotamia and Persia, and thence into
Egypt. This church has been divided from the Roman
ever since the time of the emperor Phocas.
The Gallican church, denotes the church of France,
under the government and direction of their respective
bishops and pastors. This church has always enjoyed
certain franchises and immunities ; not as grants from
popes, but as derived to her from her first original, .
and which she has taken care never to relinquish.
These liberties depend upon two maxims 5 the first,
that the pope has no authority or right to command
or order any thing, either in general or in particular,
in which the temporalties and civil rights of the king¬
dom are concerned j the second, that, notwithstanding
the pope’s supremacy is owned in cases purely spiritual,
yet in France his power is limited and regular by the
decrees and canons of ancient councils received in that
realm.
4. The word church is used to signify the body of
ecclesiastics, or the clergy, in contradistinction to the
laity. See Clergy.
5. Church is used for the place where a particular
congregation, or society of Christians assemble for the
celebration of divine service. In this sense churches
are variously denominated, according to their rank, de¬
gree, discipline, &c. as Metropolitan church, Patri¬
archal church, Cathedral church, Parochial church,
Collegiate church, &c. See Metropolis, Patri¬
arch, &c.
In ecclesiastical writers we meet with grand church,
for the chief church of a place; particularly in the
Greek liturgy, for the church of St Sophia at Con
stantinople, the See of the patriarch, founded by Con-
S stantiue,
[ 137 3
C H U [ 138 ] C H U
Churches, stantine, and consecrated under Justinian. It was at
11 —y- that time so magnificent, that Justinian is said to have
cried out in the consecration thereof, Ewaujo-a <n,
/ have outdone thee, Solomon. I he dome, which is said
to have been the first that was built, is 33^ ^'ee^ diame¬
ter.
The first church publicly built by the Christians,
some authors maintain to be that of St Saviour at
Home founded by Constantine j others contend, that
several churches abroad, called by the name of St Peter
Virus, were built in honour of that apostle during his
lifetime.
Church, with regard to architecture, Daviler de¬
fines a large oblong edifice, in form of a ship, with
nave, choir, aisles, chapel, belfry, &c. See each part
under its proper head.
Church, Simple, is that which has only a nave and a
choir.
Church with Aisles, that which has a row of porti¬
coes, in form of vaulted galleries, with chapels in its
circumference.
Church in a Greek cross, that where the length of
the traverse part is equal to that of the nave ; so called
because most of the Greek churches are built in this
form.
Church in a Latin cross, that whose nave is longer
than the cross part, as in most of the Gothic churches.
Church in Rotundo, that whose plan is a perfect cir¬
cle, in imitation of the Pantheon.
For the form of the ancient Greek churches, when
they had all their parts, it was as follows : first was a
porch, or portico, called the vaunt-nave, ; this
was adorned with columns on the outside, and on the
inside surrounded with a wall j in the middle whereof
was a door, through which they passed into a second
portico. The first of these porticoes was destined for
the energumeni, and penitents in the first stage of
their repentance $ the second was much longer, desti¬
ned for penitents of the second class, and the catechu¬
mens, and hence called vagOus, ferula, because those
placed in it began to be subject to the discipline of the
church. These two porticoes took up about one
third of the space of the church. From the second
portico they passed into the nave, which took up
near another third of the church. In the middle, or
at one side of the nave, was the ambo, where the dea*
cons and priests read the gospel and preached. The
nave was destined for the reception of the people, who
here assisted at prayers.
Near the entrance of this was the baptistery or font.
Beyond the nave was the choir, jcjogej, set with seats,
and round : the first seat on the right, next the sanctu¬
ary, being for the chantor, or choragus.
From the choir they ascended by steps to the sanc¬
tuary, which was entered at three doors. The sanc¬
tuary had three upsides in its length 5 a great one in
the middle, under which was the altar, crowned with
a baldachin, supported by four columns. Under each
of the small upsides, was a kind of table or cupboard,
in manner of a beaufet.
Though, of the Greek churches now remaining, few
have all the parts above described, most of them having
been reduced to ruins or converted into mosques.
High Church was a denomination originally given
to those otherwise called Nonjurors, who refused to ac-
2
knowledge the title of William III. to the crown of ciwreliec
Great Britain, under a notion that James II. though Churatiili,
excluded, was still their rightful sovereign. This ap- - r—-1
pellation was given them, because they entertained
high notions of the dignity and power of the church,
and the extent of its prerogatives and jurisdiction. And
those, on the contrary, were called low-church-men,
who disapproved of the succession and obstinacy of the
nonjurors, distinguishing themselves by their moderation
towards dissenters, and were less ardent in extending
the limits of church authority. The denomination of
high-church-men is now more generally applied to all
who form pompous and ambitious conceptions of the
authority and jurisdiction of the church, and who
would raise it to an absolute independence on all hu¬
man power.
Church-Ale. See Wuitsuk-AIc.
Church Reeves, the same with Church-JFardens.
Church Scot, or Churchesset, a payment or contri¬
bution, by the Latin Writers frequently called primitice
seminum ; being, at first, a certain measure of wheat,
paid to the priest on St Martin’s day, as the first fruits
of harvest. This was enjoined by the laws of King
Malcolm IV. and Canute, c. 10. But after this.
Church scot came to signify a reverse of corn-rent paid
to the secular priests, or to the religious •, and some¬
times was taken in so general a sense as to include
poultry, or any other provision that was paid in kind to
the religious. See Tithe.
Church-JVardens (cedesics guardiani), 'in the Eng¬
lish ecclesiastical polity, are the guardians or keepers
of the church, and representatives of the body of the
parish. They are sometimes appointed by the mini¬
ster, sometimes by the parish, sometimes by both toge¬
ther, as custom directs. They are taken, in favour of
the church, to be, for some purposes, a kind of corpo¬
ration at the common law •, that is, they are enabled,
by that name, to have a property in goods and chat¬
tels, and to bring actions for them, for the rise and
profits of the parish. Yet they may not waste the
church goods, but may be removed by the parish, and
then called to account by actions at common law : but
there is no method of calling them to account but by
first removing them •, for none can legally do it but
those, who are put in their place. As to lands, or other
real property, as the church, churchyard, &c. they
have no sort of interest therein j but if any damage is
done thereto, the parson only or vicar shall have the
action. Their office also is to repair the church, and
make rates and levies for that purpose : but these are
recoverable only in the ecclesiastical courts. They
are also joined with the overseers in the care and
maintenance of the poor. They are to levy a shilling
forfeiture on all such as do not repair to church on
Sundays and holidays j and are empowered to keep
all persons orderly while there ; to which end it has
been held that a church-warden may justify the pul¬
ling off a man’s hat, without being guilty of either an
assault or a trespass. There are also a multitude of
other petty parochial powers committed to their charge
by divers acts of parliament.
CHURCHILL, Sir Winston, the father of the
great duke of Marlborough, was descended from an
ancient and honourable family in Dorsetshire. He
was born at Wotton Glanville in that county in 1610 >
and
C H U [ 139 ] c H u
and educated at St John’s college at Oxford. He en¬
gaged In the cause of his unfortunate sovereign Cha. I.
for which he suffered severely in his fortune; and
having married, while young, Elizabetn, the daughter
of Sir John Drake of Ashe in Devonshire, she was for¬
ced to seek a refuge in her father’s house, when Mr
Churchill’s misfortunes left him none that he could call
his own ; and there most of his children were born.
After the Restoration, he was elected a burgess to serve
in parliament for the borough of Weymouth •, and, in
1669, his majesty was pleased to coaler on him the
honour of knighthood. The next year he was made
one of the eommisioners of claims in Ireland j and
upon his return from thence, was constituted one of
the clerks comptrollers of the green cloUi: but writ¬
ing a kind of political essay upon the History of
England, which gave great offence to the parliament,
he ^vaa, in 1678, dismissed from his post. He was,
however, soon restored to it again j and lived to see
his eldest surviving son raised to the peerage, and the
rest of his children in a fair way to promotion. He
died in 1688.
ChuFvCHILL, John, duke of Marlborough, and
prince of the holy Roman empire, a most^ renowned
general and statesman, was horn at Ashe in IJevon-
shire in 1650. He was eldest son of Sir Winston
Churchill who carried him to court while very young,
and where he was particularly favoured by James
duke of York, afterwards King James II. when only
twelve years of age. In 1666, he was made an ensign
of the guards during the first Dutch war ; and after¬
wards improved himself greatly in the military art at
Tangier/ In 1672, Mr Churchill attended the duke
of Monmouth, who commanded a body of auxiliaries
in the French service, and was soon after made a cap¬
tain in the duke’s own regiment. At the siege of Ni-
meguen, which happened" in that campaign, he distin¬
guished himself so much that he was taken notice of
by the celebrated Marshal Turenne, who bestowed on
him the name of the handsome Englishman,—In 1673,
he was at the siege of Maestricht, where he gained
such applause, that the king of France made him a
public acknowledgement of his service; and the duke
of Monmouth, who had the direction of the attack,
told King Charles II. that he owed his life to Mr
Churchill’s bravery. In 1681, he married Sarah, daugh¬
ter and co-heiress (with her sister the countess of
Tyrconnel) of Richard Jennings, Esq. of Saudrich, in
Hertfordshire. The duke of York recommended him
in a very particular manner to the king; who, in
1682, created him baron of Eyemouth in the county
of Berwick, in Scotland, and made him colonel of the
third troop of guards. A little after King James’s ac¬
cession, he was created Baron Churchill of Sandrich in
the county of Hertford, and made brigadier-general
of his majesty’s army in the west; where, when the
duke of Monmouth came to surprise the king’s army
while the earl of Feversham and the majority of the
officers were in their beds, he kept the enemy in
play, till the king’s forces had formed themselves, and
thereby saved the whole army. When James showed
an Intention of establishing the Catholic religion in
Britain, Lord Churchill, notwithstanding the great ob¬
ligations he owed him, thought it his duty to abandon
the royal cause; but even then did not leave him
without acquainting him by letter with the reason of Churchill.
his so doing. Lord Churchill was graciously received v—-x 
by the prince of Orange; and was by him employed
first to re-assemble the troop of guards at London,
and afterwards to reduce some lately raised regiments,
and to new-model the army; for which purpose he
was invested with the rank and title of lieutenant ge¬
neral. In 1689, he was sworn one of the privy coun¬
cil, and one of the gentlemen of the king’s bed-cham¬
ber; and on the pth of April following, was raised
to the dignity of earl of Marlboi-ongh in the county of
Wilts. He assisted at the coronation of their majesties ;
and was soon after made commander in chief of the
English forces sent over to Holland ; and here he first
laid the foundation of that fame which was afterwards
spread over all Europe. In 1690, he was made ge¬
neral of the forces sent to Ireland; where he made
the strong garrisons of Cork and Kinsale prisoners of
war. The year following, King William showed the
good opinion he had of his conduct, by sending him
to Flanders to put all things in readiness, and to draw
the army together before his arrival. In 1692, he
was dismissed from all his employments ; and, not
long after, was with some other peers committed to
the Tower on an accusation of high treason; which,
however, was afterwards found to be a false and ma¬
licious report, the authors of which were punished.
Marlborough was soon restored to favour, and in 1698
was appointed governor to the earl of Gloucester;
with this extraordinary compliment from King William,
“ My lord, make him but what you are, and my ne¬
phew will be all I wish to see him.” The same day
he was again sworn one of the privy council; and in
July following was declared one of the lords justices of
England, for the administration of the government, in
which great trust he was three times successively in the
king's absence. In 1701 he was appointed general of
the foot, commander in chief of the English forces,
and ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary at
the Hague. Upon the accession of Queen Anne to
the throne, he was elected into the order of the Gar¬
ter, declared captain general of all her majesty’s forces,
and sent ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary
to Holland. After several conferences about a war,
he put himself at the head of the army, where all the
other generals had orders to obey him. His exploits
in the field have been taken notice of under the arti¬
cle Britain, No 344—-370: we shall therefore only
take notice in this place of the rewards and honours
conferred upon him for these exploits. After his first
campaign he was created marquis of Blandford and
duke of Marlborough, with a pension of 5000I. out
of the post office, to devolve, for ever upon those en¬
joying the title of duke of Marlborough. In 1703,
he met Charles III. late emperor, going to Spain, who
presented him with a sword set with diamonds. In
1704, having forced the enemy’s lines at Schellenberg,
he received a letter of thanks from the emperor Leo¬
pold, written with his own hand; an honour seldom
done to any but sovereign princes. After the battle
of Blenheim, he received congratulatory letters from
most of the potentates in Europe, particularly from the
states-general, and from the emperor, who desired
him to accept of the dignity of a prince of the empire,
which with the queen’s leave was conferred upon him
S 2 by
C H U [M
Church ill by the title of Prince of Mtldenheim in the province of
Suabia. After the campaign was ended, he visited
the court of Prussia, where he laid such schemes as
suspended the disputes with the Dutch about Iving
Will iam’s estate ; which wise conduct caused the whole
eonlederacv to acknowledge that he had done the
greatest service possible to the common cause. Upon
his return to England, the queen, to perpetuate his
memory, granted the interest of the crown in the
honour and manor of Woodstock and hundred of
Wotton to him and his heirs for ever. In 1705
he made a tour to Vienna, upon the invitation of the
emperor Joseph ; who highly caressed him, and made
him a grant of the lordship of Mildenheim. After
the campaign of 1708, the speaker of the house of
commons was sent to Brussels on purpose to compli¬
ment him; and on his return to England he was again
complimented in the house of lords by Eord Chancellor
Cowper. All his services, however, and all the ho¬
nours conferred upon him, were not sufficient to pre¬
serve him from being disgraced. After the change of
the ministry in 1710, his interest daily declined; and
in 1712, on the first day of the new year, he was re¬
moved from all his places. Finding all arts used to
render him obnoxious in his native country, he visited
his principality of Mildenheim, and several towns in
Germany; after which he returned to England, and
arrived there on the day of the queen’s death. After
being welcomed by the nobility and foreign ministers,
he attended on King George I. in his public entry
through London, who appointed him captain-general,
colonel of the first regiment of foot guards, one of the
commissioners for the government of Chelsea hospital,
and master general of the ordnance. Some years be¬
fore his death, he retired from public business. He
died at Windsor-lodge in 1722, aged 73; leaving be¬
hind him a very numerous posterity, allied to the no¬
blest and greatest families in these kingdoms. Upon
his demise all parties united in doing honour, or rather
justice, to his merit, and his corpse was interred the
9th of August following, with all the solemnity due
to a person who had deserved so highly of his country,
in Westminster-abbey. The noble pile near Wood-
stock, which bears the name of Blenheim-house, may
be justly styled his monument: but without pretending
to the gift of prophecy, one may venture to foretel,
that his glory will long survive that structure; and
that so long as our histories remain, or indeed the
histories of Europe, his memory will live and be the
boast of Britain, which by his labours was raised to be
the first of nations, as during the age in which he lived
he was deservedly esteemed the first of men. If he had
foibles, as these are inseparable from human nature,
they were so hidden by the glare of his virtues as to be
scarcely perceived, or were willingly forgotten. A
certain parasite, who thought to please Lord Boling-
broke by ridiculing the avarice of the duke, was stopt
short by his lordship; who said, “ He was so very
great a man, that I forgot he had that vice.”
Out of a variety of anecdotes and testimonies con¬
cerning this illustrious personage, collected in the new
edition of the Biographia Briiannica, the following se¬
lection may serve to illustrate more particularly his dis-
ppsition and manners.
One of the first, things which he did, when very
3-
o ] C H U
young, wras to purchase a box to put his money in ; Churchill,
an indication this of the economical, not to say ava- ^ J
ricious, temper that accompanied him through life.
Dr Joseph Warton relates, that, on the evening of an
important battle, the duke was heard to chide his ser¬
vant for having been so extravagant as to light four
candles in his tent when Prince Eugene came to confer
with him. Mr Tyers, on the other hand, men¬
tioned a circumstance, which, if well founded, re¬
dounds to his grace’s generosity ; though in a differ¬
ent respect it is much to his discredit: It is, that
during the rebellion in 1715, he sent io,oool. to the
earl of Mar. We consider the stoiy only as a tradi¬
tional report, which has not in itself any great degree
of probability; and therefore we are by no means con¬
vinced of its truth. The late Mr Richardson junior,
the painter, hath recorded a pleasing instance of the
duke’s calmness of disposition; for which, indeed, he
was always remarkable. “ The duke of Marlborough
('says the writer), riding out once with Commissary
Marriot, near the commissary’s house in the country,
it began to rain, and the duke called for his cloak j
Marriot having his put on by his servant immediately.
The duke’s servant not bringing the cloak, he called
for it again ; but the man was still puzzling about the
straps and buckles. At last, it raining now very hard,
the duke called again, and asked him, “ what he was
about that he did not bring his cloak?” ‘ You must
stay (grumbles the fellow), if it rains cats and dogs,
till I can get at it.’ The duke only turned to Marriot
and said, “ I would not be of that fellow’s temper.”
The duke of Marlborough (adds Mr Richardson) did
by nature and constitution, what Seneca judged by
philosophy ought to be done. Quid cst qnare ego servi
mei hilurius responsum, et contumaciorem vultumy fla-
gellis et compedibus expiem ?
Dr Swift, in one of his letters to Stella, relates the
following particulars concerning the duke of Marl¬
borough. “ I was early this morning with Secretary
St John, and gave him a memorial to get the queen’s
letter for the first-fruits, who has promised to do it in
a very few days. He told me ‘ he had been with the
duke of Marlborough, who was lamenting his former
wrong steps in joining with the Whigs, and said he
was worn out with age, fatigue, and misfortunes.’ I
swear it pitied me ; and I really think they will not do
well in too much mortifying that man, although in¬
deed it is his own fault. He is covetous as hell, and
ambitious as the prince of it: he would fain have been
general for life, and has broken all endeavours for
peace, to keep his greatness and get money. He told
the queen ‘ he was neither covetous nor ambitious.’
She said, ‘ if she could conveniently have turned about,
she would have laughed, and could hardly forbear it in
his face.’ He fell in with all the abominable measures
of the late ministry, because they gratified him for
their own designs. Yet he has been a successful gene¬
ral, and I hope he will continue his command.”
Various characters have been drawn of the duke of
Marlborough ; most of which we shall omit, as either
already sufficiently known, or as not meriting particu¬
lar notice. That which is given of him by Dr Swift,,
in his “ History of the four last years of the queen,”
has all the malignity and meanness of a party pam¬
phlet. It is even so foolish as to insinuate, that the
duke’s
c h u r
liupchm. duke’s military accomplishments were problematical,
—> ' and that he was destitute of personal courage. Mr
Macpherson’s character of his grace is very elaborate¬
ly composed, and displays no small degree ol ability
and penetration; though it is not, perhaps, entire¬
ly free from prejudice. The historian considers it
as a fact, that Lord Churchill, at the time of the
revolution, had a design of placing his unfortunate
master King James II. a prisoner in the hands of his
rival the prince of Orange. But this story must he
regarded as wholly unworthy of credit. It is found¬
ed upon suggestions and informations so groundless
and even ridiculous, that it cannot deserve a formal
refutation. On the other hand, Mr Macpherson has
done justice to the duke of Marlborough’s prosecution
of the war in Flanders, and hath shown that he con¬
ducted it upon the principles of sound wisdom and good
policy.
There are two testimonies to the honour of the
duke’s memory, by two celebrated noble writers, which
cannot be passed over. One is by Lord Bolingbroke,
in his letters on the Study and Use of History.
Speaking of the consternation raised among the allies
of the grand confederacy by the death of King Wil¬
liam, and of the joy which that event gave to the
French, his lordship observes, that 14 a short time
showed how vain the fears of some and the hopes of
others were. By his death, the duke of Marlborough
was raised to the head of the army, and indeed of the
confederacy : where he, a new, a private man, a sub¬
ject, acquired, by merit and by management, a more
deciding influence than high birth, confirmed autho¬
rity, and even the crown of Great Britain, had given
to King William. Not only all the parts of that vast
machine, the grand alliance, were kept more compact
and entire, but a more rapid and vigorous motion was
given to the whole: and instead of languishing out
disastrous campaigns, we saw every scene of the war
full of action. AH those wherein he appeared, and
many of those wherein he was not then an actor, but
abettor however of their action, were crowned with
the most triumphant success. I take, with pleasure,
this opportunity of doing justice to that great man,
whose faults I knew, whose virtues I admired j and
whose memory, as the greatest general, and as the
greatest minister, that our country, or perhaps any
other, has produced, I honour.”
The other testimony to the duke’s accomplishments
is by the earl of Chesterfield, in his Letters to his Son.
“ Of all the men (says his lordship) that ever I knew
in my life (and I knew him extremely well), the late
duke of Marlborough possessed the graces in the high¬
est degree, not to say engrossed them: and indeed he
got the most by them *, for I will venture (contrary
to the custom of profound historians, who always as¬
sign deep causes for great events) to ascribe the better
half of the duke of Marlborough’s greatness and riches
to those graces. He was eminently illiterate j wrote
bad English, and spelled it still worse. He bad no
share of what is commonly called parts ; that is, he had
no brightness, nothing shining in his genius, He had
had, most undoubtedly, an excellent good plain under¬
standing, with sound judgment. But these alone would
probably have raised him but something higher than
they found him, which was page to King James II.’s
1-41 ] c H U
queen. There the graces protected and promoted Churchill,
him : for while he. was an ensign ot the guards, the J
duchess of Cleveland, then favourite mistress to King
Charles II. struck by those very graces, gave him
5000I.; with which he immediately brought an an¬
nuity for his life of 500I. of my grandfather Halifax j
which was the foundation of his subsequent fortune.
His figure, was beautiful j but bis manner was irresist¬
ible by either man or woman. It was by this engaging
graceful manner that he was enabled, during all his
wars, to connect the various and jarring powers of the
grand alliance, and to carry them on to the main ob¬
ject of the war, notwithstanding their private and se¬
parate views, jealousies, and wrongheadedness. What¬
ever court he went to (and he was often obliged to go
himself to some testy and refractory ones,) he as con¬
stantly prevailed, and brought them into his measures.
The pensionary Heinsius, a venerable old minister,
grown gray in business, and who had governed the re¬
public of the United Provinces for more than 40 years,
was absolutely governed by the duke of Marlborough,
as that republic feels to this day. He was always cool $
and nobody ever observed the least variation in his
countenance: he could refuse more gracefully than
other people could grant; and those who went away
from him the most dissatisfied as to the substance of
their business, were yet personally charmed with him,
and in some degree comforted by his manner. With
all his gentleness and gracefulness, no man living was
more conscious of his situation, nor maintained his dig¬
nity better.”
A perusal of the above passage will convince us of
the frivolous turn of the earl of Chesterfield’s mind.
His lordship, in his zeal to exalt the duke of Marl¬
borough’s external accomplishments, either forgets or
depreciates the far greater talents of which he was
possessed. There is an observation upon the subject in
the British Biography, with which we entirely concur.
“ Thai the duke of Marlborough (says the writer)
was eminently distinguished for the gracefulness of his
manners, cannot be questioned ; but the earl of Ches¬
terfield appears to have attributed too much to their
influence, when he ascribes—the better half of the
duke of Marlborough’s greatness and riches to those
graces. That the uncommon gracefulness of his man¬
ners facilitated his advancement, and contributed to
the success of his negotiations, may readily be admit¬
ted j but surely it must have been to much higher
qualities that he owed the esteem of King William and
of Prince Eugene, his reputation throughout all Eu¬
rope, and his many victories and conquests. It was
not by a polite exterior that he obtained his laurels at
Schellenherg, at Oudenarde, at Ramillies, and at
Blenheim.”
How much the duke of Marborough has been ce¬
lebrated by our poets, is well known by Addison’s
“ Campaign $” and by Philips’s “ Bleinheim.” Mr Ad¬
dison, in his Rosamond, has properly assumed another
and voluntary occasion of paying a fine compliment to
his grace’s military exploits, and the glory by which
they would be followed. Upon the duke’s removal
from his places, an ode was inscribed to him by Mr So¬
merville, animated with all the zeal of whiggish enthu¬
siasm, and containing some passages that are truly
poetical. Another ode, not much inferior in spirit,
was »
c H U [ 142 ] C H U
C'mreliiil. was addressed to his grace, on occasion of his embark^
-~-v—ing for Ostend in the year iyi2.
The duke of Marlborough’s Scots title of Baron
Eyemouth, being to heirs male, died with himself} but
his English title going to his daughters and their heirs-
male, went into the Spencer family, who retain their
own surname of Spencer,
Churchill, Charles, a celebrated satirist, the son
of Mr Charles Churchill, curate and lecturer of St
John’s, Westminster, was educated at Wesminster
school, and received some applause for his abilities from
his tutors in that famous seminary. His capacity,
however, ivas greater than his application, so that he
acquired the character of a boy that could do good if
he would. As the slightest accounts of persons so
noted are agreeable, it may not be amiss to observe,
that having one day got an exercise to make, and
from idleness or attention having failed to bring it
• at the time appointed, his ma ter thought proper to
chastise him with some severity, and even reproached
his stupidity : what the fear of stripes could not effect,
the fear of shame soon produced, and he brought his
exercise the next day, finished in such a manner, that
he received the public thanks of all the masters. Still,
however, his progress in the learned languages was
but slow} nor is it to be wondered at, if we consider
how difficult it ivas for a strong imagination, such as
he was possessed of, to conform and walk tamely for¬
ward in the trammels of a school education; minds
like his are ever starting aside after new pursuits; de¬
sirous of embracing a multiplicity of amusing objects;
eager to come at an end, without the painful investi¬
gation of the means. In short, for want of proper
skill in these languages, he was rejected from Oxford,
whither his father had sent him ; and probably this
might have given occasion to the frequent invectives
we find in his works against that most respectable uni¬
versity. Upon his return from thence, he again ap¬
plied to his studies in Westminster school, where, at IJ
years of age, he contracted an intimacy with a lady,
to whom he was married, and their mutual regard for
each other continued for several years. At the usual
.age of going into orders, Mr Churchill was ordained
by the late bishop of London, and obtained a small
curacy in Wales of 30I. a-year. Thither he carried
his wife; they took a small house; and he passed
through the duties of his station with assiduity and
cheerfulness. Happy had it been for him had he
continued there to enjoy the fruits of piety, peace,
and simplicity of manners. He Was beloved and
esteemed by his parishioners; and though his sermons
were rather above the level of his audience, they were
commended and followed. But endeavouring to ad¬
vance his fortune, by keeping a cyder cellar, it in¬
volved him in difficulties which obliged him to leave
WTales and come to London. His father dying soon
after, he stepped into the church in which he had of¬
ficiated; and in order to improve his income, which
scarcely produced look a-year, he taught young la¬
dies to read and write English at a hoarding school,
kept by Mrs Dennis, where he behaved with that de¬
cency and decorum which became his profession. His
method of living, however, bearing no proportion to
his income, he contracted several debts in the city ;
which being unable to pay, a jail,, the terror of indi¬
gent genius, seemed ready to complete his misfortunes; diurcliill
but from this state of wretchedness he was relieved
by the benevolence of Mr Lloyd, father to the poet
of that name. Meanwhile, Mr Lloyd, the son, wrote
a poetical epistle called the Actor, which being read
and approved by the public, gave the author a distin¬
guished place among the writers of his age. This
induced Mr Churchill to write the Rosciacl, It first
came out without the author’s name; but the justness
of the remarks, and the severity of the satire, soon
excited public curiosity. Though he never disowned
his having written that piece, and even openly gloried
in it; yet the public, unwilling to give so much me¬
rit to one alone, ascribed it to a combination of wits,
nor were Messrs Lloyd, Thornton, or Colman, left
unnamed upon this occasion. This misplaced praise
soon induced Mr Churchill to throw off the mask, and
the second edition appeared with his name at full
length. As the Rcsciad was the first of this poet’s
performances, so many are. of opinion that it is the
best. In it we find a very close and minute discussion
of the particular merit of each performer; their de¬
fects pointed out with candour, and their merits
praised without adulation. This poem, however,
seems to be one of those few works which are injured
by succeeding editions; when he became popular,
his judgment became intoxicated with applause ; and
we find, in the later editions, men blamed whose me¬
rit was incontestable, and others praised that were at
that time in no degree of esteem with the judicious.
His next performance was his Apology to the Critical
Revieivers. This work is not without its peculiar
merit; and as it was written against a set of critics
whom the world was willing enough to blame, the
public read it with their usual indulgence. In this
performance he showed a particular happiness of
throwing his thoughts, if we may so express it, into
poetical paragraphs • so that the sentence swells to the
break or conclusion, as we find in prose.
But while his writings amused the town, his actions
disgusted it. He now quitted his wife, with whom
he had cohabited many years; and resigning his gown
and all clerical functions, commenced a complete man
of the town, got drunk, frequented stews; and, giddy
with false praise, thought his talents a sufficient atone¬
ment for all his follies. In some measure to palliate
the absurdities of his conduct, he now undertook a
poem called Night, written upon a general subject in¬
deed, but upon false principles; namely, that what¬
ever our follies are, we should never attempt to con¬
ceal them. This, and Mr Churchill’s other poems,
being shown to Dr Johnson, and his opinion being ask¬
ed, he allowed them but little merit; which being
told to the author, he resolved to requite this private
opinion with a public one. In his next poem, there¬
fore, of the Ghost, he has drawn this gentleman under
the character of Pomposo; and those who disliked
Dr Johnson allowed it to have merit. Dr Johnson’s
only reply to Churchill’s abuse was, “ that he thought
him a shallow fellow in the beginning, and could say
nothing worse of him still,” The poems of Night
and the Ghost had not the rapid sale the author ex¬
pected ; but his Prophecy of Famine soon made ample
amends for the late paroxysm in his fame. In this
piece, written in the spirit of the famous North Bri¬
ton,
C H U
[ H3 ]
C H Y
Ihurnint
/lm roll ill ton, lie exerted his virulent pen against the whole
Scottish nation, adopting the prejudices ot the mob,
and dignifying scurrility by the aid ot a poetic imagi¬
nation. It had a rapid and extensive sale, as prophe¬
sied by Mr Wilkes ; who said before its publication
that he was sure it must take, as it was at once perso¬
nal, poetical, and political. After its appearance, it
was asserted by his admirers, that Mr Churchill was a
better poet than Pope. This exaggerated adulation,
as it had before corrupted his morals, began now to
impair his mind : several succeeding pieces were pub¬
lished, which, being written without effort, are read
without pleasure. His Gotham, Independence, The
Times, seem merely to have been vvriten by a man
who desired to avail himself of the avidity ot the pub¬
lic curiosity in his favour, and are rather aimed at the
pockets than the hearts of his readers. Mr Churchill
died in 1764, of a miliary fever, with which he was
seized at Boulogne in France, whither he had gone on
a visit to Mr Wilkes. After his death his poems were
collected and printed together in two volumes Svo.
CHURCHING OF women after childbirth,
took its rise from the Jewish rite of purification. In
the Greek church it was limited to the 40th day after
delivery j but in the western parts of Europe no cer¬
tain time was observed. There is an office in the li¬
turgy for this purpose.
CHURCHYARD, a piece of ground adjoining to
a church, set apart for the interment or burial of the
dead.—In the church of Rome they are blessed or
consecrated with great solemnity. If a churchyard,
which has been thus consecrated, shall afterwards be
polluted by any indecent action, or profaned by the
burial of an infidel, a heretic, an excommunicated or un¬
baptized person, it must be reconciled; and the cere¬
mony of the reconciliation is performed with the same
solemnity as that of the blessing or consecration.
Churchyard, Thomas, a poet who flourished in
the reigns of Henry VIII. Edward VI. Queen Mary,
and Queen Elizabeth, was born at Shrewsbury 5 and
inherited a fortune which he soon exhausted in a fruit¬
less attendance on the court, by which he only gained
the favour of being retained a domestic in the family
of Lord Surrey : when, by his lordship’s encourage¬
ment, he commenced poet. Upon his patron’s death,
he betook himself to arms 5 was in many engagements ;
was frequently wounded, and was twice made prisoner.
He published 12 pieces, which he afterwards printed
together in one volume, under the title of Churchyard''s
Chips ; and also the tragedy of Thomas Moubray duke
of Norfolk. He died in 1570.
CHURLE, Ceorle, or Carl, in the Saxon times,
signified a tenant at will, who held of the thanes or
nobles on condition of rent and service. They were of
two sorts j one rented the estate like our farmers j the
other tilled and manured the demesnes, and were called
ploughmen. See Ceorle.
CHURNING, in country affairs, the operation of
making butter by agitating milk in a well known ves¬
sel called a chui'n. For accelerating this operation, a
correspondent in the Bath Society papers recommends
a little distilled vinegar to be poured into tbe churn 5
and the butter will be produced in an hour afterwards.
He acknowledges, however, that his experiments have
not as yet ascertained the exact quantity of the acid
t hytri.
which is necessary to the proper effect, nor the precise Churning
time of its being mixed with the cream. But he ap¬
prehends a table spoonful or two to a gallon of cream ^
will be sufficient j nor would he recommend it to be
applied till the cream has undergone some considerable
agitation. His first trial was after the first churning
had been going forward half a day : whether he ob¬
served the same rule afterwards he does not say } but
all his trials proved successful, the butter being uni¬
formly obtained in about an hour after the mixture.
See Agricuture and Chemistry Index.
CHUS, Chusch, (Bible). It is a tradition of an
ancient standing, that the Chus of the Scriptures de¬
notes Ethiopia, and Chuschi an Ethiopian: the Septua-
gint and Vulgate constantly translate it so ; and in
this they are followed by most interpreters, and by Jo¬
sephus and Jerome. And yet what Bochart urges to
the contrary is of no inconsiderable weight from Eze¬
kiel xxix. 10. in which the two opposite extremes ot
Egypt are designed y and therefore Chits, which is op¬
posite to Syene, must be Arabia : but this is more
strongly pointed out by Xenophon, by whom Ethiopia
is said to be the south boundary of Cyrus’s empire:
and Herodotus distinguishes between the Ethiopians or
Asia and Africa, conjoining the former with the Ara¬
bians.
CHYLE, in the animal economy, a milky fluid se¬
creted from the aliments by means of digestion. See
Anatomy and Chemistry Index.
CHYLLFICATION, the formation of the chyle,
or the act whereby the food is changed into chyle.
The chyle has by some authors been thought to have
a great resemblance in its nature and chemical analysis
to milk. The subject, however, hath as yet been but
little inquired into. See the article Milk.
CHYME, or Chymus, in the common signification
of the word, denotes every kind of humour which is
incrassated by concoction ; under which notion it com¬
prehends all the humours fit or unfit for preserving and
nourishing the body, whether good or bad. It fre¬
quently imports the finest parts of the chyle, when se¬
parated from the fieces, and contained in the lacteal
and thoracic duct.
CHYM1STRY. See Chemistry.
CHYMOLOGI, an appellation given to such na¬
turalists as have employed their time in investigating
the properties of plants from their taste and smell.
CHYMOSIS, in Medicine, the act of making or
preparing chyme. The word comes from ystpos, sue-
cus, of yjua^'undo, “ I pour out.” Chymosis, accord¬
ing to some, is the second of the connections made in
the body 5 being a repeated preparation of the most
impure and gross parts of the chyle, which being re¬
jected by the lacteals, is imbibed by the meseraics,
and thence carried to the liver, to be there elaborated,
purified, and subtilized afresh. It is of this, according
to Rogers, that the animal spirits are formed.
Chymosis is also a distortion of the eye-lids, arising
from an inflammation j also an inflammation of the tu¬
nica cornea in the eye.
CHYTLA, in antiquity, a liquor made of wine
and oil, and sometimes used in divination.
CHYTRI, among the Athenians, a festival in ho¬
nour of Bacchus and Mercury, kept on the 13th of
the month Anthesterion.
CHYTRIUM,
C I B
Cliytrium CHYTRIUM, in Ancient Geography, a place in
|| Ionia, in which formerly stood Clazomene j the Cla-
Cibdelo- zomenians, through fear of the Persians, removing
, P:acia« from the continent to an adjacent island (Pausanias),
Alexander reduced the island, by a mole or causeway,
to a peninsula.
CHYTRUS, in Ancient Geography, an inland town
of Cyprus, to the north of Citium j famous for its ex¬
cellent honey.
CIANUS SINUS, in Ancient Geography, a bay of
Bithynia, named from the town and river Cius.
CIBALiE, or Cibalis, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Pannonia Inferior, on an eminence, near the
lake Hiulka, to the north-west of Sirmium j the coun¬
try of the emperor Gratian, where he was brought up
to rope-making : a place rendered famous for the sur-
prisal and defeat of Licinius by Constantine.
CIBBER, Colley, a celebrated comedian, dra¬
matic writer, and poet laureat to the king, was born at
London in 1671. His father Caius Gabriel Cibber,
was a native of Holstein, and a skilful statuary, who
executed the basso relievo on the pedestal of the Mo¬
nument, and the two admired figures of lunatics over
the piers of the gate to Bethlehem Hospital in Moor-
fields. Colley, who derived his Christian name from
the surname of his mother’s family, was intended for
the church, but betook himself to the stage, for which
he conceived an early inclination; and he was some
time before he acquired any degree of notice, or even
a competent salary. His first essay in writing, was the
comedy of Love's Last Shift, acted in 1695, which met
with success 5 as did his own performance of the cha¬
racter of the fop in it. From that time, as he says
himself, “ My muse and my spouse were so equally
prolific, that the one was seldom the mother of a child,
but in the same year the other made me the father of
a play. I think we had a dozen of each sort between
us ; of both which kinds some died in their infancy,
and near an equal number of each were alive when w'e
quitted the theatre.” The Careless Husband, acted in
1704, met with great applause, and is reckoned his
best play : but none was of more importance to him
than the Nonjuror, acted in 1717, and levelled against
the Jacobites. This laid the foundation of the misun¬
derstanding between him and Mr Pope, raised him to
be the hero of the Dunciad, and made him poet-laureat
in 1730. He then quitted the stage, except a few oc-
xasional performances 5 and died in 1737. Cibber
neither succeeded in writing nor in acting tragedy 5 and
his odes were not thought to partake of the genius or
spirit he showed in his comedies.
His son Theophilus, also a comic actor after him, was
born during a great storm in 1703 $ and after passing
a life of extravagance, distress, and perplexity, pe¬
rished in another storm in 1758, in the passage be¬
tween Dublin and England. Theophilus married the
sister of Thomas Augustine Arne, the famous musical
composer j who became a celebrated tragic actress,
and whose honour was sacrificed to her husband’s ex¬
travagance.
CIB DELOPL ACIA, an old term in Natural His¬
tory ; applied to spars debased by a very large admix¬
ture of earth : they are opaque, formed of thin crusts,
covering vegetables and other bodies, by way of in-
fCrustations,
C I c
Of this genus we have the following species 5 1. A cibdelo.
grayish white one, with a rough surface. 2. A whi- placia
tish brown one: both these are friable. 3. A hard, H
pale brown kind, which is the osteocolla of the shops. , Gedy,
4. The whitish-gray kind, with a smooth surface : this ’ '
is the unicornu fossil and ceratites of authors. 5. The
whitish brown coralloid kind.
CIBDELOSTRACIA, an old term in Natural
History, including earthy spars, destitute of transpa¬
rency, formed into thin plates, and usually found coat¬
ing over the sides of fissures, and other cavities of
stones with congeries of them to great extent, and of
plain or botryoid surfaces.
Of these there are usually reckoned seven kinds :
the first the hard, brownish-white cibdelostracium,
found id Germany: the second is the hard, whitish
cibdelostracium, with thin crusts, and a smoother sur¬
face, found also in the Harts-forest in Germany: the
third is the hard, pale-brown cibdelostracium, with
numerous very thin crusts, found in subterranean ca¬
verns in many parts of England as well as Germany :
the fourth is the white, light, and friable cibdelostia-
cium, found also in Germany, but very rarely in anv
part of England ; the fiftji is the light, hard, pale-
brown cibdelostracium, with a smooth surface, found
in almost all parts of the world : the sixth is the whi¬
tish, friable, crustaceous cibdelostracium, with a rough¬
er surface, frequent in Germany and England j and '
the seventh is the brownish-white friable cibdelostra¬
cium, with a dusky surface, found in several parts of
Ireland as well as Germany.
CIBORIA, in antiquity, the large husks of Egyp¬
tian beans, which are said to have been so large as to
serve for drinking-cups : whence they had their name
ciborium, signifying a cup, in the Egyptian language.
CIBORIUM, in ecclesiastical writers, the covering
for the altar. This covering is supported by four high
columns, and forms a kind of tent for the eucharist, in
the Romish churches. Some authors call it turn's ges-
tatoria, and others jc^w's; but the pyxis is properly the
box in which the eucharist is preserved.
CIBUS ferialis, in antiquity, an entertainment
peculiar to a funeral j for which purpose, beans, pars¬
ley, lettuce, bread, eggs, lentils, and salt, were in use.
CICADA, the Frog-hopper or Flea-locust, a
genus of insects belonging to the order of hemiptera.
See Entomology Index.
CICATRICULA, among natural historians, de¬
notes a small whitish speck in the yolk of an egg, sup¬
posed to be the first rudiments of the future chick.
CICATRIX, in Surgery , a little seam or elevation
of callous flesh rising on the skin, and remaining there
after the healing of a wound or ulcer. It is commonly
called a scar.
CICATRIZANTS, in Pharmacy, medicines which
assist nature to form a cicatrix. Such are Armenian
bole, powder of tutty, &.c.
Cicatrizants are otherwise c,ia)\e&cscharotics,epulotics,
incarnatives, agglutinants, &c.
CICCA, in Botany, a genus of the tetrandria order,
belonging to the moncecia class of plants. The male
calyx is tetraphyllous } there is no corolla: the female
calyx triphyllous j no corolla j four stiles ; the capsule
quadricoccous or four-berried.
CICELY, in Botany, the English name of a species
of
[ H4 ]
C I G [ 145 ] C I C
of cliaerophyllum. See Ch^rophyllum, Botany
Index.
C1CER, or Chick-Pea. See Botany Index.
CICERO, Marcus Tullius, the celebrated Ro-
tnan orator, was born in the year of Rome 647,^ about
105 years before Christ. His father Marcus i ullius,
who was of the equestrian order, took great care of his
education, which was directed particularly with a view
to the bar. Young Tully, at his first appearance in
public, declaimed with such vehemence against Sylla’s
party, that it became expedient tor him to retire into
-Greece; where he heard the Athenian orators and
philosophers, and greatly improved both in eloquence
and knowledge. Here he met with T.. Pomponius, who
had been his school-fellow ; and who, from his love to
Athens, and spending a great part of his days in it,
obtained the surname of Atticus 1 and here they revived
and confirmed that noted friendship which subsisted be¬
tween them through life with so celebrated a constancy
and affection. Prom Athens he passed into Asia *, and
after an excursion of two years came back again into
Italy.
Cicero had now arrived at Rome 5 and, after one
year more spent at the bar, obtained, in the next place,
the dignity of questor. Among the causes which he
pleaded before his questorship, was that of the famous
comedian Roscius, whom a singular merit in his art
had recommended to the familiarity and friendship of
the greatest men in Rome. The questors were the
general receivers or treasurers of the republic, and
were sent annually in*o the provinces distributed to
them, as they always were, by lot. I he island of
Sicily happened 10 fall to Cicero’s sharej and that
part of it, for it was considerable enough to be di¬
vided into two provinces, which was called Lilybantm.
This office he received, not as a gift, but a trust; and
he acquitted himself so well in it, that he gained the
love and admiration of all the Sicilians. Before he
left Sicily, he made the tour of the island, to see every
thing that was curious, and especially the city of Sy¬
racuse; where he discovered the tomb of Archimedes
to the magistrates who were showing him the curiosi¬
ties of the place, but who, to his surprise, knew nothing
of any such tomb,
We have no account of the precise time of Cicero’s
marriage with Terentia ; but it is supposed to have
been celebrated immediately alter his return from his
travels to Italy, when he was about 30 years old. He
was now disengaged from his questorslvip in Sicily, by
which first step, in the legal gradation and ascent of
public honours, he gained an immediate right to the
senate, and an actual admission into it during life;
and settled again in Rome, where he employed him¬
self constantly in defending the persons and properties
of its citizens, and was indeed a general patron. live
years were almost elapsed since Cicero’s election to the
questorship, which was the proper interval prescribed
by law before he could hold the next office of sedile;
to which he was now, in his 37th year, elected by the
-unanimous suffrages of all the tribes, and preferably to
all his competitors. After Cicero’s election to the
-aedileship, but before his entrance upon the office, he
undertook the famed prosecution of C. Verres, the late
prsetor of Sicily, who was charged with many flagrant
acts of injustice, rapine, and cruelty, during his tri-
Yol. VI. Part I. f
ennial government of that island. This was one of thfe
most memorable transactions of his life, for which he
■was greatly and justly celebrated by antiquity, and for
which he will, in all ages, be admired and esteemed by
the friends of mankind. The result was, that, by his
diligence and address, he so confounded Hortensius,
though the reigning orator at .he bar, and usually
styled the king of the forum, that he had nothing to say
for his client. Yerres, despairing of all defence, sub¬
mitted immediately, without expecting the sentence,
to a voluntary exile; where he lived many years, for¬
gotten and deserted by all his friends. He is said to
have been relieved in this miserable situation by the
generosity of Cicero; yet was proscribed and murder¬
ed after all by Mark Antony, for the sake of those fine
statues and Corinthian vessels of which he had plunder¬
ed the Sicilians.
‘ After the usual interval of two years from the time
of his being chosen sedile, Cicero offered himself a can¬
didate for the praetorship; and, in three different as¬
semblies convened for the choice of praetors, two of
which were dissolved without eflect, he was declared
every time the first praetor by the suffrages of all the
centuries. He was now in the career of his fortunes,
and in sight, as it were, of the consulship, the grand
object of his ambition ; and therefore, when his prae-
torship was at an end, he would not accept any foreign
province, the usual reward of that magistracy, and
the chief fruit which the generality proposed from it.
He had no particular love for money, nor genius for
arms ; so that those governments had no charms for
him : the glory which he pursued was to shine in the
eyes of the city as the guardian of its laws, and to
teach the magistrates how to execute, and the citizens
how to obey, them.
Being now in his 43d year, the proper age required
by law, he declared himself a candidate for the con¬
sulship along with six competitors, L. Sulpicius Gal-
ha, L. Sergius Catilina, C. Antonias, L. Cassius Lon¬
ginus. Q. Cornificius, and C. Licinius Sacerdos. The
two first were patricians; the two next plebeians, yet
noble ; the two last the sons of fathers who kid first
imported the public honours into their families; Ci¬
cero was the only new man, as he was called among
them, or one of the equestrian rank. These were the
competitors; and in this competition the practice of
bribing was carried on as openly and as shamefully by
Antonius and Catiline as it usually is at our elections
in Britain. However, as the election approached,
Cicero’s interest appeared to he superior to that of all
the candidates: for the nobles themselves, though al¬
ways envious and desirous to depress him, yet out of
regard to the dangers which threatened the city from
many quarters, and seemed ready to burst out into a
flame, began to think him the only man qualified to
preserve the republic, and break the cabals ot the des¬
perate by the vigour and prudence of his administra¬
tion. The method of choosing consuls was. not by an
open vote, but by a kind of ballot, or little tickets of
wood distributed to the citizens, with the names oi
the several candidates inscribed upon each ; but in Ci¬
cero’s case the people were not content with this secret
and silent way ; but before they came to any scrutiny,
loudly and universally proclaimed Cicero the first con¬
sul, so that, as he himself says, “ he was not chosen
T by
Cicero.
C I C [ 146 ] C I c
Cicero, by tlie votes of particular citizens, but the common
suffrage of the city ; nor declared by the voice of the
crier, but of the whole Roman people,”
Cicero had no sooner entered upon his office than
he had occasion to exert himself against P. Servilius
Rullus, one of the new tribunes, who had been alarm¬
ing the senate with the promulgation of an agrarian
law •, the purpose of which was to create a decemvi-
rate, or ten commissioners, with absolute power for
five years over all the revenues of the republic, to dis¬
tribute them at pleasure to the citizens, &c. These
laws used to be greedily received by the pupulace,
and were proposed therefore by factious magistrates
as oft as they had any point to carry with the multi¬
tude against the public good 5 so that Cicero’s first bu¬
siness was to quiet the apprehensions of the city, and
to baffle, if possible, the intrigues of the tribune. Ac¬
cordingly, in an artful and elegant speech from the
rostra, he gave such a turn to the inclination of the
people, that they rejected this law with as much eager¬
ness as they had ever received one. But the grand
affair of all, which constituted the glory of his consul¬
ship, and has transmitted his name with such lustre to
posterity, was the skill he showed, and the unwearied
pains he took, in suppressing that horrid conspiracy
.which was formed by Catiline and his accomplices for
the subversion of the commonwealth. For this great
service he was honoured with the glorious title of pater
patrice, “ the father of his country,” which he retain¬
ed for a long time after.
Cicero’s administration was now at an end j but he
had no sooner quitted his office, than he began to feel
the weight of that envy which is the certain fruit of
illustrious merit. He was now, therefore, the com¬
mon mark, not only of all the factious, against whom
he had declared perpetual war, but of another party
not less dangerous, the envious too, whose united
spleen never left him from this moment till they had
driven him out of that city which he had so lately pre¬
served. Cicero, upon the expiration of his consul¬
ship, took care to send a particular account of his
whole administration to Pompey, who was finishing
the Mithridatic war in Asia, in hopes to prevent any
wrong impressions there from the calumnies of his
enemies, and to draw from him some public declara¬
tion in praise of what he had been doing. But Pom¬
pey being informed by Metellus and Caesar of the ill
humour that was rising against Cicero in Rome, an¬
swered him with great coldness, and instead of pay-
ing him any compliment, took no; notice at all of
what had passed in the affair of Catiline, upon which
Cicero expostulates with him in a letter which is still
extant.
About this time Cicero bought a house of M. Crassus
on the Palatine-hill, adjoining to that in which he had
always lived with his father, and which he is now sup¬
posed to have given up to his brother Quintius. The
house cost him near 30,000!. and seems to have
been one of the noblest in Rome. It was built about
30 years before by the famous tribune M. Livius Hru-
sus $ on which occasion we are told, that when the ar¬
chitect promised to build it for him in such a manner
that none of his neighbours should overlook him j
“ But if you have any skill (replied Drusus), contrive
it rather so, that all the world may see what I am
3;
doing.” The purchase of so expensive a house raised Cicero,
some censure on his vanity $ and especially as it was —7—
made with borrowed money. This circumstance he
himself does not dissemble, but says merrily upon it,
that “ he was now plunged so deeply in debt, as to be
ready for a plot, only that the conspirators would not
trust him.”
The most remarkable event that happened in this
year, which was the 45th of Cicero’s life, was the
pollution of the mysteries of the bona dea by P. Clo-
dius, which, by an unhappy train of consequences,
involved Cicero in a great and unexpected calamity.
Clodius had an intrigue with Caesar’s wife Pom-
peia, who, according to annual custom, was now ce¬
lebrating in her house those awful sacrifices of the
goddess, to which no male creature ever was admitted,
and where every thing masculine was so scrupulously
excluded, that even pictures of that sort were covered
during the ceremony. It flattered Clodius’s imagina¬
tion greatly to gain access to his mistress in the midst
of her holy ministry j and with this view he dressed
himself in a woman’s habit, that by the benefit of"
his smooth face, and the introduction of one of the
maids, he might pass without discovery; but by some
mistake between him and his guide, he lost his way
when he came within the house, and fell unluckily
among the other female servants. Here he was detect¬
ed by his voice, and the servants alarmed the whole
company by their shrieks, to the great amazement of
the matrons, who threw a veil over their sacred mys¬
teries, while Clodius found means to escape. The
story was presently spread abroad, and raised a general
scandal and horror throughout the city. The whole
defence which Clodius made when, by order of the se¬
nate, he was brought to trial, was to prove himself
absent at the time of the fact, for which purpose he
produced two men to swear that he was then at Inter-
amna, about two or three days journey from the city.
But Cicero being called upon to give his testimony, de¬
posed, that Clodius had been with him that very mold¬
ing at his house in Rome. Irritated by this, Clodius
formed a scheme of revenge. This was to get himself
chosen tribune, and in that office to drive Cicero out
of the city, by the publication of a law, which, by
some stratagem or other, he hoped to obtrude upon
the people. But as all patricians were incapable of the
tribunate, by its original institution, so his first step
was to make himself a plebeian, by the pretence of an
adoption into a plebeian house, which could not yet
be done without the suffrage of the people. The first
triumvirate was now formed, which was nothing else in
reality but a traitorous conspiracy of three of the most
powerful citizens of Rome, to extort from their coun¬
try by violence what they could not obtain by law.
Pompey’s chief motive was to get his acts confirmed
by Caesar in his consulship, which was now coming on ;
Caesar, by giving way to Pompey’s glory, to advance
his own ; and Crassus, to gain that ascendence by the
authority of Pompey and Caesar, which be could not
sustain alone. Cicero might have made what terms he
pleased with the triumvirate, and been admitted even
a partner of their power, and a fourth in their league ;
but he would not enter into any engagements with the
three, whose union he and all his friends of the republic
abhorred. Clodius, in the mean time, had been push¬
ing
C I C [ 147 1 C I c
ing on the business of his adoption, which at last he ef¬
fected, and began soon after to threaten Cicero with
all the terrors of his tribunate, to which he was now
advanced without any opposition. Both Ctesar and
Pompey secretly favoured his scheme 5 not that they
intended to ruin Cicero, but only to keep him under
the lash ; and if they could not draw him into their
measures, or make him at least keep quiet, to let Clo-
dius loose upon him. Caesar, in particular, wanted
to distress him so far as to force him to a dependence
on himself j for which end, while he was privately en¬
couraging Clodius to pursue him, he was proposing ex¬
pedients to Cicero for his security. But. though his
fortunes seemed now to be in a tottering condition,
and his enemies to gain ground daily npon him, yet
he was unwilling to owe the obligation of his safety to
any man, far less to Caesar, whose designs he always
suspected, and whose schemes he never approved. This
stiffness in Cicero so exasperated Ceesar, that he resolved
immediately to assist Clodius with all his power to op¬
press him j while Pompey was all the time giving him
the strongest assurances that there was no danger, and
that he would sooner be killed himself than suffer him
to be hurt.
Clodius, in the mean time, was obliging the people
with several new laws, contrived chiefly for their ad¬
vantage ; the design of all which was only to intro¬
duce, with a better grace, the ground-plot of the plan,
the banishment of Cicero. In short, having caused a
law to be enacted, importing, that any who had con¬
demned a Roman citizen, unheard, should himself be
banished, he soon after impeached Cicero upon it It
was in vain that this great man went up and down
the city soliciting his cause in the habit of a suppliant,
and attended by many of the first young noblemen
whom he had taught the rules of eloquence ; those
powers of speaking which had so often been success*-
ful in defending the cause of others, seemed totally to
forsake his own t he was banished by the votes of the
people 400 miles from Italy j his houses were ordered
to be demolished, and his goods set up to sale. It can¬
not be denied, that in this great calamity he did not
behave himself with that firmness which might reason¬
ably be expected from one who had borne so glorious
a part in the republic, conscious of his integrity, and
suffering in the cause of his country 5 for his letters are
generally filled with such lamentable expressions of
grief and despair, that his best friends, and even his
wife, were forced sometimes to admonish him to rouse
his courage, and remember his former character. At-
ticus was constantly putting him in mind of it; and
sent him word of a report that was brought to Rome
by one of Cassius’s freed-men, that his affliction had
disordered his senses. He was now indeed attacked
in his weakest part; the only place in which he was
vulnerable. To have been as great in affliction as he
was in prosperity, would have been a perfection not
given to man j yet his very weakness flowed from a
source which rendered him the more amiable in all the
other parts of his life $ and the same tenderness of dis¬
position which made him love his friends, his children,
and his country, more passionately than other men,
made him feel the loss of them more sensibly. When
he had been gone a little more than two months, a mo¬
tion was made in the senate by one of the tribunes,
who was his friend, to recal him, and repeal the laws Cicero,
of Clodius, to which the whole house readily agreed.-y~—
Many obstructions, as may be easily imagined, were
given to it by the Clodian faction j but this made the
senate only more resolute to effect it. They passed a
vote, therefore, that no other business should be done
till Cicero’s return was carried j which at last it was,
and in so splendid and triumphant a manner, that he
had reason, he says, to fear, lest people should imagine
that he himself had contrived his late flight for the sake
of so glorious a restoration.
Cicero, now in his 50th year, was restored to his
former dignity, and soon after to his former fortunes $
satisfaction being made to him for the ruin of his estates
and houses, which last were again built up by himself
with more magnificence than before. But be had do¬
mestic grievances about this time which touched him
very nearly, and which, as he signifies obscurely to
Atticus, were of too delicate a nature to be expressed
in a letter: they arose chiefly from the petulant hu¬
mour of his wife, which began to give him frequent oc¬
casions of chagrin, and, by a series of repeated provoca¬
tions, confirmed in him that settled disgust which at last
ended in a divorce.
In the 56th year of his age, he was made procon¬
sul of Cilicia, and his administration there gained
him great honour. About this time the expectation
of a breach between Csesar and Pompey engaged the
general attention. Crassus had been destroyed with
his army some years before in the war with the Par-
thians j and Julia, the daughter of Ceesar, whom Pom¬
pey married, and who, while she lived, was the ce¬
ment of their union, was also dead in child-bed. Cae¬
sar had put an end to the Gallic war, and reduced
the whole province to the Roman yoke; but though
his commission was near expiring, he seemed to have
no thoughts of giving it up and returning to the con¬
dition of a private subject. He pretended that he
could not possibly be safe if he parted with his army,
especially while Pompey held the province of Spain
prolonged to him for five years. This disposition to
a breach Cicero soon learned from his friends, as he
was returning from his province of Cilicia. Rut as he
foresaw the consequences of a war more clearly and
fully than any of them, so his first resolution was to
apply all his endeavours and authority to the mediation
of a peace 5 though, in the event of a breach, he was
determined within himself to follow Pompey. He
clearly foresaw, what he declared without scruple to
his friends, that which side soever got the better, the
war must necessarily end in a tyranny. Hie only dif¬
ference, he said, was, that if their enemies conquered,
they should be proscribed j if their friends, they would
be slaves.
He no sooner arrived at the city, however, thaii
he fell, as he tells us, into the very flame of civil dis¬
cord, and found the war in effect proclaimed j for the ✓
senate had just voted a decree, that Caesar should dis¬
band his army by a certain clay, or be declared an
enemy; and Caesar’s sudden march towards Rome
effectually confirmed it. In the midst of all this hurry
and confusion, Caesar was extremely solicitous about
Cicero; not so much to gain him, for that was not to
be expected, as to prevail with him to stand neuter.
He wTOte to him several times to that effect, and
T 2 employed
C I C [ 148 ] C I c
Cicero, employed all their common friends to press him with
letters on that subject 5 all which was done; but in
vain, for Cicero was impatient to be gone to Pompey.
In the mean time, these letters give us a most sen¬
sible proof of the high esteem and credit in which Ci¬
cero flourished at this time in Rome ; when in a con¬
test for empire, which force alone was to decide, we
see the chiefs on both sides so solicitous to gain a man
to their party, who had no peculiar skill in arms or
talents for war. Pursuing, however, the result of all
his deliberations, he embarked at length to follow
Pompey, who had been obliged to quit Italy some
time before, and was then at Dyrrhachium ; and ar¬
rived safely in his camp with his son, his brother, and
his nephew, committing the fortunes of the whole
family to the issue of that cause. After the battle of
Pharsalia, in which Pompey was defeated, Cicero re¬
turned into Italy, and was afterwards received into
great favour by Caesar, who was now declared dicta¬
tor the second time, and Mark Antony his master of
horse. We may easily imagine, what we find indeed
from his letters, that he was not a little disconcerted
at the thoughts of an interview with Caesar, and the
indignity of offering himself to a conqueror against
whom he had been in arms; for though upon many
accounts he had reason to expect a kind reception
from Caesar, yet he hardly thought his life, he says,
worth begging, since what was given by a master
might always he taken away again at pleasure. But
at their meeting he had no occasion to say or do any
thing that was below his dignity; for Caesar no sooner
saw him than he alighted, ran to embrace him, and
walked with him alone, conversing very familiarly, for
several furlongs.
Cicero was now in his 61st year, and forced at last
to part with his wife Terentia, whose humour and
conduct had been long uneasy to him. She was a
woman of an imperious and turbulent spirit, and
though he had borne her perverseness in the vigour of
health, and flourishing state of his fortunes; yet, in
declining life, soured by a continual succession of mor¬
tifications from abroad, the want of ease and quiet at
home was no longer tolerable to him. But he was
immediately oppressed by a new and most cruel af¬
fliction, the death of his beloved daughter Tullia, who
died in child-bed soon after her divorce from her
third husband Dolabella. She was about 32 years
old at the time of her death; and, by the few hints
which are left of her character, appears to have been
an excellent and admirable woman. She was most
affectionately and piously observant of her father,
and, to the usual graces of her sex, having added the
more solid accomplishments of knowledge and polite
letters, was qualified to he the companion and delight
of his age; and was justly esteemed not only as one
of the best, but the most learned of the Roman ladies.
His affliction for the death of this daughter was so
great, that to shun ail company as much as he could,
he removed to Atticus’s house, where he lived chiefly
in his library, turning over every book he could meet
with on the subject of moderating grief. But finding
his residence here too public, and a greater resort to
him than he could hear, he retired to Asturia, one of
Ins seats near Antium ; a little island on the Latian
shore, at the mouth of a river of the same name, cover¬
ed with wood and groves cut into shady walks; a Cicero,
scene of all others the fittest to indulge melancholy, and
where he could give a free course to his grief. “ Here
(says he to Atticus) I live without the speech of man ;
every morning early I hide myself in the thickest of
the wood, and never come out till the evening. Next
to yourself, nothing is so dear to me as this solitude;
and my whole conversation is with my books.” In¬
deed his whole time was employed in little else than
reading and writing during Caesar’s administration,
which he could never cheerfully submit to; and it was
within this period that he drew up one of the gravest
of those philosophical pieces which are still extant in
his works.
Upon the death of Csesar, Octavius his nephew and
heir coming into Italy, was presented to Cicero by
Hirtius and Pansa, with the strongest professions on
the part of the young man that he would be governed
entirely by his direction. Indeed Cicero thought it
necessary to cherish and encourage Octavius, if for no¬
thing else, yet to keep him at a distance from Antony;
but could not yet be persuaded to enter heartily into
his affairs. He. suspected his youth and want of expe¬
rience ; and that he had not strength enough to deal
with Antony; and, above all, that he had no good dis¬
position towards the conspirators. He thought it im¬
possible he should ever be a friend to them; and was
persuaded rather, that if ever he got the upper hand,
his uncle’s acts would be more violently enforced, and
his death more cruelly revenged, than by Antony him¬
self. And when Cicero did at last consent to unite
himself to Octavius’s interests, it was with no other
view but to arm him with a power sufficient to oppress
Antony; yet so checked and limited, that he should
not he able to oppress the republic.
In the midst of all this political bustle, be was still
prosecuting his studies with his usual application ; and
besides some philosophical pieces, now finished his book
of offices, or the duties of man, for the use of his son;
A work admired by all succeeding ages as the most per¬
fect system of Heathen morality, and the noblest effort
and specimen of what reason could do in guiding men
through life with innocence and happiness. How¬
ever, he paid a constant attention to public affairs ;
missed no opportunities, but did every tiling that hu¬
man prudence could do for the recovery of the repub¬
lic : for all that vigour with which it was making this
last effort for itself, was entirely owing to his counsels
and authority. This appears from those memorable
philippics which from time to time he published against
Antony, as well as from other monuments of antiquity.
But all was in vain ; for though Antony’s army was
entirely defeated at the siege of Modena, which made
many people imagine that the war was at an end, and
the liberty of Rome established ; yet the death of the
consuls Pansa and Hirtius in that action gave the fatal
blow to all Cicero’s schemes, and was the immediate
cause of the ruin of the republic.
Octavius having subdued the senate to his mind,
marched towards Gaul to meet Antony and Lepi-
dus; who had already passed the Alps, and brought
their armies into Italy, in order to have a personal
interview with him; which had been privately con¬
certed for settling the terms of a triple league, and
dividing the power and provinces of Italy among
themselves.
Cicero.
* Swin¬
burne's
Travels in
Sicily, voi.
P- S32.
G I C [ i
themselves. The place appointed for this interview
was a small island about two miles from Bononia, form¬
ed by the river Rhenus which runs near that city.
Here they met, and spent three days in a close con¬
ference to adjust the plan of their accommodation ;
and the last thinu; they adjusted was the list of a pro¬
scription which they were determined to make of
their enemies. This, as the writers tell us, occasioned
much difficulty and warm contests among them, till
each in his turn consented to sacrifice some of his best
friends to the revenge and resentment of his col¬
leagues. Cicero was at his Tusculan villa, when he
first received the news of the proscription, and of his
being included in it. It was the design of the tiium-
virate to keep it a secret, if possible, to the moment
of execution, in order to surprise those whom they
had destined to destruction, before they were aware of
their danger, or had time to make their escape. But
some of Cicero’s friends found means to give him early
notice of it } upon which he set fonvard to the sea-aide,
with a design to transport himself out of the reach of
his enemies. There, finding a vessel ready, he imme¬
diately embarked; but the winds being adverse, and
the sea uneasy to him, after he had sailed about two
leagues along the coast, he was obliged to land, and
spend the night on shore.. From whence he was forced,
by the importunity of his servants, on board again ;
but was soon afterwards obliged to land at a country-
seat of his a mile from the shore, weary of life, and de-
daring lie was resolved to die in that country which he
had so often saved. Here he slept soundly for some
time, till his servants once more forced him away in a
litter towards the ship, having heard that he w'as pursued
by Antony’s assassins. They had scarcely departed
when the assassins arrived at his house ; and, perceiving
him to have fled, pursued him immediately towards the
sea, and overtook him in a wood that was near tlie shore.
Their leader was one Popilius Lenas, a tribune of the
army, whose life Cicero had formerly defended and
saved. As soon as the soldiers appeared, the servants
prepared to defend their master’s life at the hazard of
their own ; but Cicero commanded them to set him
down and make no resistance. They soon cut off bis
bead and his hands, returning with them to Rome as
the most agreeable present to their cruel employer.
Antony, who was then at Rome, received them with
extreme joy, rewarding the murderer with a large sum
of money, and ordered the iiead to be fixed upon the
rostra between the two hands j a sad spectacle to the
city, and what drew tears from every eye, to see those
mangled members which used to exert themselves so
gloriously from that place in defence of the lives, the
fortunes, and the liberties of the Roman people, so la¬
mentably exposed to the scorn of sycophants and trai¬
tors. The deaths of the rest, says an historian of that
age, caused only a private and particular sorrow \ but
Cicero’s an. universal one. It was a triumph over the
republic itself } and seemed to confirm and establish the
perpetual slavery of Rome.
A modern writer*, however, is of opinion, that
“ posteritv has been too much seduced by the name of
Cicero, and that better citizens were sacrificed to the
jealousy of the triumvirs without exciting so much in¬
dignation.” If we take an impartial survey of Cicero’s
conduct and principles, avowed in his own epistolary
49 ] GIG
correspondence, and trace him through all the laby¬
rinths of his contradictory letters, we shall find moie
to blame than to admire } and discover, that the desire
of advancing his fortunes, and making himself a name,
were, from his outset in lite^ the only objects he had
in view. The good of his country, and the dictates
of stern steady virtue, were not, as in Brutus and Cato,
the constant springs of his actions. The mislortunes
that befel him after his consulship, developed his cha¬
racter, and showed him in his true colours j from that
time to his death, pusillanimity, irresolution, and un¬
worthy repining, tainted his judgment, and perplexed
every step he wished to take. He flattered Pompey
and cringed to Caesar, while in his private letters he
abused them both alternately. He acknowledges in a
letter to his friend, the time-serving Atticus, that, al¬
though he was at present determined to support the
cause of Rome and liberty, and to bear misfortune like
a philosopher, there was one thing which would gain
him over to the triumvirs, and that was their procu¬
ring for him the vacant augurship j so pitiful was the
bribe to which he would have sacrificed lus honour,
his opinion, and the commonwealth. By his wavering
imprudent conduct, he contributed greatly towards
his destruction. After reproaching the conspirators
for leaving him out of the secret, and loading them
with the most flattering compliments on their delivering
Rome from Caesar’s tyranny, he calls Casca an assassin^
to pay his court to the boy Octavius, by whom he was
completely duped. His praises of this triumvir are in
the highest strain of panegyric. Mark Antony well
knew, that the virulent abuse which Cicero was con¬
tinually pouring out against him, was not an eflusion
of patriotic zeal or virtuous indignation, but merely
the ebullitions of personal hatred. He therefore caused
Cicero to be killed, as an angry man that has been
stung, stamps on a venomous animal that comes within
reach of his foot. The cloak he threw over the body
of Brutus, and the speech he pronounced at the sight
of that hero when dead, difter widely from the treat¬
ment he gave the remains of Cicero} and show, that he
made a distinction between a Roman who opposed him
from political motives, and one whose enmity arose
from private pique.
Cicero’s death happened on the 7th of December, in
the 64th year of his age, about ten days from the settle¬
ment of the first triumvirate ; and with him expired the
short empire of eloquence among the Romans. As an
orator he is thus characterized by Dr Blair: “ In all his
orations his art is conspicuous. He begins commonly
■with a regular exordium, and with much address pre¬
possesses the hearers, and studies to gain their affections.
His method is clear, and his arguments are arranged
with exact propriety. In a superior clearness of me¬
thod, he has an advantage over Demosthenes. Lvery
thing appears in its proper place. He never tries to
move till he has attempted to convince; and in moving,
particularly the softer passions, he is highly successlul.
No one ever knew the force of words better than Cice-
He rolls them along with the greatest beauty and
Cicero-.
magnificence ; and in the structure of his sentences is
eminently curious and exact. He is always full and
flowing, never abrupt. He amplifies every tiling; yet
though, his manner is generally diffuse, it is often hap¬
pily varied and accommodated to the subject. W hen
C I C [ 150 J C I L
Cicero an important public object roused Ins mind, and de¬
ll manded indignation and force, he departs considerably
Cicuta. ffom that loose and declamatory manner to which he
^ " at other times is addicted, and becomes very forcible
and vehement. This great orator, however, is not with¬
out his defects. In most of his orations there is too
much art, even carried to a degree of ostentation. He
seems often desirous of obtaining admiration rather than
of operating conviction. He is sometimes, therefore,
showy rather than solid, and diffuse where he ought to
, have been urgent. His sentences are always round and
sonorous. They cannot be accused of monotony, since
they possess variety of cadence ; but from too great a
fondness for magnificence, he is on some occasions defi¬
cient in strength. Though the services which he had
performed to his country were very considerable, yet he
is too much his own panegyrist. Ancient manners,
which imposed fewer restraints on the side of decorum,
may in some degree excuse, but cannot entirely justify,
his vanity.”
CICHORIUM, Succory. See Botany Index.
CICTNDELA, the Sparkler, in Zoology, a genus
of insects belonging to the order of coleoptera. See
Entomology Index.
CICISBEO, an Italian term, which in its etymolo¬
gy signifies a whisperer ; a term bestowed in Italy both
on lovers, and those who to outward appearance act
as such, waiting on married ladies with as much at¬
tention and respect as if they were their lovers. This
Italian custom has been spoken of very reproachfully
by some writers : Mr Baretti has taken great pains to
vindicate it. He ascribes it to a spirit of gallantry, de¬
rived from the ages of chivalry, and much heightened
and refined by the revival of the Platonic philosophy in
Italy, about the thirteenth century $ and by the verses
of Petrarch in compliment to the beautiful Laura, and
his numerous imitators.
CICLUT, or CiclucH, a strong frontier town of
Dalmatia, situated on the river Narentha, in E. Long.
18. 22. N. Lat. 43. 29. It is surrounded with Walls
built in the ancient manner, and was taken by the Ve¬
netians from the Turks in 1694.
CICONES, a people of Thrace near the Hebrus.
Ulysses at his return from Troy conquered them, and
plundered their chief city Ismarus. They tore to pieces
Orpheus for his obscene indulgencies.
CICUTA, properly signifies a hollow intercepted
between two knots, of the stalks or reeds of which
the ancient shepherds used to make their pipes. It is
now, however, generally used to signify the water-hem¬
lock, and also the common sort $ but Linnaeus has de¬
scribed the latter under the old name of Conium.
. -v See that article.
There are three species of water-hemlock ; the virosa,
the bulbifera, and the maculata. Of these the first is
the only one remarkable, and that for the poisonous
qualities of its roots, which have been often known to
destroy children who ate them for parsnips.
Cicuta is also used, chiefly among the ancients,
for the juice of liquor expressed from the above plant,
being the common poison wherewith the state crimi¬
nals at Athens were put to death : Though some have
suggested, that the poisonous draught to which the
Athenians doomed their criminals was an inspissated
juice compounded of the juice of eicuta and some other cieuta
corrosive herbs. ||
Socrates drank the c/cwfa.-—Plato, in his dialogue Cilicia*
on the immortality of the soul, observes, that “ The
executioner advised Socrates not to talk, for fear of
causing the cicuta to operate too slowly.” M. Petit,
in his Observationes Miscellanea, remarks, that this
advice was not given by the executioner out of hu¬
manity, but to save the cicuta ; for he was only allow¬
ed so much poison per ann. which, if he exceeded, he
was to furnish at his own expence. This construction
is confirmed by a passage in Plutarch : the executioner
who administered the cicuta to Phocion, not having
enough, Phocion gave him money to buy more $ ob¬
serving by the way, that it was odd enough, that at
Athens a man must pay for every thing, even for his
own death.”
CID, Roderigo Dias le, a Castilian officer, who
was very successful against the Moors, under Ferdi¬
nand II. king of Castile ; but whose name would hard¬
ly have been remembered, if Corneille had not made
his passion for Chimene the subject of an admired tra¬
gedy, founded on a simple but affecting incident. The
Cid is desperately in love with Chimene, daughter
of the count de Gomes 5 but he is at variance with
the count, and being challenged by him, kills him
in a duel. The conflict between love and honour in
the breast of Chimene, who at length pardons and
marries the Cid, forms the beauty of the* piece. He
died in 1098.
CIDARIS, in antiquity, the mitre used by the Jew¬
ish high-priests. The Rabbins say, that the bonnet
used by priests in general was made of a piece of linen
cloth 16 yards long, which covered their heads like a
helmet or turban $ and they allow no other difference
between the high-priest’s bonnet and that of other
priests, than that the one is flatter, and more in the
form of a turban j whereas that worn by ordinary
priests rose something more in a point.
CIGNANI, Carlo, an Italian painter, wasboimat
Bologna in 1628 : and was the disciple of Albani. He
was esteemed by Pope Clement XL who nominated
him prince of the academy of Bologna, and loaded him
with favours. Cignani died at Forli in 1719. The
cupola of la Madona del Fuoco at Forli, in which he
represented Paradise, is an admirable work. His prin¬
cipal pictures are at Rome, Bologna, and Forli.
CIGOLI, or Civoli, the painter. See Civoli.
CILIA, the Eye-lashes. See Anatomy Index.
CILIATED leaf, among botanical writers, one
surrounded with parallel filaments somewhat like the
hairs of the eyelids.
CILICIA, an ancient kingdom of Asia, lying be¬
tween the 36th and 40th degree of north latitude:
bounded on the east by Syria, or rather by Mount
Amanus, which separates it from that kingdom j by
Pamphylia on the west 5 by Isauria, Cappadocia, and
Armenia Minor, on the north j and by the Mediter¬
ranean sea on the south. It is so surrounded by steep
and craggy mountains, chiefly Taurus and Amanus,
that it may be defended by a handful of resolute men
against a numerous army, there being but three nar¬
row passes leading into it, commonly called Pylce CV-
licice, or the gates of Cilicia $ one on the side of Cap¬
padocia,
C I L [ 15! ] C I M
patlocia, called the Pass of Mount Taurus ; and the
other two called the Pass of Mount Amanus, and the
Pass of Syria. The whole country was divided by the
ancients into Cilicia Aspera, and Cilicia Campestris ;
the former called by the Greeks Trachcea or Stojiy,
from its abounding so with stones •, and to this day the
whole province is called by the Turks, Tus Wileieth,
or the Stony Province.
According to Josephus, Cilicia was first peopled by
Tarshish the son of Javan, and his descendants, whence
the whole country was named Tarsus. The ancient
inhabitants were in process of time driven out by a
colony of Phoenicians, who under the conduct of Ci~
lix, first settled in the island of Cyprus, and from
thence passed into the country which, from their leader,
they called Cilicia. Afterwards several other colo¬
nies from different nations settled in this kingdom,
particularly from Syria and Greece j whence the Cili-
cians in some places used the Greek tongue, in others
the Syriac j but the former greatly corrupted by the
Persian, the predominant language of the country be¬
ing a dialect of that tongue. We find no mention of
the kings of Cilicia after their settlement in that coun¬
try, till the time of Cyrus, to whom they voluntarily
submitted, continuing subject to the Persians till the
overthrow of that empire; but governed to the time
of Artaxerxes Mnemon, by kings of their own na¬
tion. After the downfal of the Persian empire, Cili¬
cia became a province of that of Macedon $ and, on
the death of Alexander, fell to the share of Seleucus,
and continued under his descendants till it was reduced
to a Roman province by Pompey. As a proconsular
province, it was first governed by Appius Claudius
Pulcher, and after him by Cicero, who reduced seve¬
ral strong holds on Mount Amanus, in which some Ci-
licians had fortified themselves, and held out against
his predecessor. It was on this occasion that the di¬
vision, formerly mentioned, into Trachaea and Cam¬
pestris, took place. The latter became a Roman pro¬
vince •, but the former was governed by kings appoint¬
ed by the Romans, till the reign of Vespasian, when
the family of Tracondementus being extinct, this part
also made a province of the empire, and the whole di¬
vided into Cilicia Prima, Cilicia Secufida, andlsauriaj
the first took in all Cilicia Campestris, the second the
coast of Cilicia Trachaea, and the last the inland parts
of the same division. It is now a province of Asiatic
Turkey j and is called Caramatiia, having been the last
province of the Caramanian kingdom which held out
against the Ottoman race.
That par-t of Cilicia called by the ancients Cilicia
Campestris, was, if we believe Ammianus Marcellinus,
one of the most fruitful countries of Asia j but the
western part equally barren, though famous, even to
this day, for an excellent breed of horses, of which
600 are yearly sent to Constantinople for the special
use of the Grand Signior. The air in the inland parts
is reckoned wholesome j but that on the sea-coast very
dangerous, especially to strangers.
The rivers of any note are the Pyramus, which rises
on the north side of Mount Taurus, and empties itself
into the Mediterranean between Issus and Magarassus;
and the Cydnus, which springs from the Antitaurus,
passes through Tarsus, and disembogues itself into the
Mediterranean. This last is famous for the rapidity of
its stream, and the coldness of its waters, which proved Ciiieia
very dangerous to Alexander the Great. tl
The Cilicians, if we believe the Greek and Roman Cimbu'
historians, were a rough unpolished race of people, un¬
fair in their dealings, cruel, and liars even to a proverb.
In the Roman times they became greatly addicted to
piracy. They first began, in the time of the Mithri-
datic war, to infest the neighbouring provinces along
with the Pamphylians ; and, being emboldened with
success, they soon ventured as far as the coasts of
Greece and Italy, where they took a vast number of
slaves, whom they sold to the Cypriots and the kings
of Egypt and Syria. They were, however, at last de¬
feated and entirely suppressed by Pompey the Great.
See {Ilisiory of) Rome.
Cilicia Terra, in the natural history of the anci¬
ents, a bituminous substance, improperly called an earth,
which, by boiling, became tough like bird-lime, and
was used instead of that substance to cover the stocks
of the vines for preserving them from the worms.
It probably served in this office in a sort of double ca¬
pacity, driving away these animals by its nauseous
smell, and entangling them if they chanced to get
amongst it.
CILICIUM, in Hebrew antiquity, a sort of habit
made of coarse stuff, formerly in use among the Jews
in times of mourning and distress. It is the same with
what the Septuagint and Hebrew versions called sack¬
cloth.
CILLEY, an ancient and famous town of Germa¬
ny, in the circle of Austria, and in Stiria. It is
the capital of a country of the same name, and is si¬
tuated on the river Saan, in E. Long. 15. 15. N. Lat.
46. 31.
CILURNUM, (Notitia) j a town of Britain:
thought to be Collerton, or Collerford, in Northum¬
berland j but Walwic, or Scilicester, according to
Camden.
CIMA, or Sima, in Architecture, the same with
Cymatium, or Ogee.
CIMABUE, GioVANI, a renowned painter, born
at Florence in 1240, and the first who revived the art
of painting in Italy. He painted, according to the
custom of those times, in fresco and in distemper;
colours in oil not being then found out. He excelled
in architecture as well as in painting; and was con¬
cerned in the fabric of Sancta Maria del Fior at Flo¬
rence, during which employment he died at the age of
60, and left many disciples.
CIMBRI, an ancient Celtic nation, inhabiting the
northern parts of Germany. They are said to have
been descended from the Asiatic Cimmerians, and to
have taken the name of Cimbri when they changed
their old habitations. When they first became re¬
markable, they inhabited chiefly the peninsula, now
called Jutland, and by the ancients Cimbrica Chersti- .
nesus. About 113 years before Christ, they left their
peninsula with their wives and children ; and joining
the Teutones, a neighbouring nation, took their jour¬
ney southward in quest of a better country. They
first fell upon the Boii, a Gaulish nation, situated near
the Hercynian forest. Here they were repulsed, and
obliged to move nearer the Roman provinces. The
republic being then alarmed at the approach of such
multitudes of barbarians, sent an army against them
under
C I M
Cimbri. under the consul Paplrius Carbo. On the approach of
“—'v'——^ the Roman army, the Cimbri made proposals of peace.
The consul pretended to accept ot it 5 but having
thrown them into a disadvantageous situation, trea¬
cherously attacked their camp. His perfidy was reward¬
ed as it deserved $ the Cimbri ran to arms, and not
only repulsed the Romans, but, attacking them in their
turn, utterly defeated them, and obliged the shattered
remains of their forces to conceal themselves in the
neighbouring forests. After this victory the Cimbri
entered Transalpine Gaul, which they quickly filled
with slaughter and desolation. Here they continued
five or six years, when another Roman army under the
consul Silanus marched against them. This general
met with no better success than Carbo had done. His
army was routed at the first onset •, in consequence of
which, all Narbonne Gaul was exposed at once to the
ravages of these barbarians.
About 105 years before Christ, the Cimbri began
to threaten the Roman empire itself with destruction.
The Gauls marched from all parts with a design to join
them, and to invade Italy. The Roman army was com¬
manded by the proconsul Cmpio, and the consul Mal-
lius } but as these two commanders could not agree,
they were advised to separate, and divide their forces.
This advice proved the ruin of the whole army. rI lie
Cimbri immediately fell upon a strong detachment of
the consular army commanded by M. Aurelius Scaurus,
which they cut off to a man, and made Scaurus him¬
self prisoner. Mullius being greatly intimidated by
this defeat, desired a reconciliation with Csepio, hut
was haughtily refused. He moved nearer the consul,
however, with his army, that the enemy might not be
defeated without his having a share in the action. The
Cimbri, by this movement, imagining the commanders
had made up their quarrel, sent ambassadors to Mallius
with proposals of peace. As they could not help go¬
ing through Csepio’s camp, he ordered them to he
brought before him but finding they were empower¬
ed to treat only with Mallius, he could scarce be re¬
strained from putting them to death. His troops, how¬
ever, forced him to confer with Mallius about the pro¬
posals sent by the barbarians : but as Coepio went to
the consul’s tent against his will, so he opposed him in
every thing ; contradicted with great obstinacy, and
insulted him in the grossest manner. The deputies on
their return acquainted their countrymen that the mis¬
understanding between the Roman commanders still
subsisted 5 upon which the Cimbri attacked the camp
of Caepio, and the Gaols that of Mallius. Both were
forced, and the Romans slaughtered without mercy.
Eighty thousand citizens and allies of Rome, with
40,000 servants and sutlers, perished on that fatal day.
In short, of the two Roman armies only 10 men, with
the two generals, escaped to carry the news of so dread¬
ful a defeat. The conquerors destroyed all the spoil, pur¬
suant to a vow they had made before the battle. The
gold and silver they threw into the Rhone, drowned
the horses they had taken, and put to death all the pri¬
soners.
The Romans were thrown into the utmost conster¬
nation on the news of so terrible an overthrow. They
saw themselves threatened with a deluge of Cimbri
and Gaul^ numerous enough to overrun the whole
country. They did not, however, despair. A new
C I M '
army was raised with incredible expedition ; no citi- Cimbri.
zen whatever who was fit to bear arms being exempt- v-w
ed. On this occasion also, fencing-masters were first
introduced into the Roman camp ; by which means the
soldiers were soon rendered in a manner invincible.
Marius, who was at that time in high reputation on
account of his victories in Africa, was chosen com¬
mander, and waited for the Cimbri in Iransalpine
Gaul: but they had resolved to enter Italy by two
different ways $ the Cimbri over the eastern, and the
Teutones and other allies over the western Alps. The
Roman general, therefore, marched to oppose the lat¬
ter, and defeated the Ambrones and Teutones with
great slaughter *. The Cimbri, in the mean time, 4 See 4»r.
entered Italy, and struck the whole country with ter-and
ror. Catullus and Sylla attempted to oppose them 5 Teulonn.
but their soldiers were so intimidated by the fierce
countenances and terrible appearance oi these barba¬
rians, that nothing could prevent their flying before
them. The city of Rome was now totally defence¬
less ; and, had the Cimbri only marched briskly for¬
wards they had undoubtedly become masters of it;
but they waited in expectation of being joined by their
allies the Ambrones and Teutones, not having heard
of their defeat by Marius, till the senate had time to
recal him to the defence of his country. By their or¬
der he joined his army to that of Catullus and Sylla;
and upon that union was declared commander in chief.
The Roman army consisted of 52,300 men. The ca¬
valry of the Cimbri were no more than 15,000, but
their foot seemed innumerable 5 for, being drawn up
in a square, they are said to have covered 30 furlongs.
The Cimbri attacked the Romans with the utmost
fury 5 but, being unaccustomed to bear the heats oi
Italy, they soon began to lose their strength, and were
easily overcome. But they had put it out of their
power to fly j for, that they might keep their ranks
the better, they had, like true barbarians, tied them¬
selves together with cords fastened to their belts, so
that the Romans made a most terrible bavoc of them.
The battle was therefore soon over, and the whole
day employed only in the most terrible butchery. An
hundred and twenty thousand were killed on the field
of battle, and 60,000 taken prisoners. The victorious
Romans then inarched to the enemy’s camp, where
they had a new battle to fight with the women, whom
they found more fierce than even their husbands had
been. From their carts and waggons, which formed
a kind of fortification, they discharged showers of darts
and arrows on friends and foes without distinction.
They first suffocated their children in their arms,
and then put an end to their own lives. The greatest
part of them hanged themselves on trees. One was
found hanging at a cart with two of her children at
her heels. Many of the men, for want of trees and
stakes, tied strings in running knots about their necks,
and fastened them to the tails of their horses, and the
horns and feet of their oxen, in order to strangle them¬
selves that way ; and thus the whole multitude was de¬
stroyed.
The country of the Cimbri, which, after this ter¬
rible catastrophe, was left a mere desert, was again
peopled by the Scythians 3 who being driven by Pom-
pey out of that vast space between the Euxine and the
Caspian sea, marched towards the north and west of
Europe,
[ 152 ]
C I M
Cimbri
y
Ciniolia.
Europe, subduing all tbe nations they met with in their
way. They conquered Russia, Saxony, Westphalia,
and other countries as far as Finland, Norway, and
Sweden. It is pretended that Wodin their leader, tra¬
versed so many countries, and endeavoured to subdue
them, only with a view to excite the people against
the Romans j and that the spirit of animosity which
he had excited operated so powerfully after his death,
that the northern nations combined to attack it, and
never ceased their incursions till it was totally sub¬
verted.
CIMEX, or Bug, in Zoology, a genus of insects
belonging to the ox-der of hemiptera. See Entomo¬
logy Index.
The methods of expelling house bugs are various, as
oil of turpentine, the smoke of corn-mint, of narrow¬
leaved wild cress, of herb-robert, of the x-eddish agaric,
of mustard, Guinea pepper, peats, or turf, &c. See
also Bug and Cimicifuga.
CIMICIFUGA. See Botany Index.
The cimicifuga foetida has obtained the name of
cimicifuga, or bugbane, both in Siberia and Tartary,
from its property of driving away those insects; and
the botanists of those parts of Eui’ope which ai-e infest¬
ed with them have long desired to naturalise it in their
several countries. Gmelin mentions that in Siberia
the natives also use it as an evacuant in dropsy, and
that its effects are violently emetic and drastic.
CIMMERII, anciently a people near the Palus
Mteofis. They invaded Asia Minor 1284 years be¬
fore Christ, and seized upon the kingdom of Cyaxa-
res. After they had been masters of the country for
28 years, they were driven back by Alyates king of
Lydia. The name also of another nation on the west¬
ern coast of Italy. The country which they inhabit¬
ed was supposed to be so gloomy, that to express a
great obscurity, the expression of Cimmerian darkness
has proverbially been used; and Homer, according to
Plutarch, drew his images of hell and Pluto from the
gloomy and dismal country where they dwelt.
CIMMERIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town at
the mouth of the Palus Mseotis j from which the Bos¬
phorus Cimmerius is named j that strait which joins the
Euxine and the Palus Maeotis, Cimmerii was the name
of the people (Homer) : and here stood the Promon-
torium Cimmerium (Ptolemy) j and hence probably
the modern appellation Crim.
Cimmerium, in Ancient Geography, a place near
Baiae, in Campania, where formerly stood the cave of
the sibyl. The people were called Cimmerii, whe liv¬
ing in subterraneous habitations, from which they is¬
sued in the night to commit robberies and other acts
of violence, never saw the light of the sun (Homer).
To give a natural account of this fable, Festus says,
there wa« a valley surrounded with a pretty high ridge,
which precluded the morning and evening sun.
CIMOLIA terra, in Natural History, a name ap¬
plied by the ancients to an earth, at one time much
employed in medicine $ but which later ages have sup¬
posed to be no other than our tobacco-pipe clay and
fullers earth.
The cimolia terra of the ancients was found in se¬
veral of the islands of the Archipelago, pai-ticularly
in the island of Cimolus, from whence it has its name.
It was used with great success in the erysipelas, in-
Vol. VI. Part I. t
C 153 ]
C I M
flammations, and the like, being applied by way of
cataplasm to the part. They also used, as we do,
what we call cimolia, or fullers earth, for the cleansing
of clothes. This earth of the ancients, though so long
disregarded, and by many supposed to be lost, is yet
very plentiful in Argentiere (Rie ancient Cimolus),
Sphanto, and many of those islands. It is a marl of
a lax and crumbly texture, and a pure bright white
colour, very soft to the touch. It adheres fix-mly to
the tongue, and, if thrown into water, raises a little
hissing and ebullition, and moulders to a fine powder.
It makes a considerable effervescence with acids, and
suffers no change of colour in the fire. These are the
characters sf what the ancients called simply terra ci¬
molia; but besides this, they had from the same place
another earth which they called by the same general
name, but distinguished by the epithet purple, purpu*
rescens. This they described to be fattish, cold to the
touch, of a mixed purple colour, and nearly as hard as
a stone. And this was evidently the substance we call
steatites, or the soap-rock, common in Cornwall, and al¬
so in the island of Argentiere, or Cimolus.
Cimolia Alba, the officinal name of the earth of
which we now make tobacco-pipes. Its distinguishing
characters are, that it is a dense, compact, heavy earth,
of a dull white colour, and very close texture ; it will
not easily break between the fingers, and slightly stains
the skin in handling. It adheres firmly to the tongue ;
melts very slowly in the mouth, and is not readily dif¬
fusible in water. It is found in many places. That
of the isle of Wight is much esteemed for its coloux*.
Great plenty of it is found near Pole in Dorsetshire,
and near Wedensbnry in Staffordshire.
Cimolia Nigra, is of a dark lead colour, hard, dr?,
and heavy: of a smooth compact texture, and not vis¬
cid : it does not colour the hands; crumbles when dry ;
adheres to the tongue j diffuses slowly in water; and
is not acted upon by acids. It burns perfectly white,
and acquires a considerable hardness. The chief pits
for this clay are near Northampton, where it is used in
the manufacture of tobacco-pipes. It is also mixed
with the critche clay of Derbyshire, in the proportion
of one part to three, in the manufacture of the hard
reddish bi’own ware.
CIMOLUS, in Ancient Geography, one of the Cy¬
clades, now called Argentiere.
CIMON, an Athenian, son of Miltiades and He-
gisipyle. He was famous for his debaucheries in his
youth, and the reformation of his mox-als when arrived
to years of discretion. He behaved with great cou¬
rage at the battle of Salamis, and rendered himself po¬
pular by his munificence and valour. He defeated
the Persian fleet, took 200 ships, and totally routed
their land army, the very same day, A. U. C. 284.
The money that he had obtained by his victories was not
applied for his own private use, but with it he fortified
and embellished the city. He some time after lost all
his popularity, and was banished by the Athenians, who
declared war against the Lacedaemonians. He was re¬
called from his exile, and at his return he made a re¬
conciliation between Lacedaemon and his countrymen.
He was afterwards appointed to carry on the war a-
gainst Pei’sia in Egypt and Cyprus, with a fleet of 200
ships, and on the coast of Asia he gave battle to the
enemy, and totally ruined their fleet, A. U. C. 304.
U He
Ciniolia
u
Cinion.
C I N [ 154 ] C I N
Cimon He died as he was besieging the town of Citium in
|| Cyprus. He may be called the last of the Greeks
Cinchona. vv|lf>se spirit and boldness defeated the armies of the
v barbarians. He was such an inveterate enemy to the
Persian power, that he formed a plan of totally de¬
stroying it 5 and in his wars he had so reduced the
Persians, that they promised in a treaty not to pass
the Chelidonian islands with their fleet, or to approach
•within a day’s journey of the Grecian seas. See At¬
tica.
CINALOA, a province of Mexico in South A-
merica, abounding in corn, cattle, and cotton j and
rendered extremely picturesque by a number of beau¬
tiful cascades of clear water that fall down from the
mountains. It lies on the eastern coast of the sea
of California, but is now included in the province of
Sonora.
CINARA, the Artichoke. See Cynara, Bo¬
tany Index
CINCHONA. See Botany Index.
According to some, the Peruvians learned the use
of the bark of this tree by observing certain animals
affected with intermittents instinctively led to it j while
others say, that a Peruvian having an ague, was cured
by happening to drink of a pool which, from some
trees having fallen into it, tasted of cinchona ; and its
ose in gangrene is said to have originated from its cur¬
ing one in an aguish-patient. About the year 1640,
the lady of the Spanish viceroy, the Comitissa del Cin-
chon, was cured by the bark, which has therefore been
called Cortex or Pulvis Comitissa Cmc/iona, Chinachi-
na or Chinchina, Kinakma or A inkhia, Quinaquina or
Quinquina; and from the interest which the cardinal
de Lugo and the Jesuit fathers took in its distribution,
it has been called Cortex or Pulvis Cardinulis de Lugo,
Jesuiticus, Patrum, fyc.
On its first introduction into Europe, it was repro¬
bated by many eminent physicians ; and at different pe¬
riods long after, it was considered a dangerous remedy ;
but its character, in process of time, became very uni¬
versally established. For a number of years, the bark
which is rolled up into short thick quills, with a rough
coat, and a bright cinnamon colour in the inside,
which broke brittle, and was sound, had an aromatic
flavour, a bitterish astringent taste, with a degree of
aromatic warmth, was esteemed the bestj though some
esteemed the large pieces as of equal goodness. Dur¬
ing the time of the late war, in the year 1779, the
Hussar frigate took a Spanish ship, loaded principally
with Peruvian bark, which was much larger, thicker,
and of a deeper reddish colour than the bark in com¬
mon use. Soon after it was brought to London, it was
tried in St Bartholomew’s hospital, and in other hospi¬
tals about town, and was said to be more efficacious
than the quill bark. This put practitioners upon exa¬
mining into the history of the bark, on trying experi¬
ments with it, and of making comparative trials of its
effects with those of the bark in common use on pa¬
tients labouring under intermittent complaints. In
July 1782, Dr William Saunders published an account
of this red bark, in which he says that the small quill
bark used in England is either the bark of young
trees, or of the twigs or branches of the old ones;
and that the large bark, called the red bark from the
deep colour, is the bark of the trunk of the old trees j
2
and he mentions a Mr Arnot, who himself gathered Cinchona i
the bark from the trees in Peru j and Mons. Conda-
mine, who gives an account of the tree in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris in the
year 1738? who both say, that taking the bark from
an old tree effectually kills it; but that most of the
young trees which are barked recover, and continue
healthy j and that for these reasons the Spaniards now
barked the younger trees for foreign markets, though
they still imported into Spain some of the bark of the
old trees, which they esteemed to be much more effi¬
cacious than what was got from the young. From
these accounts Dr Saunders concludes, that the large
red bark brought to London in the year 1779 was of
the same kind as that used by Sydenham and Morton,
as it answers to the description of the bark used in
their time, which is given by Dale and other writers
on the materia medica, who were their contemporaries.
Dr Saunders says, that it is not only stronger and
more resinous, but likewise more efficacious and certain
in its effect, than the common bark, and had cured
many agues after the other had failed.
A species of cinchona has also been discovered in
the West India islands, particularly in Jamaica. It is
accurately described by Dr Wright, under the title
of Cinc/iona Jamaicensis, in a paper published in the
Philosophical Transactions, In Jamaica it is called
the sea-side beech, and grows from 20 to 40 feet high.
The white, furrowed, thick outer bark is not used $
the dark brown inner bark has the common flavour,
with a mixed kind of a taste, at first of horse-radish
and ginger, becoming at last bitter and astringent. It
seems to give out more extractive matter than the cin¬
chona officinalis. Some of it was imported from St
Lucia, in consequence of its having been used with ad¬
vantage in the army and navy during the last war } and
it has lately been treated of at considerable length by
Dr Kentish, under the title of St Lucia bark. The
fresh bark is found to be considerably emetic and ca¬
thartic, which properties it is said to lose on drying.
The pale and the red are chiefly in use in Britain.
The pale is brought to us in pieces of different sires,
either flat or quilled, and the powder is rather of a
lighter colour than that of cinnamon. The red is ge¬
nerally in much larger, thicker, flattish pieces, but
sometimes also in the form of quills, and its powder is
reddish like that of Armenian bole. As already ob¬
served, it is much more resinous, and possesses the sen¬
sible qualities of the cinchona in a much higher degree
than the other sorts; and the more nearly the other
kinds resemble the red bark, the better they are now
considered. The red bark is heavy, firm, sound, and
dry 5 friable between the teeth $ does not separate into
fibres; and breaks, not shivery, but short, close, and
smooth. It has three layers j the outer is thin, rug¬
ged, of a reddish brown colour, but frequently cover¬
ed with mossy matter j the middle is thicker, more
compact, darker coloured, very resinous, brittle, and
yields first to the pestle; the inmost is more woody,
fibrous, and of a brighter red.
The Peruvian bark yields its virtues both to cold
and boiling water; but the decoction is thicker, gives
out its taste more readily, and forms an ink with a
chalybeate more suddenly than the fresh cold infusion.
This infusion, however, contains at least as much ex-
tractive
c I N r 155 ] C I N
tractive matter, but more in a state of solution ; and its
colour, on standing some time with the chalybeate, be¬
comes darker, white that of the decoction becomes
more faint. When they are of a certain age, the ad¬
dition of a chalybeate renders them green ; and when
this is the case, they are found to be in a state of fer¬
mentation, and effete. Mild or caustic alkalies, or
lime, precipitate the extractive matter, which in the
case of the caustic alkali is redissolved by a farther ad¬
dition of the alkali. Lime-water precipitates less from
a fresh infusion than from a fresh decoction 5 and in the
precipitate of this last some mild earth is perceptible.
The infusion is by age reduced to the same state with
the fresh decoction, and then they deposite nearly an
equal quantity of mild earth and extractive matter; so
that lime-water, as well as a chalybeate, may be used
as a test of the relative strength, and perishable nature
of the different preparations, and of different barks.
Accordingly cold infusions are found by experiments
to be less perishable than decoctions ; infusions and de¬
coctions of the red bark than those of the pale ; those
of the red bark, however, are found by length of time
to separate more mild earth with the lime-water, and
more extractive matter. Lime-water, as precipitating
the extractive matter, appears an equally improper and
disagreeable menstruum.
Water is found to suspend the resin by means of
much less gum than has been supposed. Alcohol
extracts a bitterness, but no astringency, from a re¬
siduum of 20 affusions of cold water j and water extracts
astringency, but no bitterness, from the residuum of as
many affusions of alcohol. The residuum in both is
insipid.
From many ingenious experiments made on the Pe¬
ruvian bark by Dr Irvine, which are now published in
a dissertation which gained the prize medal given by
the Harveian Society of Edinburgh for 1783, the
power of different menstrua, as acting upon Peruvian
bark, is ascertained with greater accuracy than had be¬
fore been done ; and it appears, that with respect to
comparative power, the fluids after mentioned act in
the order in which they are placed.
Dulcified spirit of vitriol.
Caustic ley.
French brandy.
Rhenish wine.
Soft water.
Vinegar and water.
Dulcified spirit of nitre.
Mild volatile alkali.
Alcohol.
Mild vegetable alkali.
Lime-water.
The antiseptic powers of vinegar and bark united
are double the sum of those taken separately. The
astringent power of the bark is increased by sulphuric
acid ; and the bitter taste is destroyed by it.
The officinal preparations of the bark are, 1. The
powder : of this, the first parcel that passes the sieve,
being the most resinous and brittle layer, is the strong¬
est. 2. The extract: the watery and spirituous ex¬
tract conjoined form the most proper preparations of
this kind. 3. The resin : this cannot perhaps be ob¬
tained separate from the gummy part, nor would it k«
desirable. 4. Spirituous tincture : this is best made
with proof-spirit. 5. The decoction : this preparation,
though frequently employed, is yet in many respects
inferior even to a simple watei’y infusion.
The best form is that of powder, in which the
constituent parts are in the most effectual proportion.
The cold infusion, which can be made in a few mi¬
nutes by agitation, the spirituous tincture, and the
extract, are likewise proper in this respect. For co¬
vering the taste, different patients require different ve¬
hicles ; liquorice, aromatics, acids, port-wine, small
beer, porter, milk, butter-milk, &c. are frequently em¬
ployed ; and those who dislike the taste of the bark it¬
self, vary in their accounts to which the preference is
due ; or it may be given in form of electuary with cur¬
rant jelly, or with brandy or rum.
Practitioners have differed much with regard to the
mode of operation of the Peruvian bark. Some have
ascribed its virtues entirely to a stimulant power. But
while the strongest and most permanent stimuli have
by no means the same effect with bark in the cure of
diseases, the bark itself shows hardly any stimulant
power, either from its action on the stomach, or on
other sensible parts to which it is applied. From its
action on dead animal fibres, there can be no doubt of
its being a powerful astringent; and from its good ef¬
fects in certain cases of disease, there is reason to pre¬
sume that it is a still more powerful tonic. To this
tonic power some think than its action as an antiseptic
is to be entirely attributed 5 but that, independently
of this, it has a very powerful effect in resisting the
septic process to which animal substances are naturally
subjected, appears beyond all dispute, from its effects
in resisting putrefaction, not only in dead animal so¬
lids, but even in animal fluids, when entirely detached
from the living body.
But although it be admitted that the Peruvian bark
acts powerfully as an astringent, as a tonic, and as an
antiseptic 5 yet these principles will by no means ex¬
plain all the effects derived from it in the cure of dis¬
eases. And accordingly, from no artificial combina¬
tion in which these powers are combined, or in which
they exist even to a higher degree, can the good con¬
sequences resulting from Peruvian bark be obtained.
Many practitioners, therefore, are disposed to view it
as a specific. If by a specific w'e mean an infallible re¬
medy, it cannot indeed be considered as entitled to
that appellation $ but in as far as it is a very powerful
remedy, of the operation of which no satisfactory ex¬
planation has yet been given, it may with great pro¬
priety be denominated a specific. But wlratever its
mode of operation may be, there can be no doubt that
it is daily employed with success in a great variety of
different diseases.
It was first introduced, as has already been said, for
the cure of intermittent fevers ; and in these, when
properly exhibited, it rarely fails of success. Practi¬
tioners, however, have differed with regard to the best
mode of exhibition; some prefer giving it just before
the fit, some during the fit, others immediately after
it. Some, again, order it in the quantity of an ounce,
between the fits; the dose being the more frequent
and larger according to the frequency of the fits and
this mode of exhibition, although it may perhaps
sometimes lead to the employment of more bark than
U 2 js
C I N [ i
is necessary, we consider as upon the whole preferable,
from being best suited to most stomachs. The x-equisite
quantity is very different in different cases ; and in
many vernal intermittents it seems even hardly neces¬
sary.
It often pukes or purges, and sometimes oppresses
the stomach. These, or any other effects that may
take place, are to be counteracted by remedies parti¬
cularly appropriated to them. Thus, vomiting is of¬
ten restrained by exhibiting it in wine j looseness, by
combining it with opium j and oppression at stomach,
by the addition of an aromatic. But unless for ob¬
viating particular occurrences, it is more successful
when exhibited in its simple state than with any addi¬
tion ; and there seems to be little ground for believing
that its powers are increased by crude sal ammoniac,
or any other additions which have frequently been
made.
It is now given, from the very commencement of
the disease, without previous evacuations, which, with
the delay of the bark, or under doses of it, by retard¬
ing the cure, often seem to induce abdominal inflam¬
mation, schirrus, jaundice, hectic, dropsy, &c. symp¬
toms formerly imputed to the px-emature or intempe-
x-ate use of the bark, but which are best obviated by its
early and large use. It is to be continued not only till
the paroxysms cease, but till the natural appetite,
strength, and complexion, return. Its use is then to
be gradually left off, and repeated at proper intervals
to secure against a relapse ; to which, however unac¬
countable, independently of the recovery of vigour,
there often seems to be a peculiar disposition, and
especially when the wind blows from the east. Al¬
though, however, most evacuants conjoined with the
Peruvian bark in intermittents ai’e rather prejudicial
than otherwise, yet it is of advantage, previous to its
use, to empty the alimentary canal, particularly the
stomach j and on this account good effects are often
obtained from premising an emetic.
It is a medicine which seems not only suited to both
formed and latent intermittents, but to that state of fi¬
bre on which all rigidly periodical diseases seem to de¬
pend ; as periodical pain, inflammation, hemorrhagy,
spasm, cough, loss of external sense, &c.
Bark is now used by some in all continued fevers:
at the same time attention is paid to keep the bowels
clean, and to promote when necessary the evacuation of
redundant bile j always, however, so as to weaken as
little as possible.
In confluent small-pox, it promotes languid eruption
and suppuration, diminishes the fever through the
whole course of it, and prevents orcox-rects putrescence
and gangrene.
In gangrenous sore throats it is much used, as it is
externally and internally in every species of gangrene.
In contagious dysentery, after due evacuation, it
has been used by the mouth, and by injection with and
without opium.
In all those hemorrhagies called passive, and which
it is allowed all hemorrhagies are very apt to become,
and likewise in other increased discharges, it is much
used ; and in certain undefined cases of haemoptysis,
some allege,that it is remarkably effectual when joined
witlx an absorbent.
It is used for obviating the disposition to nervous and
56 ] C I N
convulsive diseases; and some have great confidence Cinchona
in it joined with sulphuric acid, in cases of phthisis, ||
scrophula, ill-conditioned ulcer, rickets, scurvy, and Cineas.
in states of convalescence. —v—-J
In these cases, in general, notwithstanding the use
of the acid, it is proper to conjoin it with a milk diet.
In dropsy, not depending on any particular local
affection, it is often alternated or conjoined with diu¬
retics, or other evacuants ; and by its early exhibition
after the water is once drawn off’, or even begins to
be freely discharged, a fresh accumulation is prevented,
and a radical cure obtained. In obstinate venereal
cases, particularly those which appear under the form
of pains in the bones, the Peruvian bark is often suc¬
cessfully subjoined to mercury, or even given in con¬
junction with it.
CINCINNATUS, the Roman dictator, was taken
from the plough, to be advanced to the dignity of
consul, in which office he restoi’ed public tranquillity,
and then returned to his rural employments. Being
called forth a second time to be dictator, he conquered
the enemies of Rome, and refusing all rewards, x-eti-
red again to his farm, after he had been dictator only
16 days. The same circumstance occui’red once more
in the 80th year of his age. He died 376 years be¬
fore Christ.
Order of Cincinnatus, or the Cincinnati, a society
which was established in America soon after the
peace, and consists of the generals and officers of the
army and navy of the United States. This institu¬
tion, called after the name of the Roman dictator
mentioned in the preceding article, was intended to *
perpetuate the memory of the revolution, the friend¬
ship of the officers, and the union of the states ; and
also to raise a fund for the relief of poor widows and
orphans, whose husbands and fathers had fallen during
the war, and for their descendants. The society was
subdivided into state societies, which were to meet on
the 4th of July, and with other business depute a num¬
ber of their members to convene annually in genei'al
meetings. The members of the institution were to be
distinguished by wearing a medal, emblematical of the
design of the society ; and the honours and advantages
were to be hereditary in the eldest male heirs, and in
default of male issue, in the collateral male heirs. Ho¬
norary members were to be admitted, but without the
hereditary advantages of the society ; and provided
their number should never exceed the ratio of one to
four of the officers or their descendants. Though the
apparent designs of this society were harmless and
honourable, it did not escape popular jealousy. Views
of a deeper nature were imputed to the framers, and
the institution was censured and opposed as giving
birth to a military nobility, of a dangerous aristocratic
power, which might ultimately prove ruinous to the
liberties of the new empire. But the principal ground
of apprehension was the supposed right of inheritance
connected with this honour to render it hereditary;
which, however, has been given up and totally dis¬
claimed by the society.
CINCTURE, in Architecture, a ring, list, or orlo;
at the top and bottom of the shaft of a column, se¬
parating the shaft at one end from the base, and at the
other from the capital.
CJNEAS, a Thessalian, minister and friend to Pyr¬
rhus
C I N C 157 ] C I N
dneas rhus king of Epirus. He was sent to Rome by his
|| master to sue for a peace, which he, however, could
I cinnabar. no(. obtain. He told Pyrrhus that the Roman senate
‘*’~v was a venerable assembly of kings j and observed, that
to fight with them was to fight against another Hy¬
dra. He was of such a retentive memory, that the day
after his arrival at Rome he could call every senator and
knight by his name.
CINERITIOUS, an appellation given to different
substances, on account of their resembling ashes either
in colour or consistence ; hence it is that the cortical
part of the brain has sometimes got this epithet.
CINNA, L. Corn, a Roman who oppressed the
republic with his cruelties. He was banished by Oc¬
tavius for attempting to make the fugitive slaves free.
He joined himself with Marius, and with him at the
head of the slaves he defeated his enemies and made
himself consul even to a fourth time. He massacred so
many citizens at Rome, that his name became odious,
and one of his officers assassinated him at Ancona, as he
was preparing war against Sylla.
Cinna, C. Helvius, a poet intimate with Caesar.
He went to attend the obsequies of Caesar, and being
mistaken by the populace for the other Cinna, he was
torn to pieces.—Also a grandson of Pompey’s. He
conspired against Augustus, who pardoned him, and
made him one of his most intimate friends. He was
consul A. U. C. 758, and made Augustus his heir.
CINNABAR, in Natural History, is either native or
factitious.
The native cinnabar is an ore of quicksilver, mode¬
rately compact, very heavy, and of an elegant striated
red colour. See Mineralogy Index.
Factitious cinnabar is a mixture of mercury and sul¬
phur sublimed, and thus reduced into a fine red glebe.
The best is of a high colour, and full of fibres like
needles. See Chemistry Index.
The chief use of cinnabar is for painting. Although
the body is composed of sulphur, which is of a light
colour, and mercury, which is white as silver, it is ne¬
vertheless of an exceeding strong red colour. Lumps
of it are of a deep brown red without brilliancy j
but when the too great intensity of its colour is di¬
minished by bruising and dividing it into small parts,
(which is a method generally used to lessen the in¬
tensity of all colours), the red of the cinnabar be¬
comes more and more exalted, flame-coloured, and ex¬
ceedingly vivid and brilliant; in this state it is called
vermilion.
Cinnabar is often employed as an internal medicine.
Hoffman greatly recommends it as a sedative and an-
tispasmodic, and Stahl makes it an ingredient in his
temperant powder. Other intelligent physicians deny
that cinnabar taken internally has any medicinal qua¬
lity. Their opinion is grounded on the insolubility of
this substance in any menstruum. This question con¬
cerning its internal utility cannot be decided without
further researches and experiments j but cinnabar is
certainly used with success to procure a mercurial fu¬
migation, when that method of cure is proper in vene¬
real diseases. For this purpose it is burnt in an open
fire on red-hot coals, by which the mercury is disenga¬
ged and forms vapours, which, being applied to the
body of the deceased person, penetrate through the
pores of the skin, and produce effects similar to those of cinnabar
mercury administered by friction. ||
CINNAMON, the bark of two species of laurus, Cinque-
The true cinnamon is from the laurus cinnamomum ; , Poi-s-
and the base cinnamon, which is often sold for the
true, is from the laurus cassia. See Laurus, Botany
Index. See also Cinnamon, Supplement.
Cinnamon Water, is made by distilling the bark
first infused in alcohol, brandy, or white-wine.
Clove Cinnamon, is the bark of a tree growing in
Brazil, which is often substituted for real cloves.
White Cinnamon, called also Winter's bark, is the
bark of a tree frequent in the isles of St Domingo,
Guadaloupe, &c. of a sharp biting taste like pepper.
Some use it instead of nutmeg *, and in medicine it is
esteemed a stomachic and antiscorbutic. See Ca-
NELLA.
CINNAMUS, a Greek historian, wrote a history
of the eastern empire during the reigns of John and
Manuel Commenes, from 1118 to 1143. His style is
reckoned the best of the modern Greek authors. He
died after 1183.
CINNERETH, ClNERETH, Chinnereth, (Moses) $
or Gennesareth, in Ancient Geography, a lake of the
Lower Galilee, called the Sea of Galilee, (Matthew) \
of Tiberius, (John). Its name Gennesareth is from a
small cognominal district upon it. In breadth 40 sta¬
dia, in length 140. The water fresh and fit to drink,
and abounding in fish.
CINQUEFOIL, in Botany. See Potentilla.
CINQUE-Ports, five havens that fie on the east
part of England, towards France $ thus called by way
of eminence on account of their superior importance,
as having been thought by our kings to merit a parti¬
cular regard for their preservation against invasion.
Hence they have a particular policy, and are governed
by a keeper with the title of Lord-warden of the
Cinque-ports.
Camden tells us, that William the Conqueror first
appointed a warden of the Cinque-ports 5 but King
John first granted them their privileges, and that up¬
on condition they should provide 80 ships at their
own charge for 40 days, as often as the king should
have occasion in the wars, he being then straitened for
a navy to recover Normandy. .
The five ports are Hastings, Romney, Hythe,
Dover, and Sandwich. Thorn tells us, that Haf
stings provided 21 vessels, and in each vessel 21 men.
To this port belong Seaford, Pevensey, Hedney, Win-
chelsea, Rye, Hamine, Wakesbourn, Creneth, and
Forthclipe.—Romney provided five ships, and in each
24 men. To this belonged Bromhal, Lyde, Oswar-
stone, Dangemares, and Romenhal.—Hythe furnished
seven ships, and in each 21 seamen. To this belongs
Westmeath.—Dover the same number as Hastings. To
this belongs Folkston, Feversham, and Marge.—Last¬
ly, Sandwich furnished the same with Hythe. To
this belong Fordiwic, Reculver, Serre and Deal.
The privileges granted to them in consequence ot
these services were very great. Amongst others, they
were each of them to send two barons to represent
them in parliament •, their deputies were to bear the
canopy over the king’s head at the time of his coro¬
nation, and to dine at the uperraost table in the
great
€ I V
einqtie- great hall on his right hand j to be exempted from sub-
Ports sidies and other aids} their heirs to be free from per¬
il sonal wardship, notwithstanding any tenure j to be
, impleaded in their own towns, and not elsewhere; not
to be liable to tolls, &c.
The Cinque-ports give the following titles: Ha¬
stings, a barony to the ancient family of Huntington :
Romney, to the Marshams: Dover, new barony, to a
branch of the York family, formerly a dukedom (now
extinct) to the Queensberry family: Sandwich, an
earldom to a branch of the Montagues.
CINTRA, a cape and mountain of Portugal, in the
the province of Estremadura. It lies on the north side
of the entrance of the river Tajo ; and is famous for a
convention concluded here in August 1808 between the
generals of the French and British armies.
CINUS, or Cynus, a famous civilian of Pistoia in
the 14th century. His commentary on the Code was
finished in 1313; he also wrote on some parts of the
Digest. He was no less famous for his Italian poems,
and is ranked among those who first gave graces to the
Tuscan lyric poetry.
CINYRA, in the Jewish antiquities, a musical in¬
strument. This, and the Hebrew cinnor, which is ge¬
nerally translated cithcra, lyra, or psalterhim, are the
same. It was made of wood, and was played on in the
temple of Jerusalem. Josephus says that the cinyra of
the temple had ten strings, and that it was touched
with a bow. In another place he says that Solomon
made a great number of them with a precious kind of
metal called electrum, wherein he contradicts the Scrip¬
tures, which inform us that Solomon’s cinnors were
made of wood.
CINYRAS, in fabulous history, a king of Cyprus,
son of Paplvus. He married Cenchreis, by whom he
had a daughter called Myrrha. Myrrha fell in love
with her father, and in the absence of her mother she
introduced herself into his bed by means of her nurse.
Cinyras had by her a son called Adonis ; and when he
knew the incest he had committed, he attempted to
stab his daughter, who escaped his pursuit and fled to
Arabia, where, after she had brought forth, she was
changed into a tree which still bears her name. Ciny¬
ras, according to some, stabbed himself.
CION, or Cyon'; in Gardening, a young shoot,
sprout, or sprig, put forth by a tree, Grafting is per¬
formed by the application of the cion of one plant up¬
on the stock of another. To produce a stock of cions
for grafting, planting, &c. the gardeners sometimes
cut off the bodies of trees a little above the ground,
and only leave a stump or root standing: the redun¬
dant sap will not fail next spring to put forth a great
number of shoots. In dressing dwarf-trees, a great many
cions are to be cut off.
CIOTAT, a sea-port town of Provence in France j
famous for Muscadine wine. It is seated on the bay of
Laquea, between Marseilles and Toulon j and the har¬
bour is defended by a strong fort. E. Long. 5. 30.
N. Lat 43. 10.
CIPHER, or Cypher, one of the Arabic charac¬
ters or figures used in computation, formed thus, o.
See Arithmetic.
Cipher is also a kind of enigmatic character com¬
posed of several letters interwoven, which are general¬
ly the initial letters of the persons names for whom
e 1 p
the ciphers are intended. These are frequently used Cipher,
on seals, coaches, and other moveables.—Anciently, -v—
merchants and tradesmen were not allowed to bear
arms : in lieu thereof, they bore their ciphers, or the
initial letters of their names, artfully interwoven about
a cross, of which we have divers instances on tombs,
&c. See Device.
Cipher, denotes likewise certain secret characters,
disguised and varied, used in writing letters that con¬
tain some secret, not to be understood but by those be¬
tween whom the cipher is agreed on.
De la Cuilletiere, in his Lacedaemon ancient and mo-
derm, endeavours to make the ancient Spartans the in¬
ventors of the art of writing in cipher. Their scytala,
according to him, was the first sketch of this mysteri¬
ous art: these scytalae v’ere two rollers of wood, of
equal length and thickness ; one of them kept by the
ephori, the other by the general of the army sent on
any expedition against the enemy. Whensoever those
magistrates would send any secret orders to the general,
they took a slip of parchment, and rolled it very justly
about the scytala which they had reserved, and in this
state wrote their intentions, which appeared perfect and
consistent while the parchment continued on the roll:
when taken off, the writing was maimed, and without
connection, but was easily retrieved by the general, up¬
on his applying it to his scytala.
Polybius says, tlpt iEneas Tactitus, 2000 years ago,
collected together 20 different manners of writing so
as not to be understood by any but those in the secret j
part whereof were invented by himself, and part used
before his time.—Trithemius, Cap. Porta, Vigenere,
and P. Niceron, have written expressly on the subject
of ciphers.
As the w'riting of cipher is become an art, so is the
reading or unravelling thereof, called deciphering.—The
rules of deciphering are different in different languages.
By observing the following, you will soon make out
any common cipher written in English.
1. Observe the letters or characters that most fre¬
quently occur, and set them down for the six vowels,
including y, and of these the most frequent will gene¬
rally be e, and the least frequent n.
2. The vowels that most frequently come together
are ea and ou.
3. The consonant most common at the end of words
is s, and the next frequent r and t.
4. When two similar characters some together, they
are most likely to be the consonants f, l, or s, or the
vowels e or 0.
5. The letter that precedes or follows two similar
characters is either a vowel, or l, m, n, or r.
6. In deciphering, begin with the words that consist
of a single letter, which will be either a, I, 0, or Sf.
7. Then take the words of two letters, one of which,
will be a vowel. Of these words the most frequent are,
an, to, be, by, of, on, or, no, so, as, at, if, in, is, it, he,
me, my, us, we, am.
8. In words of three letters there are most common¬
ly two consonants. Of these words the most frequent
are, the, and, not, but, yet,for, tho\ how, why, all, you,
she, his, her, our, who, maty, can, did, was, are, has, had
let, one, tivo, six, ten, Sfc.—Some of these, or those of
two letters, will be found in every sentence-
9. The most common words of four letters are, this,
that.
[ 158 ]
Cipher
C I P [ 159 ] C I P
that, then, thus, with, when from, here, some, ??iost, none,
they, them, whom, mine, your, self,must, will, have, been,
were, four, jive, nine, &c.
xo. Tiie most usual words of five letters, are, their,
these, those, which, where, while, since, there, shall,
might, could, would, ought, three, seven, eight, &c.
11. Words of two or more syllables frequently begin
with double consonants, or with a proposition ; that is,
a vowel joined with one or more consonants. The most
common double consonants are bl, hr, dr,Jl,fr, gl, gr,
ph, pi, pr, sh, sb, sp, st, th, tr, wh, wr, &c. and the most
common prepositions are com, con, de, dts, ex, im, in,
int, mis, per, pre, pro, re, sub, sup, un, &c.
12. Tl>e double consonants most frequent at the end
of long words, are c/c, Id, If, rnn, nd, ng, rl, rm, rn, rp,
rt, sm, st, xt, &c. and the most common terminations
are ed, en, er, es, et, ing, ly, son, sion, tion, able, ence,
ent, ment,full, less, ness, &c.
On Plate CXLIV. in Vol. V. fig. 7. is given an
example of a cipher wrote in arbitrary characters as is,
commonly practised. It will be easily deciphered by
observing the rules : but when the characters are all
placed close together, as in the example fig. 8. and as
they always should be, the deciphering is much more
difficult.
To decipher a writing of this sort, you must first
look for those characters that most frequently occur,
and set them down for vowels as before. Then ob¬
serve the similar characters that come together j but
you must remember that two such characters may
here belong to two words. You are next to remember
the combinations of two or three characters that are
most frequent; which will be some of the words in
the seventh and eighth of the foregoing rules ; and by
observing the other rules, you will infallibly discover,
with time and attention, any cipher wrote on these
principles.
When the words are wrote all close together, if
the key to the cipher were to be changed every word,
according to a regular method agreed on between the
parties, as might be done by either of the methods
mentioned in N° II. below, with very little additional
trouble, the writing would then be extremely difficult
to decipher. The longer any letter writen in cipher
is, the more easy it is to decipher, as then the repe¬
titions of the characters and combinations are the more
frequent.
The following are the contents of the two foregoing
ciphers, in which we have inverted the order of the
words and letters, that they who are desirous of trying
their talent at deciphering, may not, inadvertently,
read the explanation before the cipher.
enil eno ton dna shtnom elohw eerht, suoidifrep
dna leurc o noituac & ecnedurp fo klat lliw uoy : on,
rotiart, tcelgen & ecnereffidni si ti. yltrohs rettel a em
dnes ot snaem emos dnif rehtie, traeh eht morf semoc
ti taht ees em tel &, erom ecaf ym ees oterab reven ro.
evlewt fo ruoh eht ta thgin siht, ledatic eht fo etag
eht erofeb elbmessa lliw sdneirf ruo 11a. ruoh eht ot
lautenup eb: deraperp Hew emoc dna, ytrebil ruoy
niager ot, ylevarb eid ro. thgin eht si siht, su sekam
rehtie taht, etiup su seodnu ro.
Contrivances for communicating intelligence by Cipher.
I. By means of a pack of cards. The parties must pre¬
viously agree in what manner the cards shall be first Cipher,
placed, and then how they shall be shuffled. Thus sup- —y— *
pose the cards are to be first placed in the order as here¬
after follows, and then shuffled by taking off 3 from the
top, putting the next 2 over them, and the following 3
under them *, and so alternately. Therefore the par-*. ^ s^uf"
ty who sends the cipher first writes the contents of it cardsbuhis
on a separate paper, and then copies the first 32 letters manner,
on the cards, by writing one letter on every card ; he there will
then shuffles them in the manner described, and writes iema*n on"
the second 32 letters : he shuffles them a second time, 1uyn^etr°all™t
and writes the third 32 letters, and so of the rest. An ]as^C a
example will make this plain. Suppose the letter to be
as follows.
I am in full march to relieve you ; within\ three days
I shall be with you. If the en\emy in the mean time
should make an assau\lt, remember what you owe to your
countr\y, to your family, and yourself. Live with ho\nour
or die with glory.
Order of the cards before
the 1st shuffle.
Ace spades
Ten diamonds
Eight hearts
King spades
Nine clubs
Seven diamonds
Nine diamonds
Ace clubs
Knave hearts
Seven spades
Ten clubs
Ten hearts
Queen spades
Eight diamonds
Eight clubs
Seven hearts
Queen clubs
Nine spades
King hearts
Queen diamonds
Eight spades
Knave clubs
Seven clubs
Ace hearts
Nine hearts
Ace diamonds
Knave spades
Ten spades
King diamonds
Queen hearts
King clubs
Knave diamonds
i a d u y i
a l e u l
m l m 0 i u
i s u m i
n h l e 0
fb m r i
u a a c t n
l w k r y i
l s e e a e
m i a r m w
a i t h e r
rrhof
c h e e i
h a h y w
ty 0 0 0 l
0 y a 0 h 0
r 0 n u y h
e u i yfy
l e t e u o
i d s 0 e
e i n w s o
v f a n t g
e t s l y
y r e b r
0 l n w 0 t
u h s t Sf d
w l m a l
i e y t r r
t tib ur
h h m m u
i n a t h
n e u r 0
The person that receives these cards first places them
in the order agreed on, and transcribes the first letter
on every card. He then shuffles them, according to
order, and transcribes the second letter on each card.
He shuffles them a second time, and transcribes the
third letter, and so of the rest.
If the cards were to be shuffled the second time by
threes and fours, the third time by twos and fours, &c.
it would make the cipher still more difficult to disco¬
ver:
C I P r 160 ] C I R
Cipher, ver: though as all ciphers depend on the combination
"l of letters, there are scarce any that may not be decipher¬
ed with time and pains ; as we shall show further on.
Those ciphers are the best that are by their nature most
free from suspicion of being ciphers ; as, for example,
if the letters were there written with sympathetic ink,
the cards might then pass for a common pack.
II. By a dial. On a piece of square pasteboard
ABCD, fig. 3. 4. draw the circle EFGH, and divide
it into 26 equal parts, in each of which must be writ¬
ten one of the letters of the alphabet.
On the inside of this there must be another circle of
pasteboard, ILMN, moveable round the centre O, and
the extremity of this must be divided into the same
number of equal parts as the other. On this also must
be written the letters of the alphabet, which, however,
need not be disposed in the same order. The person with
whom you correspond must have a similar dial, and at the
beginning of your letter you must put any two letters
that answer to each other when you have fixed the dial.
Exa?n. Suppose you would write as follows : “ If
you will come over to us, you shall have a pension, and
you may still make a sham opposition.” You begin
with the letters Ma, which show how the dial is fixed :
then for If you, you write un juc, and so for the rest,
as you see at fig. 6.
The same intention may be answered by a ruler, the
upper part of which is fixed, and the lower part made
to slide j but in this case the upper part must contain
two alphabets in succession, that some letter of that part
may constantly correspond to one in the lower part.
The divisions standing directly over each other in a
straight line will be much more obvious than in the
circumference of a circle. Or two straight pieces of
pasteboard regularly divided, the one containing a sin¬
gle, and the other a double alphabet, would answer ex¬
actly the same purpose. In this case a blank space may
be Jeft at each end of the single alphabet, and one or
two weights being placed on both the pieces will keep
them steady.
III. The corresponding spaces. Take two pieces of
pasteboard or stiff paper, through which you must cut
long squares, at different distances, as you will see in
the following example. One of these pieces you keep
yourself, and the other you give to your correspondent.
When you would send him any secret intelligence, you
lay the pasteboard upon a paper of the same size, and
in the spaces cut out, you write what you would have
understood by him only, and then fill up the interme¬
diate spaces with somewhat that makes with those words
a different sense.
|I shall be| much obliged to you, as reading jalonej
engages my attention |at| present, if you will lend me
any one of the |eight| volumes of the Spectator. I
hope you will excuse |this| freedom, but for a winter’s
|evening| I [dont| know a better entertainment. If I
|fail| to return it soon, never trust me for the time
Jto come.|
A paper of this sort may be placed four different
ways, either by putting the bottom at the top, or by
turning it over; and by these means the superfluous
3
words may be the more easily adapted to the sense of r.vi,,,
the others. ||
This is a very eligible cipher, as it is free from su- Circassia
spicion, but it will only do for short messages ; for if '■"'"V—
the spaces be frequent, it will be very difficult to make
the concealed and obvious meanings agree together;
and if the sense be not clear, the writing will be liable
to suspicion.
IV. The musical cipher. The construction of this
cipher is similar to that of N0 II. The circle EFGH
(fig* 3*) is to l)e divided into twenty-six equal parts;
in each part there must be written one of the letters
of the alphabet, and on the anterior circle ILMN,
moveable round the centre O, there is to be the same
number of divisions : the circumference of the inner
circle must be ruled in the manner of a music paper;
and in each division there is to be placed a note, dif¬
fering either in figure or position. Lastly, within tire
musical lines place the three keys, and on the outer
circle, the figures that are commonly used to denote
the time.
Then provide yourself with a ruled paper, and place
one of the keys, as suppose that of ge re sol, against the
time two fourths at the beginning of the paper, which
will inform your correspondent how to fix his circle.
You then copy the notes that answer to the several let¬
ters of the words you intend to write, in the manner
expressed at fig. 5.
A cipher of this sort may be made more difficult to
discover by frequently changing the key, and that will
not in the least embarrass the reader. Yon may like¬
wise add the mark or (Mo the note that begins a
word, which will make it more easy to read, and at
the same time give the music a more natural aspect.
This cipher is preferable to that of N0 II. above, as it
may be inclosed in a letter about common affairs, and
pass unsuspected.
CIPUS, in antiquity, a low column, with an inscrip¬
tion, erected on the high roads, or other places, to show
the way to travellers; to serve as a boundary; to mark
the grave of a deceased person, &c.
CIR, Sx, a village of France, two miles from Ver¬
sailles, which was remarkable for a nunnery founded
by Louis XIV. The nuns were obliged to take care
of the education of 250 girls, who could prove their
families to have been noble from the 4th generation on
the father’s side. They could not enter before 7, nor
after 12 years of age; and they continued till they
were 20 years and three months old. The house was
formerly a most magnificent structure.
CIRCARS, Northern, a district of Hindostan.
See Supplement.
CIRCASSIA, a large country of Asia, situated be¬
tween forty-two and forty-five degrees of north lati¬
tude, and between forty and forty-five of east longi¬
tude. It is bounded by Russia on the north ; by Astra-
can and Dagistan on the east; by Georgia and Shirvan
on the south ; and by the territories of the Russian
Cossacs on the west. This country has long been cele¬
brated for the extraordinary beauty of its women; and
here it was that the practice of inoculating for the
smallpox first began. Terki, the principal city, i#
seated in a very spacious plain, very swampy, towards
the sea-side, in 430 24' north latitude : it is about
three worsts in compass, well fortified with ramparts
and
C I R [ 161 1 C I R
'ireasila. anc^ bastions in the modern style, well stored with
—v—■-l cannon, and has always a considerable garrison in it,
under the command of a governor. The country is
nominally subject to Russia *, but though the people ac¬
knowledge a species of vassalage, they neither pay tri¬
bute nor perform military service *, and they even in¬
dulge in plundering expeditions into the Russian terri¬
tories. The Russians have not been able to check these
inroads, though they have built fortresses along the
frontiers. The country is governed by a feudal aristo¬
cracy. Each district is ruled by a prince, who has
under him a number of nobles. Beneath these are a
small number of freedmen, who have been raised from
slavery by the princes or nobles. All the rest of the
people are slaves, and their masters possess over them
the power of life and death. The apparel of the men of
Circassia is much the same with that of the Nagayans,
only their caps are something larger; and their cloaks
being likewise of coarse cloth or sheep skins, are fasten-
' ed only at the neck with a string, and as they are not
large enough to cover the whole body, they turn them
round according to the wind and weather. The men
here are much better favoured than those of Nagaya,
and the women extremely well shaped, with exceeding
fine features, smooth clear complexions, and beautiful
black eyes, which, with their black hair hanging in
two tresses, one on each side the face, give them a most
lovely appearance. They wear a black coif on their
heads, covered with a fine white cloth tied under the
chin. During the summer they all wear only a smock
of divers colours, and that open so low before, that one
may see below their navels : this, with their beautiful
faces always uncovered (contrary to the custom of most
of the other provinces in these parts), their good hu¬
mour and lively freedom in conversation, altogether
render them very attracting: notwithstanding which
they have the reputation of being very chaste, though
they seldom want opportunity ; for according to the
accounts of a late traveller, it is an established point of
good manners among them, that as soon as any person
comes in to speak to the wife, the husband goes out of
the house: but whether this continency of theirs pro¬
ceeds from their own generosity, to recompense their
husbands for the confidence they put in them, or has
its foundation only in fame, he pretends not to detex--
mine. Their language they have in common with the
other neighbouring Tartars, although the chief people
among them are also not ignorant of the Russian. Their
religion is Paganism ; for notwithstanding they use cir¬
cumcision among them, they have neither priest, alco-
ran, nor mosque, like other Mahometans. Every bo¬
dy here offers his own sacrifice at pleasure ; for which,
however, they have certain days, established rather by
custom than any positive command : their most solemn
sacrifice is offered at the death of their neax-est friends,
upon which occasion both men and women meet in the
field te be present at the offering, which is a he-goat ;
and having killed, they flay it, and stretch the skin
with the head and horns on, upon a cross at the top of
a long pole, placed commonly in a quickset hedge (to
keep the cattle from it) ; and near the place the sacri¬
fice is offered by boiling and roasting the flesh, which
they afterwards eat. When the feast is over, the
men rise, and having paid their adoration to the skin,
and muttered over certain prayers, the women with-
Vol. VI. Part I. t
draw, and the men conclude the ceremony with drink- Circassia
ing a great quantity of spirits ; and this genei’ally ends Circe,
in a quari-el befox-e they part. The face of the coun-
try is pleasantly diversified with mountains, valleys,
woods, lakes, and rivei-s ; and, though not much cul¬
tivated, is far from being unfruitful. In summer the
inhabitants quit the towns, and encamp in the fields
like the neighbouring Tartars, occasionally shifting
their stations along with their flocks and herds. Be¬
sides game, in which the counti-y greatly abounds, the
Ci rcassians eat beef and mutton ; but that which they
prefer to all others is the flesh of a young horse. Their
bread consists of thin cakes of barley meal, baked upon
the hearth, which they always eat new; and their usual
drink is water or mare’s milk, from the latter of which
they distil a spirit, as do most of the Tartar nations.
They allot no fixed hours for the refreshments of the
table or sleep, which they indulge irregularly, as incli¬
nation or convenience dictates. When the men make
excursions into an enemy’s country, they pass several
days and nights successively without sleeping ; but, at
their return, devote as much time to repose as the
space in which they had before withheld from that gra¬
tification. When they eat, they sit cross-legged on
the floor, the skin of some animal serving them instead
of a carpet. In removing from one part of the coun-
tx-y to another, the women and children are carried in
waggons, which are a kind of travelling houses, and
drawn by oxen or camels ; they never use horses fox*
draught. Their breed of the latter, however, is rec¬
koned exceeding good ; and they are accustomed to
swim almost any river on horseback. The women and
children smoke tobacco as well as the men ; and this is
the most acceptable commodity which a traveller can
carry with him into the Tartar coun'ries. There are
here no public inns, which indeed are unnecessary ;
for so great is the hospitality of the people, that they
will contend with each other who shall entertain any
stranger that happens to come among them.—The
principal branch of their traffic is their own children,
especially their daughters, whom they sell for the u-e
of the seraglios in Turkey and Persia, where they fx-e-
quently marry to gx-eat advantage, and make the for¬
tune of their families. The merchants, who come
from Constantinople to purchase those girls, ai‘e gene¬
rally Jews, who, as well as the mothers, are said to
be extremely careful of preserving the chastity of the.
young women, knowing the value that is set by the
Turks upon the marks of virginity. The greater part
of the Circassians are Christians of the Greek church ;
but there are also both Mahometans and Pagans among
them. See Circassia, Supplement.
CIRCE, in fabulous history, a daughter of Sol and
Perseis, celebrated for her knowledge of magic and ve¬
nomous herbs. She was sister to Aites king of Colchis,
and to Pasiphae the wife of Minos. She married a Sar-
matian prince of Colchis, whom she mux dered to obtain
the kingdom. She was expelled by her subjects, and
carried by her father upon the coasts of Italy in an
island called ALeea. Ulysses, at his return from the
Trojan war, visited her coasts, and all his compa¬
nions, who I’an headlong into pleasure and voluptuous¬
ness, were changed by Circe’s potions into filthy swine.
Ulysses, who was fortified against all enchantments by
an herb called wo/y, which he had received from Mer-
X cury,
are
C I R [ 162 ] C I R
cury, went to Circe, and demanded sword in hand the
restoration of his companions to their former state. She
complied, and loaded the hero with pleasures and ho¬
nours. In this voluptuous retreat Ulysses had by
Circe one son called Telegonus, or two, according to
Hesiod, called Agrius and Latinus. For one whole
year Ulysses forgot his glory in Circe’s arms. At his
departure the nymph advised him to descend to hell,
and to consult the manes of Tiresias concerning the
fates that attended him. Circe showed herself cruel to
Scylla her rival, and to Picus.
CIIICENSIAN GAMES, a general term under which
was comprehended all combats exhibited in the Roman
circus, in imitation of the Olympic games in Greece.
Most of the feasts of the Romans were accompanied
with Circensian games 5 and the magistrates, and other
officers of the republic, frequently presented the people
with them, in order to procure their favour. The
grand games were held five days, commencing on the
13th of September. See Circus.
CIRCLE, in Geometry, a plane figure comprehend¬
ed by a single curve line, called its circumference, to
which right lines drawn from a point in the middle,
called the centre, are equal to each other. See Geo¬
metry.
Circles of the Sphere, are such as cut the mundane
sphere, and have their periphery either on its move-
able surface, or in another immoveable, conterminous,
and equidistant surface. See Sphere. Hence arise
two kinds of circles, moveable and immoveable. The
first, those whose peripheries are in the moveable sur¬
face, and which therefore revolve with its diurnal mo¬
tion j as, the meridians, &c. The latter having their
periphery in the immoveable surface, do not revolve ;
as the ecliptic, equator, and its parallels, &c. See
Geography.
Circles of Altitude, otherwise called almucantars, are
circles parallel to the horizon, having their common
pole in the zenith, and still diminishing as they ap¬
proach the zenith. See Almucantar.
Diurnal Circles, are immoveable circles, supposed
to be described by the seven stars, and other points of
the heavens, in their diurnal rotation round the earth j
or rather, in the rotation of the earth round its axis.
The diurnal circles are all unequal: the equator is the
biggest.
Horary Circles, in Dialing, are the lines which
show the hours on dials j though these be not drawn
circular, but nearly straight. See Dialing.
Circles of Latitude, or Secondaries of the Ecliptic,
are great circles parallel to the plane of the ecliptic,
passing through the poles thereof, and through every
star and planet. They are so called, because they
serve to measure the latitude of the stars, which is no¬
thing but an arch of one of these circles intercepted
between the star and the ecliptic. See Latitude.
Circles of Longitude, are several lesser circles, pa¬
rallel to the ecliptic •, still diminishing, in proportion
as they recede from it. On the arches of these circles,
the longitude of the stars is reckoned.
Circle of perpetual Apparition, one of the lesser cir¬
cles, parallel to the equator, described by any point
of the sphere touching the northern point of the ho¬
rizon, and carried about with the diurnal motion. All
2
the stars included within this circle never set, but
ever visible above the horizon.
Circle of perpetual Oecultation, is another circle at a
like distance from the equator, and contains all those
stars which never appear in our hemisphere. The stars
situated between these circles alternately rise and set at
certain times.
Polar Circles, are immoveable circles, parallel to
the equator, and at a distance from the poles equal to
the greatest declination of the ecliptic. That next the
northern pole is called the Arctic 5 and that next to
the southern one the Antarctic.
Fairy Circle. See FAiiiY-Circle.
Druidical Circles, in British topography, a name
given to certain ancient inclosures formed by rude
stones circularly arranged, in the manner represented
on Plate CXLY. These, it is now generally agreed,
were temples, and many writers think, also places of
solemn assemblies for councils or elections, and seats of
judgment. Mr Borlase is of this opinion. “ Instead,
therefore (says he), of detaining the reader with a
dispute, whether they were places of worship or coun¬
cil, it may with great probability be asserted, that they
were used for both purposes $ and having for the most
part been first dedicated to religion, naturally became
afterwards the curioe and fora of the same communi¬
ty.” These temples, though generally circular, oc¬
casionally, differ as well in figure as magnitude: with
relation to the first, the most simple were composed of
one circle : Stonehenge consisted of two circles and
two ovals, respectively concentric, whilst that at Bot-
talch near St Just in Cornwall is formed by four inter¬
secting circles. And the great temple at Avebury in
Wiltshire, it is said, described the figure of a seraph
or fiery flying serpent, represented by circles and right
lines. Some besides circles have avenues of stone pil¬
lars. Most, if not all of them, have pillars or altars
within their penetralia or centre. In the article of
magnitude and number of stones, there is the greatest
variety, some circles being only twelve feet diameter,
and formed only of twelve stones, whilst others, such
as Stonehenge and Avebury, contained, the first 140,
the second 652, and occupied many acres of ground.
All these different numbers, measures, and arrange¬
ments had their pretended reference •, either to the
astronomical divisions of the year, or some mysteries of
the druidical religion. Mr Borlase, howe%’er, supposes,
that those very small circles, sometimes formed of a low
bank of earth, sometimes of stones erect, and frequent¬
ly of loose small stones thrown together in a circular
form, inclosing an area of about three yards diameter,
without any larger circle round them, were originally
places of burial.
Circle, in Logic, or Logical Circle, is when the
same terms are proved in orheni by the same terms j and
the parts of the syllogism alternately by each other,
both directly and indirectly.
Circles of the Empire, such provinces and principali¬
ties of the German empire as have a right to be present
at diets. Maximilian I. divided the empire into six,
and some years after into ten circles. This last divi¬
sion was confirmed by Charles V. The circles, as
they stand in the Imperial Matricola, are as follow:
Austria, Burgundy, the Lower Rhine, Bavaria, Up¬
per
C I R [ 163 ] C I R
Circle Per Saxony, Franconia, Swabia, Upper Rhine, West-
:irconcel- phalia, and the Lower Saxony.
lioncs. CIRCONCELLIONES, a species of fanatics, so
called because they were continually rambling round
* the houses in the country. They took their rise among
the Donatists in the reign of the emperor Constantine.
It is incredible what ravages and cruelties these vaga¬
bonds committed in Africa through a long series of
years. They were illiterate savage peasants, who un¬
derstood only the Punic language. Intoxicated with
a barbarous zeal, they renounced agriculture, pro¬
fessed continence, and assumed the title of “ Vindica¬
tors of justice, and protector's of the opprest.” To ac¬
complish their mission, they enfranchised slaves, scour¬
ed the roads, forced masters to alight from their cha¬
riots, and run before their slaves, who they obliged
to mount in their place j and discharged debtors, kill¬
ing the creditors if they refused to cancel the bonds.
But the chief objects of their cruelty were the Catholics,
and especially those who had renounced Donatism. At
first they used no swords, because God had forbidden
the use of one to Peter ; but they were armed with
clubs, which they called the clubs of Israel, and which
they handled in such a manner as to break a man’s
bones without killing him immediately, so that he lan¬
guished a long time and then died. When they took
away a man’s life at once, they looked upon it as a fa¬
vour. They became less scrupulous afterwards, and
made use of all sorts of arms. Their shout was Praise
be to God. These words in their mouths were the sig¬
nal of slaughter, more terrible than the roaring of a
lion. They had invented an unheard-of punishment j
which was to cover with lime diluted with vinegar
the eyes of those unhappy wretches whom they had
crushed with blows, and covered with wounds, and
to abandon them in that condition. Never was a
stronger proof what horrors superstition can beget in
minds destitute of knowledge and humanity. These
brutes, who had made a vow of chastity, gave them¬
selves up to wine and all sorts of impurities, running
about with women and young girls as drunk as them¬
selves, whom they called sacred virgins, and who of¬
ten carried proofs of their incontinence. Their chiefs
took the name of Chiefs of the Saints. After having
glutted themselves with blood, they turned their rage
upon themselves, and sought death with the same fury
with which they gave it to others. Some scrambled
up to the tops of rocks, and cast themselves down
headlong in multitudes; others burned themselves, or
threw themselves into the sea. Those who proposed
to acquire the title of martyrs, published it long be¬
fore, upon which they were feasted and fattened
like oxen for the slaughter; after these preparations
they set out to be destroyed. Sometimes they gave
money to those whom they met, and threatened to
murder them if they did not make them martyrs.
Theodoret gives an account of a stout young man,
who meeting with a troop of these fanatics, consent¬
ed to kill them, provided he might bind them first;
and having by this means put it out of their power
to defend themselves, whipped them as long as lie
was able, and then left them tied in that manner.
Their bishops pretended to blame them, but in reali¬
ty made use of them to intimidate such as might be
tempted to forsake their sect; they even honoured
them as saints. They were not, however, able to Circon
govern those furious monsters, and more than once lione*
found themselves under a necessity of abandoning them, Circuit
and even of imploring the assistance of the secular
power against them. The counts, Ursacius and Tau-
rinus were employed to quell them; they destroyed
a great number of them, of whom the Donatists made
as many martyrs. Ursacius, who was a good Ca¬
tholic and a religious man, having lost his life in
an engagement with the barbarians, the Donatists
did not fail to triumph in his death, as an effect of
the vengeance of heaven. Africa was the theatre of
these bloody scenes during a great part of Constan¬
tine’s life.
CIRCUIT, in Law, signifies a longer course of
proceedings than is needful to recover the thing sued
for.
Circuit, also signifies the journey or progress
which the judges take twice every year, through the
several counties of England and \Vales, to hold courts
and administer justice, where recourse cannot be had
to the king’s courts at Westminster; hence England
is divided into six circuits, viz. the Home circuit ; Nor¬
folk circuit; Midland circuit; Oxford circuit; West¬
ern circuit; and Northern circuit. In Wales there
are but two circuits, North and South Wales : two
judges are assigned by the king’s commission to every
circuit.
In Scotland, the judges of the supreme criminal
court, or court of justiciary, are divided into three
separate courts, consisting of two judges each; and
the kingdom into as many districts. In certain bo¬
roughs of every district, each of these courts by rota¬
tion is obliged to hold two courts in the year, in spring
and autumn ; which are called circuit courts.
Electrical Circuit, denotes the course of the electric
ftuid from the charged surface of an electric body, to
the opposite surface into which the discharge is made.
Some of the first electricians apprehend, that the
same particles of the electric fluid, which were thrown
on one side of the charged glass, actually made the
whole circuit of the intervening conductors, and ar¬
rived at the opposite side; whereas Dr Franklin’s
theory only requires, that the redundancy of electric
matter on the charged surface should pass into the bo¬
dies forming that part of the circuit which is con¬
tiguous to it, driving forward that part of the fluid
which they naturally possess; and that the deficiency
of the exhausted surface should be supplied by the
neighbouring conductors, which form the last part of
the circuit. On this supposition, a vibrating motion
is successively communicated through the whole length
of the circuit. This circuit is always formed of the
best conductors, let the length of it be ever so great.
Many attempts were made, both in France and Eng¬
land, at an early period in the history of electricity,
to ascertain the distance to which the electric shock
might be carried, and the velocity of its motion. The
French philosophers, at different times, made it to
pass through a circuit of 900 toises, and of 2000
toises, or about two English miles and a half; and
they discharged the Leyden phial through a bason of
water, the surface of which was about an acre. And
M. Mounier found, that, in passing through an iron
wire of 950 toises in length, it did not spend a quar-
X 2 ter
C I R t 164 ] C I R
Circuit ter a second ; and that its motion was instantaneous
|| tlirough a wire of 1319 feet. In I747> -^r Watson, and
Circulation. 0ther English philosophers, after many experiments
' * of a similar kind, conveyed the electric matter through
a circuit of four miles j and they concluded, from this
and another trial, that its velocity is instantaneous.
CIRCULAR, in a general sense, any thing that is
described, or moved in a round, as the circumference
of a circle, or surface of a globe.
Circular Ntimbei's, called also spherical ones, accord¬
ing to some, are such whose powers terminate in the
roots themselves. Thus, for instance, 5 and 6, all whose
powers do end in 5 and 6, as the scpare of 5 is 25 5
the square of 6 is 36, &c.
Circular Sailing, is the method of sailing by the
arch of a great circle. See Navigation.
CIRCULATION, the act of moving round, or in
a circle j thus we say, the circulation of the blood,
&c.
Circulation of the Blood, the natural motion of
the blood in a living animal, whereby that fluid is
alternately carried from the heart into all parts of
the body, by the arteries, from whence it is brought
back to the heart again by the veins. See Anatomy
Index.
In a foetus, the apparatus for the circulation of the
blood is somewhat different from that in adults. The
septum, which separates the two auricles of the heart,
is pierced through with an aperture, called the fora¬
men ovale; and the trunk of the pulmonary artery, a
little after it has left the heart, sends out a tube into
the descending aorta, called the communicating canal.
The foetus being born, the foramen ovale closes by de¬
grees, and the canal of communication dries up, and
becomes a simple ligament.
As to the velocity of the circulating blood, and the
time wherein the circulation is completed, several
computations have been made. By Dr Kell’s account,
the blood is driven out of the heart into the aorta with
a velocity which would carry it twenty-five feet in a
minute; but this velocity is continually abated in the
progress of the blood, in the numerous sections or
branches of the arteries ; so that before it arrives at
the extremities of the body, its motion is greatly di¬
minished. The space of time wherein the whole mass
of blood ordinarily circulates is variously determined.
Borne state it thus: Supposing the heart to make two
thousand pulses in an hour, and that at every pulse
there is expelled an ounce of blood ; as the whole mass
of blood is not ordinarily computed to exceed twenty-
four pounds, it must be circulated seven or eight times
over in the space of an hour.
The curious in microscopic observations, have found
an easy method of seeing the circulation of the blood
in the bodies of animals : for these inquiries it is ne¬
cessary to choose such animals as are small, and easily
manageable, and which are either wholly or in part
transparent. The observations made by this means
are preferable to any others we can have recourse to,
since, in dissections, the animal is in a state of pain,
or dying; whereas in animals small enough to be thus
viewed, all is left in its usual course, and we see what
nature does in her own undisturbed method. In these
creatures also, after viewing, as long as we please the
natural state and current of the blood, we may, by
3
pressure, and several other ways impede its course ; Clrcrdaticr
and by putting various mixtures into the creature’s ——
water, induce a morbid state, and finally see the crea¬
ture die, either by means of this or by any other me¬
thod ; and we may thus accurately observe all the
changes it undergoes, and see what occasions the trem¬
bling pulse, &c. of dying people.
The current of the blood in small animals, that is,
its passing on through the vessels, either to or from
the heart, is very easily seen by the microscope ; but
its circulation, that is, its running to the extremities
of the parts, and thence returning, is more difficult;
because the vessels where this should be seen are so ex¬
tremely minute, as not easily to come under observa¬
tion. The larger artei'ies are easily distinguished from
the veins by the motion of the blood through them,
which in the veins is always smooth and regular;
but in the arteries, by several propulsions after the
manner of pulsation. But this difference is not to he
found in the more minute vessels, in all which, as well
arteries as veins, the motion of the blood is even and
regular.
The transparent membrane, or web between the
toes of a frog’s hinder foot, is a very proper object
to observe the circulation of the blood in. The tails
or fins of fishes are also very fine objects; and when
the fish is very small, these are manageable, and af¬
ford a view of a great number of veins and arteries,
with a Very quick and beautiful succession of blood
through them. The tail of a flounder may be very
conveniently placed before the double microscope on
a plate of glass; and its body being supported by
something of equal height, the fish will lie still, and
the circulation may be seen very agreeably. In the
minutest vessels thus examined, the blood always ap¬
pears pale or colourless, but in the large ones it is
manifestly red. The arteries usually branch out ex¬
tremely before they join the veins to carry the blood
back to the heart; but this is not always the case ;
for Mr Leuwenhoeck has observed, that on each side
of the little gristles which give a stiffness to the tail
of a flounder, there may be seen a very open
communication of the veins and arteries; the blood
running towards the extremities through arteries, and
returning back again through veins, which were evi¬
dently a continuation of those arteries and of the
same diameter with them. The whole fish, on the tail
of which this examination was made, was not more
than half an inch in length ; it is easy to conceive,
therefore, how small the tail must be; and yet in it
there were 68 vessels which carried and returned the
blood; and yet these vessels were far from being
the most minute of all. How inconceivably nume¬
rous then must the circulations in the whole human
body be ? Mr Lenwenhoeck is of opinion, that a
thousand different circulations are continually carried
on in every part of a man’s body in the breadth of a
finger nail.
The tail of a newt or water-lizard affords also a ve¬
ry entertaining prospect of the circulation of the blood
through almost numberless small vessels ; but no ob¬
ject shows it so agreeably as one of these animals,
while so young as not to be above an inch long; for
then the whole body is so very transparent, that the
circulation may be seen in every part of it, as well as
in
C I R [ 165 ] C I R
irculalion
Circumci¬
sion.
in tlie tail ; and, in these olijects, nothing is more
beautiful than the course of the blood into the toes and
back again, where it may be traced all the way with
great ease. Near the head there are also found three
small fins which afford a very delightful prospect 5
these are all divided like the leaves of polypody ; and
in every one of the branches of these, the blood may
be very accurately traced, running to the end through
the artery, and there returning back again by a vein
of the same siz,e, and laid in the same direction ; and
as the vessels are very numerous and large in this part,
and the third or fourth magnifier may be used, there
are sometimes seen thirty or forty channels of running
blood at once ; and this the more as the globules of
blood in the newt are large, and fewer in number,
in proportion to the quantity of serum, than in any
other animal : and their figure, as they are protruded
through the vessels, changes in a very surprising man¬
ner. The impetus occasioning the circulation is great
enough in some animals to raise the blood six, seven, or
eight feet high from the blood-vessel it springs out at,
which, however, is far exceeded by that of the sap of a
vine in bleeding time, which will sometimes rise 40
feet high.
Circulation of the Sap of Phints. See Plants
and Sap.
Circulation of the Spirits, or Nervous Fluid. See
Anatomy index.
Circulation, in C/zcmwfr’y, is an operation whereby
the same vapour, raised by fire, falls back, to be re¬
turned and distilled several times.
Circulation of Money. See Commerce and Mo¬
ney.
Subterranean Circulation. See Springs.
CIRCULUS, in Chemistry, an iron instrument in
form of a ring, which being heated red hot, and ap¬
plied to the neck of retorts and other glass vessels till
they grow hot, a few drops of cold water thrown upon
them, or a cold blast, will make the necks fly regularly
and evenly off.
Another method of doing this is, to tie a thread,
first dipt in oil of turpentine, round the place where
you would have it break ; and then setting fire to the
thread, and afterwards sprinkling the place with cold
water, the glass will crack exactly where the thread
was tied.
CIRCUMAMBIENT, an appellation given to a
thing that surrounds another on all sides j chiefly used
in speaking of the air.
CIRCUMCELLIQNES* See Circoncellio-
NES.
CIRCUMCISION, the act of cutting off the pre¬
puce j a ceremony in the Jewish and Mahometan reli¬
gions, wherein they cut off the foreskin of their males,
who are to profess the one or the other law.
Circumcision commenced in the time of Abraham j.
and was the seal of a covenant stipulated between God
and him. It was in the year of the world 2178 that
Abraham, by divine appointment, circumcised himself
and all the males of his family •, from which time
it became an hereditary practice among his descend¬
ants.
The ceremony, however, was not confined to the
Jews. Herodotus and Philo Judaeus observe, that it
obtained also among the Egyptians and Ethiopians.
Herodotus says, that the custom was very ancient among Circumci-
each people ; so that there was no determining which sion.
of them borrowed it from the other. The same histo- “v——*
rian relates, that the inhabitants of Colchis also used
circumcision $ whence be concludes, that they were
originally Egyptians. He adds, that the Phenicians
and Syrians were likewise circumcised ; that they bor¬
rowed the practice from the Egyptians ; and, lastly,,
that a little before the time when he wrote, circumci¬
sion had passed from Colchis to the people inhabiting
near Thermodon and Parthenius.
Marsham is of opinion, that the Hebrews borrowed
circumcision from the Egyptians) and that God was
not the first author thereof, citing Diodorus Siculus
and Herodotus as evidences on his side. This latter
proposition seems directly contrary to the testimony
of Moses, who assures us (Gen. xvii.), that Abraham,
though 99 years of age, was not circumcised till he
had the express command of God for it. But as to the
former position of Marsham, it will admit of more de¬
bate. The arguments on both sides may be seen in one
view in Spencer de Legibus Hebrceorum, 1. 2. c. 4.
Be this as it will, it is certain the practice of cir¬
cumcision among the Hebrews differed very consider¬
ably from that of the Egyptians. Among the first it
was a ceremony of religion, and was performed on the
eighth day after the birth of the child. Among the
latter, a point of mere decency and cleanliness) and,
as some will have it, of physical necessity ) and was not
performed till the 13th year, and then on girls as well
as boys.
Among the Jews, the time for performing this rite
was the eighth day, that is, six full days, after the
child was born. The law of Moses ordained nothing
with respect to the person by whom, the instrument
with which, or the manner how, the ceremony, was to
be performed ) the instrument was generally a knife
of stone. The child is usually circumcised at home,
where the father or godfather holds him in his arms,
while the operator takes hold of the prepuce with one
hand, and with the other cuts it oft' 5 a third person
holds a porringer, with sand in it, to catch the blood j
then the operator applies his mouth to the part, and,
having sucked the blood, spits it into a bowl of wine,
and throws a styptic powder upon the wound. This
ceremony was usually accompanied with great rejoi-i
cings and feasting j and it was at this time that the
child was named in presence of the company. The
Jews invented several superstitious customs at this ce-.
remony, such as placing three stools, one for the circum-
cisor, the second for the person who holds the child,
and the third for Elijah, who, they say, assists invisibly
at the cremony, &c. »
The Jews distinguished their proselytes into two
sorts, according as they became circumcised or not :
those who submitted, to this rite were looked upon
as children of Abraham, and obliged to keep tba
laws of Moses j the uncircumcised were only bound
to observe the precepts of Noah, and were called Noa-
chidee.
The Turks never circumcise till the seventh or eighth
year, as having no notion of its being necessary to sal¬
vation. The Persians circumcise their boys at 13, and
their girls from 9 .to 15. Those of Madagascar cut
the flesh at three several times, and the most zealous
C I R [ 166 ] C I R
Circumci- of the relations present catches hold of the preputium
si°n and swallows it,
Oircu nfcr Circumcision is practised on women by cutting off
eHlor " the foreskin of the clitoris, which bears a near resem-
v—w biance and analogy to the preputium of the male pe¬
nis. We are told that the Egyptian captive women
were circumcised} and also the subjects of Prester
John,
Circumcision is also the name of a feast, celebrated
on the first of January, in commemoration of the cir¬
cumcision of our Saviour.
CIRCUMDUCTION, in Scots Law. When par¬
ties in a suit are allowed a proof of allegeances 5 af¬
ter the time limited by the judge for taking the proof
is elapsed, either party may apply for circumduction
of the time of proving j the effect of which is, that no
proof can afterwards be brought, and the cause must
be determined as it stood when circumduction was ob¬
tained.
CIRCUMFERENCE, in a general sense, denotes
the line or lines bounding a plane figure. However,
it is generally used in a more limited sense for the
curve line which bounds a circle, and otherwise called
a periphery ; the boundary of a right-lined figure being
expressed by the term perimeter.
CIRCUMFERENTOR, an instrument used by
surveyors for taking angles.
Plate It consists of a brass index and circle, all of a piece.
CXLV. ;n(]ex commonly about 14 inches long, and an
inch and a half broad *, the diameter of the circle is
about seven inches. On this circle is made a chart,
whose meridian line answers to the middle of the
breadth of the index, and is divided into 360 degrees.
There is a brass ring soldered on the circumference of
the circle, on which screws another ring, with a flat
glass in it, so as to form a kind of box for the needle,
suspended on the pivot in the centre of the circle.
There are also two sights to screw on, and slide up and
down the index, as also a spangle and socket screwed
on the back side of the circle for putting the head of
the staff in.
Ibid. How to observe the Quantity of an angle by the Cit'-
cumferentov. Let it be required to find the quantity
of the angle EKG ; first place your instrument at K,
with the flower-de-luce of the chart towards you ; then
direct your sights to E, and observe what degrees are
cut by the south end of the needle, which let be 296 ;
then, turning the instrument about, direct your sights
to G, noting then also what degrees are cut by the
south end of the needle, which suppose 247. This
done, always subtract the lesser from the greater, as
in this example, 247 from 296, the remainder is
49 degrees, which is the true quantity of the angle
EKG.
A circumferentor was made by Mr Jones of Hol-
born on an improved construction. From a very simple
contrivance, it is rendered sufficient to take angles with
the accuracy of a common theodolite *, and by it angles
of altitude and depression may be observed as readily
Ibid. as horizontal ones. The improvement chiefly consists
in an arm or index (G), so applied to the centre of
the compass box, and within it, that, at the time of
observing, by only slipping a pin (/?) out, the circle of
degrees alone may move round, and leave the index
(G) fixed. This index will remain stationary, from ( iroumfu ;
its being attached to the socket that screws on the head entor
of the staffs. On the end of this index, next the de- fj
grees in the box, there is graduated a nonius scale, by Grcumlo-I
which the circle of 360 degrees is subdivided into five . CU^0ri’
minutes or less if desired. To take angles of alti¬
tudes or depressions, the instrument is turned down on
its ball and socket into a perpendicular position, and
adjusted to its level by a plumb line (7), that is hung
on a pin at the back of the box, and made to coincide
with a mark made thereon. Then by looking through
the small sight holes (.?) purposely made, the angles
are shown on the circles of degrees by the nonius as
before. The arms (AA) of the instrument slip off (at
BB), and the whole packs into a case but inches
square and 3 deep.
CIRCUMFLEX, in Grammar, an accent serving
to note, or distinguish, a syllable of an intermediate
sound between acute and grave j and generally some¬
what long.—The Greeks had three accents, the acute,
the grave, and the circumflex j formed thus, ', ,
In Latin, English, French, &c. the circumflex is
made thus a.—The acute raises the voice, and the
grave falls or lowers it : the circumflex is a kind of
undulation, or wavering of the voice, between the two.
It is seldom used among the moderns, unless to show
the omission of a letter which made the syllable long
and open ) a thing much more frequent in the French
than among us: thus they write pate for paste; tele
for teste ; fumes for fusmes, &c. They also use the
circumflex in the participles 5 some of their authors
writing connev, pen, others connu, pu, &c. Father
Buffier is at a loss for the reason of the circumflex on
this occasion.
The form of the Greek circumflex was anciently the
same with that of ours, viz. a ; being a composition of
the other two accents a in one.—But the copyists
changing the form of the characters, and introducing
the running hand, changed also the form of the cir¬
cumflex accent ; and instead of making a just angle,
rounded it off, adding a dash, through too much haste ;
and thus formed an s, laid horizontally, which produ¬
ced this figure"', instead of this a.
CIRCUMGYRATION, denotes the whirling mo¬
tion of any body round a centre j such is that of the
planets round the sun.
CIRCUMLOCUTION, an ambages, or tour of
words, used either when a proper term is not at hand,
to express a thing naturally and immediately by j or
when one chooses not to do it, out of respect, or for
some other reason. The word comes from circumloquor,
u I speak about.”
Circumlocution, in oratory, is the avoiding of
something disagreeable or inconvenient to be expressed
in direct terms j by intimating the sense thereof in a
kind of paraphrase, so conceived as to soften or break
the force thereof.
Thus Cicero, unable to deny that Clodius was slain
by Milo, owns it, with this circumlocution, “ Milo’s
“ servants being prevented from assisting their master,
“ who was reported to be killed by Clodius *, they, in
“ his absence, and without his privity, or consent, did
“ what every body would expect from their own ser-
“ vants on such an occasion.”
CIRCUMPOLAR
C I R [ 167 ] C I R
Circumpo- CIRCUMPOLAR STARS, an appellation given to
lar stars those stars, which, by reason of their vicinity to the
. 11 pole, move round it without setting.
Cirals' , CIRCUMPOTATIO, in antiquity, a funeral feast
provided in honour of the dead. This was very fre¬
quent among the ancient Romans, as well as among
the Athenians. Solon at Athens, and the decemviri
at Rome, endeavoured to reform this custom, thinking
it absurd that mirth and drunkenness should mingle
with sorrow and grief.
CIRCUMSCRIBED, in Geometry, is said of a fi¬
gure which is drawn round another figure, so that all
its sides or planes touch the inscribed figure.
CIRCUMSCRIPTION, in Natural Philosophy, the
termination, bounds, or limits, of any natural body.
CIRCUMSTANCE, a particularity, which, though
not essential to any action, yet doth some way affect
it.
CIRCUMSTANTIAL evidence, in Law, or the
doctrine of presumption, takes place next to positive
proof: circumstances which either necessarily or usual¬
ly attend facts of a particular nature, that cannot be
demonstratively evinced, are called presumptions, and
are only to be relied on till the contrary be actually
proved,
CIRCUMSTANTIBUS, in Law, a term used for
supplying and making up the number of jurors, (in case
any impannelled appear not, or appearing are challenged
by"any party), by adding to them so many of the per¬
sons present as will make up the number, in case they
are properly qualified.
CIRCUMVALLATION or Line of Circumval-
ration, in the art of war, is a trench bordered with a
parapet, thrown up quite round the besiegers camp,
by way of security against any army that may at¬
tempt to relieve the place, as well as to prevent de¬
sertion.
CIRCUMVOLUTION, in Architecture, denotes
the torus of the spiral line of the Ionic order.
CIRCUS, in antiquity, a large building, either
round or oval, used for the exhibiting of shows to the
people. Some derive the word from Circe, to whom
Tertullian attributes the invention. Cassiodorus says,
Circus comes ^ cirvuitu. The Romans, Servius ob¬
serves, at first had no other circus but that made by
the Tiber on one side, and a palisade of naked swords
on the other. Hence, according to Isidore, came the
term ludi circenses quasi circum enses. But Scaliger
ridicules that etymology.
The Roman circus was a large oblong edifice, arch¬
ed at one end, encompassed with porticoes, and fur¬
nished with rows of seats, placed ascending over each
other. In the middle was a kind of foot-bank, or emi¬
nence, with obelisks, statues, and posts at each end.
This served them for the courses of their bigce and qua-
drigee, There was no less than ten circuses at Rome :
The largest was built by the elder Tarquin, called
Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine
mounts. It was so called, either because of its vast
circumference, or because the great games were cele¬
brated in it; or again, because it was consecrated to
the great gods, viz. to Vertumnus, Neptune, Jupiter,
Juno, Minerva, and the Dii Penates of Rome. Diony¬
sius Halicarnassensis says, that it was three stadia and
a half in length, and four jugera broad j and these
measures, according to Pliny, allowing to the Roman Circus
stadia 625 Roman feet, each of which is twelve inches, ||
will give for the length, 2187 Roman feet, or some-^iencesler'
what more than three English furlongs: and as to the "v
breadth, allowing for each of the jugera 240 Roman
feet, it will be 960 Roman feet. It was beautified
and enlarged by the Roman emperors, so as to seat
250,000 spectators. The most magnificent circuses
were those of Augustus and Nero. There are still
some remains of the circuses at Rome, at Nismes, and
other places. The Romans were excessively fond of
the games exhibited in the circus : witness that verse
in Juvenal,
 -Atque duas tantum res anxius optat,
Panem et circenses.  ———
The Games of the Circus, which some call the Cir-
censian Games, were combats celebrated in the circus, in
honour of Consus the god of councils j and thence also
called Consualia. They were also called Roman Games,
Ludi Romani, either on account of their antiquity, as
being coeval with the Roman people, or because esta¬
blished by the Romans j and the games held there, the
great games, ludi tnagni, because celebrated with more
expence and magnificence than others j and because
held in honour of the great god Neptune, who was
their Consus.—Those who say they were instituted in
honour of the sun, confound the pompa circensis, or
procession of the circus, with the games.
The games of the circus were instituted by Evan-
der, and re-established by Romulus: the pomp, or
procession, was only a part of the games, making the
prelude thereof, and consisting of a simple cavalcade of
chariots. Till the time of the Elder Tarquin, they
were held in an island of the Tiber j and were called
Roman Games: after that prince had built the circus,
they took their name therefrom, as being constantly
held there. There were six kinds of exercises in the
circus: the first was wrestling, and fighting with
swords, with staves, and with pikes; the second was
racing j the third, saltatin, leaping 5 the fourth, dis¬
ci, quoits, arrows, and cestus; all which were on
foot: the fifth was horse-coursing; the sixth, courses
of chariots, whether with two horses or with four.
In this last exercise, the combatants were at first di¬
vided into two squadrons or quadrilsj then into four j
each bearing the names of the colours they wore ; fac-
tio alba, russea, &c. At first they were only white and
red ; then green and blue were added. Domitian
added two more colours, but they did not continue.
It was Oenomaus who first invented this method of di-
tinguishing the quadrils by colours. The green was
for those who represented the earth j the blue for the
sea, &c.
CIRENCESTER, an ancient town of Gloucester¬
shire in England. It was strongly fortified with walls
and a castle in the time of the Romans. The ruins
of the walls and streets are, or were lately, to be seen
in the adjacent meadows, where many Roman coins,
chequered pavements, and inscriptions on marble, have
been found. Two of the Roman consular ways cross
each other at this town, The fosse-way, which comes
from Scotland, passes through this county and town
to Totness in Devonshire. The other, called Irmin-
street, comes from Gloucester, and runs along to South¬
ampton.
C I R [ 168' ]
CIS
Chvnees'erampton. Not many years ago they discovered, by
II digging in a meadow near the town, an ancient build-
(irni's. jng un(]ei> ground, 50 feet long, 40 broad, and 4 high,
v ' and supported by 100 brick pillars, curiously inlaid
with stones of various colours, supposed to have been
a Homan bath. Circenster has now but one church,
in the windows of which are the remains of very va¬
luable painted glass. The town is governed by two
high constables, and 14 wards-men, who govern seven
distinct wards j and it sends two members to parlia¬
ment. It has a free-school, a charity-school, with se¬
veral alms-houses ; and is seated on the river Churn,
36 miles north-east of Bristol. Population 4540 *n
j8ii. W. Long. o. 2. N. Lat. 51. 42.
CIRENZA, a city of Naples, capital of the Basi-
licate, with an archbishop’s see. It was formerly a
•considerable place, but is now of small consequence.
It is situated on the river Brandano, at the foot of the
Apennine mountains, in E. Long. 16. 44. N. Lat.
40. 48.
C1RO FERRi, an excellent Italian painter and ar¬
chitect, was born at Rome in 1614, and was the dis¬
ciple of Peter de Cortona, whose designs he imita¬
ted with such exactness, that it is difficult to distin¬
guish them. He was esteemed by Pope Alexan¬
der VII. and his three successors, and died at Rome
in 1698.
CIRRUS, or Cirrhus, in Botany, a clasper or
tendril; that fine spiral string or fibre put out from the
footstalks, by which some plants, as the ivy and vine,
fasten themselves to walls, pales, or trees for support.
The term is synonymous to the capreolus, clavicula,
and viticulus of other botanists j and is ranked by Lin-
nceus among the fulcra, or parts of plants that serve
for protection, support, and defence.
Tendrils are sometimes placed opposite to the leaves,
as in the vine j sometimes at the side of the footstalk
of the leaf, as in the passion flower j and sometimes, as
in winged pea, pisum ochrus, they are emitted from the
leaves themselves. With respect to composition, they
are either simple, that is, composed of one fibre or
chord, as in the vetch j or compound, that is, con¬
sist of two, three, or more, as in the everlasting pea.
Bitter sweet, solanum dulcamara, bignonia, and ivy,
send forth tendrils which plant themselves like roots in
the adjacent walls, or the bark of the neighbouring
trees. Claspers, says the ingenious Dr Grew, are like
trunk roots, a mean betwixt a root and a trunk, but a
compound of both, as may be gathered from their cir¬
cumvolutions, in which they mutually ascend and de¬
scend. In the mounting of the trunk, continues the
same author, claspers serve for support. Thus, in
vines, the branches being very long, fragile, and slen¬
der, would be liable to frequent breaking, unless, by
means of their claspers, they were mutually contained
together; so that the whole care is divided betwixt the
gardener and nature: the former with his ligaments
of leather, secures the main branches ; and nature, with
those of her own providing, secures the less. Their
aptitude to this end is seen in their convolutions, a
motion not proper to any other part ; and also in their
toughness, which is so much the more remarkable, as
they are slenderer than the branches from which they
proceed. In the trailing of the trunk, tendrils serve
for stabilemerit and shade : thus, in cucumbers tbe
trunk and brandies being long and fragile, would be
driven to and fro by the winds, to the great preju¬
dice both of themselves and their tender fruits, were
they not, by these ligaments, held fast together, and
preserved in association and good fellowship. The same
claspers serve likewise for shade, so that a natural ar¬
bour is formed by the branches of the cucumber, in the
same manner as an artificial one is made by tangling
together the branches of trees ; for the branches, by the
linking of the claspers, being couched together," the
tender fruits lie under the umbrage of a bower made
of their own leaves.
CIRRI, in Ichtlnjology, certain oblong and soft
appendages, not unlike little worms, hanging from
the under jaws or mouths of some fishes ; these cirri,
commonly translated beards, afford marks to distin¬
guish the diflerent species of the fishes on which they
are found.
CIRRIPEDES, in Zoology, a class of animals.
See Supplement.
CirriiH
li
Cissampe-i
los.
CIRTA, in Ancient Geography, the metropolis and
royal residence, not far from the river Ampsaga, in the
inland parts of Numidia Propwa. A colony, surna-
med Colonia Sittianorum, very rich, when in the hands
of Syphax. The colony was led by one P. Sittius,
under the auspices of Csesar, and was surnamed Julio.
Npw called Constantino, in Algiers. E. Long. 7. o.
N. Lat. 35. 30.
CISALPINE, any thing on this side the Alps.
The Romans divided Gaul and the country now called
Lombardy, into Cisalpine and Transalpine. That which
was Cisalpine with regard to the Romans, is Transalpine
with regard to us.
CISLEU, in Hebrew chronology, the ninth month
of their ecclesiastical, and third of their civil, year, an¬
swering nearly to our November.
C ISP A DAN A Gallia, in Ancient Geography ; a
district of Italy, to the south of the Po, occupied by the
Gauls in the time of the kings of Rome, separated from
Liguria on the west, as is thought by the Iria, running
from south to north into the Po ; bounded on the south
by the Apennines, and on the east by the Adriatic.
The term is formed analogically, there being much
mention in Cicero, Tacitus, Suetonius, and ancient
inscriptions, made of the Transpadani; which and Cis-
padani are terms used with respect to Rome. Ptolemy
calls the CA/?(7r/«?/a peculiarly Gallia Togata, extending
between the Po and Appenines, to the Sapis and Ru¬
bicon.
CISSA, or Cissum, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Hither Spain, in Lusitania, on the east side of
the. Iberus (thought to be Guissona), where the Car¬
thaginians were first defeated by Scipio. Another
Cissa of Thrace, situated on the river iEgos Potamus
which Scylax seems to call Cressa, or Crissa ; so that
the reading is doubtful.
CISSAMPELOS. See Botany Index. There are
two species of this genus, the pareira and caapeba, both
natives of the warmest parts of America. The root
of the second, applied externally, is said to be an an¬
tidote against the bites of venomous serpents. The
plant being infused in water, quickly fills the liquor
with a mucilaginous substance, which is as thick as
jelly ;
C I T
ii
f itadine;-
Cissampc- je'ly > whence the name of free%ing-wyth, by which
Jos tills genus of plants has been distinguished by the Bra¬
zilians.
C1SSOID, in Geometry, a curve of the second or-
_ der, first invented by Diodes, whence it is called the
cisioid of Diodes. See Fluxions.
CISSUS, the Wild Grape. See Botany Index.
CISTERCIANS, in Church-history, a religious or¬
der founded in the nth century by St Robert a Be¬
nedictine. They became so powerful, that they go¬
verned almost all Europe, both in spirituals and tem¬
porals. Cardinal de Vitri describing their observan¬
ces, says, they neither wore skins nor shirts, nor ever
ate flesh, except in sickness ; and abstained from fish,
eggs, milk, and cheese : they lay upon straw-beds, in
tunics and cowls %} they rose at midnight to prayers j
they spent the day in labour, reading, and prayer,
and in all their exercises observed a continual silence.
The habit of the Cistercian monks is a white robe,
in the nature of a cassock, with a black scapulary
and hood, and is girt with a wooden girdle. The
nuns wear a white tunic, and a black scapulary and
girdle.
CISIERN, denotes a subterraneous reservoir of
rain water 5 or a vessel serving as a receptacle for
rain or other water, for the necessary uses of a family.
Ihere are likewise lead-cisterns, jar-cisterns, &c.
Authors mention a cistern at Constantinople, the
vaults of which are supported by two rows of pillars,
212 in each row, each pillar being two feet in diameter.
They are planted circularly, and in radii tending to
that of the centre.
Anciently there were cisterns all over the country in
Palestine. There were some likewise in cities and pri¬
vate houses. As the cities for the most part were
built on mountains, and the rams fell regularly in Ju¬
dea at two seasons in the year only, in spring and au¬
tumn, people were obliged to keep water in cisterns
in the country for the use of their cattle, and in cities
lor the conveniency of the inhabitants. There are still
cisterns of very large dimensions to be seen in Pale¬
stine, some whereof are 150 paces long, and 54 wide.
There is one to be seen at Ramah of 32 paces in
length, and 28 in breadth. Wells and cisterns, springs
and fountains, are generally confounded in scripture-
language.
CISTUS, the Rock-rose. See Botany Index.
CITADEL, a place fortified with five or six ba¬
stions, built on a convenient ground near a city, that
it may command it in case of a rebellion.
CITADELLA, the capital town in the island of
Minorca, in the Mediterranean, with a new harbour.
This, with the whole island, was taken by General
Stanhope and the confederate fleet in 1708, and ceded
to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht in 1713;
hnt it was taken by the French, after a brave defence,
1U I75^» ar)d restored by the peace. In 1782, it was
taken by the Spaniards, and confirmed to them at the
subsequent peace. It is 27 miles west of Port-Mahon.
E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 39. 58.
C FI A1) 1 \ ESC A, in Natural History, a name given
y some writers to the Florentine marble, which is sup¬
posed to represent towns, palaces, ruins, rivers, &c.
These delineations are merely accidental, and are com¬
monly much assisted by the imagination, though the
Vol. VI. Part I. f
[ 169 ]
C I T
natural lines of a stone may sometimes luckily enough
represent the ruins of some ancient building, or the
course of a river. In England there is a kind of sep-
taria, or Indus Helmontii, which has sometimes pretty
beautiful, though very irregular, delineations of this
kind. The Florentine marble, as we see it wrought up
in the ornaments of cabinets, &c. owes a great deal to
the skill of the workmen, who always pick out the
proper pieces from the mass, and dispose them in the
work so as to represent what they please.
CITATION, in ecclesiastical courts, is the same
with summons in civil courts. See Summons.
Citation, is also a quotation of some law authority,
or passage of a book.
CITHiERON, in Ancient Geography, a mountain
and forest of Bceotia, celebrated both in fable and song.
To the west it ran obliquely, a little above the Sinus
Crislaeus, taking its rise contiguous to the mountains
of Megara and Attica ; then levelled into plains, it
terminates at Thebes, famous for the fate of Pentheus
and Actaeon ; the former torn by the Bacchae, the
latter by his dogs j as also for the orgia, or revels of
Bacchus.
CITHARA, in antiquity, a musical instrument, the
precise structure of which is not known j some think
it resembled.the Greek delta A $ and others the shape
of a half-moon. At first it had only three strings, but
the number was at different times increased to 8, to 9,
and lastly to 24. It was used in entertainments and
private houses, and played upon with a plectrum or
quill, like the lyre.
CITHAREXYLON, Fiddle-wood. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CITIUM, Cetium, or Cittium, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town of Cyprus, situated in the south of the
island, famous for the birth of Zeno, author of the sect
called Stoics; distant two hundred stadia to the west of
Salami's (Diodorus Siculus). A colony of Phoenicians,
called Chetim : And hence it is that not only Cy¬
prus, but the other islands and many maritime places,
are called Chetim by the Hebrews : now called
Chiti.
CITIZEN, a native or inhabitant of a city, vested
with the freedom and liberties of it.
A citizen of Rome was distinguished from a stran¬
ger, because he belonged to no certain commonwealth
subject to the Romans. A citizen is either by birth or
election ; and sons may derive the right from their fa¬
thers. To make a good Roman citizen, it was neces¬
sary to be an inhabitant ol Rome, to be inrolled in one
of the tribes, and to be capable of dignities. Those to
whom were granted the rights and privileges of Roman
citizens were only honorary citizens. It was not law¬
ful to scourge a citizen of Rome.
CITRINUS, in Natural History, the name of a pe¬
culiar species of sprig crystal, which is of a beautiful
yellow. Many of the common crystals, when in the
neighbourhood of lead mines, are liable to be acci¬
dentally tinged yellow, by an admixture of the parti¬
cles of that metal $ and all these, whether finer or
coarser, have been too frequently confounded togethet
under the name citrine ; but Dr Hill has ascertained
this to be a peculiar species of crystal, different from
all the others in form as well as in colour $ and distin¬
guished by the name of ellipomacrvstylum lucidum jla-
Y vescens.
Citaciincs-
ca
II
Citriuus.
C I T
Citrinus
B
City.
vescens, pyramide brevi. It is never found colourless
like the other crystals, but has great variety of tinges,
from that of the deeper ochres to a pale lemon colour.
It is very plentiful in the West Indies, and is some¬
times found in Bohemia. Our jewellers have learned
from the French and Italians, who are very fond of it,
to call it citrine ; and often cut stones for rings out of
it, particularly out of the pyramid, which is always finer
than the column ; and these, after they have passed
through two or three hands, are generally mistaken lor
topazes.
CITBON-tree. See Citrus, Botany Index.
Citron Water, a well-known strong water or cor¬
dial, which may be thus made : Take of fine thin le¬
mon-peel, 18 ounces ; of orange-peel, 9 ounces ; per¬
fect nutmegs, 4 ounces; the finest and best alcohol
2 gallons and a half. Digest in balneo mariae lor
one night: draw off with a slow fire ; then add as
much water as will just make the matter milky (which
will be about 7 quarts or 2 gallons) 5 and lastly, add 2
pounds of fine sugar. This composition may be im¬
proved by fresh elder flowers, hung in a cloth in the
head of the still, sprinkled with ambergris in powder,
or its essence.
CiTRON-TFood, the wood of an American tree, call¬
ed by the natives candle-wood, because, being cut
into splinters, it burns like a candle. The tree is fre¬
quent in the Leeward islands, and grows to a consi¬
derable size : the leaves are like those of the bay-tree,
but of a finer green j the flower is sweet, and much
like those of the orange j the fruit succeeding these is
black, and of the size of a pepper-corn. The trunk
is so like the yellow saunders in colour, that there was
once an opinion that it was the same tree, and much
of it was imported into Europe, and sold as such $ but
they were soon found to be different \ the saunders be¬
ing of a sweet scent, and but moderately heavy and
resinous: but the citron-wood considerably heavy, very
oily, and of a strong smell. It is of no known use in
medicine j but is used in France and Germany by the
turners, being a fine firm-grained wood, and taking a
fine polish, and with age becoming of a very beautiful
brown.
CITRUS, the Citron-tree. See Botany Index.
This genus includes the citron, the lemon, the lime,
the orange, of which there are different varieties, the
shaddock, and the forbidden fruit.
CITTERN, a musical instrument much resembling
the guitar, for which it has been frequently mistaken.
Anciently it was called the cistrum, and till lately Avas
held in great contempt both in France and Britain.
The practice on it being very easy, it was formerly
the amusement and recreation of lewd women and
their visitors, insomuch, that in many of the old Eng¬
lish dramatic writers, it is made the symbol of a wo¬
man that lived by prostitution. It was also the com¬
mon amusement of waiting customers in barbers shops,
as being the most easy of all instruments to play on,
and therefore it was thought that almost every body
could make use of it.
CITY, according to Cowel, is a town corporate
which hath a bishop and cathedral church \ and is call¬
ed civitas, oppidum, and urbs: civitas, in regard it is
governed by justice and order of magistracy; oppi¬
dum, because it contains a great number of inhabi¬
[ 170 ] GIT
and urbs because it is in due form surrounded
tants j
with walls. _ —y—j
Kingdoms have been said to contain as many cities
as they have seats of archbishops and bishops j but, ac¬
cording to Blount, city is a word that hath obtained
since the Conquest j for in the time of the Saxons,
there were no cities, but all the great towns were
called burghs, and even London was then called Lon-
donburgh, as the capital of Scotland is called Edinburgh.
And long after the Conquest the word city is used pro¬
miscuously with the burgh, as in the charter of Leice¬
ster, where it is both called civitas and burgus; which
shows that those writers were mistaken who tell us
every city was, or is, a bishop’s see. And though the
word city signifies with us such a town corporate as hath
usually a bishop and a cathedral church, yet it is not
always so.
As to the ancient state of cities and villages, whilst
the feudal policy prevailed, they held of some great
lord on whom they depended for protection, and were
subject to his arbitrary jurisdiction. The inhabitants
were deprived of the natural and most unalienable
rights of humanity. They could not dispose of the
effects which their own industry had acquired, either
by a latter will or by any deed executed during their
life. They had no right to appoint guardians for their
children during their minority. They were not per¬
mitted to marry without purchasing the consent of the
lord on whom they depended. If once they had com¬
menced a law-suit, they durst not terminate it by an
accommodation, because that would have deprived the
lord, in whose court they pleaded, of the perquisites
due to him on passing his sentence. Services of
ous kinds, no less disgraceful than oppressive, were Ex¬
acted from them without mercy or moderation. The
spirit of industry was checked in some cities by absurd:
regulations, and in others by unreasonable exactions;
nor would the narrow and oppressive maxims of a mili¬
tary aristocracy have permitted it ever to rise to any
degree of height or vigour.
The freedom of cities was first established in Italy,
owning principally to the introduction of commerce.
As soon as they began to turn their attention towards
this object, and to conceive some idea of the advan¬
tages they might derive from it, they became impa¬
tient to shake off the yoke of their insolent lords, and
to establish among themselves such a free and equal
government, as would render property secure and in¬
dustry flourishing. The German emperors, especially
those*of the Franconian and Suabian lines, as the seat
of their government was far distant from Italy, possess¬
ed a feeble and imperfect jurisdiction in that country.
Their perpetual quarrels, either with the popes or their
own turbulent vassals, diverted their attention from the
interior police of Italy, and gave constant employment
for their arms. These circumstances induced some of
the Italian cities towards the beginning of the*I Ith
century, to assume new privileges j to unite together
more closely, and to form themselves into bodies poli¬
tic, under the government of laws established by com¬
mon consent. The rights which many cities acquired
by bold or fortunate usurpations, others purchased from
the emperors, who deemed themselves gainers when
they received large sums for immunities which they
were no longer able to withhold $ and some cities ob¬
tained
C I T
[
tained them gratuitously from the facility or generosity
J of the princes on whom they depended. The great in¬
crease of wealth which the crusades brought into Italy,
occasioned a new kind of fermentation and activity in
the minds of the people, and excited such a general
passion for liberty and independence, that, before the
conclusion of the last crusade, all the considerable ci¬
ties in that country had either purchased or had extort¬
ed large immunities from the emperors.
This innovation was not long known in Italy before
it made its way into France. Louis the Gross, in or¬
der to create some power that might counterbalance
those potent vassals who controlled or gave law to the
crown, first adopted the plan of conferring new privi¬
leges on the towns situated within his own domain.
These privileges were called charters of community, by
which he enfranchised the inhabitants, abolished all
marks of servitude, and formed them into corpoi’ations
or bodies politic, to be governed by a council and ma¬
gistrates of their own nomination. These magistrates
had the right of administering justice within their own
precincts ; of levying taxes $ of embodying and train¬
ing to arms the militia of the town, which took the
field when required by the sovereign under the com¬
mand of officers appointed by the community. The
great barons imitated the example of their monarch,
and granted like immunities to the towns within their
territories. They had wasted such great sums in their
expeditions to the Holy Land, that they were eager to
lay hold on this new expedient' for raising money by the
sale of those charters of liberty. Though the constitu¬
tion of communities was as repugnant to their maxims
of policy as it was adverse to their power, they disre¬
garded remote consequences in order to obtain present
relief. In less than two centuries, servitude was abo¬
lished in most of the cities of France, and they became
free corporations, instead of dependent villages without
jurisdiction or privileges. Much about the same period
the great cities of Germany began to acquire like im¬
munities, and laid the foundations of their present li¬
berty and independence. The practice spread quickly
over Europe, and was adopted in Spain, England, Scot¬
land, and all the other feudal kingdoms.
The Spanish historians are almost entirely silent con¬
cerning the origin and progress of communities in that
kingdom *, so that it is impossible to fix with any degree
of certainty, the time and manner of their first intro¬
duction there. It appears, however, from Mariana,
that in the year 1350 eighteen cities had obtained
a seat in the Cortes of Castile. In Arragon, cities seem
early to have acquired extensive immunities, together
with a share in the legislature. In the year 1118, the
citizens of Saragossa had not only obtained political li¬
berty, but they were declared to be of equal rank with
the nobles of the second class ; and many other immu¬
nities, unknown to persons in their rank of life in other
parts of Europe, were conferred upon them. In Eng¬
land, the establishment of communities or corporations
was posterior to the Conquest. The practice was bor¬
rowed from France, and the privileges granted by the
crown were perfectly similar to those above enumerated.
It is not improbable, that some of the towns in England
were formed into corporations under the Saxon kings ;
and that the charters granted by the kings of the Nor¬
man race were not charters of enfranchisement from a
City
.11
Civic
Crown.
71 ] CIV
state of slavery, but a confirmation of privileges which
they had already enjoyed *. The English cities, how¬
ever, were verv considerable in the 12th century. A
clear proof of this occurs in the history just referred to. <
Fitz-Stephen, a contemporary author, gives a descrip-* See Iiorrf
tion of the city of London in the reign of Henry II. Lyttieton'is
and the terms in which he speaks of its trade, its
wealth, and the number of its inhabitants, would s«g-YOj. jj.
gest no adequate idea of its state at present, when it isp, ^i-j.
the greatest and most opulent city in Europe. But all
ideas of grandeur and magnificence are merely compa¬
rative. It appears from Peter of Blois, archdeacon of
London, who flourished in the same reign, and who
had good opportunity of being informed, that this city,
of which Fitz-Stephen gives such a pompous account,
contained no more than 40,000 inhabitants. The other
cities were small in proportion, and in no condition to
extort any extensive privileges. That the constitution
of the boroughs of Scotland in many circumstances re¬
sembles that of the towns of France and England, is
manifest from the Leges Burgorum annexed to the
Regiam Majestatem,
CIVET, a kind of perfume which bears the name
of the animal it is taken from, and to which it is pecu¬
liar. See VlVERRA.
Good civet is of a clear, yellowish, or brownish co¬
lour $ not fluid nor hard, but about the consistence of
butter or honey, and uniform throughout ; of a very
strong smell, quite offensive when undiluted, but agree¬
able when only a small portion of civet is mixed with
a large one of other substances. It unites easily with
oils both expressed and distilled, but not at all with
water or alcohol ; nor can it be rendered miscible with
water by the mediation of sugar. The yolk of an egg
seems to dispose it to unite with water *, but in a very
little while the civet separates from the liquor, and falls
to the bottom, though it does not prove of such a resi¬
nous tenacity as when treated with sugar and alcohol.
It communicates, however, some share of its smell
both to watery and spirituous liquors: hence a small
portion of it is often added in odoriferous tinctures, and
suspended in the still-head during the distillation of
odoriferous waters and spirits. It is rarely if ever em¬
ployed for medicinal purposes. The Italians make it
an ingredient in perfumed oils, and thus obtain the
whole of its scent j for oils wholly dissolve the sub¬
stance of it. It is very rare, however, to meet with
civet unadulterated. The substances usually mixed with
it are lard and butter, which agreeing with it in its
general properties, render all criteria for distinguishing
the adulteration impossible. A great trade of civet is
carried on at Calicut, Bassora, and other parts of the
Indies, and in Africa, where the animal that produces
the perfume is found. Live civet-cats are to be seen
also in France and Holland. The French keep them
only as a rarity ; but the Dutch, who keep a great
number, draw the civet from them for sale. It is most¬
ly used by confectioners and perfumers.
CivET-Cat, the English name of the animal which
produces the civet. See Viverra, Mammalia In¬
dex.
CIVIC CROWN, was a crown given by the ancient
Romans to any soldier who had saved the file of a citi¬
zen in an engagement.
The civic crown was reckoned more honourable
Y 2 than
CIV [ I7
Civic than any other crown, though composed of no better
Crown materials than oak boughs. Plutarch, in the life of
„ li C. M. Coriolanus, accounts as follows for using on
Cm Law, ^jg occasjon the branches of this tree before all others :
because, says he, the oaken wreath being sacred to
Jupiter, the great guardian of their city, they thought
it the most proper ornament for him who had pre-
* Lib. xvi. served the life of a citizen. Pliny*, speaking of the
(aP- 4’ honour and privileges conferred on those who had
merited this crown, says, “ They who had once ob¬
tained it, might wear it always.” When they appeared
at the public spectacles, the senate and people rose to
do them honour, and they took their seats on these
occasions among the senators. They were not only
personally excused from all troublesome offices, but
procured the same immunity for their father and grand¬
father by the father’s side.
CIVIDAD de las Palmas, the capital town of
the island of Canary, with a bishop’s see, and a good
harbour. The houses are well built, two stories high,
and flat-roofed. The cathedral is a very handsome
structure 5 and the inhabitants are gay and rich. The
air is temperate, and free from extremes of heat and
cold. It is defended by a small castle seated on a hill.
"W. Long. 14. 35. N. Lat. 28. o.
Cividad Real, a town of Spain, in New Castile, and
capital of La Mancha. The inhabitants are noted for
dressing leather extremely well for gloves. W. Long.
4. 15. N. Lat. 39. 2.
Cividad Roderigo, a strong and considerable town
of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon, with a bishop’s see.
It was taken by Lord Wellington in January 1812.
W. Long. 6. 52. N. Lat. 40. 38.
Cividad diFriuli, a small but ancient town of Italy,
in Friuli, and in the territory of Venice; seated on the
river Natisona. E. Long. 13. 25. N. Lat. 46. 15.
CIVIL, in a general sense, something that regards
the policy, public good, or peace, of the citizens or
subjects of the state; in which sense we say, civil go¬
vernment, civil law, civil right, civil war, &c.
Civil, in a popular sense, is applied to a complai¬
sant and humane behaviour in the ordinary intercourse
of life. See Civility.
Civil, in a legal sense, is also applied to the ordi¬
nary procedure in an action, relating to some pecuniary
matter or interest; in which sense it is opposed to cri¬
minal.
Civil Death, any thing that cuts olf a man from
civil society ; as a condemnation to the galleys, perpe¬
tual banishment, condemnation to death, outlawry, and
excommunication.
Civil Law, is properly the peculiar law of each state,
country, or city : but what we usually mean by the
civil law, is a body of laws composed out of the best
Roman and Grecian laws, compiled from the laws of
nature and nations ; and, for the most part, received
and observed, throughout all the Roman dominions for
above 1200 years. See Law Index.
It was first brought over into England by Theobald
a Norman abbot, who was elected to the see of Can¬
terbury in 1138 ; and he appointed a- professor, viz.
Roger surnamed Vicarius, in the university of Oxford,
to teach it to the people of this country. Never¬
theless, it gained ground very slowly. King Ste¬
phen issued a proclamation, prohibiting the study of
2
2 ] CIV
it. And though the clergy were attached to it, the Cm]
laity rather wished to preserve the old constitution.
However, the zeal and influence of the clergy pre- Civil
vailed; and the civil law acquired great reputation
from the reign of King Stephen to the reign of King
Edward the III. both inclusive. Many transcripts of
Justinian’s Institute are to be found in tbe writings of
our ancient authors, particularly of Bracton and Fleta ;
and Judge Blackstone observes, that the common law
would have been lost and overrun by the civil, had it
not been for the incident of fixing the court of common
pleas in one certain spot, and the forming the profession
of the municipal law into an aggregate body.
It is allowed that the civil law contains all the prin¬
ciples of natural equity ; and that nothing can be bet¬
ter calculated to form good sense and sound judgment.
Hence, though in several countries it has no other au¬
thority but that of reason and justice, it is everywhere
referred to for authority. It is not received at this
day in any nation without some alterations ; and some¬
times the feudal law is mixed with it, or general and
particular customs; and often ordinances and statutes
cut off a great part of it.
In Turkey, the Basilics are only used. In Italy,
the canon law and customs have excluded a good part
of it. In Venice, custom hath almost an absolute go¬
vernment. In the Milanese, the feudal law and par¬
ticular customs bear sway. In Naples and Sicily, the
constitutions and laws of the Lombards are said to
prevail. In Germany and Holland, the civil law is
esteemed to be the municipal law ; but yet many parts
of it are there grown obsolete ; and others are altered,
either by the canon law or a different usage. In
Friesland, it is observed with more strictness ; but in
the northern parts of Germany, the jus Saxonicum,
Lubecense, or Culmense, is preferred before it. In
Denmark and Sweden, it hath scarce any authority at
all. In France, only a part of it is received, and that
part is in some places as a customary law; and in those
provinces nearest to Italy it is received as a municipal
written law. In criminal causes, the civil law is more
regarded in France ; but the manner of trial is regula¬
ted by ordinances and edicts. In Spain and Portugal,
the civil law is connected with the jus regium and cu¬
stom. In Scotland, the statutes of the sederunt, part
of the regiam majestatem, and their customs, controul
the civil law.
In England, it is used in the ecclesiastical courts, in
the high court of admiralty, in the court of chivalry,
in the twro universities, and in the courts of equity ;
yet in all these it is restrained and directed by the com¬
mon law.
Civil Society. See Law Index.
Civil State, in the British polity, one of the gene¬
ral divisions of the Laity, comprehending all orders of
men, from the highest nobleman to the meanest peasant,
that are not included under the Military or Mari¬
time states ; though it may sometimes include indivi¬
duals of these as well as of the Clergy ; since a noble¬
man, a knight, a gentleman, or a peasant, may become
either a divine, a soldier, or a seaman. The division
of this state is into Nobility and Commonalty.
See these articles.
Civil Wir, a war between people of the same state,
or the citizens of the same city.
Civil
CIV [ I
Civil Year Civil Year, is the legal year, or annual account of
|| time, which every government appoints to be used
Civility within its own dominions j and is so called in contra-
_v distinction to the natural year, which is measured ex¬
actly by the revolution of the heavenly bodies.
CIVILIAN, in general, denotes something belong¬
ing to the civil law j but more especially the doctors
and professors thereof are called civilians.
CIVILITY, a term used in common life as syno¬
nymous with complaisance or good-breeding.
Civility is justly inculcated by didactic writers as a
duty of no slight consideration. Without civility, or
good-breeding, a court would be the seat of violence
and desolation. There, all the passions are in fermen¬
tation ; because all pursue what but few can obtain ;
there, if enemies did not embrace, they would stab $
there, smiles are often put on to conceal tears j there,
mutual services are professed, while mutual injuries are
intended ; and there, the guile of the serpent simulates
the gentleness of the dove. To what a degree must
good-breeding adorn the beauty of truth, when it can
thus soften the deformity of falsehood ? On this subject
we have the following elegant observations in Knox’s
Essays, N° 95.
“ However just the complaints of the misery of
life, yet great occasions for the display of beneficence
and liberality do not often occur. But there is an
hourly necessity for the little kind offices of mutual ci¬
vility. At the same time that they give pleasure to
others, they add to our own happiness and improvement.
Habitual acts of kindness have a powerful effect in
softening the heart. An intercourse with polished and
humane company tends to improve the disposition, be¬
cause it requires a conformity of manners. And it is
certain, that a sense of decorum, and of a proper ex¬
ternal behaviour, will restrain those whose natural tem¬
per would otherwise break out in acrimonious and
petulant conversation. Even the affectation of philan¬
thropy will in time contribute to realise it. The plea¬
sure resulting from an act of kindness naturally excites
a wish to repeat it 5 and indeed the general esteem
which the character of benevolence procures, is suffi¬
cient to induce those to wish for it who only act from
the mean motives of self-interest.
“ As we are placed in a world where natural evil
abounds, we ought to render it supportable to each
other as far as human endeavours can avail. All that
can add a sweet ingredient to the bitter cup must be
infused. Amid the multitude of thorns, every flower
that will grow must be cultivated with care. But nei¬
ther pomp nor power are of themselves able to alleviate
the load of life. The heart requires to be soothed by
sympathy. A thousand little attentions from all around
us are necessary to render our days agreeable. The
appearance of neglect in any of those with whom we
are connected, chills our bosom with chagrin, or kindles
the fire of resentment. Nothing therefore seems so
likely to ensure happiness as our mutual endeavours to
promote it. Our single endeavours, originating and
terminating in ourselves, are usually unsuccessful. Pro¬
vidence has taken care to secure that intercourse which
is necessary to the existence of society, by rendering it
the greatest sweetener of human life.
“ By reciprocal attentions we are enabled to become
•3 1 . civ
beneficent without expence. A smile, an affable ad- Civility
dress, a look of approbation, are often capable of giv- (|
ing a greater pleasure than pecuniary benefits can be- CivitaTur-
stow. The mere participation of the studies and amuse-, c^‘n0, ,
ments of others, at the same time that it gratifies our¬
selves, is often an act of real humanity j because others
would not enjoy them without companions. A friendly
visit in a solitary hour, is often a greater act of kind¬
ness than a valuable present. «
“ It is really matter of surprise, that those who are
distinguished by rank and opulence should ever be un¬
popular in their neighbourhood. They must know the
value of popularity; and surely nothing is more easily
obtained by a superior. Their notice confers honour,
and the aspiring heart of man is always delighted with
distinction. A gracious look from them diffuses hap¬
piness on the lower ranks. But it usually happens,
that an overgrown rich man is not the favourite of a
neighbouring country ; and it is unfortunate, that
pride or inadvertence often prevent men from acting
the godlike part of making others happy, even when
they might do it without inconvenience to themselves.”
CIVITA DI Penna, an ancient town of Italy, in
the kingdom of Naples, and in the Farther Abruzzo,
with a bishop’s see. It is situated near the river Sali-
no, 25 miles north-east of Aquila. E. Long. 13. 3.
N. Lat. 42. 25.
Civita Castellana, a town of Italy, in St Peter’s
patrimony, seated on a river, which, seven miles from
thence, falls into the Tiber. E. Long. 13. 5. N. Lat.
42- I5-
Civita Turchino, a place in Italy, about two miles
north of the town of Corneto in the patrimony of
St Peter. It is a hill of an oblong form, the summit
of which is almost one continued plain. From the
quantity of medals, intaglios, fragments of inscrip¬
tions, See. that are occasionally found here, this is be¬
lieved to be the very spot where the ancient and
powerful city of Tarquinii once stood. At present it
is only one continued field of corn. On the south¬
east side of it runs the ridge of a hill which unites it
to Corneto. This ridge is at least three or four miles
in length, and almost entirely covered with artificiaL
hillocks, called by the inhabitants monti-rossi. About
twelve of these hillocks have at difl'erent times been
opened ; and in every one of them have been found
several subterranean apartments cut out of the solid
rock. These apartments are of various forms and di¬
mensions ; some consist of a large outer room, and a
small one within; others of a small room, at the first
entrance, and a large one within ; others are sup¬
ported by a column of the solid rock left in the centre,
with openings on every part. The entrance to them
all is by a door about five feet high, by two and a
half broad. Some of them have no light but from,
the door, while others seem to have had a small light
from above, through a hole of a pyramidal form-
Many of these apartments have an elevated port that
runs all round the wall, being a part of the rock left
for that purpose. The moveables found in these apart¬
ments consist chiefly of Etruscan vases of various lorms.
In some indeed have been found some plain sarcophagi
of stone, with bones in them. The whole of these
apartments are stuccoed, and ornamented in various
manners:
C L A [ 174 ]
Civlta manners : some indeed are plain } but others, particu-
Turchino lariy three, are richly adorned, having a double row
R of Etruscan inscriptions running round the upper part
(Jackman- tjie wa]jS} an(j lintler them a kind of frieze of fi-
^ ^ ■ jriirpsi in painting j some have an ornament under the
figures, which seems to supply the place of an archi¬
trave. The paintings seem to be in fresco $ and in
general resemble those which are usually seen upon
Etruscan vases ; though some of them are perhaps
superior to any thing as yet seen of the Etruscan art
in painting. In general they are slight, but well con¬
ceived ; and prove, that the artist was capable of pro¬
ducing things more studied and better finished ; though,
in such a subterraneous situation, the delicacy of a fi¬
nished work would in a great measure have been
thrown away. It is probable, however, that among
the immense number of these apartments that yet re¬
main to be opened, many paintings and inscriptions
may be found, sufficient to form a very useful and en¬
tertaining work. At present this great scene of anti¬
quities is almost entirely unknown, even in Rome. Mr
Jenkins, resident at Rome, was the first Englishman
who visited it.
Civita Vtcchia, a sea-port town of Italy in the pa¬
trimony of St Peter, with a good harbour and an ar¬
senal. It contains about 9000 inhabitants, and was
made a free port in I74r* The air js very unwhole¬
some. E. Long. 12. 31. N. Lat. 45. 5.
CIVOLI, or Cigoli, Lewis, an Italian painter,
whose family name was Cardi, was born at the castle
of Cigoli, in Tuscany, in the year 1559* ecce ^l0~
mo, which he performed as a trial of skill with Barochio
and Michael Angelo de Caravaggio, was judged better
than those executed by them. He excelled in de¬
signing, and was employed by the popes and princes of
his time. He died at Rome in 1613.
CIUS, in Ancient Geography, a town and river of
Bithynia, which gave name to the Sinus Cianus. The
town was afterwards called Prnsia, Cius having been
destroyed by Philip father of Perseus, and rebuilt by
Prusias king of Bithynia. In the river, Hylas, the fa¬
vourite boy of Hercules, was drowned j (Apollonius
Rhodius).
CLAC, among countrymen. To clack wool, is to
cut off the sheep’s mark, which makes the weight less,
and yields less custom to the king.
CLACKMANNAN, the name of a small shire in
Scotland, not exceeding eight miles in length and five
in breadth. It is bounded on the south by the frith
of Forth; on the north and west by Perthshire j and
on the east by Fife. The country is plain and fertile
towards the frith, producing corn and pasture in abun¬
dance. It likewise yields great abundance of excel¬
lent coal, considerable quantities of which are shipped
to supply Edinburgh with fuel. It is watered by the
rivers Forth and Devon, and joins the shire of Kinross
in sending a member alternately to parliament.
Population of the different Parishes in this County at
two Periods,
fn 1755. [In 179c—1798.
Alloa, - 5816 48o2
Clackmannan, I9I3 2528
In 1755-
In 179c—1793.
Dollar,
Tillicoultry,
5*7
757
9003
Population in 1811, 12,010*.
See Clackmananshire, Supplement.
Clackman¬
nan
* Statist.
Hist.
Clackmannan, a small town of Scotland, and ca¬
pital of the county of that name, is situated on the
northern shore of the Forth, in W. Long. 3. 40.
N. Lat. 56. 15. It stands on a hill, on the top of which
is the castle, commanding a noble prospect. It was
long the seat of the chief of the Bruces, who was here¬
ditary sheriff of the county before the jurisdictions were
abolished. The large square tower is called after
Robert Bruce, whose great sword and casque are still
preserved here. The hill, with the tower, forms a pic¬
turesque object. Clackmannan had 3^°5 inhabitants
in 1811, and is still the seat of the Bruces of Kennet.
CLAGENFURT, a strong town of Germany, and
capital of Carinthia, situated in E. Long. 13. 56. N«
Lat. 46. 50.
CLAGET, William, an eminent and learned di¬
vine, born in 1646. He was preacher to the society
of Gray’s Inn, which employment he exercised until
he ‘died in 1688, being then also one of the king’s
chaplains. Archbishop Sharp gives him an excellent
character $ and Bishop Burnet has ranked him among
those worthy men whose lives and labours contributed
to rescue the church from the reproaches which the
follies of others had drawn upon it. Dr Claget pu¬
blished several things 5 but his principal work is his
“ Discourse concerning the Operations of the Holy
Spirit nor must it be forgotten that he was one of
those excellent divines who made a noble stand against
the designs of James It. to introduce popery. Four
volumes of his sermons were published after his death
by his brother Nicholas Claget, archdeacon of Sud¬
bury, father of Nicholas Claget, afterwards bishop of
Exeter.
CLAIM, in Law, a challenge of interest in any
thing that is in possession of another.
CLAIR obscure. See Claro Qbscuro.
CLAIRAULT, Alexis, of the French acade¬
my of sciences, was one of the most illustrious mathe¬
maticians in Europe. He read to the academy in
1726, when he was not 13 years old, “ A Memoir
upon Four new Geometrical Curves of his own inven¬
tion 5” and supported the character he thus la.d a
foundation for by various publications from time to
time. He published Piemens de Geometric, 1741, in
8vo 5 Piemens (V Algebre, 1746, in 8vo ; Theorie de la
Figure de la Terre, 1743, in 8vo j Tables de la Lime,
1754, in 8vo. He was concerned also in the Journal
des Spavans, which he furnished with many excellent
extracts. He died in 1765. He was one of the acade¬
micians who were sent into the north to determine the
figure of the earth.
CLAM, in Zoology, a shell fish. See Venus.
CLAMP, a piece of wood joined to another.
Clamp is likewise the term for a pile of unburnt
brick*
C L A
Clamp bricks built up for burning. These clamps are built
{] much after the same manner as arches are built in kilns,
Clans. v;z, with a vacuity betwixt each brick’s breadth for the
fire to ascend by ; but with this difference, that instead
of arching, they truss over, or over-span ; that is, the
end of one brick is laid about halfway over the end of
another, and so till both sides meet within half a brick’s
length, and then a binding brick at the top finishes the
arch.
Clamp in a ship, denotes a piece of timber applied to
a mast or yard to prevent the wood from bursting; and
also a thick plank lyinj; fore and aft under the beams
of the first orlop, or second deck, and is the same that
the rising timbers are to the deck.
Clamp Naiis, such nails as are used to fasten on
clamps in the building or repairing of ships.
CLAMPETIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Bruttii, one of those which revolted from Han¬
nibal (Livy ;) called Lampetia by Polybius. Now
Amantia, or Mantia, a town of Calabria Ultra, near
the bay of Euphemia. E. Long. 16. 20. N. Lat. 39.
CLAMPING, in joinery, is the fitting a piece of
board with the grain to another piece of board cross the
grain. Thus the ends of tables are commonly clamp¬
ed, to prevent their warping.
CLANDESTINE, any thing done without the
knowledge of the parties concerned, or without the pro¬
per solemnities. Thus a marriage is said to be clande¬
stine when performed without the publication of bans,
the consent of parents, &c.
CLANS, in history, and particularly in that of Scot¬
land. The nations which overran Europe were origi¬
nally divided into many small tribes ; and when they
came to parcel out the lands which they had conquer¬
ed, it was natural for every chieftain to bestow a por¬
tion, in the first place, upon those of his own tribe or
family. These all held their lands of him ; and as the
safety of each individual depended on the general
union, these small societies clung together, and were
distinguished by some common appellation, either pa-
tronymical or local, long before the introduction of
surnames or ensigns armorial. But when these be¬
came common, the descendants and relations of every
chieftain assumed the same name and arms with him ;
other vassals were proud to imitate their example ;
and by degrees they were communicated to all those
fjoirrtson's'wbo held of the same superior. Thus clanships were
\i%tory of formed ; and in a generation or two, that consangui-
cotlund. n(ty which was at first in a great measure imaginary,
was believed to be real. An artificial union was con¬
verted into a natural one : men willingly followed a
leader, whom they regarded both as the superior of
their lands and the chief of their blood j and served
him not only with the fidelity of vassals, but the affec¬
tion of friends. In the other feudal kingdoms, we
may observe such unions as we have described, im¬
perfectly formed ; but in Scotland, whether they were
the production of chance, or the effect of policy, or
strengthened by their preserving their genealogies
both genuine and fabulous, clanships were universal.
Such a confederacy might be overcome ; it could not
be broken ; and no change of manners or government
has been able, in some parts of the kingdom, to dis¬
solve associations which are founded upon prejudices
C L A
so natural to the human mind. How formidable were Clans
nobles at the head of followers, who, counting that i|
cause just and honourable which their chief approved, ^larendon.
were ever ready to take the field at his command, and ' " v
to sacrifice their lives in defence of his person or of his
fame i Against such men a king contended with great
disadvantage •, and that cold service, which money pur¬
chases, or authority extorts, was not an equal match for
their ardour and zeal.
Some imagine the word clan to be only a corruption
of the Roman colonia ; but Mr Whittaker asserts it to
be purely British, and to signify a family.
CLAP, in Medicine, the first stage of the venereal
disease, more usually called a Gonorrhoea.
Clap-NcI, in birding, a sort of net contrived for
the taking of larks with the looking-glass, by the me¬
thod called daring or doring. The nets are spread
over an even piece of ground, and the larks are invi¬
ted to the place by other larks fastened down, and by
a looking-glass composed of five pieces, and fixed in a
frame so that it is turned round very swiftly back¬
wards and forwards, by means of a cord pulled by a
pei’son at a considerable distance behind a hedge. See
Doring.
CLAR, or Claer, in Metallurgy, bone-ashes per¬
fectly calcin.ed, and finely powdered, kept purposely for
covering the insides of Cupels.
CLARAMONT POWDER, a kind of earth, called
terra de Baira, from the place where it is found 5 it is
famous at Venice, for its efficacy in stopping hemorrha-
gies of all kinds, and in curing malignant fevers.
Precept o/"CLARE constat, in Scots Laiv, the
warrant of a superior for entering and infefting the
heir of his former vassal, without the interposition of
an inquest.
Nuns of St Clare, were founded at Assisa in Italy,,
about the year 1212. These nuns observed the rule
of St Francis, and wore habits of the same colour with
those of the Franciscan friars j and hence were called
Minoresses; and their house, without Aldgate, the Mi-
nories, where they were settled when first brought over
into England, about the year 1293. They had only
three houses besides this.
Clare, a market-town of Suffolk, 13 miles south of
Bury, with 1170 inhabitants in 1811. E. Long. o. 35.
N. Lat. 52. 15.
Clare is also the capital of a county of the same
name in the province of Connaught in Ireland. W.
Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 52. 40. See Clare, Supple¬
ment.
CLARENCIEUX, the second king at arms, so
called from the duke of Clarence, to whom he first be¬
longed ; for Lionel, third son to Edward III. having
by his wife the honour of Clare in the county of Tho-
mond, was afterwards declared duke of Clarence j
which dukedom afterwards escheating to Edward IV.
he made this earl a king at arms. His office is to
marshal and dispose of the funerals of all the lower no¬
bility, as baronets, knights, esquires, on the south side
of the Trent j whence he is sometimes called surroy or
south-roy, in contradistinction to norroy,.
CLARENDON, Constitutions of, certain constitu¬
tions made in the reign of Henry II. A. D. 1164, *n
a parliament held at Clarendon, whereby the king
checked the power of the pope and his clergy, and
greatly
[ '75 ]
C L A [ 176 3 . C L A
Clarendon greatly narrowed the total exemption they claimed
II from secular jurisdiction.
Clangatio.^ Clarendon, Earl of. See Hyde. #
v ^ CLARENNA, (Tabulae), in Ancient Gcogj'ap/iy, a
town of Vindelicia, at the confluence of the Lycus and
Danube. Now Rain, a town of Bavaria, on the south
side of the Danube, at the confluence of the Lech.
E. Long. 1 x. O. N. Lat. 48. 45.
CLARENZA, the capital of a duchy of the same
name in the Morea 5 it is a sea-port town, situated on
the Mediterranean. E. Long. 21. 40. N. Lat. 37. 40.
CLARET, a name given by the French to such of
their red wines as are not of a deep or high colour.
See Wine.
CLARICHORD, or Manichord, a musical in¬
strument in form of a spinet.
It has 49 or 50 stops, and 70 strings, which bear
on five bridges j the first whereof is the highest, the rest
diminishing in proportion. Some of the strings are
in unison, their number being greater than that of the
stops. There are several little mortizes for passing
the jacks, armed w’ith brass-hooks, which stop and raise
the chords instead of the feather used in virginals and
spinets j but what distinguishes it most is, that the
chords are covered with pieces of cloth, which render
■the sound sweeter, and deaden it so that it cannot be
heard at any considerable distance; whence it comes
to be particularly in use among the nuns, who learn to
play, and are unwilling to disturb the silence of the
dormitory.
CLARIFICATION, the act of cleaning or fining
any fluid from all heterogeneous matter or feculencies.
The substances usually employed for clarifying li¬
quor, are whites of eggs, blood, and isinglass. The
two first are used for such liquors as are clarified wdiilst
boiling hot; the last for those which are clarified
in the cold, such as wines, &c. The whites of eggs
are beaten up into a froth, and mixed with the liquor,
upon which they unite with and entangle the impure
matters that float in it; and presently growing hard
by the heat, carry them up to the surface in the
form of a scum, no longer dissoluble in the liquid.
Blood operates in the same manner, and is chiefly used
in purifying the brine from which salt is made. Great
quantities of isinglass are consumed for fining turbid
wines. For this purpose some throw an entire piece,
about a quarter of an ounce, into a wine cask ; by de¬
grees the glue dissolves, and forms a skin upon the sur¬
face, which at length subsiding, carries down with it
the feculent matter which floated in the wine. Others
previously dissolve the isinglass; and having boiled it
down to a slimy consistence, mix it with the liquor,
roll the cask strongly about, and then suft'er it to stand
to settle. Neumann questions the wholesomeness of
wines thus purified, and assures us that he himself,
after drinking only a few ounces of sack thus clarified,
but not settled quite fine, was seized with sickness and
vomiting, followed by such a vertigo, that he could not
stand upright for a minute together. The giddiness
continued with a nausea and want of appetite for seve¬
ral days.
CLARIGATIO, in Roman antiquity, a ceremony
that always preceded a formal declaration of war. It
was performed in this manner: first four heralds
crowned with vervain were sent to demand satisfaction
for the injuries done the Roman state. These heralds Clarii>atic
taking the gods to witness that their demands were ||
just, one of them, with a clear voice, demanded restitu-, Gtnte.
tion within a limited time, commonly 33 days, which , _
being expired without restitution made, then the pater
patratus, or prince of the heralds, proceeded to the ene¬
mies frontiers, and declared war.
CLARII Apollinis Fanum (Strabo, Pliny), a
temple and grove of Apollo, situated between Colo¬
phon and Lebedos, in Ionia ; called Claras (Thucydi¬
des, Ovid). The name also of a town and mountain
there (Nicander); and of a fountain (Clemens Alex-
andrinus), the waters of which inspired with prophe¬
tic fury. Clarius the epithet of Apollo (Strabo).
CLARION, a kind of trumpet, whose tube is nar-
rovver and its tone acuter and shriller than that of the
common trumpet. It is said that the clarion, now used
among the Moors, and Portuguese who borrowed it
from the Moors, served anciently for a treble to several
trumpets, which sounded tenor and bass.
CLARISSES, an order of nuns so called from their
founder St Clara or St Clare. (See St Clare.) She
was in the town of Assisa in Italy ; and having re¬
nounced the world to dedicate herself to religion, gave
birth to this order in the year 1212; which compre¬
hends not only those nuns that follow the rule of St
Francis, according to the strict letter, and without
any mitigation, but those likewise who follow the same
rule softened and mitigated by several popes. It is at
present one of the most flourishing orders of nuns in
Europe. After Ferdinand Cortez had conquered
Mexico for the king of Spain, Isabella of Portugal,
wife of the emperor Charles Y. sent thither some nuns
of the order of St Clara, who made several settlements
there. Near their monasteries were founded commu¬
nities of Indian young women, to be instructed by the
clarisses in religion, and such works as were suitable to
persons of their sex. These communities are so con¬
siderable that they usually consist of four or , five hun¬
dred.
CLARKE, Dr Samuel, a preacher and writer of
considerable note in the reign of Charles II. was,
during the interregnum, and at the time of the ejec¬
tion, minister of St Dennet Fink in London. In No¬
vember 1660, he, in the name of the Presbyterian mi¬
nisters, presented an address of thanks to the king for
his declaration of liberty of conscience. He was one
of the commissioners of the Savoy, and behaved on
that occasion with great prudence and moderation. He
sometimes attended the church as a hearer and com¬
municant, and was much esteemed by all that knew
him, for his great probity and industry. The most va¬
luable of his numerous works are said to be his Lives
of the Puritan Divines and other persons of note, 22
of which are printed in his Martyrology; the rest are
in his Lives of sundry eminent Persons in this latter
Age, folio ; and his Marrow of Ecclesiastical History,
in folio and quarto. He died in 1680.
Clark, Samuel, the son of the former, was fellow
of Pembroke-hall in Cambridge ; but was ejected from
his fellowship for refusing to take the engagements, as
he was also afterwards from his rectory of Grendon in
Buckinghamshire. He applied himself early to the
study of the Scriptures, and his Annotations on the
Bible, printed together with the sacred text, is highly
commended
C L A
[
Clarke, commended by Dr Owen, Mr Baxter, and Dr Calamy.
v-'—-' De died in 1701, aged 75.
Clarke, Dr Samuel, a very celebrated English
divine, was the son of Edward Clarke, Esq. alderman
of Norwich, and one of its representatives in parlia¬
ment for several years j and born there October 11.
1675. He was instructed in classical learning at the
free-school of that town ; and in 1691 removed thence
to Cains College in Cambridge, where his uncommon
abilities soon began to display themselves. Though
the philosophy of Des Cartes was at that time the
established philosophy of the university, yet Clarke
easily mastered the new system ot Newton ; and in or¬
der to his first degree of arts, performed a public ex¬
ercise in the schools upon a question taken from it.
He greatly contributed to the establishment of the
Newtonian philosophy by an excellent translation of,
and notes upon, Rohault’s “ Physics,” which he fi¬
nished before he was 22 years of age. The system of
natural philosophy then generally taught in the univer¬
sity was that written by Rohault, founded altogether
upon Cartesian principles, and very ill translated into
Eatin. Clarke gave a new translation, and added to
it such notes as might lead students insensibly and by
degrees to other and truer notions than could be
found there. And this certainly (says Bishop Hoad-
ly) was a more prudent method of introducing truth
unknown before, than to attempt to throw aside this
treatise entirely, and write a new one instead of it.
1 he success answered exceedingly well to his hopes 5
and he may justly be styled a great benefactor to the
univeisity in this attempt. For by this means the true
philosophy has, without any noise, prevailed j and to
this day the translation of Rohault is, generally speak-
ing, the standing text for lectures, and his notes the
first, direction to those who are willing to receive the
reality and truth of things in the place of invention
and romance.’’ Whiston relates, that in 1697, wllIIe
he was chaplain to Moore bishop of Norwich, he met
young Clarke, then wholly unknown to him, at a cof¬
feehouse in that city j where they entered into a con¬
versation about the Cartesian philosophy, particularly
Rohault’s “ Physics,” which Clarke’s tutor, as he tells
us, had put him upon translating. “ The result of
this conversation was (says Whiston), that I was great¬
ly sui prised that so young a man as Clarke then was
should know so much of those sublime discoveries,
which were then almost a secret to all but to a few
particular mathematicians. Nor do I remember (con¬
tinues he) above one or two at the most, whom 1 had
then met with, that seemed to know so much of that
philosophy as Clarke.” This translation of Rohault
was.first printed in 1697, 8vo. There have been four
editions of it, in every one of which improvements
have been made; especially in the last in 1718, which
has the following title : Jacobi Rohaiilti P/ujsica. La-
tiric icrtit, recensmt, et uberionbus jam Annotationi-
bus, ex illustrissimi Isaaci Newtoni Philosophia maxi-
mam partem haustis, amplificavit et ornavit S. Clarke,
'Accedunt etiam in hac quarta editione novee
aliquot tabulce cen incisce, et Annotationes multum sunt
auctce. Dr John Clarke, late dean of Sarum, and our
author’s brother, translated this work into English, and
published it in 2 vols 8vo.
Afterwards he turned his thoughts to divinity ; and
Vol. VI. Part I. f
77 ] C L A
in order to fit himself for the sacred function, he studied
the Old Testament in the original Hebrew, the New
in the original Greek, and the primitive Christian
writers. Having taken holy orders, he became chap¬
lain to Moore bishop of Norwich, who was ever after
his constant friend and patron. In 1699 he published
two treatises : one entitled “ Three practical Essays on
Baptism, Confirmation, and Repentance the other,
“ Some Reflections on that part of a book called
Amyntor, or a Defence of Milton’s Life, which re¬
lates to the Writings of the Primitive Fathers, and the
Canon of the New Testament.” In 1701 he published
“ A Paraphrase upon the Gospel of St Matthew
which was followed in 1702 by the “ Paraphrases up¬
on the Gospels of St Mark and St Luke,” and soon
after by a third volume “ upon St John.” They were
afterwards printed together in 2 volumes 8vo ; and have
since undergone several editions. He intended to have
gone through the remaining books of the New Testa¬
ment, but something accidentally interrupted the exe¬
cution. >
Meanwhile Bishop Moore gave him the rectory of
Drayton, near Norwich, and procured for him a parish
in that city ; and these he served himself in that sea¬
son when the bishop resided at Norwich. In 1704
he was appointed to preach Boyle’s lecture ; and the
subject he chose was, “ The being and attributes of
God.” He succeeded so well in this, and gave such
high satisfaction, that he was appointed to preach the
same lecture the next year; when he chose for his sub¬
ject “ The evidences of natural and revealed religion.”
These sermons were first printed in two distinct vo¬
lumes; the former in 1705, the latter in 1706. They
have been since printed in one volume, under the ge¬
neral title of “ A Discourse concerning the Being and
Attributes of God, the Obligations of natural Reli¬
gion, and the Truth and Certainty of the Christian
Revelation, in opposition to Hobbes, Spinoza, the Au¬
thor of the Oracles of Reason, and other Deniers of
natural and revealed Religion.” Clarke having endea¬
voured in the first part of his work to show, that the
being of a God may be demonstrated by arguments
a priori, is unluckily involved in the censure which Pope
has passed upon this method of reasoning in the fol¬
lowing lines. They are put into the mouth of one
of his dunces, addressing himself to the goddess Dul-
ness:
“ Let others creep by timid steps and slow,
“ On plain experience lay foundations low,
“ By common sense to common knowledge bred,
“ And lost to nature’s cause through nature led.
“ All-seeing in thy mists, we want no guide,
“ Mother of arrogance, and source of pride !
“ We nobly take the high priori road,
“ And reason downward, till we doubt of God.”
Dunciad, b. 4. 1. 455.
Upon which we have the following note : “ Those who,
from the effects in this visible world, deduce the eter¬
nal power and godhead of the First Cause, though they
cannot attain to an adequate idea of the Deity, yet
discover so much of him as enables them to see the
end of their creation and the means of their happi¬
ness; whereas they who take this high priori road,
as Hobbes, Spinoza, Des Cartes, and some better rea-
Z soners.
Clarke.
C L A [ 178 ] C L A
Clarke, soners, for one that goes right, ten lose themselves in
—v ■■■i-1 mist, or ramhle after visions, which deprive them ot
all sight of their end, and mislead them in the choice
of wrong means.” Clarke, it is probable, would not
iiave denied this ; and the poet perhaps would have
spared his better reasoners, and not have joined them
with such company, had he collected our author’s
apology for using the argument a priori. “ The argu¬
ment a posteriori (says he) is indeed by far the most
generally useful argument, most easy to be understood,
and in some degree suited to all capacities^ and there¬
fore it ought always to be insisted upon: But for as
much as atheistical writers have sometimes opposed the
being and attributes of God by such metaphysical rea¬
sonings, as can no otherwise be obviated than by ar¬
guing a priori; therefore this manner of arguing also
is useful and necessary in its proper place.” To this
may be added the answer he made to Mr Whiston up¬
on this occasion, as narrated by the. latter in his His¬
torical Memoirs. “ When Clarke brought me his
book, I was in my garden against St Peter’s college in
Cambridge, where I then lived. Now I perceived
that in these sermons he had dealt a great deal in ab¬
stract and metaphysical reasoning. I therefore asked
him how he ventured into such subtleties, which I ne¬
ver durst meddle with $ and showing him a nettle, or
some contemptible weed in my garden, I told him
that weed contained better arguments for the being and'
attributes of God than all his metaphysics. Clarke
confessed it to be so ; but alleged for himself, that since
such philosophers as Hobbes and Spinosa had made use
of those kind of subtleties against, he thought proper to
show that the like way of reasoning might be made better
use of on the side of, religion $ which reason or excuse
I allowed to be not inconsiderable.” Undoubtedly,
as the present editor of the Biographia Britannica ob¬
serves, the grand, the proper, the decisive proof of
the existence, perfections, and providence of the Deity,
must be drawn from his works. On this proof, as be¬
ing equally satisfactory to the profoundest philosopher
and the meanest peasant, the cause of religion will
ever stand secure. Nevertheless if there be such a
thing as an argument a priori, why may not specula¬
tive men be employed in its examination ? Several able
divines and philosopher’s have thought, and still think,
that this argument for the being and attributes of God
will stand the test of the severest scrutiny 5 and there¬
fore they cannot be blamed for endeavouring to set it
in a convincing light to others. As to the merit, in¬
deed^ of the whole work under consideration, including
the evidences of natural and revealed religion, it is un¬
doubtedly of the first order. Difficulties may be raised
on particular points, and the ablest and most candid
inquirers may sometimes see cause to hesitate with re¬
gard. to the validity of the reasoning; but still in ge¬
neral, the book reflects honour on the age as well as
the author that produced it, and will descend, with
distinguished reputation, to a late posterity. The de¬
fence, in particular, of the sacred original and autho¬
rity of Christianity is admirably conducted.
In 1706 he published “ A letter to Mr Dodwell j”
wherein all the arguments in his epistolary discourse
against the immortality of the soul are particularly an¬
swered, and the judgment of the fathers, to whom
Mr Dodwell had appealed concerning that matter*
truly represented. Bishop Hoadly observes, that in Clarke,
this letter he answered Mr Dodvvell in so excellent a —y—
manner, both with regard to the philosophical part,
and to the opinions of some of the primitive writers,
upon whom these doctrines were fixed, that it gave
universal satisfaction. But this controversy did not stop
here $ for the celebrated Collins, coming in as a se¬
cond to Dodwell, went much farther into the philoso¬
phy of the dispute, and indeed seemed to produce all
that could possibly be said against the immateriality of
the soul, as well as the liberty of human actions. This
enlarged the scene of the dispute, into which our au¬
thor entered, and wrote with such a spirit of clear¬
ness and demonstration, as at once showed him great¬
ly superior to his adversaries in metaphysical and phy¬
sical knowledge, and made every intelligent reader re¬
joice, that such an incident had happened to provoke
and extort from him that plenty of strong reasoning
and perspicuity of expression, which w'ere indeed very
much wanted upon this intricate and obscure subject.
*( And I am persuaded (continues the bishop), that
as what he has written in this controversy comprehends
the little that the ancients had said well, and adds still
more evidence than ever appeared clearly before, and
all in words that have a meaning to them, it will re¬
main the standard of good sense on that side of the
question, on which he spent so many of his thoughts,
as upon one of his favourite points. Clarke’s letter
to Dodwell was soon followed by four defences of it,
in four several letters to the author of “ A letter to
the learned Mr Henry Dodwell, containing some Re¬
marks on a pretended Demonstration of the Immate¬
riality and natural Immortality of the Soul, in Mr
Clarke’s Answer to his late Epistolary Discourse, &c.”
They were afterwards all printed together j and the
“ Answer to Toland’s Amyntor” added to them.
In the midst of all these labours, he found time to
show his regard to mathematical and physical studies,
and exact knowledge and skill in them. And his na¬
tural affection and capacity for these studies w'ere not
a little improved by the friendship of Sir Isaac New¬
ton, at whose request he translated his “ Optics” ia-
to Latin in 1706. With this version Sir Isaac was so
highly pleased, that he presented him with the sum of
500I. or 100I. for each child, Clarke having then five
children.
This year also, Bishop Moore, who had long form¬
ed a design of fixing him more conspicuously, procur¬
ed for him the rectory of St Bennet’s, Paul’s Wharf,
in London 5 and soon after carried him to court, and
recommended him to the favour of Queen Anne. She
appointed him one of her chaplains in ordinary ; and,
in consideration of his great merit, and at the request
of the bishop, presented him to the rectory of St
James’s, Westminster, when it became vacant in 1 709.
Upon this advancement to this station, he took the
degree of D. Dv when the public exercise which he
performed for it at Cambridge was prodigiously admi¬
red. The questions which he maintained were these :
I. “ Nullum fidei Christianas dogma, in sacris scriptu-
ris traditum, est rectae rationi dissentaneum that
is, “ No article of the Christian faith delivered in the
Holy Scriptures, is disagreeable to right reason.” 2.
“ Sine actionum humanarum libertate nulla potest esse
religion” that is, “ Without the liberty of human ac¬
tions ,
C L A C 179 ] C L A
Clarke, lions there can be no religion.” His thesis was upon
-y-mmJ t|,e first of these questions, which being thoroughly
sifted by that most acute disputant Professor James,
he made an extempore reply, in a continued discourse
for near half an hour, with so little hesitation, that
many of the auditors declared themselves astonished j
and owned, that if they had not been within sight of
him, they should have supposed him to have read every
word of it from a paper. After this, through the
course of the syllogistical disputation, he guarded so
well against the arts which the professor was a com¬
plete master of; replied so readily to the greatest dif¬
ficulties such an objector could propose ; and pressed
him so close and hard with clear and intelligible an¬
swers, that perhaps there never was such a conflict
heard in those schools. The professor, who was a man
of humour as well as learning, said to him at the end
of the disputation, “ Profecto, me probe exercuisti
that is, “ On my word, you have worked me suffi¬
ciently and the members of the university went
away, admiring, as indeed they well might, that a man
even of Clarke’s abilities, after an absence of so many
years, and a long course of business of quite another
nature, should acquit himself in such a manner, as if
this sort of academical exercise had been his constant
employment j and with such fluency and purity of ex¬
pression, as if he had been accustomed to no other lan¬
guage in conversation but Latin. The same year,
1709, he revised and corrected YVhiston’s translation
of the “ Apostolical Constitutions” into English.
Whiston tells us, that his own studies having been
chiefly upon other things, and having rendered him in¬
capable of being also a critic in words and languages,
he desired his great friend and great critic Hr Clarke
to revise that translation, which he was so kind as to
agree to.
In 1712, he published a most beautiful and pom¬
pous edition of Caesar’s commentaries, adorned with
elegant sculptures. It is entitled, “ C. Julii Csesaris
quae extant, accuratissime cum libris editis et mss. opti-
miscollata, recognita, et correcta j accesserunt annota-
tiones Samuelis Clarke, S. T. P. item indices locorum,
rerumque et verborum, utilissimae.” It was printed in
1712, folio *, and afterwards, in 1720, 8vo. It was de¬
dicated to the great duke of Marlborough, “ at a time,”
says Bishop Hoadly, “ when his unequalled victories
and successes had raised his glory to the highest pitch
abroad, and lessened his interest and favour at home.”
In the publication of this book, the doctor took par¬
ticular care of the punctuation. In the annotations,
he selected what appeared the best and most judicious
in former editors, with some corrections and emenda¬
tions of his own interspersed. Mr Addison has spoken
of this folio edition of Caesar’s commentaries in the fol¬
lowing words: “The new edition, which is given us
of Caesar’s commentaries, has already been taken notice
of in foreign gazettes, and is a work that does ho¬
nour to the English press. It is no wonder that an
edition should be very correct, which has passed through
the hands of one of the most accurate, learned, and ju¬
dicious writers this age has produced. The beauty of
the paper, of the character, and of the several cuts
with which this noble work is illustrated, makes it the
finest book that I have overseen j and is a true instance
of -the English genius, which, though it does not come
the first into any art, generally carries it to greater Clarke,
heights than any other country in the world.” This v——
noble work has risen in value from that time to the pre¬
sent. A copy of this edition in large paper, most
splendidly bound in morocco, was sold at the Hon.
Mr Beauclerk’s sale for forty-four pounds $ and it Was
said to be purchased by the duke of Grafton. “ To
a prince or a nobleman (says Hr Harwood) it was a
cheap purchase; for it was the most magnificent book
I ever beheld.” The binding cost Mr Beauclerk five
guineas.
The same year, 1712, he published his celebrated
book entitled, “ The Scripture Hoctrine of the Tri¬
nity,” &c. which is divided into three parts. The
first is, a collection and explication of all the texts in
the “ New Testament,” relating to the doctrine of the
Trinity : in the second, the foregoing doctrine is set
forth at large, and explained in particular and distinct
propositions ; and in the third, the principal passages
in the liturgy of the church of England, relating to
the doctrine of the Trinity, are considered. Bishop
Hoadly applauds our author’s method of proceeding,
in forming his sentiments upon so important a point :
“ He knew (says he), and all men agreed, that it was
a matter of mere revelation. He did not therefore re¬
tire into his closet, and set himself to invent and forge
a plausible hypothesis, which might sit easily upon hia
mind. He had no recourse to abstract and metaphy¬
sical reasonings to cover or patronize any system he
might have embraced before. But, as a Christian, he
laid open the New Testament before him. He search¬
ed out every text in which mention was made of the
three persons, or any one of them. He accurately ex¬
amined the meaning of the words used about every one
of them; and by the best rules of grammar and cri¬
tique, and by his skill in language, he endeavoured to
fix plainly what was declared about every person, and
what was not. And what he thought to be the truth,
he published under the title uf ‘ The Scripture Hoc-
trine of the Trinity.’ “ I am far (says the bishop)
from taking upon me to determine, in so difficult a
question between him and those who made replies to
him ; but this I hope I may be allowed to say, that
every Christian divine and layman ought to pay his
thanks to Hr Clarke for the method into which he
brought this dispute } and for that collection of texts
of the New Testament by which at last it must be de¬
cided, on which side soever the truth may be supposed
to lie.” Whiston informs us, that some time before the
publication of this book, there was a message sent to
him from Lord Godolphin and others of Queen Anne’s
ministers, importing, “ That the aflairs of the public
were with difficulty then kept in the hands of those
that were for liberty j that it was therefore an unsea¬
sonable time for the publication of a book that would
make a great noise and distuibance; and that there¬
fore they desired him to forbear till a fitter oppor¬
tunity should offer itself ,” which message (says he)
the doctor had no 1’egard to, but went on according
to the dictates of his own conscience with the publi¬
cation of his book. The ministers, however, were very
right in their conjectures ; for the work made noise
and disturbance enough, and occasioned a great num¬
ber of books and pamphlets, written by himself and
others.
2.2
Books
c L A [ 180 ] C L A
Books and pamphlets, however, were not all which
the “ Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity” occasioned :
it made its author obnoxious to the power ecclesiastical,
and his book to be complained of by the Lower House
of convention. The doctor drew up a preface, and af¬
terwards gave in several explanations, which seemed to
satisfy the Upper House j at least the affair was not
brought to any issue, the members appearing desirous
to prevent dissensions and divisions.
In 1715 and 1^16, he had a dispute with the cele¬
brated Leibnitz, relating to the principles of natural
philosophy and religion ; and a collection of the pa¬
pers which passed between them was published in 1717.
This performance of the doctor’s is inscribed to her
late Majety Queen Caroline, then princess of Wales,
who was pleased to have the controversy pass through
her hands. It related chiefly to the important and dif¬
ficult subjects of liberty and necessity.
In 1718) Dr Clarke made an alteration in the forms
of doxology in the singing psalms, which produced no
small noise and disturbance, and occasioned some pam¬
phlets to be written. The alteration was this :
To God, through Christ, his only Son,
Immortal glory be, &c.
And
To God, through Christ, his Son, our Lord,
All glory be therefore, &e.
A considerable number of these select psalms and
hymns having been dispersed by the Society for Pro¬
moting Christian Knowledge, before the alteration of
the doxologies was taken notice of, he was charged
with a design of imposing upon the society $ whereas,
in truth, the edition of them had been prepared by
him for the use of his own parish only, before the so¬
ciety had thoughts of purchasing any of the copies •,
and as the usual forms of doxology are not established
by any legal authority, ecclesiastical or civil, in this he
had not offended.
About this time he was presented by the lord Lech-
mere, the chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, to the
mastership of Wigston’s hospital in Leicester. In 1724,
he published 17 sermons preached on several occasions,
11 of which were never before printed : and the year
following, a sermon, preached at the parish-church of
St James’s, upon the erecting a charity-school for the
education of women servants. In 1727, upon the
death of Sir Isaac Newton, he was offered by the court
the place of master of the mint, worth communibus an~
ms 1200 or 1500I. a-year. Bat to this secular prefer¬
ment he could not reconcile himself, and therefore ab¬
solutely refused it. Whiston seems to wonder, that
Clarke’s eulogists should lay so little stress upon this re¬
fusal, as to mention it not at all, or at least very negli¬
gently ; while “ he takes it,” he says “ to be one of
the most glorious actions of his life, and to afford un¬
deniable conviction, that he was in 'earnest in his re¬
ligion.” In 1728, was published, “ A Letter from
Dr Clarke to Mr Benjamin Hoadly, F. R. S. occa¬
sioned by the controversy, relating to the Proportion
of Velocity and Force in Bodies in Motion.;” and print¬
ed in the Philosophical Transactions, No 401.
In 1729, he published the 12 first books of “ Ho¬
mer’s Iliad.” This edition was printed in 4to, and
dedicated to the duke of Cumberland. The Latin
version is almost entirely new, and annotations are
added to the bottom of the pages. Homer, Bishop
Hoadly tells us, was Claike’s admired author, even to a
degree of something like enthusiasm, hardly natural to
his temper, and that in this he went a little beyond the
bounds of Horace’s judgment, and was so unwilling
to allow the favourite poet ever to nod, that he has
taken remarkable pains to find out, and give a rea¬
son for every passage, word, and title, that could
create any suspicion. “ The translation, (adds the
Bishop), with ids corrections, may now be styled ac¬
curate, and his notes, as far as they go, are indeed a
treasury of grammatical and critical knowledge. He
was called to his task by royal command ; and he has
performed it in such a manner, as to be worthy of the
young prince, for whom it was laboured.” The year
of its publication was the last of this great man’s life.
Though not robust, he had always enjoyed a firm state
of health, without any indisposition bad enough to
confine him, except the small-pox in his youth ; till
on Sunday May 11. I729> g°'ng out in the morning
to preach before the judges at Sergeant’s-Inn, he was
there seized with a pain in his side, which made it
impossible for him to perform the office he was called
to; and quickly became so violent, that he was obli¬
ged to be carried home. He went to bed, and thought
liimself so much better in the afternoon, that he would
not suffer himself to be bled ; against which reme¬
dy, it is remarkable that he had entertained strong
prejudices. But the pain returning violently about
two the next morning, made bleeding absolutely ne¬
cessary ; be appeared to be out of danger, and conti¬
nued to think himself so, till the Saturday morning
following; when, to the inexpressible surprise of all
about him, the pain removed from his side to his
head ; and, after a very short complaint, took away
his senses so, that they never returned any more. He
continued breathing till within seven and eight of the
evening of that day, which was May 17. 1729; and
then died, in his 54th year.
Soon after his death were published, from his origi¬
nal manuscripts, by his brother Dr John Clarke, dean
of Sarum, “An Exposition of the Church Catechism,”
and ten volumes of sermons, in 8vo. His “ Exposi¬
tion” is made up of those lectures he read every
Thursday morning for some months in the year, at St
James’s church. In the latter part of his time he re¬
vised them with great care, and left them completely
prepared for the press. As to the sermons, few dis¬
courses in the English language are more judicious,
and fewer still are equally instructive. The reasoning
and the practical parts are excellent, and the explana¬
tions of Scripture are uncommonly valuable. Though
Dr Clarke had not the turn of mind which qualified
him for moving the passions, and indeed did not make
it his object, his sentiments, nevertheless, are frequent¬
ly expressed with such a clearness of conception, and
such a force of language, as to produce in well dispo¬
sed readers all the effect of the pathetic. Several vo¬
lumes of sermons have been published since his time,
which are far superior in point of elegance and beauty,
and we have the highest sense of their merit. But still
if we were called upon to recommend discourses, which
abound with the most solid instruction, and promise
the most lasting improvement, we should never forget
C L A [ 181 ] C L A
C’arke. a Clarke and a Jortln. Three years after the doctor’s
-v-’—'death appeared also the Twelve Last books of the
Iliad, published in 4to by his son Mr Samuel Clarke,
who informs us, in the preface, that his father had fi¬
nished the annotations to the three first of these books,
and as far as the 359th verse of the fourth $ and had
revised the text and version as far as verse 510 of the
same book. Dr Clarke married Catharine, the daugh¬
ter of the reverend Mr Lockwood, rector of Little
Missingham in Norfolk ; in whose good sense and un-
hlameable behaviour he was happy to his death. By
her he had seven children, two of whom died before
and one a few weeks after him.
Of the character of this great divine, the following
short delineation appeared some years since in the Gen¬
tleman’s Magazine : “ Samuel Clarke, D. D. rector
of St James’s, Westminster : in each several part of
useful knowledge and critical learning, perhaps with¬
out a superior ; in all united, certainly without an
equal $ in his works, the best defender of religion 5 in
his practice, the greatest ornament to it j in his con¬
versation communicative, and in an uncommon man¬
ner instructive ; in his preaching and writings, strong,
clear, and calm; in his life, high in the esteem of the
wise, the good, and the great; in his death, lamented
by every friend to learning, truth, and virtue.” In
the same publication some not incurious anecdotes
concerning him are printed, collected by the Rev. Mr
Jones of Welwyn. We learn from them, that Dr
Clarke was of a very humane and tender disposition.
When his young children amused themselves with tor¬
menting and killing flies upon the windows, he not
only forbade such practices, but calmly reasoned with
them, in such a familiar manner, as was calculated to
make a powerful impression upon their minds. He
was very ready and condescending in answering appli¬
cations to him with respect to scruples ; numberless
instances of which occurred in the course of his life.
One thing of which Dr Clarke was peculiarly cautious,
was not to lose the least minute of his time. He al¬
ways carried some book about with him, which he
would read whilst riding in a coach or walking in the
fields, or if he had any leisure moments free from
company or his other studies. Nay, he would read
even in company itself, where he might take such a li¬
berty without offence to good manners. His memory
was remarkably strong. He told Mr Pyle of Lyn,
that he never forgot any thing which he had once tho¬
roughly apprehended and understood. The Doctor,
with his intimate friends, was perfectly free and easy;
but if strangers were introduced, he behaved with
much circumspection, conversing only upon common
topics.
When he visited Dr Sykes, his usual way was to sit
with him upon a couch, and, reclining upon his bo¬
som, to discourse with him, in the most familiar man¬
ner, upon such subjects as were agreeable to the taste
and judgment of both. When Sir John Germaine lay
upon his deathbed, and was in great confusion and
trouble of mind, he sent for Dr Clarke, and request¬
ed to know of him whether he should receive the sa¬
crament, and what he should do in his sad condition.
The Doctor, who was well acquainted with Sir John’s
pursuits and course of life, sedately replied, that he
could not advise him to receive the sacrament, and
that he did not think it likely to be of any avail to him Clarke,
with respect to his final welfare. Having said this, he —v——
departed without administering the communion, hav¬
ing first recommended the dying man to the mercy of
- God.
Dr Clarke was of a cheerful, and even playful dis¬
position. An intimate friend of his, the late Rev. Mr
Bott, used to relate, that once when he called upon
him, he found him swimming upon a table. At ano¬
ther time, when the two Dr Clarkes, Mr Bott, and
several men of ability and learning were together, and
amusing themselves with diverting tricks, Dr Samuel
Clarke, looking out at the window, saw a grave block¬
head approaching to the house j upon which he cried
out, “ Boys, boys, be wise, here comes a fool.” This
turn of his mind hath since been confirmed by Dr War-
ton, who, in his observations on the following line of
Mr Pope,
“ Unthought-of frailties cheat us in the wise,”
says, “ Who could imagine that Locke was fond of
romances ; that Newton once studied astrology j that
Dr Clarke valued himself on his agility, and frequent¬
ly amused himself in a private room of his house, in
leaping over the tables and chairs $ and that our au¬
thor himself was a great epicure !” With respect to
what is here recorded of Dr Clarke, we can scarcely
persuade ourselves to consider it as a frailty. To be
possessed of such a temper as he was, must have been
no small degree of happiness ; as it probably enabled
him to pursue his important and serious studies with
greater vivacity and vigour. To be capable of deriv¬
ing amusement from trivial circumstances, indicates a
heart at ease, and may generally be regarded as the
concomitant of virtue.
Clarke, William, an English divine, was born at
Haghmon-abbey in Shropshire, 1696 j and, after a
grammar-education at Shrewsbury school, was sent to
St John’s college Cambridge, of which he was elected
fellow, Jan. 17. 1716 j B. A. 1731 ; M. A. 1735.
He was presented by Archbishop Wake in 1724 to the
rectoi'y of Buxted in Sussex, at the particular recom¬
mendation of Dr Wotton, whose, daughter he married.
In 1738 he was made px-ebendary and residentiary of
the cathedral church at Chichester. Some years before
this he had given to the public a specimen of his lite-
i*ai y abilities, in a pi’eface of his father-in-law Dr Wot-
ton’s Leges Wallice Ecclesiasticce et Civiles Hoeli Bonit
et aliorum Wallice Principum; or Ecclesiastical and
Civil Laws of Howel D Da, and other princes of
Wal es. Thex-e is I’eason likewise to surmise, that an
excellent Discoux-se o1; the Commerce of the Romans,
which was highly extolled by Dr Taylor in his Ele¬
ments of the Civil Law, might have been written by
our author. It came either from his hand or from that
of his friend Mr Bowyer, and is reprinted in that gen¬
tleman’s Miscellaneous Tracts. But Mr Clarke’s chief
work was, the Connexion of the Roman, Saxon, and
English coins j. deducing the Antiquities, Customs, and
Manners of each people to modern times: particularly
the Origin of Feudal Tenures, and of Parliaments j
illustrated throughout with critical and historical Re¬
mains on various Authors both sacred and profane.
This work was published, in one volume quarto, in
1767 j and its appearance from the press was owing to
C L A [ 182 ] C L A
Cfeuke. the discovery made by Martin Folkes, Esq. ef the old
Saxon pound. It was dedicated to the duke ot New¬
castle, whose beneficent disposition is celebrated for
having conferred obligations upon the author, which
were not the effects of importunity. Mr Clarke’s per¬
formance was perused in manuscript by Arthur On¬
slow, Esq. speaker of the house of commons, who ho¬
noured him with some useful hints and observations;
but he was chiefly indebted to Mr Bowyer, who took
upon him all the care of the publication, drew up se¬
veral of the notes, wrote part of the dissertation on the
Homan sesterce, and formed an admirable index to the
whole. By this work our author acquired a great
and just reputation. Indeed, it reflects honour upon
the country by which it was produced ; for there are
few performances that are more replete with profound
aod curious learning. Mr Clarke’s last promotions were
the chancellorship of the church of Chichester, and the
vicarage of Amport, which were bestowed upon him in
1770. These preferments he did not long live to en¬
joy, departing this life on the 2ist of October, in the
following year. He had resigned in 1768, the rectory
of Buxted to his son Edward. In Mr Nichols’s Anec¬
dotes of Bowyer, there are several letters and ex¬
tracts of letters written to that learned printer by Mr
Clarke, which display him to great advantage as a man
of piety, a friend, and a scholar.
In a sketch of his character in the Biographia Bri-„
tannica, furnished by Mr Hayley, who was his inti¬
mate acquaintance, he is represented as not only a man
of extensive erudition, but as possessed of the pleasing
talent of communicating his various knowledge in fa¬
miliar conversation, without any appearance of pedan¬
try or presumption. Antiquities were the favourite
study of Mr Clarke, as his publications sufficiently
show } but he was a secret, and by no means an unsuc¬
cessful, votary of the muses. He wrote English verse
with ease, elegance, and spirit. Perhaps there are few
better epigrams in our language than the following,
which he composed on seeing the words T)omus ultima
inscribed on the vault belonging to the duke of Rich¬
mond in the cathedral of Chichester.
Did he, who thus inscribed the wall,
Not read, or not believe, St Paul,
Who says there is, where’er it stands,
Another house not made with hands ?
Or, may we gather from these words,
That house is not a house of lords ?
Among the happier little pieces of his sportive
poetry, there were some animated stanzas, describing
the character of the twelve English poets, whose por¬
traits, engraved by Vertue, were the favourite orna¬
ment of his parlour : but he set so modest and humble
a value on his poetical compositions, that they were sel¬
dom committed to paper, and are therefore very im¬
perfectly preserved in the memory of those to whom
he sometimes recited them. Elis taste and judgment
in poetry appear indeed very striking in many parts
of his learned and elaborate Connexion of Coins. His
illustration of Nestor’s cup, in particular, may be
esteemed as one of the happiest examples of that light
and beauty which the learning and spirit of an elegant
antiquarian may throw on a cloudy and mistaken
passage of an ancient poet. In strict attention to all
3
the duties of his station, in the most active and unwea- eiatke
ried charity, he might be regarded as a model to the Q
ministers of God. Though his income was never large, C'5*18-
it was his custom to devote a shilling in every guinea ’r""
that> he received to the service of the poor. As a ma¬
ster, as a husband, and a father, his conduct was ami¬
able and endearing $ and to close this imperfect sketch
of him with his most striking features, he was a man of
genuine unaffected piety.
CLARO-obscuro, or Clair-obscure, in paint¬
ing, the art of distributing to advantage the lights and
shades of a piece, both with respect to the easing of the
eye and the effect of the whole piece. See Paint¬
ing.
Claro- Obscuro, or Chiaroscuro, is also used to signi¬
fy a design consisting only of two colours, most usually
black and white, but sometimes black and yellow ; or
it is a design washed only with one colour, the shadows
being of a dusky brown, and the lights heightened up
by white.
The word is also applied to prints of two colours
taken off at twice $ whereof there are volumes in the
cabinets of those who are curious in prints.
CLARUS, or ClarOS, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Ionia, famous for an oracle of Apollo. It was
built by Manto, daughter of E'iresias, who fled from
Thebes after it had been destroyed by the Epigoni.
She was so afflicted with her misfortunes, that a lake
was formed with her tears, where she first founded the
oracle. Apollo was from thence surnamed Clarius.
Also an island of the iEgean sea, between Tenedos and
Scios.
CLARY. See Salvia, Botany Index.
CLARY-Water, is composed of brandy, sugar, clary-
flowers, and cinnamon, with a little ambergris dissolved
in it. It helps digestion, and is cardiac. This water
is rendered either purgative or emetic, by adding resin
of jalap and scammony, or crocus metallorum. Some
make clary-water of brandy, juice of cherries, straw¬
berries, and gooseberries, sugar, cloves, white pepper,
and coriander seeds j infused, sugared, and strained.
CLASMIUM, an old term in Natural History, ap¬
plied to some fossils, of the class of gypsums ; the cha¬
racters of which are, that they are of a soft texture,
and of a dull opaque look, being composed, as all the
other gypsums, of irregularly arranged flat particles.
The word is derived from the Greek x,Xct<rft*;, a
fragrant or small particle ; from the flaky small parti¬
cles of which these bodies are composed. Of this ge¬
nus there is only one known species : this is of a tole¬
rably regular and even structure; though very coarse
and harsh to the touch. It is of a very lively and
beautiful red colour j and is found in thick round¬
ish masses, which, when broken, are to be seen com¬
posed of irregular arrangements of flat particles j and
emulate a striated texture. It will neither give fire
with steel nor ferment with acids •, but calcines very
freely and easily, and affords a very valuable plaster
of Paris, as do all the purer gypsums. It is common
in Italy, and is greatly esteemed there ; it is also found
in some parts of England, particularly Derbyshire, but
there it is not much regarded.
CLASPERS, or Tendrils. See Cirrhus.
CLASS, an appellation given to the most general
subdivisions of any thing $ thus, animal is subdivided
into
Class
I)
Claude.
C. L A [i
into the classes quadrupeds, birds, fishes, &c. which
are again subdivided into serieses or orders $ and these
last into genera. See Botany.
Class, is also used in schools, in a synonymous sense
with fornij for a number of boys all learning the same
thing.
CLASSIC, or Classical, an epithet chiefly ap¬
plied to authors read in the classes at schools.
This term seems to owe its origin to Tullius Ser-
vius, who, in order to make an estimate of every per¬
son’s estate, divided the Roman people into six bands,
which he called classes. The estate of the first class
was not to be under 2001. and these by way of emi¬
nence were called classtci, “ classics hence authors
of the first rank came to be called classics, all the rest
being said to be infra classem : thus Aristotle is a clas¬
sic author in philosophy j Aquinas in school divinity,
&c.
CLASSICUM was the alarm for battle, given by
the Roman generals, and sounded by trumpets and
other martial music throughout the army.
CLATHRI, in antiquity, bars of wood or iron, used
in securing doors and windows. There was a goddess
called Clathra, that presided over the clathri.
CLAVARIA, Club-top. See Botany Index.
CLAVARIUM, in antiquity, an allowance the Ro¬
man soldiers had for furnishing nails to secure their
shoes with. They raised frequent mutinies, demanding
largesses of the emperors under this pretence.
CLAVATA vestimenta, in antiquity, habits a-
dorned with purple clavi, which were either broad or
narrow. See Clavus.
CLAUBERG, John, a learned professor of philo¬
sophy and divinity at Diusburgh, was born at Solingen
in 1622. He travelled into Holland, France, and
England, and in each country obtained the esteem of
the learned. The elector of Brandenburgh gave him
public testimonies of his esteem. He died in 1665.
His works were printed at Amsterdam, in 2 vols 410.
The most celebrated of these is his treatise, entitled
Logica vetus et nova, &c.
CLAUDE le Lorrain, or Claude Gelee, a cele¬
brated landscape painter, and a striking example of the
efficacy of industry to supply, or at least to call forth
genius. Claude was born in the diocese of Toul in Lor¬
rain in l6ooj and, being dull and heavy at school, was
put an apprentice to a pastry-cook ; he afterwards ram¬
bled to Rome to seek a livelihood ; but, being very
ill-bred, and unacquainted with the language, nobody
cared to employ him. Chance threw him at last in
the way of Augustin Tassi, a painter, who hired him to
grind his colours, and to do all the household drud¬
gery. His master hoping to make him serviceable to
him in some of his greatest works, taught him by de¬
grees the rules of perspective and the elements of de¬
sign. Claude at first did not know what to make of
those principles of art; but being encouraged, and not
failing in application, he came at length to understand
them. Then his mind began to expand, and he cul¬
tivated the art with wonderful eagerness. He exerted
his utmost industry to explore the true principles of
painting by an incessant examination of nature, that
genuine source of excellence for which purpose, he
made his studies in the open fields j where he very
frequently continued from sunrise till the dusk of
83 ]
C L A
the evening compelled him to withdraw himself from
his contemplations. It was his custom to sketch what- '
ever he thought beautiful or striking; and every cu¬
rious tinge of light, on all kinds of objects, he mark¬
ed in his sketches, with a similar colour j from which
he perfected his landscapes with such a look of real
nature, and gave them such an appearance of truth, as
proved superior to any artist that had ever painted in
that style.
The beauties of his paintings are derived from na¬
ture herself, which he examined with uncommon as¬
siduity ; and Sandrart relates, that Claude used to ex¬
plain to him, as they walked through the fields, the
causes of the different appearances of the same prospect
at different hours of the day, from the reflections or
refractions of light, from dews or vapours in the even¬
ing or morning, with all the precision of a philosopher.
He worked on his pictures with great care, endeavour¬
ing to bring them to perfection, by touching them fre¬
quently over again ; and if any performance did not an¬
swer his ideas, it was customary with him to alter,
to deface, and repaint it several times over till it
corresponded with the image pictured in his mind.
But whatever struck his imagination, while he observed
nature abroad, it was so strongly impressed on his me¬
mory, that on his return to his work, he never failed
to make the happiest use of it.
His skies are warm and full of lustre, and every ob¬
ject is properly illumined. His distances are admira¬
ble, and in every part a delightful union and harmony
not only excite our applause but our admiration. His
invention is pleasing, his colouring delicate, and his
tints have such an agreeable sweetness and variety,
as have been but imperfectly imitated by the best sub¬
sequent artists, but were never equalled. He frequent¬
ly gave an uncommon tenderness to his finished trees
by glazing; and in his large compositions which he
painted in fresco, he was so exact that the distinct spe¬
cies of every tyee might readily be distinguished. As to
his figures, when he painted them himself, they are very
indifferent; btit he was so conscious of his deficiency
in this respect, that he usually engaged other artists
who were eminent to paint them for him ; of which
number were Gourtois and Philippo Laura. His pic¬
tures are now very rare, especially such as are unda¬
maged ; and those are at this time so valued, that no
price, however great, is thought to be superior to their
merit. In order to avoid a repetition of the same sub¬
ject, and also to detect such copies of his works as
might be injurious to his fame, by being sold for ori¬
ginals, it was his custom to-draw (in a paper book pre¬
pared for this purpose) the designs of all those pictures
which were transmitted to different countries ; and on
the back of the drawings, he wrote the name of the
person who had been the purchaser. That hook,
which he titled Libra di Verita, is now in the posses¬
sion of the duke of Devonshire.
Claude, John, a Protestant divine, born in the
province of Angenois in 1619. Mess, de Port RoyaL
using their utmost endeavours to convert M. de Tu-
renne to the Catholic faith, presented him with a piece
calculated to that end, which his lady engaged Mr
Claude to answer ; and his performance gave rise to
the most famous controversy that was ever carried on
in France between the Roman Catholics and Prote¬
stants. ,
Claude.
€ L A t 184 ] C L A
Claude
II
Oaudirnus.
stants. On the revocation of the edict of Nantz, he re-
tired to Holland, where he met with a kind reception,
and was honoured with a considerable pension by the
prince of Orange. He died in 1687 ; and left a son,
Isaac Claude, whom he lived to see minister of the
Walloon church at the Hague, and who published se¬
veral excellent works of his deceased father.
CLAUDIA, a vestal virgin at Rome, who being
suspected of unchastity, is said to have been cleared
from that imputation in the following manner : the
image of Cybele being brought out of Phrygia to
Home in a barge, and it happening to stick so fast in
the river Tiber that it could not be moved, she tying
her girdle, the badge of chastity, to the barge, drew
it along to the city, which a thousand men were unable
to do.
Claudia Aqua (Frontinus), water conveyed to Rome
by a canal or aqueduct of eleven miles in length, the
contrivance of Appius Claudius the Censor, and the
first structure of the kind, in the year of Rome 441.
Called also Aqua Appia.
Claudia Copia, (Inscriptions), a name of Lugdunum,
or Lyons in France, the birthplace of the emperor
Claudius: a Roman colony called Claudia, from its be¬
nefactor the emperor ; and Copia from its plenty of all
necessaries, especially corn. See Lugdunum.
Cjlaudia, or Clodia Via (Ovid,) was that road
which, beginning at the Pons Milvius, joined the F^la-
minia, passing through Etruria on the south side of the
Lacus Sabatinus, and striking off from the Cassia, and
leading to Luca (Antonine) : large remains of it are
to be seen above Braceiano (Holstenius).
Claudia Lex, de Comitiis, was enacted by M. Cl.
Marcellas in the year of Rome 702. It ordained, that
at public elections of magistrates no notice should be
taken of the votes of such as were absent. Another,
de Usura, which forbade people to lend money to mi¬
nors on condition of payment, after the decease of their
parents. Another, de Negotiatione, by Q. Claudius the
tribune, 535. It forbade any senator or father of a
senator to have any vessel containing above 300 am-
phorse, for fear of their engaging themselves in com¬
mercial schemes. The same law also forbade the same
thing to the scribes and the attendants of the questors,
as it was naturally supposed that people who had any
commercial connexions could not be faithful to their
trust, nor promote the interest of the state. Another,
576, to permit the allies to return to their respective
cities, after their names were inrolled. Liv. 41. c. 8.
Another, to take away the freedom of the city of Rome
from the colonists which Caesar had carried to Novi-
comum.
CL AUDI ANUS, Claudius, a Latin poet, flou¬
rished in the 4th century, under the emperor Theo¬
dosius, and under his sons Arcadius and Honorius. It
is not agreed of what country be was a native j but
he came to Rome in the year of Christ 395, when he
was about 20 years old j and there insinuated himself
into Stilicho’s favour; who, being a person of great
abilities both for civil and military affairs, though a
Goth by birth, was so considerable a person under Ho¬
norius, that hd may be said for many years to have
governed the western empire. Stilicho afterwards fell
into disgrace, and was put to death ; and it is more
than probable that the poet was involved in the mis¬
fortunes of his patron, and severely persecuted in his Claudianu
person and fortunes by Hadrian, an Egyptian by birth, |)
who was captain of the guards to Honorius, and sue- ^lauvim,
ceeded Stilicho. There is reason, however, to think '
that he rose afterwards to great favour, and obtained
several honours both civil and military. The princess
Serena had a great esteem for Claudian, and recom¬
mended and married him to a lady of great quality
and fortune in Libya. There are a few little poems
on sacred subjects, which through mistake have been
ascribed by some critics to Claudian ; and so have made
him be thought a Christian. But St Austin, who was
cotemporary with him, expressly says that he was a
Heathen. The time of Claudian’s death is uncertain,
nor do we know any farther particulars of his life than
what are to be collected from his works, and which we
have already related above. He is thought to have
more of Virgil in his style than all the other imitators
of him.
Claudius I. Roman emperor, A. D. 41. The be¬
ginning of his reign was very promising j but it was
soon discovered that little better than an idiot filled
the throne, who might easily be maue a tyrant : ac¬
cordingly he became a very cruel one, through the
influence of his empress, the infamous Messalina : after
her death, he married his niece Agrippina, who caused
him to be poisoned to make room for Nero, A. D. 54.
See (History of") Rome.
Claudius II. Aurelius, surnamed Gothicus, signa¬
lized himself by his courage and prudence under the
reigns of Valerian and Julian j and on the death of the
latter was declared emperor in 268. He put to death
Aureolus, the murderer of Gallienus j defeated the
Germans $ and in 269 marched against the Goths,
who ravaged the empire with an army of 300,000 men,
which he at first harassed, and next year entirely de¬
feated j but a contagious disease, which had spread
through that vast army, was caught by the Romans
and the.emperor himself died of it a short time after,
aged 56. Pollio says, that this prince bad the mode¬
ration of Augustus, the virtue of Trajan, and the piety
of Antoninus.
CLAVES insult, a term used in the Isle of Man,
where all weighty and ambiguous causes are referred
to a jury of twelve, who are called claves insulce, the
keys of the island.
CLAVICHORD, and Clavicitherium, two mu¬
sical instruments used in the 16th century. They were
of the nature of the spinet, but of an oblong figure.
The first is still used by the nuns in convents •, and
that the practitioners may not disturb the sisters in the
dormitory, the strings are muffled with small bits of
fine woollen cloth.
CLAVICLE. See Anatomy Index.
CLAVICYMBALUM, in antiquity, a musical
instrument of 30 strings. Modern writers apply the
name to our harpischords.
CLAVI vestium, were flowers or studs of purple,
interwoven with or sewed upon the garments of knights
or senators j only, for distinction, the former used them
narrow7, the latter broad.
CLAVIS properly signifies a KEY ; and is some¬
times used in English to denote an explanation of some
obscure passages of any book in writing.
CLAV1US, Christopher, a German Jesuit,
born
c L A [ 185 1 C L A
lldrius tom at Bamberg, excelled in the knowledge of the
H mathematics, and was one of the chief persons employ-
iv-lsnds. e(] (0 rectify the kalendar ; the defence of which he
””v ' also undertook against those who censured it, especially
Scaliger. He died at Rome in 1612, aged 75. His
works have been printed in five volumes folio ; the
principal of which is his Commentary on Euclid’s Ele¬
ments.
CLAUSE, in Grammar, denotes a member of a
period or sentence.
Clause signifies also an article or particular stipu¬
lation in a contract, a charge or condition in a testa¬
ment, &c.
CLAUSENBURG, a large city of Transilvania,
situated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 23. 20.
' N. Lat. 46. 53.
CLAVUS, in antiquity, an ornament upon the
robes of the Roman senators and knights, which was
more or less broad, according to the dignity of the per¬
son j hence the distinction of tunica angusti-clavia and
lati-clavia.
Clavus, in Medicine and Surgery, is used in seve¬
ral significations: 1. Clavus hystericus, is a shooting
pain in the head, between the pericranium and cra¬
nium, which affects such as have the green sickness.
2. Clavus oculorum, according to Celsus, is a callous
tubercle on the white of the eye, taking its denomina¬
tion from its figure. 3. Clavus imports indurated tu¬
bercles of the uterus. 4. It also imports a chirurgical
instrument of gold, mentioned by Amatus Lusitanus,
designed to be introduced into an exulcerated palate,
for the better articulation of the voice. And, 5. It
signifies a callus, or corn on the foot.
Clavus Annalis, in antiquity. So rude and igno¬
rant were the Romans towards the rise of their state,
that the. driving or fixing a nail was the only method
they had of keeping a register of time ; for which
reason it was called clavus annalis. There was an
ancient law, ordaining the chief praetor to fix a nail
every year on the Ides of September ; it was driven
into the right side of the temple of Jupiter Opt. Max.
towards Minerva’s temple. This custom of keeping
an account of time by means of fixing nails was not
peculiar to the Romans $ for the Etrurians used like¬
wise to drive nails into the temple of their goddess
Nortia with the same view.
CLAW, among zoologists, denotes the sharp point¬
ed nails with which the feet of certain quadrupeds and
birds are furnished.
CLAY, in Natural History, is applied to earths, the
characters of which are these : They are firmly cohe¬
rent, weighty, and compact j stiff, viscid, and ductile to
a great degree, whilst moist; smooth to the touch ; not
easily breaking between the fingers, nor readily diffu¬
sible in water; and, when mixed, not readily subsiding
from it. See Chemistry and Mineralogy Index.
Clay, a town of Norfolk in England, seated on an
arm of the sea between two rivers, in E. Long. o. 30.
N. Lat. 47. 28.
CuAY-Lands, those abounding with clay, whether
black, blue, yellow, white, &c. of which the black and
the yellow are the best for corn.
All clay soils are apt to chill the plants growing on
them in moist seasons, as they retain too much water :
in dry seasons, on the contrary, they turn hard and
Vol. VI. Part I. +
choke the plants. The natural produce of clay clay-lands
soils is goose-grass, large daisies, thistles, docks, pop- U
pies, &c. Some bear clover, and rye-grass ; and, Gazome-
if well manured, produce the best grain: they hold . llae' f
manure the best of all lands ; and the most proper for
them are horse-dung, pigeons-dung, some kinds of
marie, folding of sheep, malt-dust, ashes, chalk, lime,
soot, &c.
CLAYTON, Dr Robert, a prelate of great
learning, of distinguished worth and probity, and a re¬
spectable member of the Royal and Antiquarian Socie¬
ties at London, was advanced to the bishopric of Kil-
lala, Jan. 23. 1729; translated to the see of Cork, Dec.
I9* *735 5 t0 tllat °f Clogher, Aug. 26. 1745; and
died much lamented, Feb. 25. 1758. His publications
are, 1. A Letter in the Philosophical Transactions,
N° 461. p. 813. giving an account of a Frenchman 70
years old (at Inishanan, in his diocese of Cork), who
said he gave suck to a child.—2. The Chronology
of the Hebrew Bible vindicated, &c. 1751, 4to.—
3. An impartial Inquiry into the time of the Co¬
ming of the Messiah, 1751, 8vo.—4. An Essay on
Spirit, 1751, 8vo.—5. A Vindication of the Histories
of the Old and New Testament, in answer to the Ob¬
jections of the late Lord Bolingbroke ; in Two Letters
to a young Nobleman, 1752, 8vo, reprinted in 1753.
—6. A Defence of the Essay on Spirit, with Re¬
marks on the several pretended Answers; and which
may serve as an antidote against all that shall ever ap¬
pear against it, 1753, 8vo.—7. A Journal from Grand
Cairo to Mount Sinai, and back again, translated
from a manuscript, written by the Prefetto of E-
gypt, in Company with some Missionaries de propa*
gande jide at Grand Cairo : to which are added, Re¬
marks on the Origin of Hieroglyphics, and the My¬
thology of the ancient Heathens, 1753, 8vo, two
editions, 410 and 8vo. It was soon after this publica¬
tion that his Lordship became (in March 1754) a fel¬
low of the Society of Antiquarians.—8. Some Thoughts
on Self-love, Innate Ideas, Free-will, Taste, Senti¬
ments, Liberty, and Necessity, &c. occasioned by
reading Mr Hume’s Works, and the short Treatise
written in French by Lord Bolingbroke on Compassion,
1754, 8vo.—9. A Vindication of the Histories of the
Old and New Testament, Part II. Adorned with se¬
veral Explanatory Cuts, 1754, 8vo.-~-lo. Letters be¬
tween the Bishop of Clogher and Mr William Penn,
concerning Baptism, 1755, 8vo.—11. A speech made
in the House of Lords in Ireland, on Monday, Fe¬
bruary 2. 1756, for omitting the Nicene and Atha-
nasian Creeds out of the Liturgy, &c. 1756, 8vo. 
12. A Vindication, Part III. 1758, 8vo. The three
parts of the Essay on Spirit were reprinted by Mr
Bowyer, in one vol. 8vo, 1759; with some additional
notes, and an index of texts of Scripture illustrated or
explained.
CLAYTONIA. See Botany Index.
CLA ZOMENtE, -arum, (Herodotus, Strabo, Vel¬
leius, Pliny) ; Cla%omena, -ce, (Mela) ; one of the
twelve ancient cities of Ionia. The country of An¬
axagoras ; situated in the neighbourhood of Colophon*
The city was small, its port on the N. N. W. side
of the island. Dr Chandler informs us, that traces of
the walls are found by the sea ; and in a hill are vesti¬
ges of a theatre. Three or four trees grow on it; and
A a by
C L E [ 186 J C L E
Clazome- by one is a cave hewn in the rock, and affording water,
nae A vaulted room with a chimney at one end, and a ho-
M vel or two made with stones piled, are all the present
, acevcfs‘. structures *, and these are chiefly frequented by fisher¬
men and by persons employed to watch and to drive
away birds when the grain ripens. Referring to this
confined situation of Clazomenae, a famous sophist,
when importuned to adorn his native city by residing
in it rather than at Smyrna, replied, The nightingale
refuses to sing in a cage.
CLEANTHES, a Stoic philosopher, disciple of
Zeno, flourished 240 years before Christ. He main¬
tained himself in the day by working in the night :
being questioned by the magistrates how he subsisted,
he brought a woman for whom he kneaded bread,
and a gardener for whom he drew water and refused
a present from them. He composed several works,
of which there are now only a few fragments remain-
ing.
CLEAR, as a naval term, is variously applied to
the weather, the sea-coasts, cordage, navigation, &c.
The weather is said to be clear when it is fair and
open, as opposed to cloudy or foggy. The sea coast is
called clear when the navigation is not interrupted, or
rendered dangerous by rocks, sands, or breakers, &c.
It is expressed of cordage, cables, &c. when they are
unembarrassed or disentangled, so as to be ready for
immediate service. It is usually opposed \ofoul in all
these senses.
CLEARCHUS, a tyrant of Heraclea in Pontus,
who was killed by Chion and Leonidas, Plato’s pu¬
pils, during the celebration of the festivals of Bacchus.
He had enjoyed the sovereign power during 12 years.
A Lacedaemonian sent to quiet the Byzantines. He
was recalled, but refused to obey, and fled to Cyrus
the younger, who made him captain of I3>000 Greek
soldiers. He obtained a victory over Artaxerxes, who
was so enraged at the defeat, that when Clearchus fell
into his hands by the treachery of Tissaphernes, he put
him immediately to death.
CLEATS, in naval affairs, pieces of wood having
one or two projecting ends whereby to fasten the
ropes : some of them are fastened to the shrouds below
for this purpose, and others nailed to different places
of the ship’s deck or sides.
CLECHE, in Heraldry, a kind of cross, charged
with another cross of the same figure, but of the colour
of the field.
CLEDGE, among miners, denotes the upper stra¬
tum of fullers earth.
CLEDONISM, Cledonismus, a kind of divina¬
tion, in use among the ancients. The word is formed
from which signifies two things, rumor, “ a
report,” and avis, “ a bird.” In the first sense, cle-
donism should denote a kind of divination drawn from
words occasionally uttered. Cicero observes, that the
Pythagoreans made observation not only of the words
of the gods, hut of those of men 5 and accordingly be¬
lieved the. pronouncing of certain words, e. g. incen-
dium, at a meal, very unhappy. Thus, instead of pri¬
son, they used the word domicilium ; and to avoid erin-
nys, furies, said eumemdes. In the second sense, cledo-
nism should seem a divination drawn from birds j the
same with ornithomantia.
CLEEVERS. See Clivers.
CLEF, or Cliff, in Music, derived from the La- Clef,
tin word clavis, “ a key 5” because by it is expressed '“"v—•
the fundamental sound in the diatonic scale, which re¬
quires a determined succession of tones or semitones,
whether major or minor, peculiar to the note from
whence we set out, and resulting from its position in
the scale. Hence, as it opens a way to this succes¬
sion, and discovers it, the technical term key is used
with great propriety. But clefs rather point out
the position of different musical parts in the general
system, and the relations which they bear one to an¬
other.
A clef, says Rousseau, is a character in music placed
at the beginning of a stave, to determine the degree of
elevation occupied by that stave in the general claviary
or system, and to point out the names of all the notes
which it contains in the line of that clef.
Anciently the letters by which the notes of the ga¬
mut were signified were called clefs. Thus the letter
A was the clef of the note la, € the clef of ut, E the
clef of 7ni, &c. In proportion as the system was ex¬
tended, the embarrassment and superfluity of this mul¬
titude of clefs were felt.
Gui d’Ayezzo, who had invented them, marked a
letter or clef at the beginning of each line in the stave j
for as yet he had placed no notes in the spaces. In
process of time they marked no more than one of the
seveq clefs at the beginning of one of the lines only $
and this was sufficient to fix the position of all the
rest, according to their natural order: at last, of these
seven lines or clefs they selected four, which were call¬
ed claves signatce, or discriminating clefs, because they
satisfied themselves with marking one of them upon
one of the lines, from which the powers of all the others
might be recognized. Presently afterwards they even
retrenched one of these four, viz. the gamma, of
which they made use to mark the sol below, that is to
say, the hypoproslambanome added to the system of
the Greeks.
In reality Kircher asserts, that if we understood the
characters in which ancient music was written, and
examined minutely the forms of our clefs, we should
find that each of them represents the letter a little al¬
tered in its form, by which the note was originally
named. Thus the clef of sol was originally a G, the
clef of ut a C, and the clef of^a an F.
We have then three clefs, one a fifth above the Plate
other: the clef of F, or fa, which is the lowest; CXLIV.
the clef of ut, or C, which is the fifth above the for-
mer ; and the clef of sol, or G, which is a fifth above
that of ut. These clefs, both as marked by foreigners
and in Britain, may be seen in art. 170 of Music ; up¬
on which it is necessary to remark, that by a remain
of ancient practice, the clef is always placed upon a
line, and never in a space. It deserves notice, that
the clef offa is marked in three different manners : one
in music which is printed ; another in music which is
written or engraved j and a third in the full harmony
of the chorus.
By adding four lines above the clef of sol, and three
lines beneath the clef of fa, which gives both above
and below the greatest extent of permanent or esta-
blished lines, it appears, that the whole scale of notes
which can be placed upon the gradations relative to
these clefs amounts to 243 that is to say, three octaves
and
C L E [i
Clef. and a fourth from the F, or fa, which is found beneath
—v”"—' the first line, to the si, or B, which is found above the
last, and all this together forms what we call the gene¬
ral claviary; from whence we may judge, that this
compass has, for a long time, constituted the extent of
the system. But as at present it is continually acquir¬
ing new degrees, as well above as below, the degrees
are marked by larger lines, which are added above or
below as occasion requires.
Instead of joining all the lines, as has been done by
Rousseau in his Dictionary, (plate A, fig. 5.) to mark
the relation which one clef bears to another, they se¬
parate them five by five $ because it is pretty nearly
within the degrees to which the compass of ordinary
voices extends. This collection of five lines is called a
stave ; and in these they place a clef, to determine the
names of the notes, the positions of semitones, and to
show what station the stave occupies in the claviary or
general scale.
In whatever manner we take five successive lines in
the claviary, we shall find one clef comprehended ; nay,
sometimes two, in which case one may be retrenched as
useless. Custom has even prescribed which of the two
should be retrenched, and which retained ; it is this
likewise which has determined the number of positions
assigned to each clef.
If I form a stave of the first five lines in the clavia¬
ry, beginning from below, I find the clef of fa in the
fourth line. This then is one position of the clef, and
this position evidently relates to the lowest note j thus
likewise it is that of the base clef.
If I wish to gain a third in ascent, I must add a line
above ; I must then obliterate one below, otherwise
the stave will contain more than five lines. The clef
of fa then is found transferred from the fourth to the
third, and the clef of ut is likewise found upon the
fifth *, but as two clefs are useless, they retrench here
that of ut. It is evident, that the stave of this clef is
a third higher than the former.
By throwing away still one line below to gain ano¬
ther above, we have a third kind of a stave, where the
clef of fa will be found upon the second line, and that
of ut upon the fourth. Here we leave out the clef of
fa, and retain that of ut. We have now gained ano¬
ther third above, and lost it below.
By continuing these alterations from line to line,
we pass successively through four different positions
of the clef of ut. Having arrived at that of sol, we
find it placed upon the second line, and then upon
the first. This position includes the five highest lines,
and gives the sharpest diapason which the clefs can
signify.
The reader may see in Rousseau’s Musical Diction¬
ary, Plate A, fig. 5. this succession of clefs from the
lowest to the highest 5 which in all constitutes eight
staves, clefs, or different positions of clefs.
Whatever might be the character and genius of any
voice or instrument, if its extent above or below does
^not surpass that of the general claviary, in this number
may be found a station and a clef suitable to it ; and
there are, in reality, clefs determined for all the parts
in music. It the extent of a part is very considerable,
so that the number of lines necessary to be added above
or below may become inconvenient, the clef is then
changed in the course of the music. It may be plainly
87 ] OLE
perceived by the figure, what clef it is necessary to
choose, for raising or depressing any part, under what¬
ever clef it may be actually placed.
It will likewise appear, that in order to adjust one
clef to another, both must be compared by the gene¬
ral claviary, by means of which we may determine
what every note under one of the clefs is with re¬
spect to the other. It is by this exercise repeated
that we acquire the habit of reading with ease all the
parts.
From this manoeuvre it follows, that w'e may place
whatever note we please of the gamut upon any line
or space whatever of the stave, since we have the
choice of eight different positions, which is equal to the
number of notes in the octave. Thus you may mark
a whole tune upon the same line, by changing the clef
at each gradation. The 7th fig. of the same plate in
Rousseau’s Musical Dictionary, to which we formerly
referred, shows by the series of clefs the order of the
notes, re, fa, la, ut, mi, sol, si, re, rising by thirds,
although all placed upon the same line. The fig. fol¬
lowing represents upon the order of the same clefs
the note ut, which appears to descend by thirds upon
all the lines of the stave •, and further, which yet, by
means of changing the clef, still preserves its unison.
It is upon such examples as this, that scholars ought
to exercise themselves, in order to understand at the
first glance the powers of all the clefs, and their simul¬
taneous effect.
There are two of their positions, viz. the clef of
sol upon the first line, and that of fa upon the third,
which seem daily to fall more and more into desuetude.
The first of these may seem less necessary, because
it produces nothing but a position entirely similar to
that of upon the fourth line, from which, however,
it differs by two octaves. As to the clef of fa, it is
plain, that in removing it entirely from the third line,
we shall no longer have any equivalent position, and
that the composition of the claviary, which is at
present complete, will by these means become defec¬
tive.
Thus much for Rousseau’s account of clefs. He pro¬
ceeds to explain their transposition but as this would
render the present article too long and intricate, we
refer the curious to his - Musical Dictionary, vol. i.
page 162. See also Maleones Dissertation on Music.
CLEFT, in a general sense, is a space made by the
separation of parts. Green timber is very apt to split
and cleave in several places, alter it is wrought into
form ; and these cracks in it are very disagreeable to
the sight. The common method of the country carpen¬
ters is to fill up these cracks with a mixture of grease
and saw dust j but the neatest way of all is, the soak¬
ing both sides well with the fat of beef broth, and then
dipping pieces of spunge into the same broth, and fill¬
ing up all the cracks with them : they swell out so as
to fill the whole crack ; and accommodate themselves
so well to it, that the deficiency is hardly seen.
Clefts, or Cracks, in Farriery, appear on the bought
of the pasterns, and are caused by a sharp and malig¬
nant humour. See Farriery Index.
CLEMA, in antiquity, a twig of the vine, which
serves as a badge of the centurion’s office.
CLEMATIS, Virgins’-bower. See Botany In-
A a 2 CLEMENCY,
Clef
U
Clematis.
C L E [ 188 ] C L E
Clemency. CLEMENCY, denotes much the same with mercy,
L V" and impliet a remission of severity towards offenders.
The term is most generally used in speaking of the
forgiveness exercised by princes or persons of high
authority. It is the result, indeed, of a disposition
which ought to be cultivated by all ranks, though
its effects cannot be equally conspicuous or extensive.
In praise of clemency joined with power, it is observed,
that it is not only the privilege, the honour, and the
duty of a prince, but it is also his security, and better
than all his garrisons, forts, and guards, to preserve
himself and his dominions in safety : That that prince
is truly royal, who masters himself; looks upon all in¬
juries as below him ; and governs by equity and rea¬
son, not by passion or caprice. In illustration of this
subject, the following examples are selected out of many
recorded in history.
8u*t07uc.<), I- Two patricians having conspired against Titus
the Roman emperor, were discovered, convicted, and
sentenced to death by the senate; but the good-na¬
tured prince sent for them, and in private admonished
them, that in vain they aspired to the empire, which
was given by destiny; exhorting them to be satisfied
with the rank in which by Providence they had been
placed, and offering them any thing else which was in
his power to grant. At the same time he dispatched
a messenger to the mother of one of them, who was
then at a great distance, and under deep concern about
the fate of her son, to assure her, that her son was not
only alive, but forgiven.
Zos. 11,674. 2> XdcJnJus having raised a numerous army, Zosi-
mus says 130,000 men, endeavoured to wrest the go¬
vernment out of the hands of his brother-in-law Con¬
stantine the emperor. But his army being defeated,
Licinius fled with what forces he could rally to Nico-
media, whither Constantine pursued him, and imme¬
diately invested the place ; but on the second day of
the siege, the emperor’s sister intreating him, with a
flood of tears, by the tenderness he had ever shown
for her, to forgive her husband, and grant hjm at least
his life, he was prevailed upon to comply with her re¬
quest; and the next day, Licinius, finding no means
of making his escape, presented himself before the
conqueror, and throwing himself at his feet, yielded
to him the purple and the other ensigns of sovereignty.
Constantine received him in a very friendly manner,
entertained him at his table, and afterwards sent him
to Thessalonica, assuring him, that he should live un¬
molested so long as he raised no new disturbances.
3. The council of thirty, established at Athens by
Lysander, committed the most execrable cruelties.
Upon pretence of restraining the multitude within
their duty, and to prevent seditions, they had caused
guards to be assigned them, had armed 3000 of the
citizens for that purpose, and at the same time dis¬
armed all the rest. The whole city was in the utmost
terror and dismay. Whoever opposed their injustice
and violence fell a victim to their resentment. Riches
were a crime that never failed of drawing a sentence
upon their owners, always followed with death and the
confiscation of estates; which the thirty tyrants di¬
vided amongst themselves. They put more people to
death (says Xenophon) in eight months of a peace,
than their enemies had done in a war of thirty years.
All the citizens of any consideration in Athens, and
3
who retained a love of liberty, quitted a place reduced ckmmy
to so hard and shameful a slavery, and sought elsewhere v-—■
an asylum and retreat where they might live in safety.
At the head of these was Thrasybulus, a person of ex¬
traordinary merit, who beheld with the most lively af¬
fliction the miseries of his country.
The Lacedaemonians had the inhumanity to endea¬
vour to deprive those unhappy fugitives of this last re¬
source. They published an edict to prohibit the cities
of Greece from giving them refuge, decreed that they
should be delivered up to the thirty tyrants, and con¬
demned all such as should contravene the execution of
this edict to pay a fine of five talents. Only two ci¬
ties rejected with disdain so unjust an ordinance, Me-
gara and Thebes; the latter of which made a decree
to punish all persons whatsoever that should see an A-
thenian attacked by his enemies without doing his ut¬
most to assist him. Lysias, an orator of Syracuse who
had been banished by the thirty, raised 500 soldiers at
his own expence, and sent them to the aid of the com¬
mon country of Eloquence. Thrasybulus lost no
time. After having taken Phyla, a small fort in At¬
tica, he marched to the Piraeus, of which he made
himself master. The thirty flew thither with their
troops, and a battle ensued. The tyrants were over¬
thrown. Critias, the most savage of them all, was
killed on the spot: and as the army was taking to
flight; Thrasybulus cried out, “ Wherefore do you fly
from me as from a victor, rather than assist me as the
avenger of your liberty ? We are not enemies, but fel¬
low-citizens, nor have we declared war against the
city, but against the thirty tyrants.” He continued
to remind them, that they had the same origin,
country, laws, and religion : he exhorted them to
compassionate their exiled brethren, to restore their
country to them, and resume their own liberty. This
discourse had the desired effect. The army, upon their
return to Athens, expelled the thirty, and substituted
ten persons to govern in their room, whose conduct
proved no better than theirs; but King Pausanias,
moved with compassion for the deplorable condition to
which a city, once so flourishing, was reduced, had the
generosity to favour the Athenians in secret, and at
length obtained a peace for them. It was sealed with
the blood of the tyrants, who having taken arms to re¬
instate themselves in the government, were all put to
the sword, and left Athens in the full possession of its
liberty. All the exiles were recalled. Thrasybulus
at that time proposed the celebrated amnesty, by which
the citizens engaged upon oath, that all past transac¬
tions should be buried in oblivion. The government
was re-established upon its ancient footing, the laws
were restored to their pristine vigour, and magistrates
elected with the usual form.
This (says Rollin) is one of the finest events in ancient
history, worthy the Athenian clemency and benevo¬
lence, and has served as a model to succeeding ages in
all good governments. Never had tyranny been more
cruel and bloody than that which the Athenians had
lately thrown off. Every house was in mourning,
every family bewailed the loss of some relation : it had
been a series of public robbery and rapine, in which
license and impunity had authorized all manner of
crimes. The people seemed to have a right to demand
the blood of all accomplices in such notorious malver¬
sations,
C L E [ 189 ] C L E
Clem&ncy. satlons, and even the interest of the state to authorize
> such a claim, that by the exemplary severities such
enormous crimes might be prevented for the future.
But Thrasybulus rising above these sentiments, from the
superiority of his more extensive genius, and the views
of a more discerning and profound policy, foresaw, that
by giving into the punishment of the guilty, eternal
seeds of discord and enmity would remain, to weaken
the public by domestic divisions, when it was necessary
to unite against the common enemy, and also occasion
the loss to the state of a great number of citizens, who
might render it important services from the view of
making amends for past misbehaviour.
4. Such conduct, after great troubles in a state, has
always appeared to the ablest politicians, the most
certain and ready means to restore the public peace and
tranquillity. Cicero, when Rome was divided into
two factions upon the occasion of Caesar’s death, who
had been killed by the conspirators, calling to mind
this celebrated amnesty, proposed, after the example
of the Athenians, to bury all that had passed in eternal
oblivion.
5. Cardinal Mazarine observed to Don Lewis de
Haro, prime minister of Spain, that his gentle and hu¬
mane conduct in France had prevented the troubles and
revolts of that kingdom from having any fatal conse¬
quences, and “ that the king had not lost a foot of land
by them to that day $” whereas “ the inflexible severity
of the Spaniards was the occasion that the subjects
of that monarchy, wherever they threw off the mask,
never returned to their obedience but by the force of
arms j which sufficiently appears (says he) in the ex¬
ample of the Hollanders, who are in the peaceable pos¬
session of so many provinces, that not an age ago were
the patrimony of the king of Spain.”
6. Leonidas the Lacedaemonian having, with 300
s 77. 7$, men only, disputed the pass of Thermopylae against the
whole army of Xerxes, and being killed in that engage¬
ment, Xerxes, by the advice of Mardonius one of his
generals, caused his dead body to be hung upon a gal¬
lows, making thereby the intended dishonour of his ene¬
my his own immortal shame. But some time after,
Xerxes being defeated, and Mardonius slain, one of
the principal citizens of iEgina came and addressed
himself to Fausanius, desiring him to avenge the indig¬
nity that Mardonius and Xerxes had shown to Leoni¬
das, by treating Mardonius’s body after the same man¬
ner. As a farther motive for doing so, he added, that
by thus satisfying the manes of those who were killed
at Thermopylae, he would be sure to immortalize his
own name throughout all Greece, and make his memory
precious to the latest posterity. “ Carry thy base
counsels elsewhere (replied Pausanias) ; thou must
have a very wrong notion of true glory to imagine, that
the way for me to acquire it is to resemble the barbari¬
ans. If the esteem of the people of JEgina is not to be
purchased but by such a proceeding, I shall be con*
tent with preserving that of the Lacedaemonians only,
amongst whom the base and ungenerous pleasure of re¬
venge is never put in competition with that of showing
clemency and moderation to their enemies, especially
after their death. As for the souls of my departed
countrymen, they are sufficiently avenged by the death
of the many thousand Persians slain upon the spot in
the last engagement”
CLEMENS Romanus, bishop of Rome, where he Clemens,
is said to have been born ; and to have been fellow- Clement,
labourer with St Peter and St Paul. We have no-
thing remaining of his works that is clearly genuine,
excepting one epistle, written to quiet some disturban¬
ces in the church of Corinth j which, next to holy
writ, is esteemed one of the most valuable remains of
ecclesiastical antiquity.
Clemens Alexandrinus, so called to distinguish him
from the former, was an eminent father of the church,
who flourished at the end of the second and beginning
of the third centuries. He was the scholar of Pan-
tsenus, and the instructor of Origen. The best edition
of his works is that in 2 vols. folio, published in 1715,
by Archbishop Potter.
CLEMENT V. Pope, the first who made a pub¬
lic sale of indulgencies. He transplanted the holy see
to Avignon in France ; greatly contributed to the sup¬
pression of the knights templars ; and was author of a
compilation of the decrees of the general councils of
Vienne, styled Clementines. He died in 1314.
Clement VII. Julius de Medici's, Pope, memo¬
rable for his refusing to divorce Catharine of Arra-
gon from Henry VIII. 5 and for the bull be published
upon the king’s marriage with Anne Boleyn, which,
according to the Romish authors, lost him England.
He died in 1534.
Clement XIV. Francis Laurentius Ganganelli,
Pope, was born at St Angelo, in the duchy of Ur-
bino, in October 1705; and chosen pope, though
not yet a bishop, in 1769: at which time the see of
Rome was involved in a most disagreeable and dan¬
gerous contest with the house of Bourbon. His reign
was rendered troublesome by the collision of parties
on the affairs of the Jesuits j and it is pretended that
his latter days were embittered by the apprehensions
of poison. Though this report was probably apocry¬
phal, it is said that he often complained of the heavy
burden which he was obliged to bear j and regretted,
with great sensibility, the loss of that tranquillity which
he enjoyed in his retirement when only a simple Fran¬
ciscan. He was, however, fortunate in having an
opportunity, by a single act, to distinguish a short ad¬
ministration of five years in such a manner as will ever
prevent its sinking into obscurity. His death was im¬
mediately attributed to poison, as if an old man of 70,
loaded with infirmities and disorders, could not quit
the world without violence. His proceedings against
the Jesuits furnished a plausible pretence for this charge,
and the malevolence of their enemies embellished it with
circumstances. It even seems as if the ministers of
those powers who had procured, their dissolution did
not think it beneath them to countenance the report j
as if falsehood was necessary to prevent the revival of
a body which bad already sunk, in its full strength,
under the weight of real misconduct. The charge was
the more ridiculous, as the pontiff had undergone a
long and painful illness, which originally proceeded
from a suppression of urine, to which he was subject ;
yet the report was propagated with the greatest in¬
dustry j and though the French and Spanish ministers
were present at the opening ol his body, the most hor¬
rible circumstances were published relative to that ope¬
ration. It was confidently told that the head tell oft
from the body, and that the stench poisoned and killed
OLE [ 190 ] C L E
Clement the operators. It availed but little that the operators
|| showed themselves alive and in good health, and that
Cleome, t|je surgeons and physicians proved the falsehood of
every part of the report. Clement XIV. appears to
have been a man of a virtuous character, and possessed
of considerable abilities. He died much regretted by
his subjects.
CLEMENTINE, a term used among the Augu¬
stins, who apply it to a person who, after having been
nine years a superior, ceases to be so, and becomes a
private monk, under the command of a superior. The
word has. its rise hence, that Pope Clement, by a bull,
prohibited any superior among the Augustins from con¬
tinuing above nine years in his office.
Clementines, in the canon law, are the constitu¬
tions of Pope Clement V. and the canons of the coun¬
cil of Vienne.
CLENAI1D, Nicholas, a celebrated grammarian
in the 16th century, was born at Diest 5 and after ha¬
ving taught humanity at Louvain, travelled into France,
Spain, Portugal, and Africa. He wrote in Latin, 1.
Letters relating to his Travels, which are very curious
and scarce. 2. A Greek Grammar, which has been
revised and corrected by many grammarians \ and other
works. He died at Grenoble in 1542.
CLEOBIS and Biton, two youths, sons of Cy-
dippe the priestess of Juno at Argos. When oxen
could not be procured to draw their mother’s chariot
to the temple of Juno, they put themselves under the
yoke, and drew it 45 stadia to the temple, amidst the
acclamations of the multitude, who congratulated the
mother on account of the piety of her sons. Cydippe
intreated the goddess to reward the piety of her sons
with the best gift that could be granted to a mortal.
They went to rest and awoke no more } and by this the
goddess showed that death is the only true happy event
that can happen to a man. The Argives raised them
statues at Delphi.
CLEOBULUS, son of Evagoras, and one of the
Grecian sages j he was valiant, a lover of learning,
and an enemy to vice. Flourished about 560 years be¬
fore Christ.
CLEOMBBOTUS, a king of Sparta, son of An-
axandrides. He was deterred from building a wall
across the isthmus of Corinth against the approach of
the Persians, by an eclipse of the sun. He died in the
7 5th Olympiad, and yvas succeeded by Plistarchus, son
of Leonidas, a minor.
Cleomerotus II. son of Pausanias king of Sparta,
after his brother Agesipolis I. He made war against
the Boeotians, and lest he should be suspected of treach¬
erous communications with Epaminondas, he gave that
general battle at Leuctra, in a very disadvantageous
place. He was killed in the engagement, and his army
destroyed, in the year of Home 382.
CleombrotHS III. a son-in-law of Leonidas king
of Sparta, who for a while usurped the kingdom after
the expulsion of his father-in-law. When Leonidas
was recalled, Cleombrotus w’as banished, and his wife
Chelonis, who had accompanied her father, now accom¬
panied her husband in his exile.
CLEOME, in Botany, a genus of the siliquosa
order, belonging to the tetradynamia class of plants $
and in the natural method ranking under the 25th or¬
der, But aminece. There are three nectariferous glan-
I
dules, one at each sinus of the calyx except the lowest; Cleomo
the petals all rising upwards ; the siliqua unilocular and |j
bivalved. There are 15 species, all of them, except ClcoPat_^i
two, natives of warm climates. They are herbaceous
plants, rising from one to two feet high ; and are adorn¬
ed with flowers of various colours, as red, yellow, flesh-
colour, &c. They are propagated by seeds, and re¬
quire no other care than what is common to other ex¬
otics which are natives of warm countries.
CLEOMENES, king of Sparta, conquered the
Argives, and freed Athens from the tyranny of the Pi-
sistratidsc. By bribing the oracle, he pronounced De-
maratus, his colleague on the throne, illegitimate, be¬
cause he refused to punish the people of -ZEgina, wh(J
had deserted the Greeks. He killed himself in a fit of
madness.
Cleomenes II. succeeded his brother Agesipolis II.
He reigned 34 years in the greatest tranquillity, and
was father to Acrotatus and Cleonymus. He was suc¬
ceeded by Areus I. son of Acrotatus.
Cleomenes III. succeeded his father Leonidas.
He was of an enterprising spirit, and resolved to restore
the ancient discipline of Lycurgus in its lull force. He
killed the Ephori, and removed by poison his royal col¬
league Eurydamides, and made his own brother Eucli-
das king, against the laws of the state, which forbade
more than one of the same family to sit on the throne.
He made war against the Achajans, and attempted to
destroy the Achaean league. Aratus the general of the
Achajans, who supposed himself inferior to his enemy,
called Antigonus to his assistance ; and Cleomenes,
when he had fought the unfortunate battle of Sellasia,
retired into Egypt to the court of Ptolemy Euergetes,
where his wife and children had gone before him.
Ptolemy received him with great cordiality 5 but his
successor, weak and suspicious, soon expressed his jea¬
lousy of this noble stranger, and imprisoned him.
Cleomenes killed himself, and his body was flayed and
exposed on a cross, 140 Olymp.
CLEON, the name of several noted men of anti¬
quity. I. Of an Athenian, who, though originally a
tanner, became general of the armies of the state by his
intrigues and eloquence. He took I boron in rl brace,
and was killed at Amphipolis in a battle with Brasidas
the Spartan general, Olymp. 89th. 2. A general of
Messenia, who disputed with Aristodemus for the sove¬
reignty. 3. A statuary. 4. A poet, who wrote a
poem on the Argonauts. 5. An orator of Halicarnas¬
sus who composed an oration for Lysander, in which
he intimated the propriety of making the kingdom of
Sparta elective. 6. A Magnesian who wrote some com¬
mentaries, in which he speaks of portentous events, &c.
CLEONiE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar-
golis, above MycenEe, on the road which leads from
Argos to Corinth ; standing on an eminence, on every
side occupied by houses. In the forest near this town
was slain bv Hercules the huge lion (Sil. Italicus, Se¬
neca). Cleonceus the epithet. Cleonceum Sidus, the
lion. Another Cleonce on Mount Athos in Chal-
cidice.
CLEOPATRA, the celebrated queen of Egypt,
was daughter of Ptolemy Auletes. By her extraor¬
dinary beauty, she subdued the two renowned Roman
generals Julius Caesar and Mark Antony j the latter of
whom, it is thought, lost the empire of Rome by his
< attachment
C L E [II
leopatra attachment to her. At length Mark Antony being
|| subdued by Octavius Caesar, she tried the force of her
lepsydra. ^ecijn|ng charms upon the conqueror, but in vain ; up-
’”’"v on which, expecting no mercy from him, she poisoned
herself, 30 years before Christ. According to some
authors, she was the restorer of the Alexandrian libra¬
ry, to which she added that of Pergamos ; and it is
said, that she studied philosophy to console her for the
absence of Antony. With her death ended the family
of the Ptolemies in Egypt, after it had reigned from
the death of Alexander 294 years : for Egypt, after
this, was reduced to a Roman province, in which de¬
pendence it remained till it was taken from them by
the Saracens, A. D. 641.
CLEOPATRIS, in Ancient Geographyy a town of
Egypt, on the Arabian gulf. See Arsinoe. Now said
to be Suez, situated at the bottom of the gulf of the
Red sea. E. Long. 34. 30. N. Lat. 30. o.
CLEOSTRATUS, a celebrated astronomer, born
in Tenedos, was, according to Pliny, the first who dis¬
covered the signs of the zodiac ; others say, that he
only discovered the signs Aries and Sagittarius. He
also corrected the errors of the Grecian year about the
306th year before Christ.
CLEPSYDRA, an instrument or machine serving
to measure time by the fall of a certain quantity of wa¬
ter.
The word comes from condo, and aqua,
“ water j” though there have likewise been clepsydrae
made with mercury.
The Egyptians, by this machine, measured the
course of the sun. Tycho Brahe, in our days, made
use of it to measure the motion of the stars, &c. and
Dudley used the same contrivance in making all his
maritime observations. The use of clepsydrae is very
ancient 5 they were invented in Egypt under the Pto¬
lemies, as were also sun-dials. Their use was chiefly
in the winter; the sun-dials served in the summer.
They had two great defects ; the one, that the water
ran out with a greater or less facility, as the air was
more or less dense ; the other, that the water ran
more readily at the beginning than towards the con¬
clusion. M. Amontons has invented a clepsydra free
from both these inconveniences ; and which has these
three grand advantages, of serving the ordinary pur¬
pose of clocks, of serving in navigation for the disco¬
very of the longitude, and of measuring the motion of
the arteries.
Construction of a Clepsydra. To divide any cy-
lindric vessel into parts to be emptied in each division
of time ; the time wherein the whole, and that wherein
any part, is to be evacuated, being given.
Suppose, for example, a cylindric vessel, whose
charge of water thrown out in 12 hours, were required
to be divided into parts to be evacuated each hour.
1. As the part of time 1 is to the. whole time 1 2 ; so
is the same time 12 to a fourth proportional, 144.
2. Divide the altitude of the vessel into 144 equal parts :
here the last will fall to the last hour ; the three next
above to the last part but one ; the five next to the
tenth hour, &c. ; lastly, the 23 last to the first hour,
ior since the times increase in the series of the natural
numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. and the altitudes, if the
numeration be in retrograde order from the twelfth
hour, increase in the series of the unequal numbers 1,
I ] C L E
3> 5> 7> 9j &-c< the altitude, computed from the twelfth Clepsydra
hour, will be as the squares of the times, I, 4, 9, 16, |]
25, &c. therefore the square of the whole time 144 Cl ere.
comprehends all the parts of the altitude of the vessel v
to be evacuated. But a third proportional to I and
12 is the square of 12, and consequently it is the num¬
ber of equal parts into which the altitude is to be di¬
vided, to be distributed according to the series of the
unequal numbers, through the equal intervals of hours.
Since in lieu of parts of the same vessel, other less ves¬
sels equal thereto may be substituted, the altitude of a
vessel emptied in a given space of time being given, the
altitude of another vessel to be emptied in a given time
may be found ; viz. by making the altitudes as the
squares of the time. For a further description, see
Hydrodynamics Index.
CLERC, John le, a most celebrated writer and
universal scholar, born at Geneva in 1657. After he
had passed through the usual course of study at Geneva,
and had lost his father in 1676, he went to France in
1678; but returning the year after, he was ordained
with the general applause of all his examiners. In
1682, Le Clerc visited England with a view to learning
the language. He preached several times in the French
churches in London, and visited several bishops and
men of learning ; but the smoky air of the town not
agreeing with his lungs, he returned to Holland within
the year, where he at length settled. He preached
before a synod held at Rotterdam by the remonstrants
in 1684; and was admitted professor of philosophy,
polite literature, and the Hebrew tongue, in their
school at Amsterdam. The remainder of his life af¬
fords nothing but the history of his works, and of the
controversies he was engaged in ; but these would lead
into too extensive a detail. He continued to read re¬
gular lectures ; and because there was no single author
full enough for his purpose, he drew up and published
his Logic, Ontology, Pneumatology, and Natural Phi¬
losophy. He published Ars Cntica; a Commentary
on the Old Testament; a Compendium of Universal
History; an Ecclesiastical History of the two first
Centuries ; a French Translation of the New Testa¬
ment, &c. In 1686, he began, jointly with M. de
Crose, his Jdibliotheque Universeile et Historique, in
imitation of other literary journals ; which was conti¬
nued to the year 1693 inclusive, in 26 vols. In 1703,
he began his Bibliotheque Choisie, and continued it to
1714, and then commenced another work on the same
plan, called Bibliotheque Ancienne et Moderne, which
he continued to the year 1728 ; all of them justly deem¬
ed excellent stores of useful knowledge. In 1728 he
was seized with a palsy and fever ; and after spending
the last six years of his life with little or no under¬
standing, died in 1736.
Clerc, John le, called Chevalier, an eminent histo¬
rical painter, was born at Nanci in 1587, but studied
in Italy, where he resided for 20 years ; and was a
disciple of Carlo Venetiano, with whom he worked
a long time, and whose style he so effectually studied
and imitated, that several of the pictures which were
finished by Le Clerc were taken for the work of Ve¬
netiano. He was most highly esteemed at Venice for
his extraordinary merit; and as a token of public re¬
spect, he was made a knight of St Mark. His free¬
dom of hand was remarkable ; he had a light pencil 5
and
C L E
Clerc, and in his colouring he resembled his master.
Clecgy* in 1633.
v Clerc, Sebastian le, engraver, and designer in or¬
dinary to the French king, was horn at Metz in 1637.
Aker having learnt designing, he applied himself to
mathematics, and was engineer to the marshal de la
Ferte. He went to Paris in 1665, where he applied
himself to designing and engraving with such success,
that M. Colbert gave him a pension of 600 crowns.
In 1672 he was admitted into the royal academy of
painting and sculpture J and in 1680 was made pro¬
fessor of geometry and perspective in the same acade¬
my. He published, besides a great number of designs
and prints, 1. A Treatise on theoretical and practical
Geometry. 2. A treatise on Architecture $ and other
works: and died in was an excellent ar¬
tist, but chiefly in the petit style. His genius seldom
exceeds the dimensions of six inches. . Within those
limits he could draw up 20,000 men with great dex¬
terity. No artist except Callot and Della Bella could
touch a small figure with so much spirit. His most
esteemed prints are : 1. The passion of our Saviour, on
36 small plates, lengthwise, from his own compositions.
The best impressions are without the borders. 2. The
miracle of the feeding five thousand, a middling sized
plate, lengthwise. In the first impressions, which are
very rare, a town appears in the back-ground ; in
place of which a mountain is substituted in the common
ones. 3. The elevation of the large stones used in build¬
ing the front of the Louvre, a large plate, lengthwise.
The first impressions are without the date 1677, which
was afterwards added. 4. The academy of the sciences,
a middling-sized plate, lengthwise. The first impres-
nions are before the skeleton of the stag and tortoise
were added. The second impressions are before the
shadow was enlarged at the bottom, towards the right-
hand side of the print. Both these impressions are
very scarce. The first is rarely met with. This print
was copied for Chambers’s Dictionary. 3* The May
of the Gobelins, a middle-sized plate, lengthvvise. The
first impression is before the woman was introduced,
who covers the wheel of the coach. 6. The /owr con¬
quests, large plates, lengthwise, representing the taking
of Tournay, the taking of Douay, the defeat of the
compte de Marsin, and the Switzerland alliance. 7* The
battles of Alexander, from Le Brun, six small long
plates, including the title, which represents the picture
gallery at the Gobelins. The first impressions of the
tent of Darius, which plate makes part of this set, is
distinguished by the shoulder of the woman, who is
seated in the front, being without the shadow, which
was afterwards added ; for which reason they are called
the prints with the naked shoulder. 8. The entry of
Alexander into Babylon, a middle-sized plate, length¬
wise. In the first impressions, the face of Alexander
is seen in profile j in the second, it is a three quar¬
ter face, and therefore called the print with the head
turned.
Clerc, George le. See Buffon.
CLERGY, a general name given to the body of
ecclesiastics of the Christian church, in contradistinc¬
tion to the laity* See Laity.
The distinction of Christians into clergy and laity
was derived from the Jewish church, and adopted into
the Christian by the apostles themselves: whenever
[ 192 ] C L E
He died any number of converts was made, as soon as they Clergy.
were capable of being formed into a congregation or 111 * V”—
church, a bishop or presbyter, with a deacon, were or¬
dained to minister to them. Of the bishops, priests,
and deacons, the clergy originally consisted $ but in the
third century, many inferior orders were appointed, as
subservient to the office of deacon, such as AcpLU-
thists, Readers, &c.
This venerable body of men being separated and set Btackst.
apart from the rest of the people, in order to attend ommen^
the more closely to the service of Almighty God, have
therefore large privileges allowed them by our muni¬
cipal laws •, and had formerly much greater, which
were abridged at the time of the reformation, on ac¬
count of the ill use which the Popish clergy had endea-
voared to make of them. For, the laws having ex¬
empted them from almost every personal duty, they
attempted a total exemption from every secular tie.
But it is observed by Sir Edward Cooke, that as the
overflowing of waters doth many times make the ri¬
ver to lose its proper channel, so, in times past, eccle¬
siastical persons seeking to extend their liberties be¬
yond their due bounds, either lost, or enjoyed not,
those which of right belonged to them. 1 he personal
exemptions do indeed for the most part continue: a
clergyman cannot be compelled to serve on a jury, nor
to appear at a court-leet, or view of frank-pledge,
which (almost every other person is obliged to do j
but if a layman is summoned on a jury, and before the
trial takes orders, he shall notwithstanding appear and
be sworn. Neither can he be chosen to any temporal
office, as bailiff, reeve, constable, or the like •, in re¬
gard of his own continual attendance on the sacred
function. During his attendance on divine service, he
is privileged from arrests in civil suits. In cases also
of felony, a clerk in orders shall have the benefit of his
clergy, without being branded in the hand j and may
likewise have it more than once j in both which per-
ticulars he is distinguished from a laymen. But, as
they have their privileges, so also they have their dis¬
abilities, on account of their spiritual avocations. Cler¬
gymen are incapable of sitting in the house of com¬
mons; and by statute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13. are not
in general allowed to take any lands or tenements to
farm, upon pain of lol. per month, and total avoidance
of the lease •, nor, upon like pain, to keep any tap-
house or brew-house j nor engage in any manner of
trade, nor sell any merchandise, under forfeiture of
treble value. Which prohibition is consonant to the
canon law.
Benefit of Clergy, is an ancient privilege, whereby
one in orders claimed to be delivered to his ordinary to
purge himself ot felony.
After trial and conviction * of a criminal, the judg-# See the
ment of the court regularly follows, unless suspended article-i
or arrested by some intervening circumstances, of which
the principal 1% benefit of clergy; a title of no small cu" an£i Ceiw
riosity as well as use j and concerning which, therefore,
it may not be improper to enquire, 1. Into its original,
and the various mutations which this privilege of the
clergy has sustained. 2. To what persons it is to be
allowed at this day. 3. In what cases. 4. The conse¬
quences of allowing it.
I. Clergy, the privilegium clericale, or (in common piackst.
speech, the benefit of clergy) had its original from the
pious
e l e [i
Cieigy. pious regard paid by Christian princes to the church in
—v> its infant state, and the ill use which the popish eccle¬
siastics soon made of that pious regard. The exemp¬
tions which they granted to the church were principal¬
ly of two kinds: I. Exemptions of places consecrated
to religious duties from criminal arrests j which was
the foundation of sanctuaries. 2. Exemption of the
persons of clergymen from criminal process before the
secular judge in a few particular cases; which was
the true original and meaning of the privilegium de¬
licate.
But the clergy increasing in wealth, power, honour,
number, and interest, soon began to set up for them¬
selves ; and that which they obtained by the favour of
the civil government, they now claimed as their in¬
herent right, and as a right of the highest nature, in¬
defeasible, and j«r£ divino. By their canons, there¬
fore, and constitutions, they endeavoured at, and
where they met with easy princes, obtained, a vast
extension of those exemptions; as well in regard to
the crimes themselves, of which the list became quite
universal, as in regard to the persons exempted;
among whom were at length comprehended, not
only every little subordinate officer belonging to the
church or clergy, but even many that were totally
laymen.
In England, however, although the usurpations of the
pope were very many and grievous, till Henry VIII.
totally exterminated his supremacy, yet a total ex¬
emption of the clergy from secular jurisdiction could
never be thoroughly effected, though often endea¬
voured by the clergy; and therefore, though the an¬
cient privilegium ctericate was in some capital cases,
yet it was not universally allowed. And in those par¬
ticular cases, the use was for the bishop or ordinary to
demand his clerks to be remitted out of the king’s
courts as soon as they were indicted ; concerning the
allowance of which demand there was for many years a
great uncertainty; till at length it was finally settled
in the reign of Henry VI. that the prisoner should first
be arraigned; and might either then claim his benefit
of clergy by way of declinatory plea ; or, after con¬
viction, by way of arrest of judgment. This latter
way is most usually practised, as it is more to the satis¬
faction of the court to have the crime previously ascer¬
tained by confession or the verdict of a jury ; and also
it is more advantageous to the prisoner himself, who
may possibly be acquitted, and so need not the benefit
of his clergy at all.
Originally the law was held that no man should be
admitted to the benefit of clergy, but such as had the
habitum et tonsuram ctericatem. But, in process of
time, a much wider and more comprehensive criterion
was established ; every one that could read (a great
mark of learning in those days of ignorance and her
sister superstition) being accounted a clerk, or cte-
ncus, and allowed the benefit of clerkship, though
neither initiated in clerkship, nor trimmed with the
holy tonsure. But when learning, by means of the
invention of printing, and other concurrent causes, be¬
gan to be more generally disseminated than formerly,
and reading was no longer a competent proof of clerk¬
ship, or being in holy orders ; it was found that as ma¬
ny laymen as divines were admitted to the privitegium
dencate; and therefore by statute 4 Henry VII. c. 13.
Vol. VI. Part I. f
»3 ] C L E
a distinction was once more drawn between mere lay Clergy,
scholars and clerks that were really in orders. And, '—~sr—
though it was thought reasonable still to mitigate the
severity of the law with regard to the former, yet
they were not put upon the same footing with ac¬
tual clergy; being subjected to a slight degree of pu¬
nishment, and not allowed to claim the clerical privi¬
lege more than once. Accordingly the statute directs,
that no person, once admitted to the benefit of clergy,
shall be admitted thereto a second time, until he pro¬
duces his orders ; and in order to distinguish their per¬
son, all laymen who are allowed this privilege, shall
be burned with a hot iron in the brawn of the left
thumb. This distinction between learned laymen and
real clerks in orders, was abolished for a time by the
statutes 28 Hen. VIII. c. 1. and 32 Hen. VIII. c. 3.;
but is held to have been virtually restored by statute
I Edw. VI. c. 12. which statute also enacts, that lords
of parliament and peers of the realm may have the be¬
nefit of their peerage, equivalent to that of clergy, for
the first offence (although they cannot read, and with¬
out being burnt in the hand), for all offences then cler¬
gyable to commoners, and also for the crimes of house¬
breaking, highway robbery, horse-stealing, and robbing
of churches.
After this burning, the laity, and before it the real
clergy, were discharged from the sentence of the law
in the king’s courts, and delivered over to the ordi¬
nary, to be dealt with according to the ecclesiastical
canons. Whereupon the ordinary, not satisfied with
the proofs adduced in the profane secular court, set
himself formally to make a purgation of the offender
by a new canonical trial; although he had been pre¬
viously convicted by his country, or perhaps by his
own confession. This trial was held before the bishop
in person, or his deputy; and by a jury of twelve
clerks: And there, first, the party himself was re¬
quired to make oath of his own innocence ; next, there
was to be the oath of twelve compurgators, who swore
they believed he spoke the truth ; then, witnesses
were to be examined upon oath, but on behalf of the
prisoner only; and, lastly, the jury were to bring in
their verdict upon oath, which usually acquitted the
prisoner; otherwise, if a clerk, he was degraded or
put to penance. A learned judge, in the beginning
of last century, remarks with much indignation the
vast complication of perjury and subornation of per¬
jury, in this solemn farce of a mock trial; the witnes¬
ses, the compurgators, and the jury, being all of them
partakers in the guilt : the delinquent party also,
though convicted in the clearest manner, and conscious
of his own offence, yet was permitted, and almost com¬
pelled to swear himself not guilty; nor was the good
bishop himself, under whose countenance this scene was
transacted, by any means exempt from a share of it.
And yet, by this purgation, the party was restored to
his credit, his liberty, his lands, and his capacity of
purchasing afresh, and was entirely made a new and an
innocent man.
This scandalous prostitution of oaths, and the forms
of justice, in the almost constant acquittal of felonious
clerks by purgation, was the occasion that, upon very
heinons and notorious circumstances of guilt, tem¬
poral courts would not trust the ordinary with the
trial of tbe offender, but delivered over to him the
B b convicted
C L E
Clergy, convicted clerk, absquepurgatione faciendo ; in which
‘“■""“V situation the clerk convict could not make purgation ;
hut was to continue in prison during life, and was in¬
capable of acquiring any personal property, or receiv¬
ing the profits of his lands, unless the king should
please to pardon him. Both these courses were in some
degree exceptionable ; the latter perhaps being too ri¬
gid, as the former was productive of the most abandon¬
ed perjury. As therefore these mock trials took their
rise from factious and popish tenets, tending to exempt
one part of the nation from the general municipal law,
it became high time, when the reformation was tho¬
roughly established, to abolish so vain and impious a
ceremony.
Accordingly the statute 18 Eliz. c. 7. enacts, that,
for the avoiding such perjuries and abuses, after the
offender has been allowed his clergy, he shall not be
delivered to the ordinary as formerly j but, upon such
allowance, and burning of the hand, he shall forthwith
be enlarged and delivered out of prison, with pro¬
viso, that the judge may, if he thinks fit, continue the
offender in gaol lor any time not exceeding a year.
And thus the law continued unaltered for above a
century ; except only, that the statute 21 Jac. I. c. 6.
allowed, that women convicted of simple larcenies
under the value of xos. should (not properly have the
benefit of clergy, for they were not called upon to
read ; but) be burned in the hand, whipped, or stock¬
ed, or imprisoned for any time not exceeding a year.
And a similar indulgence by the statutes 3 and 4 Will,
and Mary, c. 9. and 4 and 5 Will, and Mary, c. 24.
was extended to women guilty of any clergyable felony
whatever j who were allowed once to claim the benefit
of the statute, in like manner as men might claim the
benefit of clergy, and to be discharged upon being
burned in the hand, and imprisoned for any time not
exceeding a year. All women, all peers, and all male
commoners who could read, were therefore discharged
in such felonies absolutely, if clerks in orders j and for
the first offence upon burning in the hand, if lay ; yet
all liable (except peers), if the judge saw occasion, to
imprisonment not exceeding a year. And these men
who could not read, if under the degree of peerage,
were hanged.
Afterwards, indeed, it was considered, that educa¬
tion and learning were not extenuations of guilt, but
quite the reverse.; and that if the punishment of death
for simple felony was too severe for those who had
been liberally instructed, it was, a fortiori, too severe
for the ignorant also. And thereupon, by statute
5 Anne, c. 6. it was enacted that the benefit of clergy
should be granted to all those who were entitled to ask
it, without requiring them to read by way of condi¬
tional merit. And experience having shown that so
universal a lenity was frequently inconvenient, and an
encouragement to commit the lower degrees of felo¬
ny ; and that though capital punishments were too ri¬
gorous for these inferior offences, yet no punishment
at all (or next to none, as branding or whipping),
was as much too gentle j it was enacted by the same
statute 5 Anne, c. 6. that when any person is convict¬
ed of any theft or larceny, and burnt in the hand
for the same, he shall, at the discretion of the judge,
be committed to the house of correction, or public
work-house, to be there kept to hard labour for any
2
[ >94 ]
C L E
time not less than six months, and not exceeding two
years ; with a power of inflicting a double confinement
in case of the party’s escape from the first. And it
is also enacted by the statutes 4 Geo. I. c. 11. and
6 Geo. I. c. 23. that when any persons shall be con¬
victed of any larceny, either grand or petit, or any fe¬
lonious stealing or taking of money or goods and chat¬
tels, either from the person or the house of any other,
or in any other manner, and who by the law shall be
entitled to the benefit of clergy, and liable only to the
penalties of burning in the hand, or whipping ; the
court in their discretion, instead of such burning in
the hand, or whipping, may direct such offenders to
be transported to America for seven years 5 and if
they return, or are seen at large in this kingdom
within that time, it shall be felony without benefit of
clergy.
In this state does the benefit of clergy at present
stand 5 very considerably different from its original in¬
stitution ; the wisdom of the English legislature hav¬
ing, in the course of a long and laborious process, ex¬
tracted, by a noble alchemy, rich medicines out of poi¬
sonous ingredients 5 and converted, by gradual muta¬
tions, what was at first an unreasonable exemption of
particular popish ecclesiastics, into a merciful mitiga¬
tion of the general law with respect to capital punish¬
ments.
From the whole of this detail, we may collect, that
however in times of ignorance and superstition, that
monster in true policy may for a while subsist, of a
body of men residing in a state, and yet independent
of its laws ; yet when learning and rational religion
have a little enlightened men’s minds, society can no
longer endure an absui'dity so gross, as must destroy its
vexy fundamentals. For, by the original conti'act of
government, the price of protection by the united force
of individuals, is that of obedience to the united will
of the community. This united will is declared in the
laws of the land ; and that united force is exerted in
their due, and universal, execution.
II. We are next to inquix-e, to what persons the be¬
nefit of clergy is to be allowed at this day j and this
must chiefly be collected from what has been obser¬
ved in the preceding article. For, upon the whole,
we may pronounce, that all clerks in orders are, with¬
out any branding, and of course without any ti’ans-
portation (for that is only substituted in lieu of the
other), to be admitted to this privilege, and immedi¬
ately discharged, or at most only confined for one year j
and this as often as they offend. Again, all lords of
parliament, and peers of the realm, by the statute
1 Edw. VI. c. 12. shall be discharged in all clergyable
and other felonies provided for by the act without any
burning in the hand, in the same manner as real clerks
convict $ but this is only for the first offence. Lastly,
all the commons of the realm, not in orders, whether
male or female, shall, for the first offence, be dischar¬
ged of the punishment of felonies, within the benefit of
clergy, upon being burnt in the hand, and suffering
discretionary imprisonment j^or, in case of larceny, up¬
on being transported for seven years, if the court shall
think propex-.
III. The third point to be considered is, for xyhat
crimes the privilegiutn clericale, or benefit of clergy,
is to be allowed. And it is to be observed, that nei¬
ther
Clergy.
OLE [ 195 ] C L E
;!ergy. ther in high treason, nor in petit larceny, nor in any
“"■v'"—' mere misdemeanors, it was indulged at the common
law ; and therefore we may lay it down as a rule,
that it was allowable only in petit treason and capital
felonies ; which for the most part became legally en¬
titled to this indulgence by the statute de clet'o,
25 Edw. III. stat. 3. c. 4. which provides, that clerks
convict for treason or felonies, touching other persons
than the king himself or his royal majesty, shall have
the privilege of holy church. But yet it was not al¬
lowed in all cases whatsoever j for in some it was de¬
nied even in common law, viz. msidatio viarum, or ly¬
ing in wait for one on the highway ; depopulatio agro¬
rum, or destroying and ravaging a country j combustio
domorum, or arson, that is, burning of houses \ all
which are a kind of hostile acts, and in some degree
border upon treason. And farther, all these identical
crimes, together with petit treason, and very many
other acts of felony, are ousted of clergy by particular
acts of parliament.
Upon the whole, we may observe the following
rules. 1. That in all felonies, whether new created,
or by common law, clergy is now allowable, unless ta¬
ken away by act of parliament. 2. That where clergy
is taken away from the principal, it is not of course ta¬
ken away from the accessory, unless he be also particu¬
larly included in the words of the statute. 3. That
when the benefit of clergy is taken away from the of¬
fence (as in case of murder, buggery, robbery, rape,
and burglary), a principal in the second degree, being
present, aiding and abetting the crime, is as well ex¬
cluded from his clergy, as he that is a principal in
the first degree : but, 4. That where it is only taken
away from the person committing the offence (as in
the case of stabbing, or committing larceny in a
dwelling-house), his aiders and abettors are not ex¬
cluded, through the tenderness of the law, which hath
determined that such statutes shall not be taken lite¬
rally.
IV. Lastly, We are to inquire what the conse¬
quences are to the party, of allowing him this benefit
of clergy. We speak not of the branding, imprison¬
ment, or transportation j which are rather concomitant
conditions, than consequences, of receiving this indul¬
gence. The consequences are such as affect his pre¬
sent interest, and future credit and capacity; as hav¬
ing been once a felon, but now purged from that
guilt by the privilege of clergy j which operates as a
kind of statute pardon. And we may observe, 1. That,
by his conviction, he forfeits all his goods to the king ;
which, being once vested in the crown, shall not after¬
wards be restored to the offender. 2. That, after con¬
viction, and till he receives the judgment of the law
by branding or the like, or else is pardoned by the
king, he is, to all intents and purposes, a felon j and
subject to all the disabilities and other incidents of a
felon. 3. That, after burning or pardon, he is dis¬
charged for ever of that, and all other felonies before
committed, within the benefit of clergy ; but not of
felonies from which such benefit is excluded ; and this
by statutes 8 Eliz. c. 4. and 18 Eliz. c. 7. 4. That
by the burning, or pardon of it, he is restored to all
capacities and credits, and the possession of his lands,
as if he had never been convicted. 3. That what is
said with regard to the advantages of commoners and
laymen, subsequent to the burning in the hand, is Clergy,
equally applicable to all peers and clergymen, although Clerk,
never branded at all. For they have the same privi-
leges, without any burning, to which others are entitled
after it.
CLERK (clericus), a word formerly used to signify
a learned man, or man of letters. The word comes
from the Greek *>ojg«s, used for clergy ; but more pro¬
perly signifying lot or heritage, in regard the lot and
portion of clerks or ecclesiastics is to serve God. Ac¬
cordingly clerus was at first used to signify those who
had a particular attachment to the service of God.
The origin of the expression is derived from the Old
Testament, where the tribe of Levi is called the lot,
heritage, xAjjgo; ; and God is reciprocally called their
portion; by reason that tribe was consecrated to the
service of God, and lived on the offerings made to God,
without any other settled provision as the rest had.
Thus Pasquier observes, the officers of the counts {co¬
mites) were anciently created under the title of clerks
ojaccompts ; and secretaries of state were called clerks
of the secret. So clericus domini regis, in the time of
Edward I. was Englished, the king's secretary, ov clerk
of his council. The term was applied indifferently to
all who made any profession of learning 5 or who knew
how to manage the pen j though originally it was ap¬
propriated to ecclesiastics. As the nobility and gentry
were usually brought up to the exercise of arms, there
were none but the clergy left to cultivate the sciences :
hence, as it was the clergy alone who had made any
profession of letters, a very learned man came to be
called a great clerk, and a stupid ignorant man a bad
clerk.
Clerk is also applied to such as by their course of
life exercise their pens in any court or office; of which
there are various kinds : thus,
Clerk of the Bails, an officer in the court of king’s
bench, whose business is to file all bail-pieces taken in
that court, where he always attends.
Clerk of the Check, an officer belonging to the king’s
court; so called, because he has the check and con-
troulment of the yeomen that belong to the king, queen,
or prince. He likewise, by himself or deputy, sets the
watch in the court. There is also an officer in the
navy of the same name, belonging to the king’s yards.
Clerk of the Crown, an officer in the king’s bench,
who frames, reads, and records all indictments against
offenders, there arraigned or indicted of any public
crime. He is likewise termed clerk of the crown-of¬
fice, in which capacity he exhibits information by order
of the court for divers offences.
Clerk of the Crown, in chancery, an officer whose
business it is constantly to attend the lord chancellor
in person or by deputy ; to write and prepare for the
great seal special matters of state by commission, both
ordinary and extraordinary, viz. commissions of lieu¬
tenancy, of justices of assize, oyer and terminer, gaol-
delivery, and of the peace ; all general pardons, grant¬
ed either at the king’s coronation, or in parliament;
the writs of parliament, with the names of the knights,
citizens, and burgesses, are also returned into his office.
He also makes out special pardons and writs of execu¬
tion on bonds of statute-staple forfeited.
Clerk of the Deliveries of the Ordnance. See Ord¬
nance.
B b 2 Clerk
C L E [196 }' C L E
Clerk. Clerk of the Errors, In the court of common pleas,
■—v-""1-1' an officer who transcribes and certifies into the king’s
bench the tenor of the record of the action on which
the writ of error, made out by the cursitor, is brought
there to be determined. In the king’s bench, the clerk
of the errors transcribes and certifies the records of
causes, by bill, in that court, into the exchequer. And
the business of the clerk of the errors in the exchequer,
is to transcribe the records certified thither out ot the
king’s bench, and to prepare them for judgment in the
exchequer chamber.
Clerk of the Essoins, in the court of common pleas,
keeps the essoin roll, or enters essoins : he also provides
parchment, cuts it into rolls, marks the numbers on
them, delivers out all the rolls to every officer, and re¬
ceives them again when written. See Essoin.
Clerk of the Estreats, an officer in the exchequer,
who every term receives the estreats out of the lord-
treasurer’s remembrancer’s office, and writes them out
to be levied for the crown.
Clerk of the Green Cloth, formerly an officer in
chancery, but now abolished.
Clerk 0/ the Hamper or Hanaper, an officer in
chancery, whose business is to receive all money due to
the king for the seals of charters^ letters patent, com¬
missions, and writs $ also the fees due to the officers
for enrolling and examining them.
CLERK-Comptroller of the Ring's Household, an offi¬
cer of the king’s court, authorised to allow or disallow
the charges of pursuivants, messengers of the green-
cloth, &c. to inspect and controul all defects of any of
the inferior officers; and to sit in the counting-house
with the lord-steward and nther officers of the house-
hold for regulating such matters.
Clerk of the King's Silver, an officer of the common
pleas, to whom every fine is brought, after it has pas¬
sed the office of the custos brevium ; and who enters the
effect of writs of covenant, into a book kept for that
purpose, according to which all the fines of that term
are recorded in the rolls of the court.
Clerk of the Market, an officer of the king’s house,
to whom is given the charge of the king’s measure and
eights, the standards of those that ought tp be used
all over England.
Clerk of the Nichi/s or Nihils, an officer , of the ex¬
chequer, who makes a roll of all such sums as are ni-
chilled by the sheriffs upon their estreats of green wax,
and delivers them into the remembrancer of the trea¬
sury, to have execution done upon them for the king.
See Nihil.
Clerk of the Ordnance. See Ordnance.
Clerk of the Outlawries, an officer of the common
pleas, and deputy to the attorney-general, for making
out all writs of capias utlegatum, after outlawry, to
which there must be the king’s attorney’s name.
Clerk of the Paper-office, an officer belonging to the
king’s bench, whose business is to make up the paper-
books of special pleadings in that court.
Clerk of the Peace, an officer belonging to the ses¬
sions of the peace, whose business is to read indictments,
iurol the proceedings, and draw the process: he like¬
wise certifies into the king’s bench transcripts of in¬
dictments. outlawries, attainders, and convictions had
before the justices of peace, .within the time limited by
statute, under a certain penalty. This office is in the
3
gift of the custos rotulorum, and may be executed by ckrk.
deputy.
Clerk of the Pells, an officer that belongs to the
exchequer, whose business is to enter every teller’s bill
into a parchment roll called pellis receptorum ; and to
make another roll of payments called pellis exituum.
Clerk of the Petty Bag, an officer of the court of
chancery, whereof there are three, the master of the
rolls being the chief: their business is to record the
return of all inquisitions out of every shire $ to make
out patents of customers, gauger, comptrollers, &c. ;
liberates upon extent of statutes-staple ; conge d'elires
for bishops j summons of the nobility, clergy, and bur¬
gesses to parliament; and commissions directed to
knights and others of every shire, for assessing subsi¬
dies and taxes.
Clerk of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer, who
having the account of all debts due to the king, deli¬
vered out of the remembrancer’s office, charges them
in a great roll folded up like a pipe. He writes out
warrants to sheriffs, to levy the said debts on the goods
and chattels of the debtors $ and if they have no goods,
then he draws them down to the treasurer’s remem¬
brancer to write estreats against their lands.
Clerk of the Pleas, an officer of the exchequer, in
whose office all the officers of the court, having special
privilege, ought to sue or to be sued in any action. In
this office plso actions at law may be prosecuted by other
persons, but the plaintiff ought to be tenant or debtor
to the king, or some way accountable to him. The
under clerks are attorneys in all suits.
Clerks of the Privy-seal, four officers that attend
the lord privy seal, for writing and making out all
things that are sent by warrant from the signet to the
privy seal, and to be passed the great seal ; and like¬
wise to make out privy seals, upon special occasions of
his majesty’s affairs, as for loan of money or the like.
Clerk of the Polls, an officer of the chancery, whose*
business is to make searches after, and copies of deeds-,
officers, &c..
Clerk of the Signet, an officer continually attending
upon his majesty’s principal secretary, who has the cu¬
stody of the privy signet, as well for sealing the king’s
private letters as those grants which pass the king’s
hand by bill signed. There are four of these officers
who have their diet at the secretary’s table.
Six Clerks, officers in chancery next in degree be¬
low the twelve masters, whose business is to inrol com¬
missions, pardons, patents, warrants, &c. which pass
the great seal. They were anciently clerici, and for¬
feited their places if they married. These are also at¬
torneys for parties in suits depending in the court of
chancery.
Clerk of the Treasury, an officer belonging to the
court of common pleas, who has the charge of keeping
the records of the court, makes out all records of nisi
prius, and likewise all exemplifications of records being
in the treasury. He has the fees due for all searches}
and has under him an under keeper, who always keeps
one key of the treasury-door.
Clerk of the Warrants^ an officer of the common
pleas, whose business is to enter all warrants of at¬
torney for plaintiffs and defendants in suit j and to in¬
rol deeds of bargain and sale, that are acknowledged
in court, ox before a judge. His office is likewise to>
estreat
*
C L E [ 197 ] C L E
Clerk «nto the exchequer all issues, fines, estreats,
| and amercements, which grow due to the crown in that
Clermont court.
Mann- CLERKE, Captain Charles, a celebrated Eng-
sc“Pt‘ , lish navigator, was bred up in the navy from his youth,
and was present in several actions during the war of
1755. In the engagement between the Bellona and
Courageux he was in great danger $ for having been
stationed in the mizen-top on board the former, the
mast was carried overboard, by a shot, and he fell into
the sea along with it; but, however, was taken up with¬
out having received any injury. When Commodore
Byron made his first voyage round the world, Mr Clerke
served on board his ship in quality of a midshipman ;
and was afterwards on the American station. In the
year 1768, he sailed round the world a second time in
the Endeavour, on board of which he served in the sta¬
tion of master’s mate ; but, during the voyage, succeed¬
ed to a lieutenancy. He returned in 1775, and was
soon after appointed master and commander. When
Captain Cook undertook his last voyage, Mr Clerke
was appointed captain of the Discovery $ and in con¬
sequence of the death of Captain Cook, naturally suc¬
ceeded to the supreme command. He did not, how¬
ever, long enjoy his new dignity. Before his depar¬
ture from England, he had manifest symptoms of a
consumption. Of this disease he lingered during the
whole of the voyage j and his long residence in the
cold northern climates cut off all hopes of recovery j
but though sensible that the only chance he had of pro¬
longing his life was by a speedy return to a warmer
climate, his attention to his duty was so great, that he
persevered in search of a passage between the Asiatic
and American continents until every one of the officers
was of opinion that it was impracticable. He bore his
distemper with great firmness and equanimity, retain-
ing a good flow of spirits to the last; and died on the
22d of August 1778, in the 38th year of his age, the ship
then being within view of the coast of Kamtschatka.
Clerke's Island lies on the western side of the Ame¬
rican continent, in N. Lat. 63. 15. and E. Long. 169.
30. It was discovered by Captain Cook in his last
voyage, but a landing could not be effected. At a di¬
stance it appeared to be of considerable extent, and
to have several hills connected with the low grounds in
such a manner as to make it look like a group of islands.
Near its eastern extremity is a little island remarkable
for having three elevated rocks upon it. Both the large
and small island are uninhabited.
CLERMONT, a considerable, rich, and populous
town of France, in the department of Puy de Dome.
The cathedral, the public squares, and the walks, are
very fine. Here is a bridge naturally formed, as they
pretend, by the petrifying quality of a fountain, E.
Long. 3. 10. N. Lat. 45. 47.
Clermont Manuscripts is a copy of St Paul’s Epi¬
stles, found in the monastery of Clermont in France,
and used by Beza, together with the Cambridge MS.
in preparing his edition of the New Testament. This
copy is in the octavo form, and is written on fine
vellum in Greek and Latin, with some mutilations.
Beza supposes that it is of equal antiquity with the
Cambridge copy j but both were probably written by
3 Latin scribe in a later period than he assigns to them.
The various readings of this MS. were communicated Clermont
to Archbishop Usher, and they are preserved by Wal- Manu-
ton. The MS. itself was in the possession of Morinus ; saqit
and after his death deposited among the MS. copies of
the royal library at Paris, N° 2245.
CLEROMANCY, a kind of divination performed
by the throwing of dice, or little bones 5 and observing
the points, or marks turned up. The word comes from
xErigeg, “ lot,” and pcttrux “ divination.” At Bura, a
city of Achaia, was a temple and celebrated oracle of
Hercules, where such as consulted the oracle, after pray¬
ing to the idol, threw four dice, the points whereof be- *
ing well scanned by the priest, he was supposed to draw
an answer from them.
Something of this kind seems to have been practised
with regard to Jonah.
CLERVAL, a town of France, in the Franche.
Comte, seated on the river Doux, and in the depart¬
ment of Doubs. It contained 1200 inhabitants in 1815.
E. Long. 5. 57. N. Lat. 46. 35.
CLERVAUX, one of the most celebrated and finest
abbeys of France, in Champagne, five miles from Bar-
sur-Aube, and seated in a valley surrounded with woods
and mountains. It is the chief of the Cistercian or¬
der. Here is the famous Tun of St Bernard, which
will hold 800 tuns of wine. Near this abbey is a small
town.
CLESIDES, a Greek painter, about 276 years be¬
fore Christ, in the reign of Antiochus I. He revenged
the injuries he had received from Queen Stratonice, by
representing her in the arms of a fisherman. However
indecent the painter might represent the queen, she was
drawn with such personal beauty, that she preserved
the piece and liberally rewarded the artist.
CLETHRA. See Botany Index.
CLEVELAND, a district in the north riding of
Yorkshire in England, from whence the noble family,
of Fitzroy took the title of duke, but which is now
extinct.
Cleveland, John, an English poet of some emi¬
nence in his time, who during the civil war under
Charles I. engaged as a literary champion in the royal
cause against the parliamentarians. He died in 1658,
and was much extolled by his party. His works, which
consist of poems, characters, orations, epistles, &c. were
printed in octavo in 1677.
CLEVES, a duehy in the circle of Westphalia, in
Germany, and subject to the king of Prussia since
1815. It is divided into two parts by the Rhine, and
is about 40 miles in length from east to west, and 20
in breadth from north to south. It is a fine agreeable
country. The towns are Cleves* the capital, Calcar,
Gennet, Santen, Orsoy, Bureck, and Greit. These lie
on the left side of the river. On the right, Daysburgh,
Wese, Rees, and Emmerick. It contained ] 25,000 in¬
habitants in 1815. The inhabitants of the country are
ehiefly Catholics, those of the towns chiefly Protestants.
Cleves, a city of Germany, in the duchy of
Cleves, of which it is the capital. It stands upon a
pleasant hill, about a mile from the Rhine, with which
it communicates, by means of a canal which is large
enough for great barges. The castle stands upon a
mountain, and, though old, is very agreeable. It was
built in the time of Julius Caesar. It contains about
JOQOj
C L I
[ 198 ]
C L I
C'leves 5000 inhabitants. Calvinists, Lutherans, and Roman
(1 Catholics, are all tolerated in this city. E. Long. 5.
Climate. ]SJ_ ^I#
CLIENT, among the Romans, a citizen who put
himself under the protection of some great man, who
in respect of that relation was called patron.
This patron assisted his client with his protection, in¬
terest, and goods $ and the client gave his vote for his
patron, when he sought any office for himself or his
friends. Clients owed respect to their patrons, as these
owed them their protection.
The right of patronage was appointed by Romulus,
to unite the rich and poor together, in such a manner
as that one might live without contempt and the
other without envy; but the condition of a client, in
course of time, became little else than a moderate sla¬
very.
Client is now used for a party in a law-suit, who
has turned over his cause into the hands of a counsellor
or solicitor.
CLIFFORTIA. See Botany Index.
CLIMACTERIC, among physicians, (from cti-
macter, “ a ladder”), a critical year in a person’s
life.
According to some, this is every seventh year ; but
others allow only these years produced by multiplying
7 by the odd number 3, 5, 7, and 9, to be climacteri-
cal. These years, they say, bring with them some
remarkable change with respect to health, life, or for¬
tune : the grand climacteric is the 63d year 5 but
some, making two, add to this the 81st: the other
remarkable climacterics are the 7th, 21st, 35th, 49th,
and 56th.
CLIMATE, or Clime, in Geograplnj, a part of
the surface of the earth, bounded by two circles
parallel to the equator, and of such a breadth, as
that the longest day in the parallel nearest the pole
exceeds the longest day in that next the equator by
some certain spaces, viz. half an hour. The wTord
comes from the Greek icXipm, inolinamentum^ “ an in¬
clination.”
The beginning of the climate is a parallel circle
wherein the day is the shortest. The end of the cli¬
mate, is that wherein the day is the longest. The
climates therefore are reckoned from the equator to
the pole j and are so many bands, or zones, termi- Climate
nated by lines parallel to the equator *, though, in Climax,
strictness, there are several climates in the breadth of ""V
one zone. Each climate only differs from its conti¬
guous ones, in that the longest day in summer is longer
or shorter by half an hour in the one place than in the
other. As the climates commence from the equator,
the first climate at its beginning has its longest day
precisely 12 hours long; at its end, 12 hours and a
half: the second, which begins where the first ends,
viz. at twelve hours and a half, ends at 13 hours ; and
so of the rest, as far as the polar circles, where, what
the geographers call hour-climates terminate, and month-
climates commence. An hour climate is a space com¬
prised between two parallels of the equator, in the
first of which the longest day exceeds that in the latter
by half an hour ; so the month-climate is a space ter¬
minated between two circles parallel to the polar cir¬
cles, whose longest day is longer or shorter than that of
its contiguous one by a month or 30 days.
The ancients who confined the climates to what
they imagined the habitable parts of the earth, only
allowed of seven. The first they made to pass through
Meroc, the second through Sienna, the third through
Alexandria, the fourth through Rhodes, the fifth
through Rome, the sixth through Pontus, and the
seventh through the mouth of the Borysthenes. . The
moderns, who have sailed further toward the poles,
make 30 climates on each side; and, in regard the
obliquity of the sphere makes a little difference in the
length of the longest day; instead of half an hour,
some only make the difference of climates a quarter.
Vulgarly the term climate is bestowed on any coun¬
try or region difi’ering from another either in respect
oi the seasons, the quality of the soil, or even the
manners of the inhabitants; without any regard to
the length of the longest day. Abulfeda, an Arabian
author, distinguishes the first kind of climates by the
term real climates, and the latter by that of apparent
climates. Varenius gives us a table of 30 climates;
but without any regard to the refraction. Ricciolus
furnishes a more accurate one, wherein the refractions
are allowed for; an abstract of which follows. See
this subject fully treated in the article Climate in the
Supplement.
Middle
of Clim.
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
Longest
Day.
12th 30
13 O
^ 3°
14 o
14 30
15 o
15 30
Latit.
7° 18
15 36
23 8
29 49
35 35
40 32
44 42
Middle
of Clim.
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
Longest
Day.
16th
!7
18
*9
20
22
24
Latit.
48 15
53 46
57 44
60 39
62 44
6 c 10
65 54
Middle
of Clim.
XV
XVI
XVII
XVIII
XIX
XX
Latit.
66 53
69 30
73 0
78 6
84 o
90 o
Cont.
Light.
31°
62
93
124
156
188
North
Night.
27d
58
87
II7
148
180
Cont.
Light.
3°
60
89
I 20
150
178
South
Night.
28d
59
88
118
149
177
CLIMAX, or Gradation, in Rhetoric, a figure
wherein the word or expression which ends the first
member of a period begins the second, and so on ; so
that every member will make a distinct sentence, ta¬
king its rise from the next foregoing, till the argument
and period be beautifully finished ; as in the following
gradation of Dr Tillotson. “ After we have practised
good actions a while, they become easy ; and when
they are easy, we begin to take pleasure in them ; and
when they please us we do them frequently ; and by
frequency of acts, a thing grows into a habit; and con¬
firmed habit is a kind of second nature : and so far as
any
C L I [i
Climax any thing is natural, so far it is necessary j and we can
|| hardly do otherwise j nay, we do it many times when
Clitoris. we (]0 no(- think 0f Jt.”
—^  CLINCH, in the sea language, that part of a cable
which is bended about the ring of the anchor, and then
seized or made fast.
CLINCHING, in the sea language, a kind of slight
caulking used at sea, in a prospect of foul weather,
about the posts : it consists in driving a little oakum
into their seams, to prevent the water coming in at
them.
CLINIC, a term applied by the ancient church-
historians to those who receive baptism on their death¬
bed.
Clinic Medicine, was particularly used for the me¬
thod of visiting and treating sick persons in bed, for
the more exact discovery of all the symptoms of their
disease.
CLINIAS, a Pythagorean philosopher, and musi¬
cian, in the 63th Olympiad. He was wont to assuage
his passion, being very choleric, by his lyre.
CLINOPODIUM, Field Basil. See Botany
Index.
CLIO, in Pagan mythology, the first of the muses,
daughter of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. She presided
over history. She is represented crowned with laurels,
holding in one hand a trumpet, and a book in the
other. Sometimes she holds a plectrum or quill with a
lute. Her name signifies honour and reputation, xAeof,
gloria ; and it was her office faithfully to record the
actions of brave and illustrious heroes. She had Hya-
cintha by Pierius, son of Magnes.
Clio, in Zoology, a genus of insects belonging to
the order of vermes mollusca. The body is oblong and
fitted for swimming; and it has two membranaceous
wings placed opposite to each other. The species are
three, principally distinguished by the shape of their
vagina, and are all natives of the ocean.
CLIPEUS, an old term in Natural History, which
is given to the flat depressed centroniae, from their re¬
sembling a shield.
CLISTHENES, a famous Athenian magistrate,
the author of the mode of banishing ambitious citizens
by ostracism, or writing their names upon a shell; the
intention was patriotic, but it was abused like all other
human institutions : some of the worthiest citizens of
Athens being thus exiled. He died c 10 years before
Christ.
CLITOMACHUS, the philosopher, flourished a-
bout 140 years before Christ. He was born at Car¬
thage ; quitted his country at 40 years of age ; and
went to Athens, where he became the disciple and suc¬
cessor of Carneades. He composed many books, but
they are all lost.
CLITORIA. See Botany Index.
CLITORIS, in Anatomy, is a part of the external
pudenda, situated at the angle which the nymphae form
with each other. Like the penis it has an erection,
and is thought to he the principal seat of venereal
pleasure. The clitoris is of different sizes in different
women ; but in general it is small, and covered with
the labia. The preternaturally enlarged clitoris is
what constitutes a hermaphrodite. When the clitoris
is too large, it may be so extirpated as to remove
the unnecessary part; but this requires much care, for
99 ] C L I
a farther extirpation subjects the patient to an involun¬
tary discharge of urine.
CLITUMNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of
Umbria, on this side the Apennines. According to
Pliny, it was a fountain consisting of several veins,
situated between Hispellum and Spoletium; which soon
after swelled into a very large and navigable river,
running from east to west into the Tinia, and both to¬
gether into the Tiber. A river famous for its milk-
white flocks and herds, (Virgil). The god of the ri¬
ver was called Clitumnus.
CLITUS, brother to Alexander the Great’s nurse,
followed that prince in his conquests, and saved his life
by cutting off the hand of Rosaces, who held an axe
lifted up to kill him at the passage of the Grani-
cus. Alexander, who had a great regard for him,
some time after invited him to supper; when Cli-
tus, at the end of the repast, being heated with wine,
diminished the exploits of that prince, in order to
magnify’ those of Philip his father. This so enraged
Alexander, that he killed him with his own hand ;
but he was afterwards so afflicted at it, that he at¬
tempted his own life.
CLIVE, Robert, Lord, son of Richard Clive, Esq.
of Styche near Drayton in Salop, was born in 1725.
Toward the close of the war in 1741, he was sent as
a writer in the East India service to Madras; but be¬
ing fonder of the camp than the compting-house, he
soon availed himself of an opportunity to exchange
his pen for a pair of colours. He first distinguished
himself at the siege of Pondicherry in 1748; acted
under Major Laurence at the taking of Devi Cotta in
Tanjore, who wrote of his military talents in high
terms ; commanded a small party for the taking of
Arcot, and afterwards defended that place against the
French ; and performed many other exploits, which,
considering the remoteness of the scene of action,
would require a long detail to render sufficiently in¬
telligible. He was, however, in brief, looked upon
and acknowledged as the man who first roused his
countrymen to spirited action, and raised their repu¬
tation in the East; so that when he came over to
England in 1753, he was presented, by the court of
directors, with a rich sword set with diamonds, as an
acknowledgment of past, and an incitement to future,
services. Captain Clive returned to India, in 1755, as
governor of Fort St David, with the rank of lieutenant-
colonel in the king’s troops ; when as commander cf
the company’s troops, he, in conjunction with Admiral
Watson, reduced Angria the pirate, and became mas¬
ter of Geria, his capital, with all his accumulated trea¬
sure. On the loss of Calcutta, and the well known
barbarity of the sonbah Surajah Dowlah, they sailed to
Bengal ; where they took Fort William, in January
1757 ; and Colonel Clive defeating the soubah’s army
soon after, accelerated a peace. Surajah Dowlah’s per¬
fidy, however, soon produced fresh hostilities, which
ended in his ruin; he being totally defeated by Colonel
Clive at the famous battle of Plassey. The next day,
the conqueror entered Muxadabad in triumph ; and
placed Jaffier Ally Cawn, one of the principal gene¬
rals, on the throne ; the deposed soubah was soon af¬
ter taken, and privately put to death by Jaffier’s son.
Admiral Watson died at Calcutta ; but Colonel Clive
commanded in Bengal the two succeeding years ; he
Clive
Clock.
C L O [ 200 ]
Was honoured by the Mogul with the dignity of an and ranks
omrah of the empire ; and was rewarded by the new
soubah with a grant of lands, or a jaghire, producing
27,000!. a-year. In 1760, he returned to England,
where he received the unanimous thanks of the com¬
pany, was elected member of parliament for Shrews¬
bury, and was raised to an Irish peerage by the title
of Lord Clive, Baron of Plassey. In 1764, fresh dis¬
turbances taking place in Bengal, Lord Clive was es¬
teemed the only man qualified to settle them, and was
accordingly again appointed to that presidency ; after
being honoured with the order of the Bath, and with
the rank of major-general. When he arrived in India,
he exceeded the most sanguine expectation, in resto¬
ring tranquillity to the province without striking a
blow, and fixed the highest ideas of the British power
in the minds of the natives. He returned home in
1767; and in 1772, when a parliamentary inquiry
into the conduct of the East India Company was
agitated, he entered into an able justification of
himself in a masterly speech in the house of com¬
mons. He died suddenly towards the close of the
year I774-
CLOACAE, in antiquity, the common sewers of
Rome, to carry off the dirt and soil of the city into
the Tiber j justly reckoned among the grand works of
the Romans. The first common sewer, called Cloaca
Maxima, was built by Tarquinius, some say Priscus,
others Superbus, of huge blocks of stone joined toge¬
ther without any cement, in the manner of the edi¬
fices of those early times, consisting of three rows of
arches one above another, which at length conjoin
and unite together j measuring in the clear 18 palms
in height, and as many in width. Under these arches,
they rowed in boats, which made Pliny say that the
city was suspended in air, and that they sailed be¬
neath the houses. Under these arches also were ways
through which carts loaded with hay Could pass with
ease. It began in the Forum Romanum 5 measured
300 paces in length ; and emptied itself between the
temple of Vesta and the Pons Senatorius. There were
as many principal sewers as there were hills. Pliny
concludes their firmness and strength from their stand¬
ing for so many ages the shocks of earthquakes,' the
fall of houses, and the vast loads and weights moved
over them.
CLOACINA, the goddess of jakes and common
sewers, among the Romans.
CLOCK, a machine constructed in such a manner,
and regulated so by the uniform motion of a pendulum
(a), as to measure time, and all its subdivisions, with
great exactness.
The invention of clocks with wheels is referred to
Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, who lived in the time
of Lotharius son of Louis the Debonnair, on the cre¬
dit of an epitaph quoted by Ughelli, and borrowed by
him from Panvinius. They were at 'first called noc¬
turnal dials, to distinguish them from sun-dials, which
showed the hour by the sun’s shadow. Others ascribe
the invention to Boethius, about the year 510. Mr
Derham makes clock-work of a much older standing j
C L O
Archimedes’s sphere mentioned by Clau-
dian, and that of Posidonius mentioned by Cicero, '
among the machines of this kind : not that either their
form or use was the same with those of ours, but that
they had their motion from some hidden weights or
springs, with wheels or pulleys, or some such clock¬
work principle. But be this as it will, it is certain
the art of making clocks, such as are now in use, was
either first invented, or at least retrieved, in Germany,
about 200 years ago. The water-clocks, or clepsy¬
drae, and sun-dials, have both a much better claim to
antiquity. The French annals mention one of the
former kind sent by Aaron, king of Persia, to Charle¬
magne, about the year 807, which seemed to bear
some resemblance to the modern clocks : it was of
brass, and showed the hours by twelve little balls of
the same metal, which fell at the end of each hour,
and in falling struck a bell and made it sound. There
Were also figures of 12 cavaliers, which at the end of
each hour came forth at certain apertures or win¬
dows in the side of the clock, and shut them again,
&c.
The invention of pendulum clocks is owing to the
happy industry of the last age : the honour of it is dis¬
puted by Huygens and Galileo. The former, who
has written a volume on the subject, declares it was
first put in practice in the year 1657, an^ t,,e descrip¬
tion thereof printed in 1657. Becker, de Nova Tern-
poris dimetiendi Theona, anno 1680, contends for Ga¬
lileo ; and relates, though at second-hand, the whole
history of the invention ; adding, that one Tresler, at
that time clock-maker to the father of the Grand Duke
of Tuscany, made the first pendulum-clock at Florence,
by direction of Galileo Galilei; a pattern of which
was brought into Holland. The Academy del’ Ci-
menta say expressly, that the application of the pen¬
dulum to the movement of a clock was first proposed by
Galileo, and first put in practice by his son Vincenzo
Galilei, in 1649. Be the inventor who he will, it is
certain the invention never flourished till it came into
Huvgen’s hands, who insists on it, that if ever Galileo
thought of such a thing, he never brought it to any de¬
gree of perfection. The first pendulum-clock made in
England was in the year 1662, by Mr Fromantil, a
Dutchman.
Among the modern clocks, those of Strasburg and
Lyons are very eminent for the richness of their fur¬
niture, and the variety of their motions and figures.
In the first, a cock claps his wings, and proclaims die
hour ; the angel opens a door and salutes the virgin ;
and the Holy Spirit descends on her, &c. In the se¬
cond, two horsemen encounter, and beat the hour on
each other ) a door opens, and there appears on the
theatre the Virgin, with Jesus Christ in her arms; the
Magi with their retinue, marching in order, and pre¬
senting their gifts ; two trumpeters sounding all the
while to proclaim the procession. These, however, are
excelled by two lately made by English artists, and
intended as a present from the East India Company to
the emperor of China. The clocks we speak of are
in the form of chariots, in which are placed, in a fine
altitude,
Clock.
( a) A balance not unlike the fly of a kitchen-jack was formerly used in place of the pendul
c L O [ 201 ] C L 0
Ciock.
Plate
CXLVI.
fig- i.
attitude, a lady, leaning her right hand upon a part
of the chariot, under which is a clock of curious work¬
manship, little larger than a shilling, that strikes and
repeats, and goes eight days. Upon her finger sits a
bird finely modelled, and set with diamonds and ru¬
bies, with its wings expanded in a flying posture, and
actually flutters for a considerable time on touching a
diamond button below it $ the body of the bird (which
contains part of the wheels that in a manner give,life
to it) is not the bigness of the 16th part of an inch.
The lady holds in her left hand a gold tube not much
thicker than a large pin, on the top of which is a small
round box, to which a circular ornament set with dia¬
monds not larger than a sixpence is fixed, which goes
round near three hours in a constant regular motion.
Over the lady’s head, supported by a small fluted pil¬
lar no bigger than a quill, is a double umbrella, under
the largest of which a bell is fixed at a considerable di¬
stance from the clock, and seems to have no connection
with it} but from which a communication is secretly
conveyed to a hammer, that regularly strikes the hour
and repeats the same at pleasure, by touching a dia¬
mond button fixed to the clock below. At the feet of
the lady is a gold dog j before which from the point
of the chariot are two birds fixed on spiral springs j the
wings and feathers of which are set with stones of va¬
rious colours, and appear as if flying away with the
chariot, which, from another secret motion, is con¬
trived to run in a straight, circular, or any other direc¬
tion ; a boy that lays hold of the chariot behind, seems
also to push it forward. Above the umbrella are flowers
and ornaments of precious stones ; and it terminates
with a flying dragon set in the same manner. The
whole is of gold, most curiously executed, and embel¬
lished with rubies and pearls.
Of the general Mechanism of Clocks, and how theij
measure Time. The first figure of Plate CXLVI. is
a profile of a clock : P is a weight that is suspended
by a rope that winds about the cylinder or barrel C,
which is fixed upon the axis a a ; the pivots b b go into
holes made in the plates TS, TS, in which they turn
freely. These plates are made of brass or iron, and are
connected by means of four pillars ZZ j and the whole
together is called the frame.
The weight P, if not restrained, would necessarily
turn the barrel C with an uniformly accelerated motion,
in the same manner as if the weight was falling freely
from a height. But the barrel is furnished with a rat¬
chet-wheel KK, the right side of whose teeth strikes
against the click, which is fixed with a screw to the
wheel DD, as represented in fig. 2. *so that the action
of the weight is communicated to the wheel DD, the
teeth of which act upon the teeth of the small wheel d,
which turns upon the pivots c c. The communication
or action of one wheel with another is called the pitch¬
ing ; a small wheel like d is called a pinion, and its teeth
are leaves of the pinion. Several things are requisite
to form a good pitching, the advantages of which are
obvious in all machinery where teeth and pinions are
employed. The teeth and pinion leaves should be of a
proper shape, and perfectly equal among themselves j
the size also of the pinion should be of a just proportion
to the wheel acting into it; and its place must be at a
certain distance from the wheel, beyond or within
which it ujill make a bad pitching,
Vol. VI. Part I. ° f
The wheel EE is fijtecl qpon the axis of the pinion clock
dand the motion cpmmitnicated to the wheel DD —y—.
by the weight is transmitted to the pinion d, conse¬
quently to the wheel E E, as likewise to the pi¬
nion e and wheel FF, which moves the pinion f, upon
the axis of which the crown or balance wheel GH is
fixed. 1 he pivots of the pinion /*play in holes of the
plates LM, which are fixed horizontally to the plates
TS. In a word, the motion begun by the weight is
transmitted from the wheel GH to the palettes IK,
and, by means of the fork UX rivetted on the pa¬
lettes, communicates motion to the pendulum AB,
which is suspended upon the hook A. The pendulum
AB describes, round the point A, an arc of a circle
alternately going and returning. If then the pendu¬
lum be once put in motion by a push of the hand, the
weight of the pendulum at B will make it return upon
itself and it will continue to go alternately backward
and forward, till the resistance of the air upon the pen¬
dulum, and the friction at the point of suspension at A,
destroy the originally impressed force. But as, at every
vibration of the pendulum, the teeth of the balance-
wheel GH, act so upon the palettes IK (the pivots
upon the axis of these palettes play in two holes of the
potence s t), that after one tooth H has communicated
motion to the palette K, that tooth escapes j then the
opposite tooth G acts upon the palette I, and escapes
in the same manner j and thus each tooth of the
wheel escapes the palettes IK, after having commu¬
nicated their motion to the palettes in such a manner
that the pendulum, instead of being stopt, continues to
move.
The wheel EE revolves in an hour j the pivot c of
the wheel passes through the plate, and is continued
to r ; upon the pivot is a wheel NN with a long socket
fastened in the centre j upon the extremity of this
socket r the minute-hand is fixed. The wheel NN
acts upon the wheel O j the pinion of which p acts
upon the wheel g g, fixed upon a socket which turns
along with the wheel N. This wheel gg makes its re¬
volution in 12 hours, upon the socket of which the
hour-hand is fixed.
From the above description it is easy to see, 1. That
the weight p turns all the wheels, and at the same
time continues the motion of the pendulum. 2. That
the quickness of the motion of the wheel is determined
by that of the pendulum. 3. That the wheels point
out the parts of time divided by the uniform motion of
the pendulum.
When the cord from which the weight is suspend¬
ed is entirely run down from off the barrel, it is wound
up again by means of a key, which goes on the square
end of the arbor at Q by turning it in a contrary di¬
rection from that in which the weight descends. For
this purpose, the inclined side of the teeth of the wheel
B (fig. 2.) removes the click C, so that the ratchet- fig.
wheel R turns while the wheel D is at rest $, but as
soon as the cord is wound up, the click falls in between
the teeth of the wheel D, and the right side of the
teeth again act upon the end of the click, which obli¬
ges the wheel D to turn along with the barrel j and
the spring A keeps the click between the teeth of the
ratchet-wheel R.
We shall now explain how time is measured by the
motion of the pendulum j and how the wheel E, upon
C c the
C L O [ 202 ] C L 0
tlie axis of which the minute-hand is fixed, makes but
one precise revolution in an hour. The vibrations of
a pendulum are performed in a shorter or longer time
in proportion to the length of the pendulum itself. A
pendulum of 3 feet French lines in length, makes
3600 vibrations in an hour, e. each vibration is per¬
formed in a second of time, and for that reason it is
called a second pendulum. But a pendulum of 9 inches
2* French lines makes 7200 vibrations in an hour, or
two vibrations in a second of time, and is called a half-
second pendulum. Hence, in constructing a wheel
whose revolution must be performed in a given time,
the time of the vibrations of the pendulum which re¬
gulates its motion must be considered. Supposing,
then, that the pendulum A B makes 7200 vibrations in
an hour, let us consider how the wheel E shall take up
a hour in making one revolution. This entirely de¬
pends on the number of teeth in the wheels and pini¬
ons. If the balance wheel consists of 30 teeth, it will
turn once in the time that the pendulum makes 60 vi¬
brations j for at every turn of the wheel, the same tooth
acts once on the palette I, and once on the palette K,
which occasions two separate vibrations in the pendu¬
lum j and the wheel having 30 teeth, it occasions twice
30, or 60 vibrations. Consequently, this wheel must
perform 1 20 revolutions in an hour j because 60 vibra¬
tions, which it occasions at every revolution, are con¬
tained 120 times in 7200, the number of vibrations
performed by the pendulum in an hour. Now, in
order to determine the number of teeth for the wheels
F. F, and the pinions ef it must be remarked, that
one revolution of the wheel E must turn the pinion e
as many times as the number of teeth in the pinions
is contained in the number of teeth in the wheel.
Thus, if the wheel E contains 72 teeth, and the pi¬
nion e 6, the pinion will make 12 revolutions in the
time that the wheel makes l ; for each tooth of the
wheel drives forward a tooth of the pinion, and when
the 6 teeth of the pinion are moved, a complete re¬
volution is performed j but the wheel E has by that
time only advanced 6 teeth, and has still 66 to ad¬
vance before its revolution be completed, which will
occasion II more revolutions of the pinion. For the
same reason, the wheel F having 60 teeth, and the
pinion f 6, the pinion will make 10 revolutions while
the wheel performs one. Now, the wheel F being
turned by the pinion c, makes 12 revolutions for one
of the wheel E; and the pinion f makes 10 revolu¬
tions for one of the wheel F; consequently, the pi¬
nion performs 10 times 12 or 120 revolutions in
the time the wheel E performs one. But the wheel
G, which is turned by the pinion^ occasions 60 vi¬
brations in the pendulum each time it turns round ;
consequently the wheel G occasions 60 times 120 or
7200 vibrations of the pendulum while the wheel E
performs one revolution j but 7200 is the number of
vibrations made by the pendulum in an hour, and con¬
sequently the wheel E performs but one revolution in
an hour j and so of the rest.
From this reasoning, it is easy to discover how a
clock may be made to go for any length of time with¬
out being wound up : 1. By increasing the number of
teeth in the wheels j _ 2. By diminishing the number of
teeth in the pinions; 3. By increasing the length of
the cord that suspends the weight $ 4. By increasing
3
the length of the pendulum ; and, 5. By adding to
the number of wheels and pinions. But in proportion
as the time is augmented, if the weight continues the
same, the force which it communicates to the last wheel
GH will he diminished.
It only remains to take notice of the number of
teeth in the wheels which turn the hour and minute-
hands.
The wheel E performs one revolution in an hour;
the wheel NN, which is turned by the axis of the
wheel E, must likewise make only one revolution in
the same time; and the minute-hand is fixed to the
socket of this wheel. The wheel N has 30 teeth, and
acts upon the wheel O, which has likewise 30 teeth,
and the same diameter; consequently the wheel O
takes one hour to a revolution : now the wheel O car¬
ries the pinion p, which has 6 teeth, and which acts
upon the wheel qqof 72 teeth; consequently the pi¬
nion/? makes 12 revolutions while the wheel q q makes
one, and of course the wheel q q takes 12 hours to one
revolution; and upon the socket of this wheel the
hour hand is fixed. All that has been said here con¬
cerning the revolutions of the wheels, &c. is equally
applicable to watches as to clocks.
The ingenious Dr Franklin contrived a clock to
show the hours, minutes, and seconds, with only three
wheels and two pinions in the whole movement. The
dial-plate (fig. 3.) has the hours engraven upon it in
spiral spaces along two diameters of a circle containing
four times 60 minutes. The index A goes round in
four hours, and counts the minutes from any hour by
which it has passed to the next following hour. The
time, therefore, in the position of the index shown in
the figure is either 327 minutes past XII. III. or VIII.;
and so in every other quarter of the circle it points to
the number of minutes after the hours which the in¬
dex last left in its motion. The small hand B, in the
arch at top, goes round once in a minute, and shows
the seconds. The wheel-work of this clock may be
seen in fig. 4. A is the first or great wheel, contain¬
ing 160 teeth, and going round in four hours with the
index A in fig. 3. let down by a hole on its axis. This
wheel turns a pinion B of 10 leaves, which therefore
goes round in a quarter of an hour. On the axis of
this pinion is the wheel C of 120 teeth; which goes
round in the same time, and turns a pinion D of
eight leaves round in a minute, with the second
hand B of fig. 3. fixed on its axis, and also the com¬
mon wheel E of 30 teeth for moving a pendulum
(by palettes) that vibrates seconds, as in a common
clock. This clock is wound up by a line going over
a pulley on the axis of the great wheel, like a common
thirty-hour clock. Many of these admirably simple
machines have been constructed, which measure time
exceedingly well. It is subject, however, to the in¬
convenience of requiring frequent winding by drawing
up the weight, and likewise to some uncertainty as to
the particular hour shown by the index A. Mr Fer¬
guson has proposed to remedy these inconveniences by
the following construction. In the dial-plate of his
clock (fig. 5.) there is an opening, abed, below the
centre, through which appears part of a flat plate, on
which the 12 hours, with their divisions into quarters,
are engraved. This plate turns round in 12 hours;
and the index A points out the true hour, &c^ B is
the
Kg- 3-
Fig.4
Fig. :
C L 0 t m ] C L O
Clack, the minute-hand, which goes round the large circle of
—V—' 60 minutes whilst the plate a £ c J shifts its place one
hour under the fixed index A. There is another open-
ing, efg, through which the seconds are seen on a
flat moveable ring at the extremity of a fleur-de-lis
ig« 6. engraved on the dial-plate. A in fig. 6. is the great
wheel of this clock, containing 120 teeth, and turn¬
ing round in 12 hours. The axis of this wheel bears
the plate of hours, which may be moved by a pin pas¬
sing through small holes drilled in the plate, without
affecting the wheel-work. The great wheel A turns
a pinion B of ten leaves round in an hour, and car¬
ries the minute hand B on its axis round the dial-
plate in the same lime. On this axis is a wheel C of
120 teeth, turning round a pinion 1) of six leaves in
three minutes j on the axis of which there is a wheel
E of 90 teeth, that keeps a pendulum in motion, Vi¬
brating seconds by palettes, as in a common clock,
when the pendulum-wheel has only 30 teeth, and goes
round in a minute. In order to show the seconds by
this clock, a thin plate must be divided into three
times sixty, or 180 equal parts, and numbered 10, 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, three times successively 5 and fixed on
the same axis with the wheel of 90 teeth, so as to
turn round near the back of the dial-plate $ and these
divisions will show the seconds through the opening
e f g h, fig. 5. This clock will go a week without
winding, and always show the precise hour ; but this
clotkj as Mr Ferguson candidly acknowledges, has two
disadvantages of which Dr Franklin’s clock is free.
When the minute-hand B is adjusted, the hour-plate
must also be set right by means of a pin $ and the small¬
ness of the teeth in the pendulum-wheel will cause the
pendulum-ball to describe but small arcs in its vibra¬
tions ; and therefore the momentum of the ball will be
less, and the times of the vibrations will be more affect¬
ed by any unequal impulse of the pendulum-wheel on
the palettes. Besides, the weight of the flat ring on
which the seconds are engraved will load the pivots of
the axis of the pendulum-wheel with a great deal of
friction, which ought by all possible means to he avoid¬
ed. To remedy this inconvenience, the second plate
might be omitted.
A clock similar to Dr Franklin’s was made in Lin¬
colnshire about the end of the 17th century or begin¬
ning of the 18th j and is said to be in London in the
possession of a grandson of the person who made it.
A clock, showing the apparent diurnal motions of
the sun and moon, the age and phases of the moon,
with the time of her coming to the meridian, and the
times of high and low water, by having only two
wheels and a pinion added to the common movement,
was contrived by Mr Ferguson, and described in his Se¬
riate lect Exercises. The dial plate of this clock (fig. 7.)
XLVII. contains all the twenty-four hours, of the day and night.
** S is the sun, which serves as an hour index by going
round the dial-plate in twenty-four hours ; and M is
the moon, which goes round in twenty-four hours fifty
minutes and a half, the time of her going round in the
heavens from one meridian to the same meridian again.
The sun is fixed to a circular plate (see fig. 8.) and
carried round by the motion of that plate on which the
twenty-four hours are engraven ; and within them is a
circle divided into twenty-nine and a half equal parts
for the days of the moon’s age, reckoning from new
moon to new moon ; and each day stands directly un- clock,
der the time, in the twenty-four hour circle, of the y—
tnoon’s coming to the meridian $ the XII under the
sun standing for noon, and the opposite XII for mid¬
night. The moon M is fixed to another circular plate
(fig. 6.) of the same diameter with that which carries
the sun, part of which may be seen through the open¬
ing, over which the small wires r and b pass in the
moon-plate. The wire a shows the moon’s age and
time of her coming to the meridian, and b shows the
time of high-water for that day in the sun-plate. The
distance of these wires answers to the difference of time
between the moon’s coming to the meridian and high-
water at the place for which the clock is made. At
London their dift’erence is two hours and a half.
Above the moon-plate there is a fixed plate N, sup¬
ported by a wire A, joined to it at one end, and fixed at
right angles into the dial plate at the midnight XII.
This plate may represent the earth, and the dot L
London, or the place to which the clock is adapted;
Around this plate there is an elliptic shade on the
moon-plate, the highest points of which are marked
high-water* and the lowest low-water. As this plate
turns round below the plate N, these points come suc¬
cessively even with L, and stand over it at the times
tvhen it is high or low water at the given place ;
which times are pointed by the sun S on the dial-
plate ; and the plate H above XII at noon rises or
falls with the tide. As the sun S goes round the dial-
plate in twenty-four hours, and the moon M in twenty-
four hours fifty minutes and a half, it is plain that the
moon makes only twenty-eight revolutions and a half*
whilst the sun makes twenty-nine and a half; so that
it will be twenty-nine days and a half from conjunc¬
tion to conjunction. And thus the wire a shifts over
one day of the moon’s age on the sun-plate in twenty-
four hours. The phases of the moon for every day of
her age may be seen through a round hole m in the
moon-plate: thus at conjunction or new-moon, the
whole space seen through m is black ; at opposition or
full moon this space is white ; at either quadrature
half black and half white; and at every position the
white part resembles the visible part of the moon for
every day of her agC; The black-shaded space NJY l
(fig. 8.) on the sun-plate serves for these appearances. Fig- 8.
N represents the new moon, F the full itioon, and f
her first quarter, and / her last quarter, &c. The
wheel-work and tide-work of this clock are repre¬
sented in fig. 9. A and B are two wheels of equal Fig. 9»
diameters; A has fifty-seven teeth, with a hollow axis
that passes through the dial of the clock, and carries
the sun-plate with the sun S. B has fifty-nine teeth,
with a solid spindle for its axis, which turns within the
hollow axis of A, and carries the moon-plate with the
moon M: both wheels are turned round by a pinion
C of nineteen leaves, and this pinion is turned round
by the common clock-work in'eight hours; and as
nineteen is the third part of fifty-seven, the wheel A
will go round in twenty-four hours ; and the wheel B
in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a half; fifty-
seven being to twenty-four as fifty-nine to twenty-four
hours fifty minutes and a half very nearly; On the
back of the wheel B is fixed an elliptical ring D, which,
in its revolution, raises and lets down a lever EF, whose
Centre of motion is on a pin at F £ and this, by the up-
C c 2 right
C L O [
Clock, right bar G, raises and lets down the tide-plate H
' twice in the time of the moon’s revolving from the me¬
ridian to the meridian again : this plate moves between
four rollers R, R, R, R. A clock, of this kind was
adapted by Mr Ferguson to the movement of an old
watch : the great wheel of a watch goes round in four
hours j on the axis of this he fixed a wheel of twenty
teeth, to turn a wheel of forty teeth on the axis of the
pinion C $ by which means that pinion was turned
round in eight hours, the wheel A in twenty-four, and
the wheel B in twenty-four hours fifty minutes and a
half.
To this article we shall subjoin a brief account of
two curious contrivances. The first, for giving motion
to the parts of a clock by making it to descend along
an inclined plane, is the invention of Mr Maurice
Wheeler ; the clock itself was formerly seen in Don
Plate Saltero’s coffee-house at Chelsea. DE, fig. 10. is the
inclined plane on which the clock ABC descends j
e- ’ this consists externally of a hoop about an inch broad,
and two sides or plates standing out beyond the hoop
about one-eighth of an inch all round, with indented
edges, that the clock may not slide, but turn round
whilst it moves down. One of these plates is inscribed
with the twenty-four hours, which pass successively
Fig. 21. under the index LP, fig. u. which is always in a po¬
sition perpendicular to the horizon, and shows the hour
on the top of the machine : for this reason the lower
part of the index, or HL, is heaviest, that it may pre¬
ponderate the other HP, and always keep it pendu¬
lous, with its point to the vertical hour, as the move¬
ment goes on. Instead of this index, an image may
be fixed for ornament on the axis g, which with an
erected finger performs the office of an index. In or¬
der to describe the internal part or mechanism of this
clock, let LETQ be the external circumference of
the hoop, and/y the same plate, on which is placed
the train of wheel work I, 2, 3, 4, which is much the
same as in other clocks, and is governed by a balance
and regulator as in them. But there is no need of a
spring and fusee in this clock: their effects being
otherwise answered as we shall see. In this machine
the great wheel of 1 is placed in the centre, or upon the
axis of the movement, and the other wheels and parts
towards one side, which would therefore prove a bias
to the body of the clock, and cause it to move, even
on a horizontal plane, for some short distance : this
makes it necessary to fix a thin plate of lead at C, on
the opposite part of the hoop, to restore the equilibrium
of the movement. This being done, the machine will
abide at rest in any position on the horizontal plane
HH ; but if that plane be changed into the inclined
plane DE, it will touch it in the point D j but it
cannot rest there, because the centre of gravity at M
acting in the direction MI, and the point T having
nothing to support it, must continually descend, and
carry the body down the plane. But now if any
weight P be fixed on the other side of the machine,
such as shall remove the centre of gravity from M to
the point V in the line LD which passes through the
point D, it will then rest upon the inclined plane, as
in the case of the rolling cylinder. If this weight
P be supposed not fixed, but suspended at the end of
an arm, or vectis, which arm or lever is at the same
time fastened to a centrical wheel I, moving on the axis
04 ] C L .O
M of the machine, which wheel by its teeth shall com- £]ocj.
municate with the train of wheels, &c. on the other 1 -
side, and the power of the weight be just equal to the
friction or resistance of the train, it will remain motion¬
less as it did before when it was fixed $ and conse¬
quently the clock also will be at rest on the inclined
plane. But supposing the power of the weight P to
be superior to the resistance of the train, it will then
put it into motien, and of course the clock likewise ;
which will then commence a motion down the plane j
while the weight P, its vectis PM, and the wheel 1,
all constantly retain the same position which they have
at first when the clock begins to move. Hence it is
easy to understand, that the weight P may have such
an intrinsic gravity as shall cause it to act upon the
train with any required force, so as to produce a mo¬
tion in the machine of any required velocity; such, for
instance, as shall carry it once round in twenty-four
hours : then, if the diameters of the plates ABC be
four inches, it will describe the length of their circum¬
ference, viz. 1256 inches, in one natural day j and
therefore, if the plane be of a sufficient breadth, such
a clock may go several days, and would furnish a
perpetual motion, if the plane were infinitely ex¬
tended. Let SD be drawn through M perpendicular
to the inclined plane in the point D j also let LD be
perpendicular to the horizontal line HH, passing
through D j then is the angle HDE=LDS=DMT $
whence it follows that the greater the angle of the
plane’s elevation is, the greater will be the arch DT j
and consequently the further will the common centre
of gravity be removed from M j therefore the power
of P will be augmented, and of course the motion of
the whole machine accelerated; Thus it appears, that
by duly adjusting the intrinsic weight of P, at first to
produce a motion showing the mean time as near as
possible, the time may be afterwards corrected, or the
clock made to go faster or slower by raising or depres¬
sing the plane, by means of the screw at S. The an¬
gle to which the plane is first raised is about ten de- ,
grees. The marquis of Worcester is also said to have
contrived a w'atch that moved on a declivity. See
farther Phil. Trans. Abr. vol. i. p. 468, &c. or N°
161.
The other contrivance is that of M. de Gennes for
making a clock ascend on an inclined plane. To this
end let ABC (fig. 12.) he the machine on the inclined Fig. u j
plane EDE, and let it be kept at rest upon it, or in
equilibrio, by the weight P at the end of the level PM.
The circular area CF is one end of a spring barrel in
the middle of the movement, in which is included a
spring as in a common watch. To this end of the
barrel the arm or lever PM is fixed upon the centre M $
and thus, when the clock is wound up, the spring
moves the barrel, and therefore the lever and weight P
in the situation PM. In doing this, the centre of
gravity is constantly removed farther from the centre
of the machine, and therefore it must determine the
clock to move upwards, which it will continue to do
as long as the spring is unbending itself j and thus the
weight and its lever PM will preserve the situation they
first have, and to do the office of a chain and fusee.
Phil. Trails. N° 140. or Abridg. vol. i. p. 467.
By stat. 9 and 10 W. III. cap. 28. § 2. no person
shall export, or endeavour to export, out of this king¬
dom,
C L O
[ 205 ]
C L O
Clock. ^om> any outward or inward box-case or dial-plate, of
■—^ gold, silver, brass, or other metal, for clock or watch,
without the movement in or with every such box, &c.
made up fit for use, with the maker’s name engraven
thereon 5 nor shall any person make up any clock or
watch without putting his name and place of abode
or freedom, and no other name or place, on every
clock or watch j on penalty of forfeiting every such
box, case, and dial-plate, clock and watch, not made
up and engraven as aforesaid j and 20I. one moiety
to the king, the other to those that shall sue for the
same.
Clocks, Portable, or Pocket, commonly denomina¬
ted Watches. See the article Watch.
ChoCK-Work, properly so called, is that part of the
movement which strikes the hours, &c. on a bell 5 in
contradistinction to that part of the movement of a
clock or watch which is designed to measure and ex¬
hibit the time on a dial-plate, and which is termed
Watch-work.
I'YTVHT ^ Part’ The wheels cjomposing this
3 ’ part are : The great or first wheel H, which is moved
by the weight or spring at the barrel G: in sixteen or
thirty-hour clocks, this has usually pins, and is called
the pin-wheel; in eight day pieces, the second wheel
I is commonly the pin-wheel, or striking wheel, which
is moved by the former. Next the striking wheel is
the detent-wheel, or hoop-wheel K, having a hoop
almost round it, wherein is a vacancy at which the
clock locks. The next is the third or fourth wheel, ac¬
cording to its distance from the first, called the warn¬
ing-wheel L. The last is the flying pinion Q, with a
fly or fan, to gather air, and so bridle the rapidity of
the clock’s motion. To these must be added the pi¬
nion of report, which drives round the locking-wheel,
called also the count-wheel; ordinarily with eleven
notches in it, unequally distant, to make the clryk strike
the hours.
Besides the wheels, to the clock part belongs the
rash or ratch ; a kind of wheel with twelve large fangs,
running concentrical to the dial wheel, and serving to
lift up the detents every hour, and make the clock
strike : the detents or stops, which being lifted up and
let fall, lock and unlock the clock in striking the ham¬
mer, as S, which strikes the bell R j the hammer-tails,
as T, by which the striking pins draw back the fiam-
mersj latches, whereby the work is lifted up and un¬
locked ; and lifting-pieces, as P, which lift up and un¬
lock the detents.
The method of calculating the numbers of a piece
of clock-work having something in it very entertain¬
ing, and at the same time very easy and useful, we
shall give our readers the rules relating thereto: 1. Re¬
gard here needs only be had to the counting-wheel,
striking-wheel, and detent-wheel, which move round
in this proportion : the count-wheel commonly goes
round once in 12 or 24 hours ; the detent-wheel moves
round every stroke the clock strikes, or sometimes hut
once in two strokes : wherefore it follows, that, 2.
As many pins as are in the pin-wheel, so many turns
hath the detent-wheel in one turn of the pin-wheel $
or, which is the same, the pins of the pin-wheel are
the quotients of that wheel divided by the pinion of
the detent-wheel. But if the detent-wheel moves but
once round in two strokes of the clock, then the said
quotient is but half the number of pins. 3. As many
turns of the pin-wheel as are required to perform the 1
strokes of 12 hours (which are 78), so many turns must
the pinion of report have to turn round the count-wheel
once ; or thus the quotient of 78, divided by the num¬
ber of striking-pins, shall be the quotient for the pi¬
nion of report and the count-wheel ; and this is in case
the pinion of report be fixed to the arbor of the pin-
wheel, which is commonly done.
An example will make all plain : The locking-wheel
being 48, the pinion of report 8, the
pin-wheel 78, the striking pins are 13,
and so of the rest. Note also, that 78 8) 48 ( 6
divided by 13 gives 6, the quotient of  - ..
the pinion of report. As for the warn- 6) 78 (13
ing-wheel and fly-wheel, it matters little 6) 60 (10
what numbers they have $ their use being 6) 48 ( 8
only to bridle the rapidity of the motion
of the other wheels.
The following rules will be of great service in this
calculation. 1. Tofind how many strokes a clock strikes
in one turn of the fusee or barrel: As the turns of the
great wheel or fusee are to the days of the clock’s con¬
tinuance j so is the number of strokes in 24 hours, viz.
156, to the strokes of one turn of the fusee.
2. To find how many days a clock will go : As the
strokes in 24 hours are to those in one turn of the fu¬
see j so are the turns of the fusee to the days of the
clock’s going.
3. To find the number of turns of the fusee or bar¬
rel : As the strokes in one turn of the fusee are to those
of 24 hours 5 so is the clock’s continuance to the turns
of the fusee or great wheel.
4. To find the number of leaves in the pinion of re¬
port on the axis of the great wheel: As the number of
strokes in the clock’s continuance is to the turns of the
fusee $ so are the strokes in 12 hours, viz. 78, to the
quotient of the pinion of report fixed on the arbor of
the great wheel.
5. To find the strokes in the clock''s continuance: As
12 is to 78 ; so are the hours of the clock’s continuance
to the number of strokes in that time.
By means of the following table, clocks and
watches may be so regulated as to measure true equal
time.
The stars make 366 revolutions from
any point of the compass to the same ^ H. M. S.
point again in 365 days and one
minute ; and therefore they gain a 1
365th of a revolution every 24 hours 2
of mean solar time, near enough for 3
regulating, any clock or watch. 4
This acceleration is at the rate of 5
3 min. 55 sec. 53 thirds, 59 fourths 6
in 24 hours ; or in the nearest round 7
numbers, 3 minutes, 56 seconds j by 8
which quantity of time every star 9
comes round sooner than it did on the 10
day before. - 11
Therefore, if you mark the precise 12
moment shown by a clock or watch 13
when any star vanishes behind achim- 14
ney, or any other object, as seen 15
through a small hole in a thin plate 16
of metal, fixed in a window-shutter j 17
Clock.
3
7
11
15
19
23
27
31
35
39
43
47
5i
55
59
2
6
56
52
48
44
40
36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
o
56
52
18
'C L 0 T 206 ] C L 0
^Clock.
*18
*9
•20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3°
and do this for several nights succes-
H. M. S. sivelv (as suppose twenty) j if, at the
end of that time, the star vanishes as
I 10 48 much sooner than it did the first night,
1 14 44 by the clock, as answers to the time
1 18 40 denoted in the table for so many days,
I 22 36 the clock goes true ; otherwise not.
1 26 32 If the dilference between the clock
1 30 28 and star he less than the table shows,
34 24 the clock goes too fast; if greater*
38 20 it goes too slow ; and must be re-
42 16 gulated accordingly, by letting down
46 12 or raising up the ball ot the pendulum*
50 8 by little and little, by turning the
54 4 screw-nut under the hall, till you find
_ _ 58 o it keeps true equal time.
Thus supposing the star should disappear behind a
•chimney, any night when it is XII. by the clock $
and that, on the 20th night afterward, the same star
should disappear when the time is 41 minutes 22 se¬
conds past X, by the clock j which being subtracted
from 12 hours o min. o sec. leaves remaining 1 hour
18 minutes 40 seconds for the time the star is then
faster than the clock i look in the table, and against
20, in the left-hand column, you will find the acce¬
leration of the star to be I hour 18 min. 40 sec.
agreeing exactly with What the difference ought to be
between the clock and star 5 which shows that the»
clock measures true equal time, and agrees with the
mean solar time, as it ought to do.
II. Of the Watch part of a clock or watch. This,
is that part of the movement which is designed to
measure and exhibit the time on a dial-plate j in con¬
tradistinction to that part which contributes to the
striking of the hour, &c.
The several members of the watch part are, I. The
balance, consisting of the rim, which is its circular part j
and the verge, which is its spindle j to which belong
two palettes or leaves, that play in the teeth of the
crown-wheel. 2. The potence, or pottance, which is
the strong stud in pocket watches, whereon the lower
pivot of the verge plays, and in the middle of which
one pivot of the balance-wheel plays $ the bottom of
the pottance is called the foot, the middle part the
nose, and the upper part the shoulder. 3. The cock,
which is the piece covering the balance. 4. The re¬
gulator, or pendulum spring, which is the small spring,
in the new pocket-watches, underneath the balance.
5. The pendulum (fig. 13.) ; whose parts are, the verge
palettes 5, 5, cocks y y y, the rod, the fork, z, the
flatt 2, the bob or great ball 3, and the corrector or
regulator, 4, being a contrivance of Dr Derham for
bringing the pendulum to its nice vibrations. 6. The
wheels, which are the crown-wheel F in pocket-
pieces, and swing-wheel in pendulums $ serving to
drive the balance or pendulum. 7. The. contrate-wheel
E, which is that next the crown-wheel, &c. and
Whose teeth and hoop lie contrary to those of other
wheels \ whence the name. 8. The great, or first
wheel C; which is that the fusee B, &c. immediately
drives, by means of the chain or string of the spring-
box or barrel A ; after which are the second wheel
D, third wheel, &c. Lastly, between the frame and
dial-plate, is the pinion of report, which is that fixed
on the arbor of the great wheel ; and serves to drive clock,
the dial-wheel, as that serves to carry the hand. —y—
For the illustration of this part of the work which lies
concealed, let ABC (fig* 14.) represent the uppermost pjg. I4,
side of the frame-plate, as it appears when detached
from the dial-plate s the middle of this plate is perforated
with a hole, receiving that end of the arbor of the
centre wheel which carries the minute hand ; near
the plate is fixed the pinion of report a i of 10 teeth }
this drives a wheel c d a( 40 teeth j this wheel carries
a pinion efofl2 teeth } and this again drives a wheel
g h with 36 teeth.
As in the body of the watch the wheels every¬
where divide the pinions 5 here, on the contrary, the
pinions divide the wheels, and by that means dimi-
hish the motion, which is here necessary 3 for the hour
hand, which is carried on a socket fixed on the wheel
g h, is required to move but once round, while the
pinion a b moves twelve times round. For this pur¬
pose the motion of the wheel c e? is ^ of the pinion a b.
Again, while the wheel c d, or the pinion e f goes
once round, it turns the wheel g h but -y part round j
Consequently the motion of g h is but of £ of the mo¬
tion of a b ; but ^ of ^ is Tfr ; i. e. the hour-wheel g h
moves once round in the time that the pinion of re¬
port, on the arbor of the centre of the minute wheel,
makes 12 revolutions, as required. Hence the struc¬
ture of that part of a clock or watch which shows the
time may be easily understood.
The cylinder A (fig. 13.) put into motion by a
weight or inclosed spring moves the fusee B, and the
great wheel C, to which it is fixed by the line pr cord
that goes round each, and answers to the chain of a
watch.
The method of calculation is easily understood by
the sequel of this article 3 for, suppose the great wheel
C goes round once in 12 hours, then if it be a royal
pendulumclock, vibrating seconds, wehave 60 X 60 X * 2
=43200 seconds or beats in one turn of the great
wheel. But because there are 60 swings or seconds
in one minute, and the seconds are shown by an index
on the end of the arbor of the swing-wheel, which in
those clocks is in an horizontal position 5 therefore it is
necessary that the swing-wheel F should have 30 teeth;
whence ■4.,.^oorz720, the number to be broken into
quotients for finding the number of teeth for the other
wheels and pinions.
In spring-clocks, the disposition of the wheels in
the watch part is such as is here represented in the fi¬
gure, where the crown-wheel F is in an horizontal po¬
sition 3 the seconds not being shown there by an index,
as is done in the large pendulum clocks. Whence in
these clocks the wheels are disposed in a different man¬
ner, as represented in fig. 15. where C is the great wheel,Fig, 15.
and D the centre or minute wheel, as before : but
the contrate wheel E is placed on one side, and F the
swing-wheel is placed with its centre in the same per¬
pendicular line GH with the minute-wheel, and with
its plane perpendicular to the horizon, as are all the
others. Thus the minute and hour hands turn on
the end of the arbor of the minute wheel at o, and
the second hand on the arbor of the swing-wheel
at b.
Theory and calculation of the Watch-part, as laid
doivn
C L O
[ 207 ]
C L O
Clock, down by the Rev. Dr Derham.— I. The same motion,
— v —1 * it is evident, may be performed either by one wheel and
one pinion, or many wheels and many pinions $ pro¬
vided the number of turns of all the wheels bear the
proportion to all the pinions which that one wheel
bears to its pinion : or, which is the same thing, if
the number produced by multiplying all the wheels
together be to the number produced by multiplying
*11 the pinions together, as that one wheel to that
one pinion. Thus, suppose you had occasion for a
wheel of 1440 teeth, and a pinion of 28 leaves j
you make it into three wheels of 36, 8, and 5, and
three pinions of 4, 7, and I. For the three wheels,
36, 8, and 5, multiplied together, give 1440 for the
wheels, and the three pinions, 4, 7, and I, multiplied
together, give 28 for the pinions. Add, that it mat¬
ters not in what order the wheels and pinions are set,
or which pinion runs in which wheel j only for con¬
venience sake, the biggest numbers are commonly put
to drive the rest.
2. Two wheels and pinions of different numbers may
perform the same motion. Thus, a wheel of 36 drives
a pinion of four j the same as a wheel of 45 a pinion
of 5 j or a wheel of 90 a pinion of 10 the turns of
each being 9.
3. If, in breaking the train into parcels, any of
the quotients should not be liked j or if any other two
numbers, to be multiplied together, are desired to be
varied, it may be done by this rule. Divide the two
numbers by any other two numbers which will mea¬
sure them *, multiply the quotients by the alternate di¬
visors ; the product of these two last numbers found
will be equal to the product of the two numbers first
given. Thus, if you would vary 46 times 8, divide
these by any two numbers which will evenly measure
them : so, 36 by 4 gives 9; and 8 by I gives 8 $ now,
by the rule, 9 times I is 9, and 8 times 4 is 32 ; so
that for 364-8, you have 324-95 each equal to 288.
If you divide 36 by 6, and 8 by 2, and multiply as
before, you have 24-}-12=364-8=288.
4. If a wheel and pinion fall out with cross num¬
bers, too big to be cut in wheels, and yet not to be
altered by these rules; in seeking for the pinion of re¬
port, find two numbers of the same, or a near propor¬
tion, by this rule 5 as either of the two given num¬
bers is to the other, so is 360 to a fourth. Divide
that fourth number, as also 360, by 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10,
12, 15, (each of which numbers exactly measures 360),
or by any of those numbers that bring a quotient near¬
est to a integer. As suppose you had 147 for the
wheel, and 170 for the pinion} which are too great to
be cut into small wheels, and yet cannot be reduced
into less, as having no other common measure but unity ;
say, as 170 : 147 :: 360 : 311. Or, as 147 : 170 ::
360 : 416. Divide the fourth number and 360 by
one of the foregoing numbers ; as 311 and 360 by 6,
it gives 52 and 60 5 divide them by 8, you have 39
and 45 ; and if you divide 360 and 416 by 8, yon
have 45 and 52 exactly. Wherefore, instead of the
two numbers 147 and 170, you may take 52 and 60,
or 39 and 45, or 45 and 52, &c.
5. To come to practice in calculating a piece of
Watch-work : First pitch on the train or beats of the
balance in an hour; as, whether a swift one of about
2Q,ooo beats (the usual train of a common 30 hour
pocket-watch) or a slower of about 16,000 (the train
of the new pendulum pocket-watches), or any other
train. Next, resolve on the number of turns the fusee
is intended to have, and the number of hours the
piece is to go: suppose e. gr. 12 turns, and to go 30
hours, or 192 hours (i. e. 8 days), &c. Proceed now
to find the beats of the balance or pendulum in one
turn of the fusee ; thus in numbers j 12:16:: 20,000 :
26666. Wherefore 26666 are the beats in one turn
of the fusee or great wheel, and are equal to the quo¬
tients of all the wheels unto the balance multiplied to¬
gether. Now this number is to be broken into a con¬
venient parcel of quotients; which is to be done thus::
first, halve the number of beats, viz. 26666, and you-
have 13333 5 then pitch on the number of the crown¬
wheel, suppose 17: divide 13333 by 17, and you have
784 for the quotient (or turns) of the rest of the
wheels and pinions ; which, being too big for one or
two quotients, may be best broken into three. Choose
therefore three numbers ; which, when multiplied all
together continually, will come nearest 784: as sup¬
pose 10, 9, and 9, multiplied continually, give 810
which is somewhat too much ; therefore try again o-
ther numbers, ll, 9, 8: these, drawn one into ano¬
ther continually, produce 792 5 which is as near as
can be, and is a convenient quotient. Having thus
contrived the piece from the great wheel to the ba¬
lance, but the numbers not falling out exactly, as you
first proposed, correct the work thus: first multiply 792,
the product of all the quotients pitched upon, by 17-
(the notches of the crown-wheel) ; the product is
13464, which is half the number of beats in one turn
of the fusee : Then find the true number of beats in an
hour. Thus, 16 : 12 :: 13464 : 10098, which is half
the beats in an hour. Then find what quotient is to be
laid upon the pinion of report (by the rule given under
that word). Thus, 16 : 12 :: 12 : 9, the quotient of
the pinion of report. Having thus found your
quotients, it is easy to determine what numbers the
wheels shall have, for choosing what numbers the pi¬
nions shall have, and multiplying the pinions by their
quotients, the product is the number for x ^ ,
the wheels. Thus the number of the 3 v 9
pinion of report is 4, and its quotient is x rr (n
9 ; therefore the number for the dial-wheel ^x ^ >
must be 4x9, or 36: so the next pinion ^ ^ g
being 5, its quotient II, therefore the ^
great wheel must be 5x11=55 i an^ 80
of the rest.
Clock'.
n-
Such is the method of calculating the numbers of a
16 hour watch. Which watch may be made to go
longer by lessening the train, and altering the pinion
of report. Suppose you could conveniently slacken the
train to 16000 5 then say, As £ 16000 or 8000:
13464 :: 12 : 205 so that this watch will go 20 hours.
Then, for the pinion of report, say (by the rule given
under that word), as 20 : 12 :: 12 : 7.
is the quotient of the pinion of report.
And as to the numbers, the operation is
the same as before, only the dial-wheel
is but 28 5 for its quotient is altered to 7.
If you would give numbers to a watch of
about 10,000 beats in an hour, to have 12
turns of the fusee, to go 170 hours, and
17 notches in tha crown-wheel; the work
So that 7•
4) 28 ( 7-
5) 55 C11
5) 45 ( 9
5) 40 ( 8 -
*7?
C L O [ 208 ] C L O
Clock, is the same, in a manner, as in the last example: and
—consequently thus : as 12 : 170 IOQOO : 14x666,
which fourth number is the beats in one turn of the
fusee $ its half, 70833, being divided by 17, gives
4167 for the quotient j and because this number is too
big for three quotients, therefore choose four, as 10,
8, 8, 6 f $ whose product into 17 makes 71808, near¬
ly equ;«l to half the true beats in one turn of the fu¬
see. Then say, as 170 : 12 :: 71808 : 5069, which is
half the true train of your watch. And again, 170 :
12 :: I2x4£, the denominator of which expresses the
pinion of report, and the numerator is the number of
the dial-wheel. But these numbers being too big to be
cut in small wheels, they must be varied by the fourth
rule above. Thus :
As 144 : 170 :: 360 : 425 ;
Or X70 : 144 :: 360 : 305.
24) 20 (-|£ Then dividing 360, and either of these
   — two fourth proportionals (as directed by
6) 60 (10 the rule), suppose by 15 j you will have
6) 48 ( 8 H or •!£ 5 then the numbers of the whole
5) 40 ( 8 movements will stand as in the margin.
5) 33 ( Such is the calculation of ordinary
—- watches, to show the hour of the day:
17 in such as show minutes, and seconds, the
process is thus:
I. Having resolved on the beats in an hour, by di¬
viding the designed train by 60, find the beats in a mi¬
nute ; and accordingly, find proper numbers for the
crown-wheel and quotients, so as that the minute-wheel
shall go round once in an hour, and the second wheel
once in a minute.
Suppose, you shall choose a pendulum of seven
inches, which vibrates 142 strokes in a minute, and
8520 in an hour. Half these sums are 71, and
4260. Now, the first -work is to break this 71 into
a good proportion, which will fall into one quotient,
and the crown-wheel. Let the crown-wheel have 15
notches j then 71, divided by 15, gives nearly 5; so
a crown-wheel of 15, and a wheel and pinion whose
quotient is 5, will go round in a minute to carry a
hand to shovy seconds. For a hand to go
8) 40 ( 5 round in an hour to show minutes, because
 ——— there are 60 minutes in an hour, it is but
15 breaking 60 into good quotients (suppose
10 and 6, or 8 and 74, &c.: and it is
8) 64 ( 8 done. Thus, 4260 is broken as near as
8) 60 ( 74 can be into proper numbers. But since
8) 40 ( 5 it does not fall out exactly into the above
-     mentioned numbers, you must correct (as
15 before^lirected), and find the true number
of beats in an hour, by multiplying 15 by
5, which makes 75 ; and 75 by 60 makes 4500, which
is half the true train. Then find the beats in one turn
of the fusee j thus, 16 : 192 :: 4500 : 540005 which
last is half the beats in one turn of the fusee. This
54000 being divided by 4500 (the true
9) 108 (12 numbers already pitched on), the quo-
8) 64 (8 tient will be 10 5 which, pot being too big
8) 60 ( 74 for a single quotient, needs not be divided
8) 40 ( 5 into more: and the work will stand as
    ■■ in the margin. As to the hour-hand, the
15 great wheel, which performs only one re¬
volution in 12 turns of the minute-wheel,
will show the hour 5 or it may be done by the minute- clock
wheel. Clodia.
It is requisite for those who make nice astronomical
observationto have watches that make some exact
number of beats per second, without any fraction 5 but
we seldom find a watch that does. As four beats per
second would be a very convenient number, we shall
here give the train for such a watch, which would (like
most others) go 30 hours, but is to be wound up once
in 24 hours.
The fusee and first wheel to go round in four hours.
This wheel has 48 teeth, and it turns a pinion of 12
leaves, oh whose axis is the second wheel, which goes
round in one hour, and carries the minute-hand. This
wheel has 60 teeth, and turns a pinion of 10 leaves;
on whose axis is the third wheel of 60 teeth, turning
a pinion of 6 leaves ; on whose axis is the fourth (or
contrate) wheel, turning round in a minute, and car¬
rying the small hand that shows the seconds, on a
small circle on the dial-plate, divided into 60 parts :
this contrate wheel has 48 teeth, and turns a pinion
of 6 leaves ; on whose axis is the crown or balance-
wheel of 15 teeth, which makes 30 beats in each revo¬
lution.
The crown-wheel goes 480 times round in an hour,
and 30 times 480 make 14400, the number of beats
in an hour. But one hour contains 3600 seconds ; and
<14400 divided by 3600 quotes 4, the required number
of beats in a second.
The fusee must have 7^ turns, to let the chain go so
many times round it. Then, as 1 turn is to 4 hours,
so is 74- turns to 30 hours, the time the watch would
go after it is wound up.
See further the articles Movement, Turn, &c.
And for the history and particular construction of
Watches, properly so called, see the article Watch.
CLODIA LEX, de Cypt'o, was enacted by the tri¬
bune Clodius, in the year of Rome 607, to reduce Cy¬
prus into a Roman province, and expose Ptolemy
king of Egypt to sale in his regal ornaments. It em¬
powered Cato to go with the praetorian power and
see the auction of the king’s goods, and commission¬
ed him to return the money to Rome. Another, de
Magistratibus, 695, by Clodius the tribune. It for¬
bade the censors to put a stigma or mark of infamy
upon any person who had not been actually accused
and condemned by both the censors. Another, de Re-
ligione, by the same, 696, to deprive the priest of Cy-
bele, a native of Pessinuns, of his office, and confer the
priesthood upon Brotigonus, a Gallogrecian. Ano¬
ther, de Provinciis, 695, which nominated the pro¬
vinces of Syria, Babylon, and Persia, to the consul
Gabinius, arid Achaia, Thessaly, Macedon, and Greece,
to his colleague Piso, with proconsular power. It
empowered them to defray the expences of their
march from the public treasury. Another, 695, which
required the same distribution of corn among the
people gratis, as had been given them before at six
ases and a triens the bushel. Another, 695, by the
same, de Judiciis. It called to an account such as
had executed a Jfoman citizen without a judg¬
ment of the people and all the formalities of a trial.
Another, by the same, to pay no attention to the
appearances of the heavens while any affair was be-
h\\r,/./„-//'
€ 1A) C K
PLATE CXLm
Fig.?.
//’. tn/iifhit,{ Sculp f
C L.O C K .
PLATE CXLYia.
WArrJn7><i7J .
Cloister.
C L O [
Another, to make the power
making and proposing laws.
Clodia fore the people.
the tribunes free in o   jr._r &
, Another, to re-establish the companies of artists which
had been instituted by Numa, but since his time abo¬
lished.
CLODIUS, Publius, a Roman descended of an
illustrious family. He made himself famous for his li¬
centiousness, avarice, and ambition. He committed
incest with his three sisters, and introduced himself in
women’s clothes into the house of Julius Crnsar, whilst
Pompeia, Caesar’s wife, of whom he was enamoured,
was celebrating the mysteries of Ceres, where no man
was permitted to appear. He was accused for this
violation of human and divine laws ; but he made him¬
self tribune, and by that means screened himself from
justice. He descended from a patrician into a ple¬
beian family to become a tribune. He was such an
enemy to Cato, that he made him go with praetorian
power, in an expedition against Ptolemy king of Cy¬
prus, that by the difficulty of the campaign he might
ruin his reputation, and destroy his interest at Rome
during his absence. Cato, however, by his uncommon
success, frustrated the designs of Clodius. He was also
an inveterate enemy to Cicero, and by his influence he
banished him from Rome, partly on pretence that he
had punished with death and without trial the adhe¬
rents of Catiline. He wreaked his vengeance upon Ci¬
cero’s house, which he burnt, and set all his goods to
sale; which, however, to his great mortification, no
one ofi'ered to buy. In spite of Clodius, Cicero was
recalled, and all his goods restored to him. Clodius
was some time after murdered by Milo, whose defence
Cicero took upon himself.
CLOGHER, an episcopal town of Ireland, in the
county of Tyrone, and province of Ulster. It sent
two members to the Irish parliament. In a very early
age an abbey of regular canons, dedicated to the Vir¬
gin Mary, was founded here. St Patrick is said to
have presided over the church of Clogher; and having
appointed St Kertenn to be his successor, he resigned
this government, and went to Armagh, where he found¬
ed his celebrated abbey. On the 2oth of April 1396,
a dreadful fire burnt to the ground the church, the
two chapels, the abbej, the court of the bishops, and
thirty-two otjrer buildings, with all the sacerdotal vest¬
ments, utensils, &c. belonging to the bishop’s chapter
and church. In the year 1610, on the 24th of July
whilst George Montgomery was bishop of Clogher,
King James annexed this abbey and its revenues to
that see. The see (valued in the king’s books at 350I.
per annum by extent returned 15th James I.) is re¬
puted to be worth 4000I. annually. W. Long. 6. co
N. Lat. 94. 30.
CLOIS1ER (Clanstruni)) a habitation surrounded
with walls, and inhabited by canons or religious, &c.
In a more general sense, cloister is used for a mona¬
stery of religious of either sex. In a more restrain¬
ed sense, cloister is used for the principal part of a re¬
gular monastery, consisting of a square built around ;
ordinarily between the church, the chapter-house, and
the refectory ; and over which is the dormitory. The
c oisters served for several purposes in the ancient mo¬
nasteries. Petrus Blesensis observes that it was here
t ie monks held their lectures : the lecture of morali¬
ty at the north side, next the church; the school on
VOL. VI. Part I. |
209 ] C L O
of the west, and the chapter on the east; spiritual medi- Cloister
tation, &c. being reserved for the church. Lanfranc if
observes, that the proper use of the cloister was for Close-haul-
♦  1-~ * - — ■ ‘ * • ed.
and converse together, at cer-  
the monks to meet in,
tain hours of the day.
Ihe form of the cloister was square; and it had its
name clan strum, from claudo, “ I shut or close;” as
being inclosed on its four sides with buildings. Hence
in architecture, a building is still said to be in form of
a cloister, when there are buildings on each of the four
sides of the court.
CLONMELL, the assize town of the county of
Tipperary in Ireland, is situated on the river Suir, hath
a barrack for two troops of horse, and is governed bv
a mayor, recorder, bailiffs, and town-clerk. The river
is navigable from this town to Garrick and Waterford ;
and there is some trade carried on here in the woollen
blanch, particularly by the Quakers, who are very nu¬
merous in this neighbourhood. Near this place is a
spring of Spa water, that issues from the side of a
rising ground, and is overlooked by a pretty steep
hill, on that side of the river Suir, which is in the
county of Waterford. The cures performed by drink¬
ing this water in the scurvy, and other chronic di¬
tempers, drew thither, some years ago, a great re¬
sort of people; but fashion, which reigns with an ab¬
solute authority, has brought other waters of late into
higher credit. It was in this town that the celebrated
and reverend Laurence Sterne was born, on the 24th
of November 1713. The town consists of four cross
streets, and has a spacious bridge of 20 arches over
the river Suir; the market-house is strong and well
built, and there is a charter-school here for forty chil¬
dren, to which the late John Dawson, Esq. and Sir
Charles Moore, Bart, ivere considerable benefactors.
A Dominican friary was founded at Clonmeil, in
1269, and dedicated to St Dominick. In the same
year Otho de Grandison erected one of the most mag¬
nificent in Ireland. In it was kept an image of St
Francis respecting the miracles wrought by which,
many marvellous stories are circulated. This town is
very ancient, being built before the invasion of the
Danes: it was formerly defended by a square walk
Oliver Cromwell, who found more resistance from tlm
place than any other of his conquests in the kingdom,
demolished the castles and fortifications, of which now
only the rums remain. Jhe town sends one member
to the imperial parliament. W. Long. 7. 42. N. Lat.
52. 15.
CLOSE, in Heraldry. When any bird is drawn in
a coat of arms with its wings close down about it,
(i. e. not displayed), and in a standing posture, thev
blazon it by this word close; but if it be flying, they
call it volant. See Volant.
Close, in Music. See Cadence.
Close hauled, in Navigation, the general arrange¬
ment or trim of a ship’s sails when she endeavours to
make a progress in the nearest direction possible to¬
wards that point of the compass from which the wind
blows. In this manner of sailing, the keel commonly
makes an angle of six points with the line of the wind ;
but sloops and some other small vessels are said to sail
almost a point nearer. All vessels, however, are sup¬
posed to make nearly a point of leeway when close-
hauled, even when they have the advantage of a good
D d sailing
C L O [ 210 ] C L O
Close- sailing breeze and smooth water. The angle ol lee-
hauled way, however, increases in proportion to the increase
II of the wind and sea. In this disposition ot the sails,
, <"lot'1, they are all extended sidewise on the ship, so that the
v wind as it crosses the ship obliquely toward the stern
from forwards, may fill their cavities. Hut as the cur¬
rent of wind also enters the sails in an oblique direc¬
tion, the effort of it to make the ship advance is consi¬
derably diminished : she will therefore make the least
progress when sailing in this manner. The ship is
said to be close-hauled, because at this time her tacks,
or lower corners of the principal sails, are drawn close
down to her side to windward, the sheets hauled close-
aft, and all the bow-lines drawn to their greatest ex¬
tension to keep the sails steady.
Close- Quarters, certain strong barriers of wood,
stretching across a merchant-ship in several places.
They are used as places of retreat when a ship is
boarded by her adversary, and are therefore fitted
with several small loop-holes through which to fire the
small arms, and thereby annoy the enemy, and defend
themselves. They are likewise furnished with several
caisons c&Ued powder-chests, which are fixed upon the
deck, and filled with powder, old nails, &c. and may
be fired at any time from the close-quarters upon the
boarders.
Falconer's We have known an English merchant-ship of 16
Diet, ofthegwns, and properly fitted with close-quarters, >defeat
Marine. t|ie united efforts* of three French privateers who
boarded her in the last war, after having engaged at
some distance nearly a day and a half, with very few
intervals of rest. Two of the cruisers were equipped
with twelve guns each, and the other with eight. The
French sailors were, after boarding, so much exposed
to continued fire of musquetry and cohorns charged with
granadoes, that a dreadful scene of carnage ensued, in
which the decks were soon covered with the dead bodies
of the enemy, several of which the boarders, in their
hurry to escape, had left behind.
CLOT-bird : a species of Fringilla. See Or¬
nithology Index.
CLOTH, in commerce, a manufacture made of
wool, wove in the loom.
Cloths are of divers qualities, fine or coarse. The
goodness of cloth, according to some, consists in the
followiiig particulars: I. That the wool be of a good
quality, and well dressed. 2. It must be equally spun,
carefully observing that the thread of the warp be
finer and better twisted than that of the woof. 3. The
cloth must be well wrought, and beaten on the loom,
so as to be everywhere equally compact. 4. The
wool must not be finer at one end of the piece than in
the rest. 5. The lists must be sufficiently strong, of
the same length with the stuff, and must consist of
good wool, hair, or ostrich-feathers ; or, what is still
better, of Danish dog’s hair. 6. The cloth must be
free from knots and other imperfections. 7. It must
be well scoured with fullers earth, well fulled with
the best white soap, and afterwards washed in clear
water. 8. The hair or nap must be well drawn out
with the teazel, without being too much opened.
9. It must be shorn close without making it thread¬
bare. 10. It must be well-dried. II. It must not be
tenter-stretched, to force it to its just dimensions.
12. It must be pressed cold, not hot-pressed, the latter
being very injurious to woollen cloth.
Manufacturing of white Cloths which are intended
for dyeing. The best wools for the manufacturing of
cloths are those of England and Spain, especially those
of Lincolnshire and Segovia. To use those wools to
the best advantage, they must be scoured, by putting
them into a liquor somewhat more than luke-warm,
composed of three parts of fair water and one of urine.
After the wool has continued long enough in the li¬
quor to soak, and dissolve the grease, it is drained and
Well washed in running water. When it feels dry, and
has no smell but the natural one of the sheep, it is said
to be duly scoured.
After this, it is hung to dry in the shade j the heat
of the sun making it harsh and inflexible; when dry,
it is beat with rods upon hurdles of wood, or on cords,
to cleanse it from dust and the grosser filth j the more
it is thus beat and cleansed, the softer it becomes, and
the better for spinning. After beating, it must be well
picked, to free it from the rest of the filth that had es¬
caped the rods.
It is now in a proper condition to be oiled, and
carded on large iron cards placed slopewise. Olive oil
is esteemed the best for this purpose ; one-fifth of which
should be used for the wool intended for the woof, and
a ninth for that designed for the warp. After the
wool has been well oiled, it is given to the spinners,
who first card it on the knee, with small fine cards,
and then spin it on the wheel, observing to make the
thread of the warp smaller by one-third than that of
the woof, and much compacter twisted.
The thread thus spun, is reeled, and made into
skeins. That designed for the woof is wound on little
tubes, pieces of paper, or rushes, so disposed as that
they may be easily put in the eye of the shuttle. That
for the warp is wound on a kind of large wooden bob¬
bins, to dispose of it for warping. When warped, it is
stiffened with size ; the best of which is that made of
shreds of parchment; and when dry, is given to the
weavers, who mount it on the loom.
The warp thus mounted, the weavers, who are two
to each loom, one on each side, tread alternately on
the treddle, first on the right step, and then on the
left, which raises and lowers the threads of the warp
equally j between which they throw transversely the
shuttle from the one to the other; and every time
that the shuttle is thus thrown, and a thread of the
woof inserted within the warp, they strike it conjunct-
ly with the same frame, wherein is fastened the comb
or reed, between whose teeth the threads of the warp
are passed, repeating the stroke as often as is neces-
sary.
The weavers having continued their work till the
whole warp is filled with the woof, the cloth is finish¬
ed 5 it is then taken off the loom, by unrolling it from
the beam whereon it had been rolled in proportion as it
was wove j and now given to be cleansed of the knots,
ends of threads, straws, and other filth, which is done
with iron nippers.
In this condition it is carried to the fullery, to be
scoured with urine, or a kind of potters clay, well
steeped in Water, put along with the cloth in the
trough wherein it is fulled. The cloth being again
cleared
C L O [21
Cloth cleared from the earth er urine, is returned to the
}) former hands to have the lesser filth, small straws, &c.
Clmid. taken off as before : then it is returned to the fuller
to be beat and fulled with hot water, wherein a suit¬
able quantity of soap has been dissolved •, after ful¬
ling, it is taken out to be smoothed or pulled by the
lists lengthwise, to take out the wrinkles, crevices,
&c.
The smoothing is repeated every two hours, till
the fulling be finished, and the cloth brought to its
proper breadth j after which it is washed in clear wa¬
ter, to purge it of the soap, and given wet to the
carders to raise the hair or nap on the right side with
the thistle or weed. After this preparation, the cloth-
worker takes the cloth, and gives it its first cut or
shearing ; then the carders resume it, and after wet¬
ting, give it as many more courses with the teazle,
as the quality of the stuff requires, always observing
to begin against the grain of the hair, and to end with
it 5 as also to begin with a smoother thistle, proceed¬
ing still with one sharper and sharper, as far as the
sixth degree.
After these operations, the cloth being dried, is re¬
turned to the cloth-worker, who shears it a second
time, and returns it to the carders, who repeat their
operation as before, till the nap be well ranged on the
surface of the cloth, from one end of the piece to the
other.
The cloth thus wove, scoured, napped, and shorn, is
sent to the dyer , when dyed, it is washed in fair wa¬
ter, and the worker takes it again wet as it is, lays the
nap with a brush on the table, and hangs it on the tent¬
ers, where it is stretched both in length and breadth suf¬
ficiently to smooth it, set it square, and bring it to its
proper dimensions, without straining it too much ; ob¬
serving to brush it afresh, the way of the nap, while a
little moist, on the tenters.
When quite dry, the cloth is taken off the tenters,
and brushed again on the table, to finish the laying of
the nap ; after which it is folded, and laid cold under
a press, to make it perfectly smooth and even, and give
it a gloss.
Lastly, the cloth being taken out of the press, and
the papers, &c. for glossing it removed, it is in a con¬
dition for sale or use. With regard to the manufac¬
ture of mixt cloths, or those wherein the wools are
first dyed, and then mixt, spun, and wove of the co¬
lours intended, the process, except what relates to
the colour, is mostly the same with that just repre¬
sented.
Cloth made from Vegetable Filaments* See Bark
and Filaments.
Incombustible Cloth. See Asbestos.
CLOTHO, the youngest of the three Parcae, daugh¬
ters of Jupiter and Themis. She was supposed to
preside over the moment that we are born. She held
the distaff in her hand, and spun the thread of life,
whence her name to spin. She was represent¬
ed wearing a crown with seven stars, and covered with
a variegated robe.
CLOUD, a collection of vapours suspended in the
:ause 0f atmosphere.
lie forma- That the clouds are formed from the aqueous va-
ion of pours, which before were so closely united with the
muds un- atmosphere as to be invisible, is universally allowed ;
main. 1 7 /
i ] C L o
but it is no easy matter to account for the long conti- Cloud,
nuance of some very opaque clouds without dissolving j v—■■ '
or to give a reason why the vapoui’3, when they have
once begun to condense, do not continue to do so till
they at last fall to the ground in the form of rain or
snow, &c. The general cause of the formation of
clouds, it has been supposed, is a separation of the la¬
tent heat from the water of which the vapour is com¬
posed. The consequence of this separation must be the
condensation of that vapour, in some degree at least :
in such case, it will first appear as a smoke, mist, or
fogj which, if interposed betwixt the sun and earth,
will form a cloud $ and the same causes continuing to
act, the cloud will produce rain or snow. But though
the separation of this latent heat in a certain degree is
the immediate cause of the formation of clouds, the re¬
mote cause, or the changes produced in the atmosphere,
whereby such a separation may be induced, are much
more difficult to be discovered. In common observa¬
tion, we see that vapour is most powerfully condensed 2
by cold substances, such as metals, water, &c. But Not always
cold alone cannot in all cases cause the condensation ofowing to
the atmospherical vapours, otherwise the nights behov-colc*'
ed to be always foggy or cloudy, owing to the vapours,
raised throughout the day by the heat of the sun, being
condensed by the superior coldness of the night. Great
rains may happen in very warm weather, when the
union of the vapours with the atmosphere ought rather
to be promoted than dissolved, if cold were the only
agent in their condensation. The serenity of the at¬
mosphere, also, in the most severe frosts, abundantly
shows that some other cause besides mere heat or cold
is concerned in the formation of clouds, and condensa¬
tion of the atmospherical vapours. j
The electric fluid is now so generally admitted as Electricity
an agent in all the great operations of nature, that it probably
is no wonder to find the formation of clouds attributedconceine ’
to it. This hath accordingly been given by S. Bec-
caria as the cause of the formation of all clouds what¬
soever, whether of thunder, rain, hail, or snow. The
first, he thinks, are produced by a very great power of
electricity, and the others by one more moderate. But
though it is certain that all clouds, or even fogs and
rain, are electrified in some degree, it still remains a
question, whether the clouds are formed in consequence
of the vapour whereof they are composed being first
electrified, or whether they become electrified in con¬
sequence of its being first separated from the atmo¬
sphere, and in some measure condensed. This hath
not yet, as far as we know, been ascertained by the
experiments of Beccaria, or any other person $ and in¬
deed, notwithstanding the multitude of electrical dis¬
coveries that have lately been made, there seems to be
little or no foundation for ascertaining it. Electricity
is known to be in many cases a promoter of evapora¬
tion j but no experiments have yet been brought to
prove that electrified air parts with its moisture more
readily than such as is not electrified j so that, till the
properties of electrified air are farther investigated, it
is impossible to lay down any rational theory of the for¬
mation of clouds upon this principle. 4
But whether the clouds are produced, i. e. the in-Clouds of-
visible vapours floating in the atmosphere condensed ten prodi-
so as to become visible, by means of electricity or not,
it is certain that they do contain the electric fluid in
D d 2 prodigious
C L O [ 212 ] C L O
C'oml.
3
Terrible
destruction
by an elec¬
trified cloud
in Java.
6
By another
jn the island
of Malta.
prodigious ami inconceivable quantities, and many very
terrible and destructive phenomena have been occa¬
sioned by clouds very highly electrified. The most ex¬
traordinary instance of this kind perhaps on record
happened in the island of Java, in the East Indies,
in August 1772. On the 11th of that month, at mid¬
night, a bright cloud tvas observed covering a moun¬
tain in the district called C/icribon, at the same time
several reports were heard like those of a gun. The
people who dwelt upon the upper parts of the moun¬
tain not being able to fly fast enough, a great part
of the cloud, almost three leagues in circumference,
detached itself under them, and was seen at a dis¬
tance rising and falling like the waves of the sea, and
emitting globes of fire so luminous, that the night be¬
came as clear as day. The effects of it were asto¬
nishing •, every thing was destroyed for seven leagues
round ; the houses were demolished ; plantations were
buried in the earth ; and 2140 people lost their lives,
besides 1500 head of cattle, and a vast number of
horses, goats, &c.
Another instance of a very destructive cloud, the
electric quality of which will at present scarcely be
doubted, is related by Mr Brydone, in his Tour
through Malta. It appeared on the 29th of October
1757. About three quarters of an hour after midnight,
there was seen to the south-west of the city of Melita,
a great black cloud, which, as it approached, changed
its colour, till at last it became like a flame of fire
mixed with black smoke. A dreadful noise was heard
on its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It
passed over the port, and came first on an English ship,
which in an instant was torn in pieces, and nothing
left but the hulk j part of the masts, sails, and cord¬
age, were carried to a considerable distance along with
the cloud. The small boats and felloques that fell in
its way were all broken to pieces and sunk. The noise
increased, and became more frightful. A sentinel, ter¬
rified at its approach, ran into his box •, but both he
and it were lifted up and carried into the sea, where he
perished. It then traversed a considerable part of the
city, and laid in ruins almost every thing that stood in
its* way. Several bouses were laid level with the
ground, and it did not leave one steeple in its passage.
The hells of some of them, together with the spires,
were carried to a considerable distance } the roofs of
the churches demolished, and heat down, &c. It went
off at the north-east point of the city, and demolishing
the light-house, is said to have mounted up into the air
with a frightful noise 5 and passed over the sea to Sicily,
where it tore up some trees, and did other damage j
but nothing considerable, as its fury had been mostly
spent at Malta. The number of killed and wounded
amounted to near 200 j and the loss of shipping, &c.
was very considerable.
The effects of thunder-storms, and the vast quantity
of electricity collected in the clouds which produce
these storms, are so well known, that it is superfluous
to mention them. It appears, however, that even
the clouds are not so highly electrified as to produce
7 their fatal effects on those who are immersed in them.
Instance of jt jg on]y t|)e discharge of part of their edectricity up-
in^olved’in on such bodies as are eItlier not e,ectrifietl at a,l> or
a thunder- not so highly electrified as the cloud, that does all the
cfoiujL mischief. We have, however, only the following in¬
stance on record, of any person being immersed in the Cloud,
body of a thunder-cloud. Professor Saussure and young -y~-j
Mr Jalabert. when travelling over one of the high Alps,
were caught among clouds of this kind ; and, to their
astonishment, found their bodies so full of electrical fire,
that spontaneous flashes darted from their fingers with
a crackling noise, and the same kind of sensation as
when strongly electrified by art.
The height of clouds in general is not great j the Htglit of
summits of very high mountains being commonly quite the clouds,
free from them, as Mr Brydone experienced in his jour¬
ney up Mount iEtna ; but those which are most high¬
ly electrified descend lowest, their height being often
not above seven or eight hundred yards above the
ground 3 nay, sometimes thunder-clouds appear actu¬
ally to touch the ground with one of their edges *: *See Kim.
but the generality of clouds are suspended at the height^-
of a mile, or little more, above the earth. Some,
however, have imagined them to rise to a most incre¬
dible and extravagant height. Maignan of Thoulouse,
in his Treatise of Perspective, p. 93, gives an account
of an exceeding bright little cloud that appeared at
midnight in the month of August, which spread itself
almost as far as the zenith. Ele says that the same
thing was also observed at Home 3 and from thence
concludes that the cloud was a collection of vapours
raised beyond the projection of the earth’s shadow,
and of consequence illuminated by means of the sea.
This, however, can by no means be credited 3 and it
is much more probable that this cloud owed its splen¬
dor to electricity, than to the reflection of the solar
beams. ?
In the evenings after sunset, and mornings before Their vari-)
sunrise, we often observe the clouds tinged with beau-ous C('^“rs !
tiful colours. They are mostly red 3 sometimes 0- jEcountetl
range, yellow, or purple ; more rarely bluish 3 and
seldom or never green. The reason of this variety of
colours, according to Sir Isaac Newton, is the differ¬
ent size of the globules into which the vapours are con¬
densed. This is controverted by Mr Melville, who
thinks that the clouds reflect the sun’s light precisely
as it is transmitted to them through the atmosphere.
This reflects the most refrangible rays in the greatest
quantity ; and therefore ought to transmit the least re¬
frangible ones, red, orange, and yellow to the clouds,
which accordingly appear most usually of those colours.
In this opinion he was greatly confirmed by observing,
when he was in Switzerland, that the snowy summits
of the Alps turned more and more reddish after sunset,
in the same manner as the clouds, and he imagines that
the semitransparency of the clouds 3 and the obliquity
of their situation, tend to make the colours in them
much more rich and copious than those on the tops of
snowy mountains. 10
The motions of the clouds, though sometimes di-Ofthemo-
rected by the wind, are not always so, especially when1'01180*
thunder is about to ensue. In this case they seem tocloutl!,’
move very slowly, and often to be absolutely stationary
for some time. The reason of this most probably is,
that they are impelled by two opposite streams of air
nearly of equal strength 3 by which means their velo¬
city is greatly retarded. In such cases both the aerial
currents seem to ascend to a very considerable height;
for Mess. Charles and Roberts, when endeavouring to
avoid a thunder-cloud in one of their aerial voyages,
could
C L O [2
ClouJ could find no alteration in the course of the current,
—' though they ascended to the height of 4000 feet from
the surface of the earth, in some cases the motions
of the clouds evidently depend on their electricity, in¬
dependent of any current of air whatever. Thus, in
a calm and warm day, we often see small clouds, meet¬
ing each other in opposite directions, and setting out
from such short distances, that we cannot suppose any
opposite winds to be the cause. These clouds, when
thev meet, instead of forming a larger one, become much
less, and sometimes vanish altogether j a circumstance
undoubtedly owing to the discharge of opposite elec¬
tricities into each other. This serves also to throw
some light on the true cause of the formation of clouds j
for if two clouds electrified, the one positively and the
other negatively, destroy each other in contact ; it
follows, that any quantity of vapour suspended in the
atmosphere, while it retains its natural quantity of
electricity, remains invisible, but becomes a cloud when
electrified either plus or minus. A difficulty, however,
still occurs; viz. in what manner a small quantity of
vapour surrounded by an immense ocean of the same
kind of matter, can acquire either more or less electri¬
city than that which surrounds it ; and this indeed we
seem not as yet to have any data to solve in a satisfac-
x 1 tory manner.
hek The shapes of the clouds are likewise undoubtedly
inpes. owing to their electricity ; for in those seasons in which
a great commotion has been excited in the atmosphe¬
rical electricity, we shall perceive the clouds assuming
strange and whimsical shapes, which vary almost every
moment. This, as well as the meeting of small clouds
in the air, and vanishing upon contact, is an almost in-
xx fallible sign of thunder.
annec- Resides the phenomena of thunder, rain, &c. the
on of the clouds are intimately connected with those of wind,
0^svv^and always assume a particular shape, when a strong
continued wind is about to ensue; though it is remark¬
able, that in the strongest winds we shall often observe
them stationary. Sometimes also, on the approach of
a cloud, we shall find a sudden and violent gust of wind
arise ; and at others, the wind, though violent before,
sh ill cease on the.approach of a cloud, and recover its
strength as soon as the cloud is past. This connection
of the clouds with wind is most remarkable in moun¬
tainous countries, when the peaks are sufficiently high
to have their tops involved in clouds. A very remark¬
able mountain of this kind is met with at the Cape of
Good Hope, from the clouds on whose top, accord¬
ing to the relations of travellers, the winds issue forth
as if they had been confined in a bag ; and something
similar lias been observed of mountains in other parts
i of the world.
heir uses The uses of the clouds are evident ; as from them
proceeds the rain which refreshes the earth ; and with¬
out which, according to the present system of nature,
the whole surface of the earth must be a mere desert.
They are likewise of great use as a screen interposed
between the earth and the scorching rays of the sun,
which are often so powerful as to destroy the grass and
other tender vegetables. In the more secret operations
of nature also, where the electrical fluid is concerned,
the clouds hear a principal share ; and serve especially
as a medium for conveying that fluid from the atmo¬
sphere into the earth, and from the earth into the at-
3 ] C L O
mosphere ; in doing which, when electrified to a great Cloud
degree, they sometimes produce very terrible effects. H
See Cloud, Supplement. . flouts.
CLOVE tree. See Caryophyllus, Botany In- v
dex.
Clove, a term used in weights of wool. Seven
pounds make a clove. In Essex, tight pounds of cheese
and butter go to the clove.
Clove July flower. See Dianthus, Botany In¬
dex. ’
CLOVER-grass. See Trifolium, Botany In¬
dex, and Agriculture Index.
CLOUGH, or Draught, in commerce, an allow¬
ance ot two pounds in every hundred weight for the
turn of the scale, that the commodity may hold out
weight when sold out by retail.
CLOVIO, Giorgio Giulio, history and portrait
painter, was born in Sclavonia, in 1498. Having in
the early part of his youth applied himself to literature,
his genius prompted him to pursue the art of painting
for a profession ; and at 18 years of age he went to
Rome, where he spent three years to perfect his hand
in drawing, and devoted himself entirely to painting
in miniature. His knowledge of colouring was esta¬
blished by the instructions of Julio Romano, and his
taste of composition and design rvas founded on the
observations he made on the works of Michael Angelo
Buonaroti. By those assistances he arrived at such
a degree of excellence in portrait as well as in history,
that in the former he was accounted equal to Titian,
and in the latter not inferior to Buonaroti. He died
in 1578. His works are exceedingly valuable, and
are at this day numbered among the curiosities of Rome.
Vasari, who bad seen the wonderful performances of
Clovio, with inexpressible astonishment, enumerates
many of his portraits and historical compositions, and
seems to he almost at a loss for language sufficiently
expressive of their merit. He mentions two or three
pictures on which the artist had bestowed the labour
of nine years ; but the principal picture represented
Nimrod, building the Tower of Babel ; which ivas so-
exquisitely finished, and so perfect in all its parts, that
it seemed quite inconceivable how the eye or the pen¬
cil could execute it. He says it is impossible to ima¬
gine any thing so admirably curious ; whether one con¬
siders the elegance of the attitudes, the richness of the
composition, the delicacy of the naked figures, the
perspective proportion of the objects, the tender di¬
stances, the scenery, the buildings, or other ornaments;
for every part is beautiful and inimitable. He also
takes notice of a single ant introduced in one of the
pictures of this master; which, though exceedingly and
incredibly small, is yet so perfect, that even the most
minute member was as distinct as if it had been paint¬
ed of the natural size.
CLOVIS I. was the real founder of the French mo¬
narchy ; for he was the first conqueror of the several
provinces of Gaul, possessed before his time by the Ro¬
mans, Germans, and Goths. These be united to the-
then scanty dominions of France, removed the seat ot
government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the
capital of his new kingdom. He died in 5II> *n tfi**
46th year of his age and 31st of his reign. See [Hist*
of) France.
CLOUTS, in Gunnery^ are thin plates of iron nail¬
ed
C L U [ 214 ] C L u
Clouts ed on that part of the axle-tree of a gun-carriage which
il comes through the nave, and through which the linspin
1 Cluny. goe?.
CLOYNE, a town of Ireland, in the county of
Cork and province of Munster. W. Long. 8. 5.
N. Lat. 51. 52. It is but a small place, though an
episcopal residence. A church was built, and a bishop¬
ric erected here, by St Colman, who died on the 4th
of November 604; and in 707 an abbey was also
founded here. . In 1430, the bishopric was united to
that of Cork; and the union continued till the nth
of November 1638, when Dr George Synge was con¬
secrated bishop of Cloyne ; since which time this see
has been governed by its own prelates, one of whom
was the celebrated Berkeley. This see is not taxed in
the king’s books ; but is now reputed to be worth
2500I. a-year. The chapter of Cloyne is composed of
a dean, chapter, chancellor, treasurer, an archdeacon,
and fourteen prebendaries. The diocese is divided in¬
to four rural deaneries, and the collegiate church of St
Mary of Youghal is united to the bishopric. The ca¬
thedral is a decent Gothic building. The nave is a-
bout 120 feet long j having lateral aisles, besides the
cross aisles, divided by Gothic arches, five on each side.
In the choir there is an excellent organ. The bishop’s
palace, which was rebuilt at the beginning of the pre¬
sent century, is large and convenient. To the north¬
west of Cloyne is a reputed holy well, dedicated to St
Colman, which is much frequented on the 24th of No¬
vember, being the patron day.
CLUE OF A sail, the lower corner $ and hence
CLUE-Garnets are a sort of tackles fastened to the
clues, or lower corners of the mainsail or foresail to
truss them up to the yard as occasion requires, which
is usually termed clueing up the sails.
CLUE-Lines are for the same purpose as clue-garnets $
only that the latter are confined to the courses, where¬
as the former are common to all the square sails. See
these ropes as represented in the article Ship.
CLUNIA, in Ancient Geography, a principal town
of the Hither Spain, a Roman colony, with a conven-
tus juridicus, on the Durius, to the west of Numantia.
Now Corunna del Conde.
CLUNIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cor¬
sica, near Bastia. Now St Catharine.
CLUNY, or Clugny, a town in Burgundy, with a
celebrated abbey of Benedictine monks, who were dis¬
persed at the commencement of the French revolution.
The town contains about 4200 inhabitants, and is
situated on the river GrSne. The abbey was founded
by William duke of Berry and Aquitain j or, as others
say, by the abbot Bernon, supported by that duke, in
the year 910.
This abbey was anciently so very spacious and mag¬
nificent, that in 1245, after the holding of the first
council of Lyons, Pope Innocent IV. went to Cluny,
accompanied with the two patriarchs of Antioch and
Constantinople, 12 cardinals, 3 archbishops, 15 bishops,
and a great number of abbots $ who were all enter¬
tained, without one of the monks being put out of
their place *, though S. Louis Q. Blanche his mother,
the duke of Artois his brother, and his sister, the em¬
peror of Constantinople, the sons of the kings of Ar-
ragon and Castile, the duke of Burgundy, six counts,
and a great number of lords, with all their retinues, cluny
were there at the same time. Clupea
Cluny, at its first erection, was put under the im- —v—
mediate protection of the apostolic see, with express
prohibition to all secular and ecclesiastic powers, to
disturb the monks in the possession of their effects, or
the election of their abbot. By this they pretended
to be exempted from the jurisdiction of bishops $ which
at length gave the hint to other abbeys to insist on the
same.
Cluny was the head of a very numerous and exten¬
sive congregation : in effect, it was the first congrega¬
tion of divers monasteries united under one chief, so as
only to constitute one body, or, as they call it, one or¬
der, that ever arose.
This order of monks was brought into England by
William, earl of Warren, son-in-law to William the
Conqueror, who built a house for them at Lewes in
Sussex about the year 1077. There were 27 priories
and cells of this order in England, which were govern¬
ed by foreigners, afterwards made denizens.
CLUPEA, or Herring, in Ichthyology, a genus
belonging to the order of abdominales. The upper jaw
is furnished with a serrated mystache j the brancbiostege
membrane has eight rays ; a scaly serrated line runs
along the belly from the head to the tail; and the
belly-fins have frequently nine rays. There are 11
species, viz.
I. The harengus, or common herring, has no spots*
and the under jaw is longer than the upper one. A
herring dies immediately after it is taken out of the
water j whence arises the proverb, As dead as a her¬
ring. The meat is everywhere in great esteem, being
fat, soft, and delicate ; 'especially if it is dressed as soon
as caught, for then it is incomparably better than on the
next day.
The herring was unknown to the ancients. Not¬
withstanding the words and ftouns are by transla¬
tors rendered halec, the characters given to those fish
are common to such numbers of different species as ren¬
ders it impossible to say which they intended. |
Herrings are found from the highest northern lati¬
tudes yet known, as low as the northern coasts of r
France ; and except one instance, brought by Dod, of Herrings,
a few being once taken in the bay of Tangier, none where
are ever found more southerly. They are met withfoun^•
in vast shoals on the coast of America, as low as Ca¬
rolina. In Chesapeak-bay is an annual inundation of
those fish, which cover the shore in such quantities as
to become a nuisance. We find them again in the seas
of Kamtschatka, and probably they reach Japan j for
Kempfer mentions, in his account of the fish of that
country, some that are congenerous. The great win¬
ter rendezvous of the herring is within the arctic circle:
there they continue for many months in order to re¬
cruit themselves after the fatigue of spawning; the seas
within that space swarming with insect food in a far
greater degree than those of our warmer latitudes. 4
This mighty army begins to put itself in motion in the Immense
spring ; we distinguish this vast body by that name } shoals ot
for the word herring comes from the German heer, t^em'
“ an army,” to express their numbers. They begin
to appear off the Shetland isles in April and May ;
these are only the forerunners of the grand shoal which
comes
2
C L U l 215 ] C L U
IClupca. comes in June j and their appearance is marked by
—.y—certain signs, by the number of’ birds, such as gannets
and others, which follow to prey on them 5 but when
the main body approaches, its breadth and depth is
such as to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It
is divided into distinct columns of five or six miles in
length, and three or four in breadth, and they drive
the water before them with a kind of rippling: some¬
times they sink for the space of ten or fifteen minutes,
and then rise again to the surface j and in fine wea¬
ther reflect a variety of splendid colours like a field of
the most precious gems $ in which, or rather in a much
more valuable, light should this stupendous gift of Pro¬
vidence be considered by the inhabitants of the British
isles.
The first check this army meets in its march south¬
ward is from the Shetland isles, which divide it into
two parts; one wing takes to the east, the other to
the western shores of Great Britain, and fill every bay
and creek with their numbers; others pass on to¬
wards Yarmouth, the great and ancient mart of her¬
rings : they then pass through the British Channel,
and after that, in a manner disappear. Those which
take towards the west, after offering themselves to the
Hebrides, where the great stationary fishery is, pro¬
ceed to the north of Ireland, where they meet with a
second interruption, and are obliged to make a second
division : the one takes to the western side, and is
scarce perceived, being soon lost in the immensity of
the Atlantic ; but the other, that passes into the Irish
sea, rejoices and feeds the inhabitants of most of the
coasts that border on it. These brigades, as we may
call them, which are thus separated from the greater
columns, are often capricious in their motions, and do
^ not show an invariable attachment to their haunts,
fenderful Were we inclined to consider this partial migration
stinctof In a moral light, we might reflect with veneration and
esecrea- awe on j.|ie mlgfoty power which originally impressed
on this most useful body of his creatures the instinct
that directs and points out the course, that blesses and
enriches these islands, which causes them at certain
and invariable times to quit the vast polar deeps, and
offer themselves to our expecting fleets. That bene¬
volent Being has never been known, from the earliest
account of time, once to withdraw this blessing from
the whole ; though he often thinks propet to deny it
to particulars^ yet this partial failure (for which we see
no natural reason) should fill us with the most exalted
and grateful sense of his providence for impressing such
an invariable and general instinct on these fish towards
a southward migration when the whole is to be bene¬
fited, and to withdraw it when only a minute part is to
suffer.
This instinct was given them, that they might re¬
move for the sake of depositing their spawn in warmer
seas, that would mature and vivify it more assuredly
than those of the frozen zone. It is not from defect
of food that they set themselves in motion ; for they
come to us full of fat, and on their return are almost
universally observed to be lean and miserable. What
their food is near the pole we are not yet informed 5
but in our seas they feed much on the oniscus marinus,
a crustaceous insect, and sometimes on their own fry.
They are full of roe in the end of June, and conti¬
nue in perfection till the beginning of winter, when
they deposit their spawn. The young herrings begin Clupea.
to approach the shores in July and August, and are   'i/ "'mJ
then from half an inch to two inches long ; these in
Yorkshire are called herring sile. Though we have no Youn.t ones
particular authority for it, yet as very few young her- probably
rings are found in our seas during winter, it seems most retire with
certain that they must return to their parental haunts tt'e'r Pa‘
beneath the ice, to repair the vast destruction of theirieuls*
race during summer by men, fowl, and fish. Some of
the old herrings continue on our coast the whole year :
the Scarborough fishermen never put down their nets
but they catch a few 5 but the numbers that remain are
not worth comparison with those that return. See
Het'ring-Fisher y.
The Dutch are most extravagantly fond of this fish
when it is pickled. A premium is given to the first
buss that arrives in Holland with a lading of this their
ambrosia, and a vast price given for each keg. There
is as much joy among the inhabitants on its arrival, as
the Egyptians show on the first overflowing of the ^
Nile. Flanders had the honour of inventing the art pickling 0f
of pickling herrings. One William Beauklen of Bi* herrings
verlet, near Sluys, hit on this useful expedient j fi>omwhenin'
him was derived the name pickle, which we borrow from veiltc^*
the Dutch and German. Beauklen died in 1397. The
emperor Charles V. held his memory in such venera¬
tion for the service he did to mankind, as to do his
tomb the honour of a visit. It is very singular that
most nations give the name of their favourite dish to
the facetious attendant on every mountebank. Thus
the Dutch call him pickle herring ; the Italians maca¬
roni; the French, jean pottage; the Germans ham
ivurst, that is, jack sausage ; and the English dignify
him with the name oijack pudding. <5
2. The sprattus has 13 rays in the back fin. It is aSprattus,
native of the European seas, and has a great resem- where
blance to the herring, only it is of a less size. They !ounc1,
come into the river Thames below bridge in the be¬
ginning of November, and leave it in March $ and are,
during that season, a great relief to the poor of the ca¬
pital. At Gravesend and at Yarmouth they are cured
like red-herrings ; they are sometimes pickled, and are
little inferior in flavour to the anchovy, but the bones
will not drssoWe like those of the latter. ^
3. The alosa, or shad, has a forked snout, and black Alosa, or
spots on the sides. According to Belonius and Has-shad, where
selquist, this is a fish of passage in the Nile. The last{ouni}-
says, it is found in the Mediterranean near Smyrna,
and on the coast of Egypt near Rosetta 5 and that in
the months of December and January it ascends the
Nile as high as Cairo, where the people stuff it with
pot marjoram ; and when dressed in that manner, it s
will very nearly intoxicate the eater. In Great Bri-’t he ho®*1
tain the Severn affords this fish in higher perfection lIlc
than any other river. It makes its first appearance
there in May, but in very warm seasons in April; for
its arrival sooner or later depends much on the temper
of the air. It continues in the river about two months,
and then is succeeded by a variety which we shall have
occasion to mention hereafter.
The Severn shad is esteemed a very delicate fish
about the time of its first appearance, especially in that
part of the river that flows by Gloucester, where they
are taken in nets, and usually sell dearer than salmon :
some are sent to Eondon, where the fishmongers di¬
stinguish
C L U [2
Clupea stinguish them from those of the Thames by the French
1! name ahse. Whether they spawn in this river and the
^riusHim. ^ Wye js no(. determined, for their fry has not yet been
discovered. The old fish come from the sea into the
river in full roe. In the months of July and August,
multitudes of bleak frequent the river near Gloucester;
some of them are as big as a small herring, and these
the fishermen erroneously suppose to be the fry of the
shad. Numbers of these are taken near Gloucester, in
those months only, but none of the emaciated shad are
ever caught in their return.
The Thames shad does not frequent that river till
the latter end of May or beginning of June, and is
esteemed a very coarse and insipid sort of fish. The
Severn shad is sometimes caught in the Thames, though
rarely, and called allis (no doubt alose, the French
name) by the fishermen in that river. About the same
9 time, and rather earlier, the variety called, near Glou-
Twaite de- cester, the twaite, makes its appearance, is taken in
scubcd. great numbers in the Severn, and is held in as great
disrepute as the shad of the Thames. The differences
between each variety are as follow: the true shad
weighs sometimes eight pounds; but their general
size is from four to five. The twaite, on the con¬
trary, weighs from half a pound to two pounds,
which it never exceeds. The twaite differs from a
shad only in having one or more round black spots on
the sides ; if only one, it is always near the t gill; but
commonly there are three or four, placed one under
io the other.
Anchovy 4. The encrasicolus, or anchovy, has its upper jaw
escribe . jonger than the under one, and is about three inches
long. They are taken in vast quantities in the Medi¬
terranean, and are brought over here pickled. The
great fishery is at Georgia, a small isle west of Leg¬
horn. See Anchovy-Fishery.
The other species are, 5. The atherinoides has a
shining line on each side, and small belly-fins. It is a
native of Surinam. 6. The thrissa has 28 rays in the fin
at the anus. It is found in the Indian ocean. 7. The
sima has yellow fins, those of the belly being very
small. The mouth is flat ; the upper jaw is very
short; the body is of a shining silver colour, and the
fins are yellow. It is a native of Asia. 8. The sterni-
cla has no belly-fins, and the body is broad. It is a
native of Surinam. 9. The mystus is shaped like a
sword, and the fins at the anus are united. It is
found in the Indian ocean. 10. The tropica has a
wedge-like tail, and a white, broad, compressed body.
It is found at Ascension island. 11. The sinensis is very
like the common herring, but broader. It has no teeth,
and is a native of China.
CLUSIA, the Balsam-tree. See Botany Index.
CLUSINA palus, in Ancient Geography, a lake of
Tuscany, extending north-west between Clusium and
Arretium, and communicating with the Arnus and Cla-
nis. Now Chinna Palude.
CLUSINI fontes, (Horace), baths in Tuscany,
in the territory of Clusium, between this last to the
north, and Acula to the south, at the distance of eight
miles from each. Now Bagni di S. Casciana.
CLUSIUM, anciently called Camars, (Virgil, Li¬
vy) ; a town of Tuscany, at the south end of the Palus
Clusina, where it forms the Clanis ; the royal resi¬
dence of Porsenna, three days journey from Rome to
3
16 ] C L Y
the north, (Polybius). Clusinvs the epithet. Clusini clusium
Veteres the people. Now Chiusi. E. Long. 130, Lat. (}
430.—Clusium Novum, was a town of Tuscany, near Clyde,
the springs of the Tiber, in the territory of Arretium ;
where lies the Ager Clusinus: now called Casentino.
Clusini Novi, the people, (Pliny).
CLUTIA. See Botany Index.
CLUVIER, Phi Li I*, in Latin Cluverius, a cele¬
brated geographer, born at Dantzic in 1580. He tra¬
velled into Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands, in
order to study law ; but, being at Leyden, Joseph
Scaliger persuaded him to give way to his genius for
geography. Cluvier followed his advice, and for this
purpose visited the greatest part of the European
states. He was well versed in many languages; and
wherever he went, obtained illustrious friends and
protectors. At his return to Leyden, he taught there
with great applause ; and died in 1623, aged 43.
He wrote, 1. De tribus Rheni alveis, 2. Germania
antiqua. 3. Sicilia antiqua. 4. Italia antiqua. 5. In-
troductio in universam Geographiam. All justly esteem¬
ed.
CLYDE, a large river of Scotland, which, with
the rivers Tweed and Annan, has its source at the south
corner of Lanarkshire, and joins the sea at Greenock,
where it forms the Frith of Clyde. It is navigable for
small vessels up to Glasgow. The canal, which joins
the Forth, falls into it ten miles below that city. The
cataract called the Falls of the Clyde, opposite to La¬
nark, is a great natural curiosity, and the first scene
of the kind in Great Britain. This tremendous sheet
of water for about a mile falls from rock to rock. At
Stone-byres, the first fall is about 60 feet; the next
at Cora-Lynn, is over solid rock, and is still higher.
At both these places this great body of water exhibits
a grander and more interesting spectacle than imagina¬
tion can possibly conceive.
At Cora-Lynn, the falls are seen to most advantage
from a pavilion placed in a lofty situation, and which
is furnished with mirrors which produce a fine effect.
The cataract is full in view, seen over the tops of trees
and bushes, precipitating itself, for an amazing way,
from rock to rock, with short interruptions, forming a
rude slope of furious foam. The sides are bounded by
vast rocks, clothed on their tops with trees: on the
summit and very verge of one is a ruined tower, and
in front a wood overtopt by a verdant hill. A path
conducts the traveller down to the beginning of the fall,
into which projects a high rock, in floods insulated by
the water; and from the top is a tremendous view of
the furious stream. In the cliffs of this savage retreat
the brave Wallace is said to have concealed himself,
meditating revenge for his injured country.
On regaining the top, the walk is formed near the
verge of the rocks, which on both sides are perfectly
mural and equidistant, except where they overhang :
the river is pent up between them at a distance far be¬
neath ; not running, but rather sliding along a stony
bottom sloping, the whole way. The summits of the
rock are wooded ; the sides smooth and naked ; the
strata narrow and regular, forming a stupendous natu¬
ral masonry. After a walk of above half a mile on the
edge of this great chasm, on a sudden appears the
great and bold fall of Boniton, in a foaming sheet, far
projecting into a hollow, iu which the water shows a
violent
\
1
C L Y
Clyde violent agitation, and a wide extending mist arises
(j from the surface. Above that is another fall $ two
Clytia. ]esser succeed: beyond them the river winds, grows
r" more tranquil, and is seen for a considerable way,
bounded on one side by wooded banks, on the other by
rich and swelling fields.
The great fall of Stone-byres, first mentioned, has
more of the sublime in it than any of the others, and
is seen with more difficulty : it consists of two precipi¬
tous cataracts, falling one above the other into a vast
chasm, bounded by lofty rocks, forming an amazing
theatre to the view of those who take the pains to de¬
scend to the bottom. Between this and Cora-JLynn
there is another fall, called DundoJJlin.
CLYMENE, in fabulous history, the daughter of
Oceanus, who, being beloved by Apollo, he had by
her Phaeton, Lampatia, Egle, and Phebe. See PhaE-
TON.
CLYPEOLA, Treacle-mustard. See Botany
Index.
CLYSSUS, an extract prepared, not from one, but
sevei'al bodies mixed together; and, among the mo¬
derns, the term is applied to several extracts prepared
from the same body, and then mixed together.
CLYSTER, is a liquid remedy, to be injected
chiefly at the anus into the larger intestines. It is
usually administered by the bladder of a hog, sheep, or
ox, perforated at each end, and having at one of the
apertures an ivory pipe fastened with packthread. But
the French, and sometimes the Dutch, use a pewter
syringe, by which the liquor may be drawn in with
more ease and expedition than in the bladder, and like¬
wise more forcibly expelled into the large intestines.
This remedy should never be administered either too
hot or too cold, but tepid j for either of the former
will be injurious to the bowels.
Clysters are sometimes used to nourish and support a
patient who can swallow little or no aliment, by reason
of some impediment in the organs of deglutition j in
which case they may be made of broth, milk, ale, and
decoctions of barley and oats with wine. The English
introduced a new kind of clyster, made of the smoke
of tobacco, which has been used by several other na¬
tions, and appears to be of considerable efficacy when
other clysters prove ineffectual, and particularly in the
iliac passion, in the hernia incai'cerata, and for the re¬
covery of drowned persons.
CLYTEMNESTRA, in fabulous history, the daugh¬
ter of Jupiter and Leda. She married Agamemnon j
but while that prince was at the siege of Troy, she had
an amorous intrigue with AEgisthus, whom she engaged
to murder Agamemnon at his return to his dominions.
Her son Orestes, however, revenged the death of his
father by killing AEgisthus, with his mother Clytem-
nestra ; but was afterwards haunted by the Furies as
long as he lived.
CLYTIA, or CLYTIE, daughter of Oceanus and
Tethys, beloved by Apollo. She was deserted by her
lover, who paid his addresses to Leucothoe •, and this
so irritated her, that she discovered the whole intrigue
to her rival’s father. Apollo despised her the more
for thisg and she pined away, and was changed into a
flower, commonly called a sun-flower, which still turns
its head towards the sun in his course, in token of her
love.
VoL. VI. Part I.
C O A
CNEORUM, Widow-wail. See Botany Index, cneorum
CNICUS, Blessed-thistle. See Botany Index. i)
CNIDUS, in Ancient Geography, a Greek town of Coach.
Caria j situated on a horn or promontory of a peninsula. ' v
It had in front a double port, and an island lying before
it in form ol a theatre, which being joined to the con¬
tinent by moles or causeways, made Cnidus a dipolis
or double town (Strabo,) because a great number of
Cnid ians inhabited the island. Pausanias mentions a
bridge which joined the island to the. continent.—C/zfi/n
the people. Cnidius, the epithet.—Cnidia Venus, a
principal divinity of the Cnidians, (Horace). Her sta¬
tue was executed by Praxiteles j and so exquisitely
done, and so much admired, that people came from all
parts to view it (Pliny). Of this place was Eudoxus,
the fanmus astronomer and geometrician, who had there
an observatory (Strabo).
CNOSSUS, or Cnosus, anciently called Ceeratos,
from a cognominal river running by it j a city of Crete,
23 miles to the east of Gortina (Peutinger). Here
stood the sepulchre of Jupiter, the famous labyrinth,
and the palace of Minos, a very ancient king; here
happened the adventure of Ariadne his daughter with
Theseus. Called Gnosis (Ovid). Its port-town was
Heracleum, on the east side of the island.
COACH, a vehicle for commodious travelling, su¬
spended on leathers, and moved on wheels. In Bri¬
tain, and throughout Europe, the coaches are drawn
by horses, except in Spain, where they use mules. In
a part of the east, especially the dominions of the great
Mogul, their coaches are drawn by oxen. In Den-
maik they sometimes yoke rein-deer in their coaches ;
though rather for curiosity than use. The coachman
is ordinarily placed on a seat raised before the body of
the coach. But the Spanish policy has displaced him
in that country by a royal ordinance ; on occasion of
the duke d’Olivares, who found that a very important
secret, whereon he had conferred in his coach, had
been overheard and revealed by his coachman : since
that time the place of the Spanish coachman is the same
with that of the French stage coachman and our posti¬
lion, viz. on the first horse on the left.
According to Professor Beckmann, coaches of some
kind were known about the beginning of the l6tb cen¬
tury ; but the use of them was limited to w'omen of the
highest rank. It was accounted disgraceful in men to
ride in them. It appears from the history of that pe¬
riod, that the electors and princes of the empire, when
they did not choose to attend the meetings of the states,
excused themselves to the emperor, by informing him,
that their health would not permit them to travel on
horseback ; and it was considered unbecoming to ride
in carriages like women. But it seems also pretty
certain, that about the end of the 15th century, the
emperor, kings, and some princes, travelled in covered
carriages, and also employed them on public solemni¬
ties.
The nuptial carriage of the first wife of Leopold, a
Spanish princess, cost, including the harness, 38,000
florins. The coaches used by that emperor are thus
described. In the imperial coaches no great magnifi¬
cence was to be seen, being covered over with red
cloth and black nails. The harness was black, and no
gold was to be seen in the whole work. They had
glass pannels, for which reason they were called imptn-
E e rial
[ 217 1
t
C O A [21
Coach, rial coaches. The harness was ornamented with frin-
“■'“v'"" J ges of red silk on days of festivity. The imperial
coaches were only distinguished by having leather tra¬
ces, while the ladies in the emperor’s suite were con¬
tented with traces made of ropes. Fifty gilt coaches
having six horses each, were to be seen in 1681 at
the court of Ernest Augustus of Hanover. The first
time that plenipotentiaries appeared in coaches, was
at the imperial commission in 1613, held at Er-
furth.
We meet with ample proof in the history of France,
that the monarchs rode on horses, the servants on
mules, and ladies of distinction sometimes on asses, at
Paris, in the 14th, 15th, and even 16th centuries. Yet
carriages of some kind seem to have been used in
France at an early period, since there is still preserved
a statute of Philip the Fair, issued in 1294, for the sup¬
pression of luxury, and in which the wives of citizens
were prohibited the use of carriages.
The oldest coaches used by the ladies of England
were denominated whirlicotes, a name now sunk in ob¬
livion. About the end of the 14th century, when
Richard II. was forced to fly before his rebellious sub¬
jects, he and all his attendants travelled on horseback,
his mother alone riding in a coach, as she was indispo¬
sed. This became afterwards unfashionable, the daugh¬
ter of Charles IV. having showed the ladies of Eng¬
land how conveniently she could ride on a side-sad¬
dle.
According to Stow, coaches first came to be used in
England about the middle of the 16th century, having
been introduced from Germany by the earl of Arun¬
del. The English plenipotentiary came to Scotland in
a coach in the year 1598, and they were generally
used about the year 1605.
Authors observe, as a thing very singular, that there
were at first no more than three coaches in Paris ; the
first that of the queen j the second that of Diana mis¬
tress of Henry II. j and the third belonging to Jean de
Lava de Bois Dauphin ; whose enormous bulk disabled
him from travelling on horseback. One may hence
judge how much vanity, luxury, and idleness, have
grown upon our hands in latter days ; there being now
computed in that same city no less than 15,000
coaches.
Coaches have had the fate of all other inventions, to
be brought by degrees to their perfection •, at present
they seem to want nothing, either with regard to ease
or magnificence. Louis XIV. of France made several
sumptuary laws for restraining the excessive richness of
coaches, prohibiting the use of gold, silver, &c. there¬
in j but they have had the fate to be neglected.
The following are the duties payable on carriages of
this description in Britain (1804).
For one carriage, with four wheels, the
annual sum of - - -
For two -
three -
four - - -
five -
six ■■ - -
seven - - -
eight - -
nine and upwards
L.io o o
11 o o
12 O O
12 10 O
13 O O
13 10 o
1400
14 10 o
15 o o
8 ] C O A
And for every additional body successive¬
ly used on the same carriage or number
of wheels, the further sum of - L.5 O
For carriages with less than four wheels,
drawn by one horse - - 5 5
For carriages drawn by two or more
horses - - - 77
For everv additional body - 210
For carriages with four wheels let out to
hire - - - - 8 8
Every maker of coaches, chaises, chariots, &c. must,
from and after the 5th day of July 1785, take out at
the excise office in London, or of their agents in the
country, a license, to be renewed annually at least ten
days before the expiration of the former, for which they
must pay 20s. They must also pay 20s. duty for every
four-wheeled carriage newly built for sale, and 10s. for
every two-wheeled carriage. These duties are also pay¬
able to the commissioners of the excise in town, or their
agents in the country.
Coach-makers in Scotland are to take out their li¬
censes and pay the duties to the commissioners of ex¬
cise in Edinburgh, or their agents in the country of
that part of Great Britain.
Every coach-maker neglecting to take out a license,
and renew the same annually, forfeits 10I.; and ne¬
glecting or refusing to settle every six weeks, in the
manner particularly directed by the act, is a forfeiture
of 20I. See Coach, Supplement.
Hackney-CoACHES, those exposed to hire, in the
streets of London, and some other great cities, at rates
fixed by authority.
One thousand hackney-coaches are allowed in Lon¬
don and Westminster : which are to be licensed by
commissioners, and to pay a duty to the crown. They
are all numbered, having their numbers engraved on
tin plates fixed on the coach-doors. Their fares or rates
are fixed by act of parliament; and by a late act have
been increased in consequence of a new weekly tax.'
Stage-CoACHES are those appointed for the convey¬
ance of travellers from one city or town to another.
The masters of stage coaches are not liable to an ac¬
tion for things lost by their coachmen, who have mo¬
ney given them to carry the goods, unless where such
master takes a price for the same.
Persons keeping any coach, berlin, landau, or other
carriage with four wheels, or any calash, chaise, chair,
or other carriage with two wheels, to be employed as
public stage-coaches or carriages, for the purpose of
conveying passengers for hire to and from different
places, shall pay annually 53. for a license j and no per¬
son so licensed shall by virtue of one license keep more
than one carriage, under the penalty of 10I.
Mail-CoACHES are stage-coaches of a particular con¬
struction to prevent overturns j and for a certain consi¬
deration carry his majesty’s mails, which are protected
by a guard, and subject to the regulations of the post-
office. They are punctual as to their time of arrival
and departure, are restricted to four inside passengers,
and from experience have proved very beneficial to the
commerce and correspondence of this country. The
late John Palmer, Esq. who had the merit of the in¬
vention, and was indefatigable in bringing the esta¬
blishment to a permanent footing, was greatly pa¬
tronized
C O A [2
Coach tronized by government j and got, as the reward of his
|l service, a handsome appointment in the general post-
office, London. See Wheel-Carriages.
Coach, or Couch, is also a sort of chamber or apart¬
ment in a large ship of war near the stern. The floor
of it is formed by the aftmost part of the quarter-deck,
and the roof of it by the poop : it is generally the ha¬
bitation of the captain.
COADLNATE, in Botany, an order of plants in
the fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, in which
he has these genera, viz. annona, liriodendrum, mag¬
nolia, uvaria, michelia, thea.
COAGULATION, in Chemistry, is performed by
six diflerent agents $ and by each of these in several
different manners. I. It is performed with water, by
congealing, crystallizing, and precipitating, as in the
mercurius vitge and some other preparations. 2. With
oil, which, by the force of fire, unites with sulphur,
salts, and metals. 3. With alcohol, upon the spirit of
sal ammoniac, the white of eggs, the serum of the
blood, &c. 4. With acid and alkali growing solid to¬
gether, as in the tartarum vitriolatum. 5. With fixed
alkali, as in milk. And, 6. With acid salts j as in
milk, serum, and the whites of eggs.
COAGULUM, is the same with what in English
we call runnet, or rafher the curd formed thereby.
COAKS. For the exciting of intense heats, as for
the smelting of iron ore, and for operations where the
acid and oily particles would be detrimental^ as the
drying of malt, fossil-coals are previously charred, or
reduced to coaks ; that is, they are made to undergo an
operation similar to that by which charcoal is made.
By this operation coals are deprived of their phlegm,
fheir acid liquor, and part of their fluid oil. Coaks,
therefore, consist of the two most fixed constituent parts,
the heavy oil and the earth, together with the acid
concrete salt, which, though volatile, is dissolved by
the oil and the earth.
COAL, among chemists, signifies any substance
containing oil, which has been exposed to the fire in
close vessels, so that all its volatile principles are ex¬
pelled, and that it can sustain a red heat without fur¬
ther decomposition. Coal is commonly solid, black,
very dry, and considerably hard. The specific cha¬
racter of perfect coal is its capacity of burning with
access of air, while it becomes red hot and sparkles,
sometimes with a sensible flame which gives little light,
with no smoke or soot capable of blackening white
bodies.
Coal, or carbonaceous matter, is capable of decom¬
posing sulphuric acid, and separates the sulphur :
added to nitrous acid, it inflames it *, or to metallic
earths, it reduces them to metals. But in these pro¬
cesses, or new combinations, the assistance of red heat
is required. Coal seems to be an unalterable com¬
pound in every instance but those mentioned, of burn¬
ing in the open air, and of separating oxygen from
other bodies : for it may be exposed in close vessels to
the most violent and long-continued fire without suffer¬
ing the least decomposition. No disposition to fuse, or
any diminution of weight, can be perceived. It is a
substance exceedingly fixed, and perhaps the most re¬
fractory in nature. It resists the action of the most
powerful menstrua, liver of sulphur alone excepted.
19 C O A
Coal is evidently a result of the decomposition of the Coal,
compound bodies from which it is obtained. It con- y—
sists of the greatest part of the earthy principle of these
compound bodies, with which a part of the saline prin¬
ciples, and some of the phlogiston of the decomposed
oil, are fixed and combined very intimately. Coal can
never be formed but by the phlogiston of a body which
has been in an oily state j hence it cannot be formed
by sulphur, phosphorus, metals, nor by any other sub¬
stance the phlogiston of which is not in an oily state. This is the
Also every oily matter treated with fire in close ves-ohl chemi-
sels, furnishes true coal ; so that whenever a charry re-cal ^octrine
siduum is left, we may be certain that the substance
employed in the operation contained oil. Lastly, the^
inflammable principle of coal, although it proceeds
from oil, certainly is not oil, but pure phlogiston, since
coal added to sulphuric acid can form sulphur, to phos¬
phoric acid can form phosphorus, &c. and since oil can
produce none of these effects till it has been decom¬
posed and reduced to the state of coal. Besides, the
phenomena accompanying the burning of coal are dif¬
ferent from those which happen when oily substances
are burnt. The flame of charcoal is not so bright as
that of oil, and produces no flame or soot.
All the phlogiston of coal is not burnt in the open
air, particularly when the combustion is slow. One
part of it exhales without decomposition, and forms a
vapour, or an invisible and insensible gas. This va¬
pour (which is, or at least contains a great deal of,
fixed air) is found to be very pernicious, and to affect
the animal system in such a manner as to occasion
death in a very short time. For this reason it is dan¬
gerous to remain in a close place, where charcoal or
any other sort of coal is burnt. Persons struck by
this vapour are stunned, faint, suffer a violent headach,
and fall down senseless and motionless. The best me¬
thod of recovering them is by exposure to the open
air, and by making them swallow vinegar, and breathe
its steam.
Amongst coals, some differences are observable,
which proceed from the difference of the bodies from
which they are made $ some coals, particularly, are
more combustible than others. This combustibility
seems to depend on the greater or less quantity of sa¬
line principle they contain j that is, the more of the
saline principle it contains, the more easily it decom¬
poses and burns. For example, coals made of plants
and wood containing much saline matter capable of
fixing it, the ashes of which contain much alkaline salt,
burn vigorously and produce much heat; whereas the
coals of animal matters, the saline principles of which are
volatile, and cannot be fixed but in small quantity, and
the ashes of which contain little or no salt, are scarcely
at all combustible. For they not only do not kindle so
easily as charcoal does, nor even burn alone, but they
cannot be reduced to ashes, without very great trouble,
even when the most effectual methods are used to faci¬
litate the combustion. The coal of bullocks blood has
been kept for six hours very red in a shallow crucible,
surrounded by burning charcoal, and constantly stir¬
red all the time, that it might be totally exposed to
the air j yet could it not be reduced to white, or even
gray, ashes : It still remained very black, and full of
phlogiston. The coals of pure oils, or of concrete
E e a oily
‘ C O A
Coal, oily substances and soot, which is a kind of coal raised
—v——' during inflammation, are as difficultly reduced to ashes
as animal coals. These coals contain very little saline
matter, and their ashes yield no alkali. The coals
which are so difficultly burnt, are also less capable of
inflaming with nitre than others more combustible ; and
some of them even in a great measure resist the action
of nitre.
Coal, in Mineralogy, a kind of solid inflammable
substance, supposed to be of a bituminous nature, and
commonly used for fuel. Of this substance there are
various species.
1. Pit-coal (L ithan t hr ax'), is a black, solid, com¬
pact, brittle mass, of moderate hardness, lamellated
structure, more or less shining, but seldom capable of a
good polish } and does not melt when heated. Ac¬
cording to Kirwan, it consists of petrol or asphaltum,
intimately mixed with a small portion of earth, chiefly
argillaceous, seldom calcareous, and frequently mixed
with pyrites. A red tincture is extracted from it by
spirit of wine, but caustic alkali attacks the bituminous
part. From some sorts of it a varnish may be made by
means of fat oils. Fixed alkali has never been found
in any kind of it, nor sulphur, unless when it happens
to be mixed with pyrites.—None of the various kinds
are found to be electrics per se (a).
The varieties of lithanthrax, enumerated by Cron-
stedt, are, I. With a small quantity of argillaceous
earth and sulphuric acid. It is of a black colour, and
shining texture ; it burns, and is mostly consumed in
the fire, but leaves, however, a small quantity of ashes.
2. Slaty coal.
2. Culm coal, called holm, by the Swedes, has a
greater proportion of argillaceous earth and sulphuric
acid, with a moderate proportion of petrol. It has the
same appearance with the foregoing, though its texture
is more dull : it burns with a flame without being con¬
sumed, but leaves behind it a slag of the same bulk
with the original volume of the coal. The following
is Mr Kirwan’s description of it, from the memoirs of
the Stockholm academy. “ Its fracture has a rougher
section than the cannel coal ; its specific gravity from
1.300 to 1.370. The best kind affords, by distilla¬
tion, at first fixed air, then an acid liquor, after¬
wards inflammable air, and a light oil of the nature
of petrol j then a volatile alkali j and lastly pitch-
C O A
oil. The residuum is nearly three quarters of the Coal.
whole; and being slowly burnt, affords 13 per cent.' y—
of ashes, which consist mostly of argillaceous earth ;
and about three hundredth parts of them are magnetic.
It is found in England, and among some aluminous ores
in Sweden.”
3. Slate-coal contains such a quantity of argillaceous
earth, that it looks like common slate ; however, it
burns by itself like a flame. M. Magellan is of opi¬
nion that this is the bituminous substance already
described. This schistus is of a dark bluish 'rusty co¬
lour; when thrown on the fire it burns with a lively
flame, and almost as readily as the oily wood of dry
olive-tree, or lignum vitae; emitting the very dis¬
agreeable smell of petrol. Such large quarries of it
are found near Furbeck in Dorsetshire, that the poorer
part of the inhabitants are thence supplied with fuel.
From the appearance of this slaty coal, Cronstedt has
been induced to suppose that the earth of all kinds of
coal is argillaceous, though it is not so easy to distin¬
guish it after being burnt. The pit-coals, he says,
contain more or less of the sulphuric acid ; for which
reason the smoke arising from them attacks silver in
the same manner as sulphur does, let the coals be ever
so free from marcasite, which, however, is often im¬
bibed or mixed with them.
4. Cannel coal {Ampelites'), is of a dull black co¬
lour ; breaks easily in all directions ; and, if broken
transversely, presents a smooth conchoidal surface. It
burns with a light lively flame, but is very apt to fly
in pieces in the fire ; however, it is said to be entirely
deprived of this property by immersion in water for
some hours previous to its being used. It contains a
considerable quantity of petrol in a less condensed state
than other coal. Its specific gravity is about 1.270.
This kind of coal being of an uniform hard texture,
is easily turned on a lathe, and takes a good polish.
Hence it is used for making various toys, which appear
almost as well as if made of the finest jet.
5. Kilkenny coal has a specific gravity equal to
1.400. It contains the largest quantity of asphaltum ;
burns with less smoke and flame, and more intensely,
though more slowly, than the cannel coal. The quan¬
tity of earth it contains does not exceed one-twentieth
part of its weight ; but this kind of coal is frequently
mixed with pyrites. It is found in the county of Kil¬
kenny,
[ 220 J
(a) “ The varieties of this coal (says M. Magellan) are very numerous, according to the different sub¬
stances with which it is mixed ; but in regard to their economical uses, only two kinds are taken notice of by
the British legislature, viz. culm and caking coals. The caking coals, in burning, show an incipient fusion, so
that their smallest pieces unite in the fire into one mass ; by which means the smallest pieces, and even the
mere dust of this kind, are almost equally valuable with the largest pieces. The other sort, called does not
fuse or unite in the fiercest fire ; so that the small coal, being unfit lor domestic purposes, can only be used in
burning limestone.
“ It should be an easy matter for any person to distinguish culm from small caking coal, either by trying to
make fire with it in a common grate, without interposing any other fuel between it; when if it kindles, it is a
caking coal ; if not, it is culm : Or by putting some of these small fragments ol coal on an ignited iron shovel ;
if they melt and run together, they belong to the caking kinds ; if not, they are culm. But it seems that coal
merchants are now in the custom of calling culm the powdery parts of pit-coal, ot whatsoever kind they may
happen to be. The reason of this is, that there is a difierence in the duty payable by culm and by caking coals,
There never was any difficulty, however, on the subject; nor would there be any difficulty in collecting the tax,
were it not for the insufferable ignorance and love of despotic oppression which generally pervades the underling
officers of the revenue.”
C O A [2
kennv, belonging to the province of Leinster in Ire¬
land. The quality of it as burning without smoke, is
proverbially used as an encomium on the county.
6. Sulphureous coal consists of the former kinds mix¬
ed with a very considerable portion of pyrites j whence
it is apt to moulder and break when exposed to the air,
after which water will act upon it. It contains yel¬
low spots that look like metal ; burns with a sulphu¬
reous smell, leaving behind it either slag or sulphu¬
reous ashes, or both. Its specific gravity is 1.500 or
more.
7. Bovcrj coal (Xylanthrax') is of a brown or
brownish-black colour, and of a yellow laminar tex¬
ture. Its laminae are frequently flexible when first
dug, though they generally harden when exposed to
the air. It consists of wood penetrated with petrol
or bitumen, and frequently contains pyrites, alum,
and vitriol. According to the German chemists, its
ashes contain a little fixed alkali; but Mr Mills dif¬
fers from them on this subject. By distillation it yields
a fetid liquor mixed with a volatile alkali and oil 5 part
of which is soluble in alcohol, and part of a mineral
nature, and insoluble. It is found in almost all the
countries of Europe.
These are the most considerable varieties of coals
commonly known; but we must not imagine, that
each of them is to he met homogeneous in those places
where they are found. On the contrary, the difttr-
ent qualities and proportions of their ingredients make
a vast number of other varieties, fit for different pur¬
poses, according to the quality and quantity ot those
they contain. Thus, various kinds of coals are often
found mixed with one another under ground, and
some of the finer sorts sometimes run like veins be¬
tween those of a coarse kind. Thus, M. Magellan
observed in the fine coals employed in a curious ma¬
nufactory at Birmingham, that they produced a much
clearer flame than he had ever observed from common
coal j yet, on inquiry, he found that these were picked
out from the common coals of the country, through
which thev ran in veins, and were easily distinguished
by the manufacturers, though they did not afford suf¬
ficient indications ot a specific difference. The pur¬
pose to which they were applied was the moulding rods
of transparent and coloured glass into the shapes proper
for common buttons, which they performed with asto¬
nishing expedition.
Fourcroy remarks, that this fossil bitumen, ■ when
heated in contact with a body in combustion, and ha¬
ving a free access of air, kindles the more slowly and
with the greater difficulty in proportion as it is more
weighty and compact. When once kindled, it emits a
strong "and durable heat, and burns for a long time
before it is consumed. The matter that is burned,
and produces the flame, appears very dense, and seems
united to some other substance which retards its de¬
struction. On burning, it emits a particular strong
smell, which is not at all sulphureous when the coal
contains no pyrites. When the combustible, oily, and
other volatile parts of the coal are dissipated, if the com¬
bustion be then stopped, the remainder is found to be
reduced to a true charred state, and is called coak.
This substance is capable of exciting the most intense
heat, for which purpose it is used in metallurgic works
*!l over Britain.
1 ] - C O A
“ It is well known (says M. Magellan), that the
English method of burning pit coal into coak has been
a most profitable and happy acquisition for the smelt-,
ing our ores, and for many other metallurgical and
chemical processes in this island. But the ingenious
and advantageous undertaking of Lord Dundonald, by
which he turns to a very considerable profit the mines
of coals in his and other estates, building ovens of a
proper construction for burning pit coal into coak,
and at the same time for collecting, in separate re¬
ceptacles, the volatile alkali, oil, tar, and pitch, which
were generally lost by the usual method, deserves to be
noticed, as it affords a very remarkable instance of the
great losses to mankind, for want of carefully attend¬
ing to every result from great processes of art when
made on a large scale. These ovens are so contri¬
ved, as to admit an under supply of air ; and the
coals, after being kindled, decompose themselves by a
slow but incomplete combustion, which does not de¬
stroy the ingredients. The residuum left in the oven
proves to be most excellent cinders or coaks $ whilst
the volatile parts, which otherwise would be dissipated
in the air, are separated and condensed in reservoirs, or
receptacles of capacious size, placed at proper distances
beyond the reach of fire. Mons. Faujas de St Fond,
who visited these works in a journey he made to Scot¬
land, undertook to erect a similar kind of an oven in
France; and it is rather singular, that he endeavours
to establish a claim of having discovered the same pro¬
cesses before he saw them in Scotland, as if it did not re¬
flect a greater honour on his industry, to carry back to
his country some useful knowledge, than to return as
ignorant as our English travellers,” &c.
On subjecting pit-coal of any kind to distillation in
close vessels, it first yields a phlegm or watery liquor,
then an ethereal or volatile oil, afterwards a volatile al¬
kali, and lastly a thick and greasy oil 5 but it is re¬
markable, that, by rectifying this last oil, a transparent
thin and light oil of a straw colour is produced, which
being exposed to the air becomes black like animal
oil. From this and other observations, the general
opinion is, that coals, bitumens, and other oily sub¬
stances found in the mineral kingdom, derive their
origin from vegetables buried in the earth, since it is
well known that only organized bodies have the power
of producing oily and fat substances. “ The amazing
irregularities, gaps, and breaks (says M. Magellan) of
the strata of coals, and of other fossil substances, e-
vince that this globe has undergone the most violent
convulsions, by which its parts have been broken, de¬
tached, and overturned in different ways, burying large
tracts of their upper surfaces, with all the animal and
vegetable productions there existing, at the time of
those horrible catastrophes, whose epoch far precedes
all human records. And it is easy to be conceived,
that the various heaps and congeries of these vegetable
and animal substances, remaining for ages and ages in
the bowels of the earth, have obtained various consist¬
encies, and still produce those oily and bituminous jui¬
ces, which find W’ay to gush out, leaving behind their
thickest parts on the same places where they are found,
and in many others where the industry of mankind ne¬
ver will be able to penetrate.”
COAL-Mine. SeeCoALERY- Maliciously setting fire
to coal-mines is felony, by stat. 10 Geo. II. c. 32. § 6. ,
Small t
GOA [ 222 ] C O A
History of
coals.
* See 4m.
•pelites.
f L. xxxvi.
cap. 26.
Augustus
placed the
statues of
four ele¬
phants
made of it
Coal, Small Coal, a sort of charcoal prepared from the
Coalery. spray and brushwood, stripped off from the branches of
v """ f coppice wood, sometimes bound in bairns for that pur¬
pose, and sometimes charred without binding, in which
case it is called “ coming together.”
COALERY, Coaliery, or Colliery j a coal-
work, or place where Coals are dug.
It is generally agreed, that our cannel coal * is the
lapis ampelites of the Romans, though it seems to
have been used by them only for making toys, brace¬
lets, See. But of that common fuel which we denomi¬
nate coals, the native Romans were entirely ignorant.
It is certain that they are not, as some have imagined,
the lapis obsidianus of Pliny, about which there have
been great disputes f : nor the Gagates or Jet,
which others, again, have taken for the lapis obsidia¬
nus : though the lightness and texture show plainly
that it is not either stone or coal. In fact, there are
no beds ol it in the compass of Italy. The great line
of that fuel seems to sweep away round the globe, from
in the tern nort^‘eas*; to s°uth-west j not ranging at a distance even
pie of Con- fr°m tlie south-easterly parts of our island, as is ge-
cord. nerally imagined, but actually visiting Brabant and
France, and yet avoiding Italy.
But the primaeval Britons appear to have used it.
And in the precincts of Manchester particularly, which
are furnished with an inexhaustible abundance of it,
they could not have remained unapprised of'the agree-
IVhitaker's able combustible around them. The currents there
History of frequently bring down fragments of coal from the
Munches- mountains : and in the long and winding course of
them through the parish, the Britons would soon mark
the shining stones in the channels ; and by the aid of
accident, or the force of reflection, find out the utility
oi them. But we can advance still nearer to a cer¬
tainty. Several pieces of coal were discovered some
years ago in the sand under the Roman way to Bib-
chester, when both were dug up at the construction of
a house in Quay-street. The number of pieces, seve¬
ral of them as large as eggs, was not less than 40 5 and
a quantity of slack was dug up with them. These cir¬
cumstances show the coals to have been lodged upon the
spot before the road of the Romans covered it. That
t i. e. “ the ground being in the neighbourhood of Mancenion%, the
place of Britons had there reposited a quantity of coals, proba-
ancieut Bri- ^ ^or ^ie use ^le gai rison ; and many of the small-
tish town, er figments, and some of the slack were buried in the
the site of sand upon which they w’ere laid. And that the Britons
which was in general were acquainted with this fuel, is evident
Castieikli1 fl'om its aPPeilation amongst us at present, which is
not Saxon, but British $ and subsists among the Irish
in their 0 gual, and among the Cornish in their kolav,
to this day.
The extensive beds of fuel, therefore, with which the
kingdom of England, and the precincts of Manchester,
are so happily stored, were first noticed by the skill, ‘
and first opened by the labour of the Britons j and
some time before the arrival of the Romans among us.
And the nearer quarries in the confines of Bradford,
Newton, and Manchester, would naturally attract the
notice, and invite the inquiries of the Britons, before
any others.. The current of the Medlock, which
washes the sides of them, would bring down specimens
of the riches within, lodge many of them about the
at Man¬
chester.
Castlefield, and allure the Britons successively to a col- Coalorv
lection of the one, and a search after the other. —y~—
But, even for ages after the discovery, wood continu¬
ed to compose the general fuel of the nation. In 852,
a grant was made of some lands by the abbey of Peter¬
borough, under the reservation of certain boons and
payments in kind to the monastery j as, one night’s
entertainment j 10 vessels of Welsh, and two of com¬
mon ale ; 60 cart-loads of wood, and 12 of pit-coal j
where we see the quantity of coal was only one cart¬
load to five of wood. The latter naturally continued
the principal article of our fuel as long as the forests
and thickets presented themselves so ready to the hand j
and such it continued to a very late period. The
first public notice of the former is mentioned by Mr
Hume to have been in the time of Henry III. who, in
the year 1272, granted a charter to the town of New¬
castle, giving the inhabitants a license to dig coals j
and the first statute relating to this article was the 9th
Henry V. c. 10. ordaining all keels in the port of
Newcastle to be measured by commissioners, before
carriage of coals, on pain of forfeiture. They were not
brought into common use till the reign of Charles I. j
and were then sold for about 17s. a chaldron. In some Campbell'
years after the Restoration, there were about 200,000 Political
chaldrons burnt in London j in 1670, about 270,000
chaldrons j at the Revolution upwards of 300,000 chal¬
drons ; and at present, full 600,000 are annually con¬
sumed there. There is, besides, an immense consump¬
tion in other parts of Britain, and in Ireland. In Scot¬
land, they supply their own consumption, and also ex¬
port. In Ireland, though they have coal, yet they take
annually to the value of 30,000!. from England, and
12,cool, from Scotland.
The most remarkable coalery, or coal-work, that we
have ever had in this island, was that wrought at Bor-
rowstounness, under the sea. The veins of coal were
found to continue under the bed of the sea in this place,
and the colliers had the courage to work the vein near
half way over ; there being a mote half a mile from the
shore, where there was an entry that went down into
the coal-pit, under the sea. This was made into a
kind of round quay or mote, as they call it, built so as
to keep out the sea, which flowed there twelve feet.
Here the coals were laid, and a ship of that draught
of water could lay her side to the mote, and take in
the coal.-—-This famous coalery belonged to the earl
of Kincardine’s family. The fresh water which sprung
from the bottom and sides of the coal-pit was always
drawn out upon the shore by an engine moved by wa¬
ter, that drew it forty fathoms. This coal-pit con¬
tinued to be wrought many years to the great profit of
the owners, and the wonder of all that saw it; but, at
last, an unexpected high tide drowned the whole at
once : the labourers had not time to escape, but perish¬
ed in it.
There are several other countries in Europe which
possess considerable coal-mines j as France, Liege,
Germany, and Sweden. Also on the other side of the
Atlantic ocean, there has been coal discovered, and
wrought : in Newfoundland, Cape-Breton, Canada, 2
and some of the New England provinces. But in all Excel Jen ej
these countries, the coal is of a quality much inferior ®l'|
to the British, and entirely unfit to be used in manyt^1*
manufactures j
C O A [ 223 ] C O A
Coalery.
manufactures; so that they import coal from Britain
for various manufactures. For a fuller account of the
coal in different countries of the world, see TFilhams's
Mineral Kingdom, 2d edition, by James Millar, M. D.
Edinburgh, 1810.
importance 0ur inland coal-trade, that is, carrying coals from
fthe coal-Newcastle, Sunderland, Blith, and other adjacent places
rade
in the north of England, as also from the frith of Edin¬
burgh in Scotland, and other places adjacent, to the
city of London; and to the port towns on the coast all
the way, as well on this side of Newcastle, north, as up
the channel as high as Portsmouth west, is a prodigious
article, and employs abundance of shipping and sea¬
men ; insomuch that, in a time of urgent necessity, the
coalery navigation alone has been able to supply the go¬
vernment with a body of seamen for the royal navy,
able to man a considerable fleet at a very short warn¬
ing, and that without difficulty, when no other branch
of trade could do the like. Likewise the Whitehaven
coaleries in Cumberland, belonging to Lord Lonsdale,
furnish several counties in Ireland with coals, and con¬
stantly employ upwards of 2000 seamen ; which also
is a noble nursery for the navy of this kingdom. And
not only do the pit-coal sufficiently supply all the ports,
but, by means of those ports and the navigable rivers,
all the adjacent counties very far inland.
In short, coals, though not an exclusive, yet may,
with propriety, be styled a peculiar blessing to Britain,
from their great plenty, their acknowledged excel¬
lence, and their being found in such places as are
conveniently situated for exportation. Nor is there
any danger of the export trade being lessened even by
the several duties that have been laid upon them ; for
the foreign consumpt being founded in necessity with
regard to manufactures, and in economy where they
are used for convenience (wood and turf being dearer
than coals with the duty), we need be in no fear of
the markets declining. There is as little room to be
alarmed from an apprehension of their being exhausted ;
as the present works are capable of supplying us for a
long series of years, and there are many other mines
ready to be opened when these shall fail. Besides,
there are known to be coals in many parts of the three
kingdoms, which hitherto they have had no encourage¬
ment to work.
Besides the value of this commodity as a conveni-
ency of life, as an article of commerce, and as giving
rise to a nursery of seamen for the increase of the
marine ; other important advantages deserve to be no¬
ticed. Coals are in many respects, and in a very high
degree useful to the landed interest ; not only by rai¬
sing exceedingly the real value, and of course the pur¬
chase, of those lands in which they are found, and those
through which it is necessary to pass * from the works
‘ lliese are to the places where they are embarked, but from the
'alfyStyled£eneral iraProvemeR*;s they have occasioned; so that
way-leaves vei7 few counties are now better cultivated than Nor-
md are let thumberland, and the same effects they have had in a
U as high greater or less degree in other places. Thousands of
,^se|jsanylaborious people are employed in and about the mines;
perty in '0 thousands more in conveying them to the ports, and
Britain. on board the ships ; to say nothing of those that draw
their subsistence from the carriage of them by land to
supply families, &c. There are also great numbers
that live in a superior station ; as stewards, directors, Coalery.
factors, agents, book-keepers, &c. To these we may -y—J
add the extraordinary encouragement given to inge¬
nious artists who have invented, and the numerous
workmen continually employed about those several
curious and costly machines which, for a variety of
purposes in this business, are in continual use, and of
course in continual wear ; wTe may join to these the
multitudes that obtain their living from the many ma¬
nufactures in which they are employed, and which
could not be carried on but by the help and cheapness
of coals. Lastly, the produce of coals exported, which
amounts to a very considerable sum, besides being pro¬
fitable to the owners, merchants, and mariners, is so
much clear gain to the nation.
It might be expected, that a trade so beneficial to
individuals, and to the nation in general, and which
has been gradually increasing for several centuries past,
would have been advanced by this time to very great
perfection, and reduced to a regular system. But, in
one very essential respect, it is found to be quite other¬
wise. The art of working coal-mines in the most pro¬
fitable manner is indeed highly improved ; but the fun¬
damental of the art, that of searching for and disco¬
vering coal in any district of country where it has not
yet been found, has never, that we know of, been
treated in a systematic manner. The reader, therefore, *
will not be displeased to find this defect supplied in the
course of the present article, together with a detail of
all the other operations in the business of coaleries. 4
The terrestrial matters w'hich compose the solid Situation of
parts of the earth are disposed in strata, beds, or layers,tll£ stl''!:a•
the under surface of one bearing against or lying upon
the upper surface of that below it, which last bears or
lies on the next below in the same manner.
Tiiese strata consist of very different kinds of mat¬
ter, such as free-stone, lime-stone, metal-stone or whin-
stone, coal, &c. as will be particularly specified in the
sequel.
Some of these strata are of considerable thickness,
being often found from 100 to 200 feet or upwards,
nearly of the same kind of matter from the superior
to the inferior surface ; and others are found of the least
thickness imaginable, one inch or less.
All these strata are divided or parted from each
other laterally, either by their even, smooth, polished
surfaces, with very thin lamina of soft or dusty matter
betwixt them, called the parting, which renders them
easy to separate ; or else only by the surfaces closely
conjoined to each other*, without any visible matter in¬
terposed betwixt them : yet the different substance of
each stratum is not in the least intermixed, though
sometimes they adhere so strongly together, that it is
very difficult to part or disjoin them r in this last case
they are said to have a had parting.
Besides this principal division or parting laterally,
there are, in some strata, secondary divisions or part¬
ings also laterally, separating or approaching towards
a separation, of the same stratum, into parts of dif¬
ferent thicknesses, nearly parallel to each other, in the
same manner as the principal partings divide the dif¬
ferent strata from each other: but these secondary
ones are not so strong or visible, nor make so effectual
a parting, as the principal ones do; and are only met
with
GOA [ 224 ] C O A
Coatary.
Plate
CXLIX.
fig. 1.
s
Dike*.
With in sttch strata, as are not of an uniform hardness,
texture, or colour, from the upper to the under sur¬
face.
There are other divisions or partings, called backs,
in almost every stratum, which cross the former late¬
ral ones longitudinally, and cut the whole stratum
through its two surfaces into long rhomboidal figures.
These again are crossed by others called cutters, run¬
ning either in an oblique or perpendicular direction
to the last-mentioned backs, and also cut the stratum
through its two surfaces. Both these backs and cut¬
ters generally extend from the upper or superior stra¬
tum down through several of the lower ones ; so that
these backs and cutters, together with the lateral
partings before mentioned, divide every stratum into
innumerable cubic, prismatic, and rhomboidal figures,
according to the thickness of the stratum, and the po¬
sition and number of the backs and cutters. They
sometimes have a kind of thin partition of dusty or
soft matter in them, and sometimes none, like the first-
mentioned partings; but the softer kind of strata
generally have more backs and cutters than the harder
kind, and they do not extend or penetrate through the
others.
To explain this a little farther, let A, B, C, D, E,
G, (fig. 1.) represent the principal partings before
mentioned, or the upper and under surfaces of any
stratum; then a, b, c, d, e, f, will represent the se¬
condary lateral partings nearly parallel to the princi¬
pal ones j g, h, 1, k, l, m, the longitudinal partings call¬
ed backs ; n, 0, p, q, r, s, the cross partings called cut¬
ters, crossing the last-mentioned ones either obliquely
or perpendicular.
In all places where the strata lie regular, they are
divided and subdivided in the manner above men¬
tioned ; and sometimes in this manner extend through
a pretty large district of country ; though it is often
otherwise ; for their regularity is frequently interrupt¬
ed, and the strata broken and disordered, by sundry
chasms, breaches, or fissures, which are differently de¬
nominated according to their various dimensions, and
the matters with which they are filled, viz. dikes,
hitches, and troubles, which shall be explained in
order.
Dikes are the largest kind of fissures. They s^em
to be nothing but a crack or breach of the solid strata,
occasioned by one part of them being broken away and
fallen From the other. They generally run in a straight
line for a considerable length, and penetrate from the
surface to the greatest depth ever yet tried, in a di¬
rection sometimes perpendicular to the horizon, and
sometimes obliquely. The same kind of strata are found
lying upon each other in the same order, but the whole
of them greatly elevated or depressed, on the one side
of the dike as on the other. These fissures are some¬
times two or three feet wide, and sometimes many
fathoms. If the fissure or dike be of any considerable
width, it is generally filled with heterogeneous mat¬
ter, different from that of the solid strata on each side
of it. It is sometimes found filled with clay, gravel,
or sand ; sometimes with a confused mass of different
kinds of stone lying edgeways ; and at other times
with a solid body of free-stone, or even whin-stone.
When the fissure is of no great width, as suppose two
or three feet only, it is then usually found filled with
3
a confused mixture of the different matters which Coakrv
compose the adjoining strata, consolidated into one'—
mass. If the dike runs or stretches north and south,
and the same kind of strata are found on the east side
of the dike, in a situation with respect to the horizon
IO or 20 fathoms lower than on the other side, it is
then said to be & dip-dike, or downcast-dike of 10 or 20
fathoms to the eastward ; or counting from the east
side, it is then said to be a rise-dike, or upcast of so
many fathoms westward. If the strata on one side
are not much higher or lower with respect to the ho¬
rizontal line, than those on the other, but only broken
off and removed to a certain distance, it is then said
to be a dike of so many fathoms thick, and from the
matter contained between the two sides of the fissure
or dike, it is denominated a clay-dike, stone-dike, &c.
A hitch is only a dike or fissure of a smaller degree, Hitche*.
by which the strata on one side are not elevated or
separated from those on the other side above one fa¬
thom. These hitches are denominated in the same
manner as dikes, according to the number of feet they
elevate or depress the strata.
There are dikes (though they are not often met
with in the coal-countries) whose cavities ore filled
with sparr, the ores of iron, lead, vitriol, or other me¬
tallic or mineral matters ; and it is pretty well known,
that all metallic veins are nothing else than what in
the coal countries are called dikes.
The strata are generally found lying upon each
other in the same order on one side of the dike as on
the other, as mentioned above, and nearly of the same
thicknesses, appearing to have been originally a con¬
tinuation of the same regular strata, and the dike only
a breach by some later accident, perpendicularly or
obliquely down through them, by which one part is
removed to a small distance, and depressed to a lower
situation than the other. But this is not the only al¬
teration made in the strata by dikes ; for generally, to
a considerable distance on each side of the dike, all the
strata are in a kind of shattfered condition, very ten¬
der, easily pervious to water, and debased greatly in
their quality, and their inclination to the horizon often
altered.
Troubles may be denominated dikes of the smallest Troubles,
degree ; for they are not a real breach, but only a ten¬
dency towards itj which has not taken a full effect.
The strata are generally altered by a trouble from
their regular site to a different position. When the
regular course of the strata is nearly level, a trouble
will cause a sudden and considerable ascent or descent 5
where they have, in their regular situation, a certain
degree of ascent or descent, a trouble either increases
or alters it to a contrary position : and a trouble has
these effects upon the strata in common with dikes,
that it greatly debases them from their original qua¬
lity; the partings are separated ; the backs and cutters
disjoined, and their regularity disordered ; the original
cubic and prismatic figures, of which the strata were
composed, are broken, the dislocation filled with hete¬
rogeneous matter, and the whole strata are reduced to
a softer and more friable state.
The strata are seldom or never found to lie in a
true horizontal situation ; but generally have an incli¬
nation or descent, called the dip, to some particular
part of the horizon. If this inclination be to the east¬
ward,
C O A C 225 ] C O A
Coalery. ward, it is called an east dip, and a west rise; and ac-
—■ v — ' cording to the point of the compass to which the dip
8 inclines, it is denominated, and the ascent or rise is
Vthe to the contrary point. This inclination or dip of the
^ta strata is found to hold everywhere. In some places, it
Varies very little from the level ; in others, very con¬
siderably ; and in some so much, as to be nearly in
a perpendicular direction ; but whatever degree of
inclination the strata have to the horizon, if not inter¬
rupted by dikes, hitches, or troubles, they are always
found to lie in the first regular manner mentioned.
They generally continue upon one uniform dip until
they are broken or disordered by a dike, hitch, or
trouble, by which the dip is often altered, sometimes
to a different part of the horizon, and often to an op¬
posite point ; so that on one side of a dike, hitch, or
trouble, if the strata have an east dip, on the other side
they may have an east rise, which is a west dip ; and
in general, any considerable alteration in the dip is ne¬
ver met with, but what is occasioned by the circum¬
stances last mentioned.
Plate To illustrate what has been said, see fig. 2. where
a, b, c, d, &c. represent a course of strata lying upon
each other, having a certain inclination to the horizon.
AB, is a downcast-dike, which depresses the strata
obliquely to e,f, g, h, &c. lying upon each other in the
same order, but altered in their inclination to the ho¬
rizon. CD represents a clay or freestone dike, where
the strata are neither elevated nor depressed, but only
broken off and removed to a certain distance. EF re¬
presents a hitch, which breaks off and depresses the stra¬
ta only a little, but alters their inclination to the hori¬
zon. GH represents a trouble, where the strata on
one side are not entirely broken off from those on the
other, but only in a crushed and irregular situation.
As some particular strata are found at some times to
increase, and at other times to diminish, in their thick¬
nesses, whilst others remain the same, consequently
they cannot be all parallel j yet this increase and dimi¬
nution in their thicknesses come on very gradually.
The strata are not found disposed in the earth ac¬
cording to their specific gravities j for we often find
strata of very dense matter near the surface, and per¬
haps at 50 or even 100 fathoms beneath, we meet
with strata of not half the specific gravity of the first.
A stratum of iron ore is very often found above one
of coal, though the former has twice the gravity of
the latter j and, in short, there is such an absolute un¬
certainty in forming any judgment of the disposition
of the strata from their specific gravities, that it can¬
not in the least be relied upon.
It has been imagined by many, that hills and Val¬
leys are occasioned by those breaches in the strata be¬
fore mentioned called dikes; but this is contradicted
by experience. If it was so, we should meet with
dikes at the skirts of the hills, and by the sides of val¬
leys, and the sea shore 5 but instead of that we. gene¬
rally find the strata lying as uniformly regular un¬
der hills and valleys, and beneath the bottom of the
sea (as far as has been yet tried), as in the most cham¬
paign countries. It may happen, indeed, that a dike
is met with in some of these places ; but that being-
only a ca-ual circumstance, can never be admitted as
a general cause. Whatever irregularities are occa¬
sioned in the solid strata by dikes, or other branches,
Vol. VI. Part I. f
are commonly covered over and evened by those beds Coalery.
of gravel, clay, sand, or soil, which lie uppermost, v v ‘
and form the outward surface of the earth. Where-
ever these softer matters have been carried off, or
removed by accident, as on the tops of hills and the
sides of valleys, there the solid strata are exposed, and
the dip, rise, and other circumstances of them may
be examined j but no certain conclusions can be drawn,
merely from the unevenness and inequalities of the out¬
ward surface.
The preceding observations, upon the general dispo¬
sition of the solid strata, are equally applicable to the
strata of coal as to those of stone or other matter. ^
We shall next give an account of the several strata Description
of coal, and of stone, and other matters, which areof t^le stia"
usually connected with coal, and are found to have
particular affinity with it j and, for the sake of distinc-
tion, shall arrange them into six principal classes, which
will include all the varieties of strata that have been
found to occur in all those districts of country, both in
Scotland and England, where coal abounds.
1. Of Whin-stoned\ The strata of what is denomi¬
nated whin-stone are the hardest of all others j the an¬
gular pieces of it will cut glass 5 it is of a very coarse
texture, and when broken across the grain, exhibits the
appearance of large grains of sand half vitrified ; it
can scarcely be wrought, or broken in pieces, by com¬
mon tools, without the assistance of gunpowder each
stratum is commonly homogeneous in substance and
colour, and cracked in the rock to a great depth. The
most common colours of these strata are black cp- dark
blue, yet there are others of it ash-coloured and light
brown. Their thickness in all the coal countries is
but inconsiderable, from six or five feet down to a few
inches 5 and it is only in a few places they are met
with of these thicknesses. In the air it decays a little,
leaving a brown powder; and in the fire it cracks, and
turns reddish brown. Limestone, and what is called
bastard limestone, is sometimes, though rarely, met with
in coaleries. It is a well known stone 5 but from its
resemblance in hardness and colour is often mistaken
for a kind of whin. Sometimes, particularly in hilly
countries, the solid matter next the surface is found
to be a kind of soft or rotten whin ;—but it may be
noted, that this is only a mass of heterogeneous mat¬
ter disposed upon the regular strata ; and that beneath
this, all the strata are generally found in as regular an
order as where this heterogeneous matter does not oc¬
cur.
2. Of Post-stone.~\ This is a freestone of the hard¬
est kind, and next to the limestone with respect to
hardness and solidity. It is of a very fine texture; and
when broken appears as if composed ot the finest sand.
It is commonly found in a homogeneous mass, though
variegated in colour; and, from its hardness, is not
liable to injury from being exposed to the Weather.
Of this kind of stone there are four varieties, which
may be distinguished by their colour. The most com¬
mon is white post, which in appearance is like Port¬
land stone, but considerably harder; it is sometimes
variegated with streaks or spots of brown, red, 01-
black.
Gray post is also very common ; it appears like a
mixture of fine black and white sand : ft is often va¬
riegated with brown and black streaks ; the last men-
F f tioned
C O A [ 226 ] C O A
Coal 17. tioned appear like small clouds composed of particles of
——v-"-—7 coal.
Brown or yellow post is often met with of differ¬
ent degress of colour ; most commonly of the colour
of light ochre or yellow sand. It is as hard as the
rest, and sometimes variegated with white and black
streaks.
Red post is generally of a dull red colour j this is
but rarely met with ; it is often streaked with white
or black.
All these lie in strata of different thicknesses j but
commonly thicker than any other strata whatever: they
are separated from each other, and from other kinds of
strata, by partings of coal, sand, or soft matter of dif¬
ferent colours which are very distinguishable.
3. Of Sand-Stone.^ Th is is a freestone of a coarser
texture than post, and not so hard 5 is so lax as to be
easily pervious to water $ when broken, is apparently
of a coarse sandy substance; is friable and moulders to
sand when exposed to the wind and rain j has frequent¬
ly white shining spangles in it, and pebbles or other
small stones inclosed in its mass. Of this, there are
two kinds commonly met with, distinguished by their
colours, gray and brown, which are of difl'erent shades,
lighter or darker in proportion to the mixture of
white in them. It is most generally found in strata of
considerable thickness, without many secondary part¬
ings ; and sometimes, though rarely, it is subdivided into
layers as thin as the common gray slate. It has gene¬
rally sandy or soft partings.
4. Of Metal-stone.^ This is a tolerably hard stratum,
being in point of hardness next to sand-stone j gene¬
rally solid, compact, of considerable weight and of
an argillaceous substance, containing many nodules or
balls of iron ore, and yellow or white pyrites ; its part¬
ings, or the surfaces of its strata, are hard, polished,
and smooth as glass. When broken, it has a dull
dusky appearance (though of a fine texture), like hard
dried clay mixed with particles of coal. Though hard
in the mine or quarry, when exposed to the fresh air it
falls into very small pieces. The most usual colour of
this stone is black ; but there are several other lighter
colours, down to a light brown or gray. It is easily
distinguished from freestone by its texture and colour,
as well as by its other characteristics. It lies in strata
of various thicknessesy though seldom so thick as the
two last-mentioned kinds of stone.
S' Of Shiver.This stratum is more frequently met
with in coaleries than any other. There are many va¬
rieties of it, both in hardness and colour j but they all
agree in one general characteristic. The black colour
is most common j it is called by the minei-s black shiver,
black metal, or bleas. It is softer than metal-stone,
and in the mine is rather a tough than a hard sub¬
stance, is not of a solid or compact matter, being ea¬
sily separable by the multitude of its partings, &c.
into very small parts, and readily absorbing water.
The substance of this stratum is an indurated bole,
commonly divided into thin lamin® of unequal thick¬
nesses, which break into long small pieces when struck
with force ; and, on examination, they appear to be
small irregular rhomboids : each of these small pieces
has a polished glassy surface ; and, when broken cross
the grain, appears of a dry, leafy, or laminated tex¬
ture, like exceeding fine clay : it is very friable ; feels Coaler?,
to the touch like an unctuous substance ; and dissolves v—-
in air or water to a fine pinguid black clay. There are
almost constantly found inclosed in its strata lumps or
nodules of iron ore, often real beds of the same.
There are other colours of this stratum besides black.
The brown or dun shiver is very frequently met with j
it agrees with the above description in every thing but
colour. Gray shiver is also very common : it seems to
be only a mixture of the black and dun j and by the
different degrees of mixture of these colours others are
produced. It lies in strata sometimes of considerable
thickness, at other times not exceeding a few feet:
they are commonly parted from each other by laminae
of spar, coal, or soft matter.
6. Of Coal.’] Referring the reader, for the scientific
division of coals, to Mineralogy, and the preceding
articles, we shall here consider them as distinguishable
into three kinds, according to their degrees of inflam¬
mability. For a full view of the natural history of
coal, see Williamses Mineral Kingdom by Hr Millar.
I. The least inflammable kinds are those known by
the name of Welsh coal, which is found in Wales ; Kil¬
kenny coal, which is found near Kilkenny in Ireland;
and blind or deaf coal, which is found in many parts of
Scotland and England. This coal takes a considerable
degree of beat to kindle it, but when once thoroughly
ignited will burn a long time ; it remains in the fire
in separate pieces without sticking together or caking ;
it produces neither flame, nor smoke, and makes no
cinders, but burns to a white stony slag: it makes a
hot glowing fire like charcoal or cinders, and emits
effluvia of a suffocating nature, which renders it unfit
for burning in dwelling-houses, its chief use being
among maltsters, dyers, &c. for drying their commo¬
dities. 2. Open burning coal, soon kindles, making a
hot pleasant fire, but is soon consumed ; it produces
both smoke and flame in abundance ; but lies open in
the fire, and does not cake together so as to form cin¬
ders, its surface being burnt to ashes before it is tho¬
roughly calcined in the midst j from this it has its
name of an open burning coal; it burns to white or
brown ashes very light. Of this kind are cannel-coal,
jett, parrot, splint, and most of the coals in Scotland.
3. Close burning coal j kindles very quickly, makes a
very hot fire, melts and runs together like bitumen,,
the very smallest culm making the finest cinders, which
being thoroughly burnt, are porous and light as a pu¬
mice stone, and when broken are of a shining lead co¬
lour j it makes a more durable fire than any other
coal, and finally burns to brown or reddish coloured
heavy ashes. Of this kind are the Newcastle and se¬
veral other of the English coals, and the smithy coals
of Scotland. The open and the close burning coal
mixed together, make a more profitable fire for domes¬
tic uses than either of them separate.
In all those districts of country where coal is found,
there are generally several strata of it ; perhaps all the
different kinds above mentioned will be found in some,
and only one of the kinds in others ; yet this one kind
may be divided into many different seams or strata,
by beds of shiver or other kinds of matter interposing,
so as to give it the appearance of so many separate
strata.
All
C O A [ 227 ] C O A
Coalery.
10
he order
11 which
I hey iie.
Plate
CXLIX,
%'• 3*
All these strata above described, with their several
varieties, do not lie or bear upon each other in the
order in which they are described, nor in any certain
or invariable order. Though there be found the same
kinds of strata in one coalery or district as in another,
yet they may he of very different thicknesses. In
some places there are most of the hard kinds, in others
most of the softer J and in any one district it rarely
happens that all the various kinds are found : for some
kinds, perhaps, occur only once or twice, whilst others
occur 10 or 20 times before we reach the principal
stratum of coal.
In order to explain this, suppose the strata in the
pit at A (fig. 3.) lie in the order a, h, c, dy &c. they
may be so much altered in their thicknesses, by rea¬
son of some of them increasing and others diminish¬
ing, at the distance of B, that they may be found there
of very different thicknesses •, or if they are examined
in a pit at D, by reason of its lower situation, and the
strata there not being a continuation of those in the
other places, they may he very different both in their
order and thicknesses, and yet of the same kinds.
Though they be thus found very different in one
coalery or district from what they are found to be in
another, with respect to their thicknesses, and the or¬
der in which they lie upon each other, yet we never
meet with a stratum of any kind of matter but what
belongs to some of those above described.
To illustrate how the various strata lie in some
places, and how often the same stratum may occur be¬
twixt the surface and the coal, we shall give the fol¬
lowing example. The numbers in the left-hand co¬
lumn refer to the classes of strata before described, to
which each belongs. The second column contains the
names of the strata ; and the four numeral columns, to
the right hand, express the thickness of each stratum,
in fathoms, yards, feet, and inches.
Example.
No
r a'
Soil and gravel
(•lay mixed with loose stones
Coarse brown sand-stone, with soft part
ings - - - - -
White post, with shivery partings
Black shiver or bleas, with iron-stone balls
Coarse splinty coal » - -
Soft gray shiver - - - -
Brown and gray post, streaked with black
Black shiver, with beds and balls of iron¬
stone - - - _
Gray and black metal stone
White and brown post
Black and gray shiver, streaked with white
Soft gray sand-stone, with shivery partings
Yellow and white post, with sandy partings
Black and dun shiver, with iron-stone balls
White post streaked with black, and black
partings _ . - . „
Gray shiver, with iron-stone balls
Brown and black metal-stone
Hard slaty black shiver
Coal, hard and fine splint
Soft black shiver - .
Coal, fine and clear - - -
Hard black shiver . - _
Total Fathoms I25
Yds
Ft. in
In this instance the species of sand-stone only occurs Coalery.
twice, post five times, whilst the shiver occurs no less ~~—v—*'•*
than nine times.
To apply the foregoing observations to practice.
Suppose it was required to examine whether there
was coal in a piece of ground adjoining to, or in the
neighbourhood of, other coaleries. It
In the first place, it is proper to he informed, at Methods of
some of the adjacent coaleries, of the number and kinds searching
of strata, the order in which they lie upon each other j ^ol cofd-
to what point of the horizon, and in what quantity,
they dip; if any dikes, hitches, or troubles, and the
course they stretch. Having learnt these circumstan-I’viile 1st.
ces, search in the ground under examination where
the strata are exposed to view, and compare these with
the other. If they be of the same kinds, and nearly
correspond in order and thickness, and be lying in a
regular manner, and agree by computation with the
dip and rise, it may safely be concluded the coal is
there ; and the depth of it may be judged from the
depth of the coal in the other coalery, below any par¬
ticular stratum which is visible in this.
If the solid strata are not exposed to view, neither Rule 2d.
in the hills nor valleys of the ground under examina¬
tion, then search in the adjoining grounds, and if the
same kind of strata are found there as in the adjacent
coalery, and there is reason, from the dip and other
circumstances, to believe that they stretched through
the ground to be examined ; it may then he concluded
the coal is there, as well as these other strata.
Suppose a coalery is on the side of a hill at A, fig. J^lix
3. and you would search for a coal at B, on the other fio. V *
side of the hill, but in a much lower situation ; by ob¬
serving the several stx-ata lying above the coal at A, and
the point to which they dip, which is directly towards
B (if dear of dikes), you may expect to find the same
kind of strata on the other side of the hill, but much
lower down. Accordingly, if some of the strata are
visible in the face of the precipice C, they may be
compared with some of those in the pit at A. Or, if
they are not to be seen there, by searching in the op¬
posite hill, they may perhaps be discovered at the place
F ; where, if they be found in the manner before men¬
tioned, and there be reason to believe they extend re¬
gularly from the first place to this, it is more than pro¬
bable the coal, as well as these strata, will be found in
the intermediate ground.
If the ground to be examined lie more to the rise of Rule 3d.
the coal, as at E, which being supposed to be on a
flat, perhaps the solid strata there may be wholly co¬
vered by the gravel, clay, &c. of the outward surface
lying upon them. In this case, by measuring the ho¬
rizontal distance and the descent of ground from A '
to E, and computing the quantity of ascent or rise of
the coal in that distance; by comparing these toge¬
ther, it may be judged at what depth the coal will be
found there, allowing that it lie regular. Thus, sup¬
pose the coal at A 80 yards deep, the distance from A
to E 500 yards, and that the coal rises one yard in 10
of horizontal distance:
Then, from the depth of the pit 80
Deduct the descent of ground from A
to E, suppose - - - 24
F fa
Thig
C O A [ 228 ] C O A
Coalery. This remainder would he the depth, if
the coal was level ----- $6
But as the coal rises I in JO yards, then
deduct what it rises in 500 yards,
which is------- 50
And the remainder is the depth of that
coal atE--- 6 yards.
Rule 4th. Or suppose that the place at B is 500 yards the
contrary way, or to the full dip of the coal at A ; if a
view of the solid strata cannot be obtained, then by
proceeding in the same manner as before, the depth
of the coal at that place may be computed. Thus,
To the depth of the coal at the pit A 80
Add the descent or inclination of the
coal in 500 yards, which, as before,
is - - - - - 50
This sum would be the depth, if the
ground was level - - - - - 130
But as the ground descends towards B,
deduct the quantity of that, which
suppose - - -- -- --80
Remains the depth of the coal at B - 50 yards.
If the place to be examined be neither to the full
dip nor full rise, but in some proportion towards ei¬
ther, the same method may be pursued, computing how
much the coal rises or dips in a certain distance in that
direction.
If there is known to be a dike in the workings of
the pit at A, which elevates or depresses the strata to¬
wards the place under examination, then the quantity
of the elevation or depression must be accordingly ad¬
ded to or deducted from the computed depth of the
coal at that place. Suppose there is an upcast dike
of 10 fathoms or 20 yards towards B, then deduct 2Q
from 50, the depth before computed, there will re¬
main 30 yards or 15 fathoms for the depth of the coal
at B.
But it often happens that coal is to be searched for
in a part of the country, at such a considerable distance
from all other coaleries, that by reason of the interven¬
tion of hills, valleys, unknown dikes, &c. the con¬
nexion or relation of the strata with those of any other
coalery cannot be traced by the methods last mention¬
ed j in which case a more extensive view must be tak¬
en of all circumstances than was necessary in the for¬
mer ; and a few general rules founded on the foregoing
observations, and on conclusions drawn from them,
will greatly assist in determining, sometimes with a
great degree of probability, and sometimes with abso¬
lute certainty, whether coal be in any particular di¬
strict of country or not.
Rule The first proper step to be taken in such a case,, is
to take a general view of that district of country in¬
tended to be searched, in order to judge, from the out¬
ward appearance or face of the country, which parti¬
cular part out of the whole is the most likely to con¬
tain those kind of strata favourable to the production
of coal; and consequently such particular part being
found, is the most adviseable to be begun with, in the
«x,amination^.
Though the appearance of the outward surface Co.,lery,
gives no certain or infallible rule to judge of the kinds ■
of strata lying beneath, yet it gives a probable one ; mou*^
for it is generally found, that a chain of mountains oroua sjtDa,’
hills rising to a great height, and very steep on thetions.
sides, are commonly composed of strata much harder
and of different kinds from those before described
wherein coal is found to lie, and therefore unfavour¬
able to the production of coal; and these mountainous
situations are also more subject to dikes and troubles
than the lower grounds ; so that if the solid strata com¬
posing them gave even favourable symptoms of coal,
yet the last circumstance would render the quality
bad, and the quantity precarious. And, on the whole
it may be observed, that mountainous situations are
found more favourable to the production of metals ^
than of coal. It is likewise generally found that those Hills and
districts abounding with valleys, moderately rising hills, Ta^eys-
and interspersed with plains, sometimes of consider¬
able extent, do more commonly contain coal, and
those kinds of strata favourable to its production, than
either the mountainous or champaign countries ; and
a country so situated as this last described, especially
if at some considerable distance from the mountains,
ought to be the first part appointed for particular ex- X4
amination. Plains, or level grounds of great extent. Plains,
generally situated by the sides of rivers, or betwixt
such moderate rising grounds as last described, are
also very favourable to the production of coal, if the
solid strata, and other circumstances in the higher
grounds adjoining, be conformable ; for it will scarce¬
ly be found, in such a situation, that the strata are fa¬
vourable in the rising grounds, on both sides of the
plain, and not so in the space betwixt them. Though
plains be so favourable, in such circumstances, to the
production of coal, yet it is often more difficult to be
discovered in such a situation, than in that before de¬
scribed $ because the clay, soil, and other lax matter,
brought off the higher grounds by rains and other
accidents, have generally covered the surfaces of such
plains to a considerable depth, which prevents the ex¬
ploration of the solid strata there, unless they be ex¬
posed to view by digging, quarrying, or some such
operation.
That part of the district being fixed upon which
abounds with moderate hills and valleys as properest
to begin the examination at, the first step to be taken
is to examine all places where the solid strata are ex¬
posed to view (which are called the crops of the stia-
ta), as in precipices, hollows, &c. tracing them as ac¬
curately and gradually as the circumstances will allow,
from the uppermost stratum or highest part of the
ground to the very undermost: and if they appear to
be of the kinds before described, it will be proper to
note in a memorandum book their different thicknesses y
the order in which they lie upon each other j the point
of the horizon to which they dip or incline, the quan¬
tity of that inclination, and whether they lie in a re-,
gular state. This should be done in every part of the
ground where they can be seen, observing at the same
time, that if a stratum can be found in one place,
which has a connexion with some other in a second
place, and if this other has a connexion with another
in a third place, &c. j then, from these separate con-
oexions, the joint correspondence of the whole may
C O A [ 229 ] C 0 A
Coalery. traced, and the strata, which in some places are co-
i—-v——* vered, may be known by their correspondence with
those which are exposed to view.
If by this means the crops of all the strata cannot
be seen (which is often the case), and if no coal be
discovered by its crop appearing at the surface : yet
if the strata that have been viewed consist of those
kinds before described, and are found lying in a regu¬
lar order, it is sufficiently probable that coal may be
in that part uf the district, although it be concealed
from sight by the surface of the earth or other matter.
Rule 6th. Therefore, at the same time that the crops of the strata
are under examination, it will be proper to take notice
of all such springs of water as seem to be of a mineral
nature, particularly those known by the name of iron
water, which bear a mud or sediment of the colour of
rust or iron, having a strong astringent taste. Springs
of this kind proceed originally from those strata which
contain beds or balls of iron-ore ; but by reason of
the tenacity of the matter of those strata, the water
only disengages itself slowly from them, descending
into some more porous or open stratum below, where,
gathering in a body, it runs out to the surface in small
streams or rills. The stratum of coal is the most ge¬
neral reservoir of this water j for the ix-on-stone being
lodged in different kinds of shiver, and the coal com¬
monly connected with some of them, it therefore de¬
scends into the coal, where it finds a ready passage
through the open backs and cutters. Sometimes, in¬
deed, it finds some other stratum than coal to collect
and transmit it to the surface j but the difference is
easily distinguishable $ for the ochrey matter in the
water, when it comes from a stratum of coal, is of a
darker rusty colour than when it proceeds from any
other, and often brings with it particles and small
pieces of coal j therefore, wherever these two circum¬
stances concur in a number of these kind of springs,
situated in a dix-ection from each other answerable to
the stretch or to the inclination of the strata, it may
be certain the water comes off coal, and that the coal
lies in a somewhat higher situation than the apertures
of the springs.
There are other springs also which come off coal,
and are not distinguishable from common water, other¬
wise than by their astringency, and their having a blue
scum of an oily or glutinous nature swimming upon
the surface of the water. These, in common with the
others, bring out particles of coal, more especially in
rainy seasons when the springs flow with rapidity.
When a number of these kinds are situated from each
other in the direction of the strata, as above descri¬
bed ; or if the water does not run forth as in springs,
but only fonns a swamp, or an extension of stagnant
water beneath the turf $ in either case, it may be de¬
pended upon that this water proceeds from a stratum
of coal.
Rule If the stratum of coal is not exposed to view, or
cannot be discovered by the first method of searching
for the crop, although the appearance of the other
strata be very favourable, and afford a strong proba¬
bility of coal being there $ and if the last-mentioned
method of judging of the particular place where the
crop of the coal may lie, by the springs of water issu¬
ing from it, should, from the deficiency of those springs
or other circumstances^ be thought equivocal, and,
not give a satisfactory indication of the coal ; then a Coalery.
further search may be made in all places where the 1 " ''v ' ■
outward surface, or the stratum of clay or earth, is
turned up by ploughing, ditching, or digging, parti¬
cularly in the lower grounds, in hollows, and by the
sides of streams. These places should be strictly exa¬
mined, to see if any pieces of coal be intermixed with
the substance of the superior last strata ; if any such be
found, and if they be pretty numerous and in detached
pieces, of a firm substance, the angles perfect or not
much worn, and the. texture of the coal distinguish¬
able, it may be concluded, that the stratum of coal to
which they originally did belong, is at no great dis¬
tance, but in a situation higher with respect to the
horizon ; and if there be also found along with the
pieces of coal other mineral matter, such as pieces of
shiver or freestone, this is a concurrent proof that it
has come only from a small distance. Though the two
fore-mentioned methods should only have produced a
strong probability, yet if this last-mentioned place,
where the pieces of coal, &c. are found in the clay,
be in a situation lower than the springs j when this
circumstance is joined to the other two, it amounts to
little less than a moi'al certainty of the .stratum of coal
being a very little above the level of the springs*. But
if, on the contrary, these pieces of coal are found more
sparingly interspersed in the superior stratum, and if
the angles are much fretted or worn off, and very lit¬
tle of other kinds of mineral matter connected with
them; it may then be concluded, that they have come
from a stratum of coal situated at a greater distance
than in the former case; and by a strict search and an
accurate comparison of other circumstances, that parti¬
cular place may be discovered with as much certainty
as the other.
After the place is thus discovered where the stra¬
tum of coal is expected to lie concealed, the next pro¬
per step to be taken, is to begin digging a pit or hole
there perpendicularly down to find the coal. If the
coal has no solid strata above and beneath it, but be
found only embodied in the clay or other lax mattei’,
it will not be there of its full thickness, nor so hard
and pure as in its perfect state when enclosed betwixt
two solid strata, the uppermost called the roo/j and
the undermost called the pavemmt of the coal: in
such situation therefore it becomes necessary, either
to dig a new pit, or to work a mine forward until the
stratum of coal be found included betwixt a solid roof
and pavement, after which it need not be expected to
increase much in its thickness : yet as it goes deeper
or farther to the dip, it most likely will improve in its
quality ; for that part of the stratum of coal which lies
near the surface, or only at a small depth, is often de¬
based by a mixture of earth and sundry other impuri¬
ties washed down from the surface, through the backs
and cutters, by the rains; whilst the other part of the
stratum which lies at a greater depth is preserved pure,
by the other solid strata above it intercepting all the
mud washed from the surface..
The above methods of investigation admit of many
different cases, according to the greater or less number
of favourable circumstances attending each of the modes
of inquiry ; and the result accordingly admits every
degree of probability, fi'om the most distant, even up.
to.; absolute certainty. In somq. situations, the coal
C O A l 230 1 C O A
Goalerv, will be discovered by one method alone, in others, by
a comparison of certain circumstances attending each
method j whilst in some others, all the circumstances
that can be collected only lead to a certain degree of
probability.
In the last case, where the evidence is only proba¬
ble, it will be more adviseable to proceed in the search
by boring a hole through the solid strata (in the man¬
ner hereafter described), than by digging or sinking a
pit, it being both cheaper and more expeditious ; and
in every case, which does not amount to an absolute
certainty, this operation is necessary to ascertain the
real existence of the coal in that place.
We shall now suppose that, having examined a cer¬
tain district, situated within a few miles of the sea or
some navigable river, that ail the circumstances which
offer only amount to a probability of the coal being
there, and that boring is necessary to ascertain it. We
shall therefore describe the operation of boring to the
coal ; then the method of clearing it from water, com¬
monly called winning it ; and all the subsequent ope¬
rations of working the coal and raising it to the surface,
leading it to the river or harbour, and finally putting
jit on board the ships.
Of boring Suppose that the ground, A, B, C, D, fig. 4, has
caal^16 been examined, and from the appearance of the strata
p‘jate where they are visible (as at the precipice X), and se-
CXLIX. ver»l others places), tliey are found to lie of those kinds
fig. 4, usually connected with coal, and that the point to
which they rise is directly west towards A, hut the
ground being flat and covered to a considerable depth
with earth, $;c, the strata cannot be viewed in the low
grounds ; therefore, in this and all similar situations,
the first hole that is bored for a trial for coal should be
on the west side of the ground, or to the full rise of
' the strata as at A, where boring down through the
strata 1, 2, 3, suppose 10 fathoms, and not finding
coal, it will be better to bore a new hole than to pro¬
ceed to a great depth in that $ therefore, proceeding so
far to the eastward as B, where the stratum i, of the
first hole is computed to be 10 or 12 fathoms deep, a
second hole may he bored, where boring down through
the strata 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, the stratum I is met with, but
no coal ; it would be of no use to bore farther in this
hole, as the same strata would be found which were
in the hole A ; therefore, proceeding again so far to
the eastward, as it may be computed the stratum 4 of
the second hole will he met with at the depth of 10 or
12 fathoms, a new hole may be bored C, where,
boring through the strata 9, 10, 11, J2, the coal is
met with at 13, before the hole proceed so deep as
the stratum 4 of the former. It is evident, that, by
this method of procedure, neither the coal nor any
other of the strata can be passed over, as the last hole
is always bored down to that stratum which was near¬
est the surface in the former hole.
The purposes for which boring is used are numerous,
and some of them of the utmost importance in coaleries.
In coaleries of great extent, although the coal he known
to extend through the whole grounds, yet accidental
turns, and other alterations in the dip, to which the
coal is liable, render the boring of three or more holes
necessary, to determine exactly to what point of
the horizon it dips or inclines, before any capita! ope¬
ration for the winning of it can he undertaken 5 be-
2
cause a very small error in this may occasion the loss Coalery
of a great part of the coal, or at least incur a double -v—-■
expence in recovering it.
Suppose A, B, C, D, (fig. 5.) to be part of an ex-Fig. 5,
tensive field of coal, intended to be won or laid dry by
a fire-engine ; according to the course of the dip in
adjoining coaleries, the point C is the place at which
the engine should be erected, because the coal dips in
the direction of the line AC, consequently the level line
would be in the direction CD ; hut this ought not to
be trusted to. Admit two holes, 1, 2, be bored to
the coal in the direction of the supposed dip, at 200
yards distance from each other, and a third hole 3 at
2Q0 yards distance from each of them : suppose the
coal is found, at the hole I, to be 20 fathoms deep ; at
the hole 2, JO fathoms deeper; but at the hole 3, only
8 fathoms deeper than at 1. Then to find the true
level line and dip of the coal, say, As 10 fathoms, the
dip from J to 2, are to 200 yards the distance, so are 8
fathoms, the dip from 1 to 3, to 160 yards the di¬
stance from 1 on the line 1, 2, to «, the point upon a
level with the hole 3. Again say, As 8 fathoms, the
dip from x to 3, are to 200 yards the distance ; so are
JO fathoms, the dip from I to 2, to 250 yards, the
distance from I, in direction of tlie line 1, 3, to h, the
point upon a level with the hole 2. Then let fall the
perpendicular 1 c, which will be the true direction of
the dip of the coal, instead of the supposed line AC ;
and by drawing ED, and DF, parallel to the other
lines, the angle D, and no other place, is the deepest
part of the coal, and the place where the engine
should be erected, If it had been erected at the angle
C, the level line would have gone in the direction cb,
by which means about one-third part of the field of
coal would have been below the level of the engine,
and perhaps lost, without another engine was erected
at D.
Boring not only shows the depth at which the coal
lies, but its exact thickness ; its hardness ; its quality,
whether close burning or open burning, and whether
any foul mixture is in it or not; also the thickness,
hardness and other circumstances of all the strata bored
through ; and from the quantity of water met with in
the boring, some judgment may be formed of the size
of an engine capable of drawing it, where an engine
is necessary. When holes are to be bored for these
purposes, they may be fixed (as near as can be guessed)
in such a situation from each other, as to suit the places
where pits are afterwards to be sunk : by which means
most of the expence may be saved, as these pits would
otherwise require to be bored, when sinking, to dis¬
charge their water into the mire below. There are
many other uses to which boring is applied, as will be
explained hereafter.
For these reasons boring is greatly practised in Eng¬
land, and is brought to great perfection ; and as the
operation is generally entrusted to a man of integrity,
who makes it his profession, the accounts given by him
of the thickness and other circumstances of the strata,
are the mast accurate imaginable, and are trusted to
with the greatest confidence ; for as very few gentle¬
men choose to take a lease of a new coalery which
has not been sufficiently explored by boring, it is ne¬
cessary the account should be faithful, being the only
rule to guide the landlord in letting his coal, and the
tenant
C O A [ 231 ] C O A
Coakry. tenant in taking it. In Scotland it is not so generally
—v practised ; nor are there any men of character who are
professed .borers, that operation being commonly left
to any common workman ; whence it happens, that
it never has been in any esteem, the accounts given by
them being so imperfect and equivocal, as not to merit
any confidence.
The tools or instruments used in boring are very
simple. The boring rods are made of iron, from 3 to
4 feet long, and about an inch and a half square, with
a screw at each end, by which they are screwed toge¬
ther, and other rods added, as the hole increases in
depth. The chisel is about 18 inches long, and two
and a half broad at the end, which being screwed on
at the lower end of the rods, and a piece of timber
put through an eye at the upper end, they are prepa¬
red for work. The operation is performed by lifting
them up a little, and letting them fall again, at the
same time turning them a little round j by a conti¬
nuance of which motions, a round hole is fretted or
worn through the hardest strata. When the chisel is
blunt, it is taken out, and a scooped instrument call¬
ed a wimble^ put on in its stead j by which the dust or
pulverized matter which was worn off' the stratum in
the last operation is brought up. By this substance,
the borers know exactly the nature of the stratum
they are boring in : and by any alteration in the
working of the rods (which they are sensible of by
handling them), they perceive the least variation of the
strata. The principal part of the art depends upon
keeping the hole clean, and observing every variation
of the strata with care and attention.
The established price of boring in England was some
time ago 5s. per fathom for the first five fathoms, 10s.
per fathom for the next five fathoms, and 15s. per fa¬
thom for the next five fathoms ; and so continually in¬
creasing 5s. per fathom at the end of every five fa¬
thoms j the borer finding all kinds of boring instru¬
ments ; but if more than one foot in thickness of whin
occur, he is paid per day. See a new method of bor¬
ing for coal described in Dr Millar’s edition of Wil-
16 Harris's Min. Kingdom.
Jf winning It is exceedingly uncommon to meet with a stratum
!ie coal. 0f coal which is naturally dry, or whose subterranean
springs or feeders of water are so very small as to require
no other means than the labour of men to draw off or
conduct them away j for it most commonly happens
that the stratum of coal, and the other strata adjacent,
abound so much in feeders of water, that, before access
can be had to the coal, some other methods must be
pursued to drain or conduct away these feeders j there¬
fore, after the deepest part of the coal is discovered,
the next considerat ion is of the best method of draining
it, or, in the miner’s language, of winning the coal.
If the coal lies in such an elevated situation, that a
part of it can be drained by a level brought up from
the lower grounds, then that will be the most natural
method j but whether it be the most proper or not,
depends upon certain circumstances. If the situation
of the ground be such, that the level would be of a
great length, or have to come through very hard .trata,
and the quantity of coal it would drain, or the profits
expected to be produced by that coal, should be ina¬
dequate to the expence of carrying it up j in such case
some other method of winning might be more proper.
Or suppose, in another case, it be found, that a level Coalery.
can he had to a coalery, which will cost 2000I. and v
require five years to bring it up to the coal, and that
it will drain 30 acres of coal when completed*, yet if
it be found that a fire engine, or some other machine,
can be erected on that coalery, for the same sum of
money, in one year, which will drain 50 acres of the
same coal, then this last would be a more proper me¬
thod than the level j because four years profit would
be received by this method before any could come in
by the other 5 and after the 30 acres drained by the
level is all wrought, a machine of some kind would ne¬
vertheless be necessary to drain the remaining 20 acres ;
so that erecting a machine at first would be on all ac¬
counts the most advisable.
Where a level can be driven, in a reasonable time,
and at an adequate expence, to drain a sufficient tract
of coal, it is then the most eligible method of win¬
ning; because the charge of upholding it is generally
less than that of upholding fire-engines or other ma¬
chines.
If a level is judged properest after consideration of
every necessary circumstance, it may be begun at the
place appointed in the manner of an open ditch, about
three feet wide, and carried forward until it be about
six or seven feet deep from the surface, taking care to
secure the bottom and sides by timber work or build¬
ing, after which it may be continued in the manner
of a mine about three feet wide, and three feet and a
half high, through the solid strata, taking care all along
to keep the bottom upon a level, and to secure the
roof, sides, and bottom, by timber or building, in all
places where the strata are not strong enough to sup¬
port the incumbent weight, or where they are liable
to decav by their exposure to the fresh air. If the
mine has to go a very long way before it reaches the
coal, it may be necessary to sink a small pit, for the
convenience of taking out the stones and rubbish pro¬
duced in working the mine, as well as to supply fresh
air to the workmen; and if the air should afterwards
turn damp, then square wooden pipes made of deals
closely jointed (commonly called air-boxes), may be
fixed in the upper part of the mine, from the pit-bot¬
tom all the way to the end of the mine, which will
cause a sufficient circulation of fresh air for the work¬
men. Perhaps in a great length it will be found pro¬
per to sink another or more pits upon the mine, and
by proceeding in this manner it may be carried for¬
ward until it arrive at the coal ; and after driving a
mine in the coal a few yards to one side, the first coal¬
pit may be sunk.
If a level is found impracticable, or for particular
reasons unadvisable, then a fire engine*, or some * gee ar-
other machine, will be necessary, which should be fixed tide Steam-
upon the deepest part of the coal, or at least so far Engine.
towards the dip as will drain a sufficient extent of
coal, to continue for the time intended to work the
coalery ; and whether a fire engine, or any other
machine is used, it will be of great advantage to have
a partial level brought up to the engine-pit, if the si¬
tuation of the ground will admit it at a small charge,
in order to receive and convey away the water with¬
out drawing it so high as to the surface; for if the pit
was 30 fathoms deep to the coal, and if there was a
partial level which received the water five fathoms
C O A [ 232 ] C O A
Coalei)* only below the surface, the engine by this means
■"""■v-"—' would be enabled to draw one-sixth part more water than
without it; and if there were any feeders of water in
the pit above this level, they might be conveyed into
it, where they would be discharged vi.hc ut being drawn
by the engine.
The engine-pit may be from seven to nine feet
wide, and whether it be circular, oval, or of any
other form, is not very material, provided it be suf¬
ficiently strong, though a circular form is most gene¬
rally approved. If any feeders of water are met
with a few fathoms from the surface, it will he pro¬
per to make a circular or spiral cutting about one foot
deep, and a little hollowed in the bottom, round the
circumference of the pit, in order to receive and con¬
duct the water down, without flying over the pit and
incommoding the workmen. If the strata are of so
tender or friable a nature as not to bear this opera¬
tion, or if the water leaks through them, then it will
he necessary to insert in the fore-mentioned cutting a
circular piece of timber called a crib, hollowed in the
same manner, to collect the water; and a second may
be inserted two or three yards below the first, with '«a
sloping niche down the wall or side of the pit, to con¬
vey the water from the former into it; proceeding by
some of these methods until the pit is sunk 15 or 20
fathoms, at which place it would be proper to fix a
cistern or reservoir, for the first or upper set of pumps
to stand in ; for if the pit be 30 fathoms as supposed,
it would be too great a length for the pumps to be all
in one set from bottom to top; therefore, if any ex¬
traordinary feeders are met with, betwixt 15 and 20
fathoms deep, it would be best to fix the cistern where
it may receive them, and prevent their descending to
the bottom ; observing that the upper set of pumps be
* so much larger than the lower one, as the additional
feeders may require ; or if there are no additional feed¬
ers, it ought then to be a little smaller.
After the upper cistern is fixed, the operation may
be pursued by the other set of pumps in much the same
manner as has been described, until the pit is sunk to
the coal; which being done, it would be proper to
sink it six or eight feet deeper, and to work some coal
out from the dip side of the pit, to make room for a
large quantity of water to collect, without incommod¬
ing the coal-pits when the engine is not working.
It would exceed the proper bounds of this article to
enumerate all the accidents to which engine-pits are
liable in sinking; we shall therefore only recite a few
which seem important.
If a quicksand happens to lie above the solid strata,
next the surface, it may be got through by digging
the pit of such a wideness at the top (allowing for the
natural slope or running of the sand) as to have the
proper size of the pit on the uppermost solid stratum,
where fixing a wooden frame or tub as the timber-
work of the pit, and covering it rouud on the out¬
side with wrought clay up to the top the sand may
again be thrown into the excavation round the tub, and
levelled with the surface.
If the quicksand should happen to lie at a consider¬
able depth betwixt the clay and solid strata, then a
strong tub of timber closely jointed and shod with
iron, of such a diameter as the pit will admit, may be
let down into it; and by fixing a great weight upon
3
the top, and by working out the sand, it may be made Coalery,
to sink gradually, until it comes to the rock or other ——Y'—'
solid stratum below; and when all the sand is got
out, if it be lightly calked and secured, it will be suf¬
ficient.
It sometimes happens, that a stratum of soft matter
lying betwixt two hard solid ones, produces so large a
quantity of water as greatly to incommode the opera¬
tions. In such a case, a frame-work of plank, strength¬
ened with cribs and closely calked, will keep back the
whole or the greatest part of it, provided the two stra¬
ta which include it are of a close texture; or let an ex¬
cavation of about two feet be made in the soft stratum
quite round the circumference of the pit, and let that
be filled close up betwixt the hard strata with pieces of
dry fir-timber about ten inches square inserted endwise,
and afterwards as many wooden wedges driven into
them as they can be made to receive; if this be well
finished, little or no water will find a passage through
it.
It rarely happens that any suffocating damp or foul
air is met with in an engine-pit; the falling of water,
and the working of the pumps, generally causing a suf¬
ficient circulation of fresh air. But that kind of com¬
bustible vapour, or inflammable air, which will catch
fire at a candle, is often met with. It proceeds from
the partings, backs, and cutters, of the solid strata,
exhaling from some in an insensible manner, whilst
from others it blows with as great impetuosity as a
pair of bellows, When this inflammable air is per¬
mitted to accumulate, it becomes dangerous by taking
fire, and burning or destroying the workmen, and
sometimes by its explosion will blow the timber out of
the pit and do considerable damage. If a consider¬
able supply of fresh air is forced down the pit by air-
boxes and a ventilator, or by dividing the pit into two
by a close partition of deals from top to bottom, or by
any other means it will be driven out, or so weakened
that it will be of no dangerous consequence; or when
the inflammable air is very strong, it may be safely car¬
ried oft’by making a close sheathing or lining of thin
deals quite round the circumference of the pit, from
the top of the solid strata to the bottom, and length¬
ening it as the pit is sunk, leaving a small vacancy be¬
hind the sheathing; when the combustible matter
which exhales from the strata, being confined behind
these deals, may be vented by one or two small leaden
pipes carried from the sheathing to the surface, so
that very little of it can transpire into the area of the
pit. If a candle be applied to the orifice of the pipe
at the surface, the inflammable air will instantly take
fire, and continue burning like an oil-lamp, until it be
extinguished by some internal cause. Upon the whole,
every method should be used to make the pit as strong
in every part, and to keep it as dry as possible ; and
whenever any accident happens, it should be as ex¬
peditiously and thoroughly repaired as possible, before
any other operation be proceeded in, lest an additional
one follow, which would more than double the difficul¬
ty of repairing it. 17
T1 « first operations, after sinking the engine-pit, are Of workiil
the working or driving amine in the coal, and sink-1'16 coa1,
ing the first coal-pit. The situation of the first coal¬
pit should be a little to the rise of the engine-pit, that
the water which collects there may not obstruct the
working
C O A [233
Coalery. working of the coals every time the engine stops j
y .—i j and it should not exceed the distance of 20, 30, or 40
yards, because when the first mine has to be driven a
long way, it becomes both difficult and expensive. If
there be not a sufficient circulation of fresh air in the
mine, it may be supplied by the before described air-
boxes and a ventilator, until it arrives below the in¬
tended coal pit, when the pit may be bored and sunk
to the coal, in the manner before mentioned.
After the pit is thus got down to the coal, the next
consideration should be, the best method of working
it. The most general practice in Scotland is to ex¬
cavate and take away a part only of the stratum of
coal in the first working of the pit, leaving the other
part as pillars for supporting the roof j and after the
coal is wrought in this manner to such a distance from
the pit as intended, then these pillars, or so many of
them a* can be got, are taken out by a second work¬
ing, and the roof and other solid strata above permit¬
ted to fall down and fill up the excavation. The
quantity of coal wrought away, and the size of the
pillars left in the first working, is proportioned to the
hardness and strength of the coal and other strata adja¬
cent, compared with the incumbent weight of the supe¬
rior strata.
The same mode of working is pursued in most parts
]
C 0 A
fourths, may be taken away at the first working, and Coalery.
one-third or one-fourth left in pillars. If both roofv——v—i
and pavement be soft or tender, then a larger pro¬
portion must be left in pillars, probably one-third or
near one-half j and in all cases the hardness or strength
of the coal must be considered. If tender, it will re¬
quire a larger pillar than hard coal) because, by being
exposed to the air after the first working, a part of it
will moulder and fall off, by which it will lose much
of its solidity and resistance.
The proportion to be wrought away and left in
pillars being determined, the next proper step is to
fix upon such dimensions of the pillars to be left and
of the excavations from which the coal is to be taken
away, as may produce that proportion. In order to
form a just idea of which, see a plan of part of a pit’s
workings (fig. 6.) supposed to be at the depth of 30
fathoms, and the coal having a moderate rise. A, re¬
presents the engine-pit j B, the coal-pit *, A c B, the
mine from the former to the latter $ BC, the first
working or excavation made from the coal-pit, com¬
monly called the winning mine or winning headway,
nine feet wide j bbbbi &c. the workings called rooms,
turned off at right angles from the others, of the width
of 12 feet: cccc. See. the workings called throvghers
or thirlings, 9 feet wide, wrought through at right
Plate
CXLIX.
63:. 6.
of England, differing only as the circumstances of the - angles from one room to another j ddd. Sec. the pil
coalery may require j for the English coal, particular
ly in the northern counties, being of a fine tender tex¬
ture, and of the close-burning kind, and also the roof
and pavement of the coal in general not so strong as
in Scotland, they are obliged to leave a larger propor¬
tion of coal in the pillars for supporting the roof, du¬
ring the first time of working j and in the second work¬
ing, as many of these pillars are wrought away as can
be got with safety*
The Scots coal in general being very hard, and of
the open-burning kind, it is necessary to work it in
such a manner as to produce as many great coals as
possible, which is best effected by taking away as high
a proportion of the coal as circumstances will allow in
the first working j on the contrary, the English coal
being very tender, cannot possibly be wrought large,
nor is it of much importance how small they are, be¬
ing of so rich a quality ; so that a larger proportion
may be left in pillars in this coal than could with pro¬
priety be done in the other j and, when all circumstan¬
ces are considered, each method seems well adapted to
the different purposes intended.
The ancient method of working was, to work away
as much of the coal as could be got with safety at one
Working only, by which means the pillars were left so
small as to be crushed by the Weight of the superior
strata, and entirely lost. As great quantities of coals
were lost by this method, it is now generally ex¬
ploded, and the former adopted in its place, by which
a much larger quantity of coal is obtained from .the
same extent of ground, and at a much less expence in
the end.
The exact proportion of coal proper to be wrought
away, and to be left in pillars at the first working,
may be judged of by a comparison of the circumstan¬
ces before mentioned. If the roof and pavement are
both strong, as well as the coal, and the pit about 30
fathoms deep, then two-thirds, or probably three-
Vol. VI. Part I. f
lars of coal left at the first working for supporting the
roof, 18 feet long and 12 feet broad $ DD, two large
pillars of coal near the pit bottom, 15 or 20 yards long,
and 10 or 15 broad, to support the pit, and prevent its
being damaged by the roof falling in ; e e, the level
mine wrought in the coal from the engine-pit bottom
four or five feet wide j f f, Sec. large pillars of coal left
next the levels to secure it from any damage by the
roof falling in j gg, a dike which depresses the coal,
1 fathom j h h. Sec. large pillars and barriers of coal,
left unwrought, adjoining to the dike where the roof
is tender, to prevent its falling down. The coal ta¬
ken out by the first working in this pit is supposed to
be one third of the whole j and allowing the rooms
12 feet wide, and the thirlings 9 feet wide, then the
pillars will require to be 12 feet wide and 18 feet long;
for if one pillar be in a certain proportion to its ad¬
joining room and thirling, the whole number of pillars
will be in the same proportion to the whole number
of rooms and thirlings in the pit. Suppose ABCD
(fig. 7.) to be a pillar of coal 18 feet long and 12 feetFj- ?
broad, its area will be 216 square feet; ACHE, the
adjoining thirling, 12 feet by 9 feet, and its area 108
square leet; BAEFG, the adjoining room, 27 feet long
and 12 feet broad, and its area 324 square feet; which
added to 108 gives 432 square feet or two-thirds
wrought, and 216 square feet left, or one-third of the
whole area FGHD.
It is proper to observe* that in the prosecution of
the workings, the rooms to the right of the winning
headway should be opposite to the pillars on the left,
and the first, third, and fifth pillar, or the second,
fourth, and sixth, adjoining to the said headway, should
be of such a length as to overlay the adjoining thir¬
lings, as, in the plan, the pillar 2 overlays the thir¬
lings 1 and 3; and the pillar 4 overlays the thir¬
lings 3 and 5 ; this will effectually support the roof
of the main road BC, and will bring the other pillars
G g into
C O A [ 234 ] C O A
Coalery. into their regular order, by which means each pillar
"y—'■■■/ will be opposite to two thirlings. Also a larger pro¬
portion of coal than common should be left in all
places which are intended to be kept open after the
second working, such as the pit-bottoms, air-courses,
roads and water-courses, or where the roof is tender,
as it generally is near dikes, hitches, and troubles j
and if the roof should continue tender for a consider¬
able space, it will perhaps be found proper to leave a
few inches of coal adhering to the roof, which, toge¬
ther with a few props of timber fixed under it, may
support it effectually for a long time. The level mine
e e, and the winning headway BC, should be wrought
forward a considerable length before the other rooms,
in order to be driven through any dikes that might in¬
terpose, otherwise the progress of the workings might
probably be stopt a considerable time, waiting until
a course of new rooms were procured on the other
side of the dike. Suppose the dike gg, fig. 6. to de¬
press the coal six feet or one fathom, and that it rises
in the same manner on the under side of the dike as it
does on the upper side j in such a case, the only reme¬
dy would be to work or drive a level mine through the
strata of stone from the engine-level at e, over the
dike, until it intersect the coal at /; and from thence
to drive a new level mine in the coal at t 1, and a new
winning headway 2 /c. In order to gain a new set of
rooms, and to supply fresh air to this new operation, a
small mine might be driven from the room /i, and a hole
sunk down upon the level room zz; therefore, if the
level mine ee was not driven so far forward as to have
all these operations completed before the rooms and
other workings were intercepted by the dike, the
working of the pit might cease until these new places
were ready.
If there be two or three strata or seams of coal in
the same pit (as there often are) having only a stratum
of a few feet thick lying betwixt them, it is then ma¬
terial to observe, that every pillar in the second seam
be placed immediately before one in the first, and
every pillar in the third seam below one in the se¬
cond $ and in such a situation the upper stratum of coal
ought to be first wrought, or else all the three toge¬
ther 5 for it would be unsafe to work the lower one
first, lest the roof should break, and damage those ly¬
ing above.
It sometimes becomes necessary to work the coal
lying to the dip of the engine or the level 5 which coal
is consequently drowned with water, and must there¬
fore be drained by some means before it can be wrought.
If the quantity of water proceeding from it be incon¬
siderable, it may then be drained by small pumps laid
upon the pavement of the coal, and wrought by men
or horses, to raise the water up to the level of the en¬
gine-pit bottom ; or if the feeders of water be more
considerable, and the situation be suitable, the work¬
ing rod of these pumps might be connected with those
in the engine-pit $ by which means the water would be
raised up to the level; but if the quantity of water be
very great; or if, from other circumstances, these me¬
thods may not be applicable ; then the engine pit may
be sunk as deep below the coal as may be necessary,
and a level stone mine driven from its bottom to the dip
of the strata, until it intersect the stratum of coal, from
whence a new level mine might be wrought, which would
effectually drain it. Suppose AB, fig. 8. to be a sec- Coaler?,
tion of the engine-pit; BC, the coal drained by the
engine; BD, the coal to the dip of the engine in- 8‘ *
tended to be drained ; then if the engine-pit be sunk
deeper to E, a stone mine may be wrought in the di¬
rection ED, until it intersect the coal at D, by which
the water will have a free passage to the engine, and
the coal will be drained.
If there be another stratum of coal lying at such a
depth below the first as the engine-pit is intended to
be sunk to, the upper seam may in some situations be
conveniently drained, by driving a mine in the lower
seam of coal from E to F, and another in the upper
one from B to D ; and by boring a hole from D to F,
the water will descend to F, and, filling the mine EF,
rise up to the engine-pit bottom at E, which is upon a
level with D.
Whenever it is judged necessary to work the pil¬
lars, regard must be had to the nature of the roof.
If the roof is tender, a narrow room may be wrought
through the pillar from one end to the other, leaving
only a shell of coal on each side for supporting the roof
the time of working. Suppose ABCD, fig. J. to be
a pillar of coal 18 feet long and 12 feet broad : if the
roof is not strong, the room 1, 2, 3, 4, of eight feet
wide, may be wrought up through that pillar, leaving
a shell of two feet thick on each side ; and if it can be
safely done, a part of these shells may also be wrought
away, by working two places through them as at 5 and
6. By this means very little of the coal will be lost ;
for two-thirds of the whole being obtained by the first
working, and above two thirds of the pillar by the se¬
cond working, the loss upon the whole would not ex¬
ceed one-tenth : but it may be observed, that some pil¬
lars will not produce so great a proportion, and per¬
haps others cannot be wrought at all ; so that, upon
the whole, there may be about one-sixth, one-seventh,
or in some situations but, one-eighth part of the coal lost.
If the roof be hard and strong, then as much coal may
be wrought off each side and each end of the pillar as
can be done with safety, leavingtonly a small piece stand¬
ing in the middle; and when the roof is very strong,
sometimes several pillars may be taken entirely out,
without any loss of coal : and in general this last me¬
thod is attended with less loss, and produces larger
coals, than the former. In all cases it is proper to
begin working those pillars first which lie farthest from
the pit bottom, and to proceed working them regularly
away towards the pit; but if there be a great number
of pillars to the dip of the pit, it is the safest method
to work these out before those to the rise of the pit are
begun with.
There is no great difference in the weight of differ¬
ent kinds of coals, the lightest being about 74 pounds
avoirdupois, and the heaviest about 79 pounds the cu¬
bic foot; but the most usual weight is 75 pounds the
foot, which is 18 hundred weight and 9 pounds the
cubic yard. The statute chalder is 53 hundred weight;
or when measured is as follows : 268.8 cubic inches to
the Winchester gallon ; 4!- gallons to the coal peck,
about 3 pounds weight; 8 coal-pecks to the boll, about
247t pounds ; and 24 bolls to the chalder, of 53
hundred weight. If one coal measuring exactly a cu¬
bic yard (nearly equal to 5 bolls) be broken into
pieces of a moderate size, it will measure seven coal
^ bolls
C o A [23
Coalery. ant^ a broken very small It will mea-
—y—/sure 9 bolls j which shows, that the proportion of the
weight to the measure depends upon the size of the
coals; therefore accounting by weight is the most ra¬
tional method.
A Table of the weight and quantity of coal contained
in one acre Scots measure, allowing one-sixth part to
be lost below ground, in seams of the following
thicknesses.
Thickness of Coal.
Feet.
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
Inches.
O
6
o
6
o
6
o
6
o
Weight in Tons.
3068
3835
4602
5369
6136
6903
7670
8437
9204
Quantity in Chalders
II58—
M47 +
I736 +
2026-j-
2315 +
2604 +
2894-j-
3183 +
3473 +
We shall next mention some of the various methods
of bringing the coals from the rooms and other work¬
ings to the pit-bottom. Where the stratum of coal is
of a sufficient thickness, and has a moderate rise and
dip, the coals are most advantageously brought out by
horses, who draw out the coals in a tub or basket pla¬
ced upon a sledge : a horse by this means will bring out
from four to eight hundred weight of coals at once,
according to the quantity of the ascent or descent. In
some coaleries they have access to the workings by a
mine made for them, sloping down from the surface of
the earth to the coal; and where that convenience is
wanting, they are bound into a net, and lowered down
the pit. If the coal be not of such a height as to ad¬
mit horses, and has a moderate rise like the last, then
men are employed to bring out the coals: they usually
draw a basket of four or five hundred weight of coals,
fixed upon a small four-wheeled carriage. There are
some situations in which neither horses nor men can be
properly used 5 particularly where the coal has a great
degree of descent, or where many dikes occur : in such
a case the coals are best brought out by women called
bearers, who carry them in a kind of basket upon their
backs, usually a hundred, or a hundred weight and a
half, at once.
When the coals are brought to the pit-bottom, the
baskets are then hooked on to a chain, and drawn up
the pit by a rope to the surface, which is best effected
by a machine called a gin, wrought by horses. There
are some kinds of gins for drawing coals, some wrought
by water, others by the vibrating lever of a fire-engine,
but either of these last is only convenient in some par¬
ticular situations, those wrought by horses being in
most general use. After the coals are got to the sur¬
face, they are drawn a small distance from the pit, and
laid in separate heaps : the larger coals in one heap, the
smaller pieces, called chews in another, and the culm
xl or pan-coal in a separate place.
crushes There is an accident of a very dangerous nature, to
md sitts. which all coaleries are liable, and which has been the
ruin of several $ it is called a crush or a sitt. When
5 ] C O A
the pillars of coal are left so small as to fail, or yield Coalery.
under the weight of the superior strata j or when the
pavement of the coal is so soft as to permit the pillars
to sink into it, which sometimes happens by the great
weight that lies upon them j in either case the solid
stratum above the coal breaks and falls in, crushes the
pillar to pieces, and closes up a great extent of the
workings, or probably the whole coalery. As such an
accident seldom comes on suddenly, if it be perceived
in the beginning, it may sometimes be stopped by build¬
ing large pillars of stone amongst the coal pillars : but
if it has already made some progress, then the best me¬
thod is to work away as many of the coal pillars ad¬
joining to the crush as may be sufficient to let the roof
fall freely down ; and if it makes a breach of the solid
strata from the coal up to the surface, it will very pro¬
bably prevent the crush from proceeding any farther in
that part of the coalery. If the crush begins in the rise
part of the coalery, it is more difficult to stop it from
proceeding to the dip, than it is to stop it from going to
the rise when it begins in a contrary part. I9
Another circumstance proper tube taken notice of Foul air.
is the foul or adulterated air so often troublesome in
coaleries. Of this there are two kinds; the black
damp or styth, which is of a suffocating nature j and
the inflammable or combustible damp. Without stay¬
ing to inquire, in this place, into the origin and effects
of these damps, it may be sufficient to observe, that,
in whatever part of any coalery a constant supply or
a circulation of fresh air is wanting, there some of
these damps exist, accumulate in a body, and become
noxious or fatal $ and whenever there is a good circu¬
lation of fresh air, they cannot accumulate, being mix¬
ed with and carried away by the stream of air as fast as
they generate or exhale from the strata. Upon these
principles are founded the several methods of ventila¬
ting a coalery. Suppose the workings of the pits A piate
and B (fig. 6.) to be obnoxious to the inflammable CXL1X.
damps ; if the communication was open betwixt the
two pits, the air which went down the pit A would
proceed immediately beyond the mine a, and ascend out
of the pit B j for it naturally takes the nearest direc¬
tion, so that the air in all the workings would be stag¬
nant } and they would be utterly inaccessible from the
accumulation of the combustible damp. In order to
expel this, the air must be made to circulate through
all the different rooms by means of collateral air-
courses made in this manner: The passage or mine a
must be closed up or stopped by a partition of deals, or
by a wall built with bricks or stones, to prevent the air
passing that way. This building is called a stopping.
There must also be stoppings made in the thiriings
III, &c. between the pillars^/yj &c. which will di¬
rect the air up the mine e e, until it arrives at the in¬
nermost thirling 2, which is to be left open for its pas¬
sage. There must also be stoppings made at the side of
the mine a at m m, and on both sides of the main head¬
way BC at b b, &c. then returning to the innermost
thirling 2, proceed to the third row of pillars, and build
up the thiriings 2 2, &c. leaving open the thirling 3
for a passage for the air; and proceeding on to the fifth
row of pillars, build up in the same manner the stop¬
pings 3 3, &.c. leaving open 4 for an air course :
and by proceeding in this manner to stop up the thir¬
iings or passages in every other row of pillars, the cur-
G g 2 rent
c O A [ 236 J C O A
Coalery. rent of fresh air will circulate through and ventilate the
' whole workings, in the direction pointed to by the small
arrows in the plan, clearing away all the damps and
noxious vapours that may generate. When it is arrived
at C, it is conducted across the main headway, and
carried through the other part of the pit’s workings in
the same manner, until it returns through n n to the
pit B, where it ascends ; and as the rooms advance
farther, other stoppings are regularly made.
In some of those stoppings, on the side of the main
headway, there must be doors to admit a passage for
the bringing out of the coals from the rooms to the pit,
as at 5 5 : these doors must be constantly shut, except
at the time of passing through them.
There are other methods of disposing the stoppings
so as to ventilate the pit $ but none which will so ef¬
fectually disperse the damps as that described above.
If the damps are not very abundant, then the course
of stopping ill, &c. in the level mine, and the others
&t b b b, &c. in the main headway, without any others,
may perhaps he sufficient to keep the pit clear. If at
any time the circulation of the fresh air is not brisk
enough, then a large lamp of fire may be placed at the
bottom of the pit B, which, by rarefying the air there,
20 will make a quicker circulation.
Of leading Most of the larger coaleries send their coals to the
and ship- ships for the coasting trade or exportation ; and, as the
«oalgthe IS generally very large, it would take a greater
number of carts than could conveniently he obtained at
all times to carry them; besides the considerable expence
of that manner of carriage : they therefore generally
use waggons, for carrying them along waggon-ways,
laid with timber, by which means one horse will draw
from two to three tons at a time, when in a cart not
above half a ton could be drawn.
The first thing to be done in making a waggon-way
is to level the ground in such a manner as to take off
all sudden ascents and descents, to effect which, it is
sometimes necessary to cut through hills, and to raise
an embankment to carry the road through hollows.
The road should be formed about 12 feet wide, and
no part should have a greater descent than of one yard
perpendicular in 10 of a horizontal line, nor a greater
ascent than one yard in 30. After the road is formed,
pieces of timber, about six feet long, and six inches
diameter, called sleepersy are laid across it, being 18 or
24 inches distant from each other. Upon these sleepers
other pieces of timber, called rails, of four or five inches
square, are laid in a lateral direction, four feet distant
from each other, for the waggon-wheels to run upon ;
which being firmly pinned to the sleepers, the road may
then be filled with gravel and finished.
The waggons have four wheels, either made of so¬
lid wood or of cast iron. The body of the carriage is
longer and wider at the top than at the bottom ; and
usually has a kind of trap-door at the bottom, which,
being loosed, permits the coals to run out without any
trouble. The size of a waggon to carry 50 hundred
weight of coals is as follows :
Feet. Inches.
Length of the top, . _ y p
Breadth of the top, - . ^ 0
Length of the bottom, - S 0
Breadth of the bottom, - 2 6
Perpendicular height, "43
Where the pits are situated at some considerable di- Coa!*r
stance from the harbour, it becomes necessary to have |f
a store-house near the shipping place, where the coals t-’oau.
may be lodged, until the lighters or ships are ready to ^ v—
take them in. The waggon-way should be made into
the store-house, at such a height from the ground, as
to permit the coals to run from the waggons down a
spout into the vessels ; or else to fall down into the
store-house, as occasion may require.
This kind of store-house is well adapted to dispatch
and saving expence ; for a waggon load of coals may be
delivered either into the store-house or vessels instantly
with very little trouble : and if the coals were exposed
to the effects of the sun and rain, they would be greatly
injured in their quality : but being lodged under cover,
they are preserved. See Coalery, Supplement.
COALESCENCE, the union or growing together
of two bodies before separate. It is principally applied
to some bones in the body, which are separate during
infancy, but afterwards grow together; or to some
morbid union of parts, which should naturally be dis¬
tinct from each other. Thus there is a coalescence of
the sides of the vulva, anus, and nares; of the eye-lids,
fingers, toes, and many other parts.
COALLIER, a vessel employed to carry coals from
one port to another, chiefly from the northern parts
of England to the capital, and more southerly parts,
as well as to foreign markets. This trade is known
to be an excellent nursery for seamen, although they
are often found, from the constitution of their cli¬
mate, not to be so well calculated for southern navi¬
gation.
COAMINGS, in ship-building, are those planks,
or that frame, forming a border round the hatches,
which raise them up higher than the rest of the deck.
Loop-holes for muskets to shoot out at are often made
in the coamings, in order to clear the deck of the
enemy when the ship is boarded.
COANE, among the Greeks, a name given to a
peculiar species of tutia or tutty, which was always
found in a tubular form. It had its name from
a word used to express a sort of cylindric tube, into
which the melted brass was received from the furnace,
and in which it was suffered to cool. In cooling, it
always deposited a sort of recrement on the sides
of the vessel or tube, and this was the tutty called
coane.
COAST, a sea-shore, or the country adjoining to
the edge of the sea. Dr Campbell, in his Political
Survey of Great Britain, considers an extensive sea-
coast as of great advantage to any kingdom ; and con¬
sequently that this island hath many conveniencies re¬
sulting from the extent of its coasts, superior to other
kingdoms which are much larger. The chief advan¬
tages arising from an extensive sea-coast are, that
thus there is a convenient opportunity for exportation
and importation to or from all parts of the kingdom.
Thus, a number of cities are formed on the coasts;
by this means the internal parts are improved, &c.
The extent of the sea-coasts of Arabia, he looks upon
as the genuine source of wealth and splendour to the
ancient inhabitants of that peninsula ; the same was
the instrument of the greatness of ancient Egypt, of
Phoenicia, &c. In short, according to him, no coun-
tiy or city can for any length of time be flourishing
unless
Plate CXL1X
C OAL MIXES
 'A
500
1
h
e
aI $
c
c
HV |
C O A [ 237 ] C O A
Coast unless it hath considerable connexion with the sea.
Cape-Joast “ It is indeed true (says he) that the wisdom and in-
dustry of man, taking hold of some particular circum¬
stances, may have rendered a few inland cities and
countries very fair and flourishing. In ancient history
we read of Palmyra and the district round it, becom¬
ing a luxuriant paradise in the midst of inhospitable
deserts. But this was no more than a temporary gran¬
deur ; and it has now lain for some ages in ruins.
The city and principality of Candahar was in like
manner rendered rich and famous, in consequence of
its being made the centre of the Indian commerce $
but long ago declining, its destruction has been com ¬
pleted in our days, from that dreadful desolation
which Thamas Kouli Khan spread through Persia and
the Indies. Here, in Europe, many of the large ci¬
ties in Germany, which for a time made a great figure
from the freedom and industry of the inhabitants, and
diffused ease, plenty, and prosperity, through the di¬
stricts dependent on them, which of course rendered
them populous, are now so much sunk through inevi¬
table accidents, as to be but shadows of what they
were; and though they still continue to subsist, subsist
only as the melancholy monuments of their own mis¬
fortunes. We may therefore, from hence, with great
certainty discern, that all the pains and labour that
can be bestowed in supplying the defect of situation,
in this respect, proves, upon the whole, but a tedious,
difficult, and precarious expedient. But, however,
we must at the same time admit, that it is not barely
the possession even of an extended coast that can pro¬
duce all these desirable effects. That coast must like¬
wise be distinguished by other natural advantages,
such as capes and promontories, favourably disposed
to break the fury of the winds j deep bays, safe roads,
and convenient harbours. For, without these, an ex¬
tended coast is no more than a maritime barrier against
the maritime force of other nations } as is the case in
m|iny parts of Europe, and is one of the principal
reasons why Africa derives so little benefit from a si¬
tuation which has so promising an appearance ; there
being many considerable tracts upon its coasts equally
void of havens and inhabitants, and which afford not
the smallest encouragement to the attempting any
thing that might alter their present desolate condition.
It is, however, a less inconvenience, and in some cases,
no inconvenience at all, if, in the compass of a very
extended coast, there should be some parts difficult or
dangerous of access, provided they are not altogether
inaccessible.—The sea-coast of Britain, from the figure,
in some measure, of the island, but chiefly from the
inlets of the sea, and the very irregular indented line
which forms its shore, comprehends, allowing for those
sinuosities, at least 800 marine leagues : we may, from
hence, therefore, with safety affirm, that in this respect
it is superior to France, though that be a much larger
country ; and equal to Spain and Portugal in this cir¬
cumstance, though Britain is not half the size ot that
noble peninsula, which is also singularly happy in this
very particular.”
Cape-Coast, the name of the chief British settle¬
ment on the coast of Guinea, in Africa. The name is
thought to be a corruption of Cabo Corso, the ancient
Portuguese appellation. This cape is formed by an
angular point, washed on the south and east by the
sea, on which stands the English fort. Here the Por-Cape-Coast
tuguese settled in 1610, and built the citadel of Cape- ||
Coast upon a large rock that projects into the sea. A foatzont*-
few years afterwards they were dislodged by the Hutch,
to whom this place is principally indebted for its
strength. In 1664 it was demolished by Admiral
Holmes, and in 1665 the famous Dutch Admiral He
Ruyter was ordered by the states to revenge the in¬
sults of the English. With a squadron of 13 men of
war, he attacked all the English settlements along the
coast $ ruined the factories ; and took, burnt, and sunk
all the shipping of the English Company : however,
after all his efforts, he was baffled in his attempts on
Cape-Coast. By the treaty of Breda it was confirm¬
ed to the English, and the king granted a new char¬
ter in 1672 j on which the Company applied all their
attention to the fortifying and rendering it commo¬
dious.
COASTING, in Navigation, the act of making a
progress along the sea-coast of any country. The
principal articles relating to this part of navigation are,
the observing the time and direction of the tide j know¬
ledge of the reigning winds ; of the roads and havens 5
of the different depths of the water, and qualities of the
ground.
CoASTiNG-Pilot, a pilot who by long experience has
become sufficiently acquainted with the nature of any
particular coast, and of the requisites mentioned in the
preceding article, to conduct a ship or fleet from one
part of it to another.
COAT, or Coat of Arms, in Heraldry, a habit
worn by the ancient knights over their arms, both in
war and tournaments, and still borne by heralds at
arms. It was a kind of sur-coat, reaching as low as
the navel, open at the sides, with short sleeves, some¬
times furred with ermine and hair, upon which were
applied the armories of the knights embroidered in
gold and silver, and enamelled with beaten tin- colour¬
ed black, green, red, and blue $ whence the rule ne¬
ver to apply colour on colour, nor metal on metal.
The coats of arms were frequently open, and diversi¬
fied with bands and fillets of several colours, alternate¬
ly placed, as we still see cloths scarleted, watered, &c.,
Hence they were called devices, as being divided and
composed of several pieces sewed together j whence the
vior&sfess, pale, chevron, bend, cross, saltier, lozenge,
&c. which have since become honourable pieces, or
ordinaries of the shield. See Cross, Bend, Chev¬
ron, &c.
Coats of arms and banners were never allowed to be
worn by any but knights and ancient nobles.
Coat, in Anatomy. See Tunic and Eye.
Coat of Mail; a kind of armour made in form of a
shirt; consisting of iron rings wove together netwise.
See Mail. ,
CO ATI, in Zoology; a synonyme of a species ol
Viverra and Ursus. See Mammalia Index.
COATIMUNDI, a variety of the above.
Coating of Phials, Panes of Glass, &zc. among
electricians, is usually performed by covering the out¬
side of the phial with tinfoil, brass, or gold-leaf, Sec.
and filling its inside with loose pieces of brass-leaf, by
which means it becomes capable of being charged. See
Electricity.
COATZONTECOXOCHITL, or Flower with
the
COB [2;
Coatzonte-jJ^e viper's head) is the Mexican name of a flower of
coxochitl incomparable beauty. It is composed of five petals or
Coboose ^eaves» Purple i*1 the innermost part, white in the mid-
. , v- ' *■ die, the rest red, but elegantly stained with yellow and
white spots. The plant which bears it bas leaves re¬
sembling those of the iris, but longer and larger; its
trunk is small and slim : This flower was one of the
most esteemed among the Mexicans. The Lincean
academicians of Rome, who commented on and pub¬
lished the History of Hernandez in 1651, and saw the
paintings of this flower, with its colours, executed in
Mexico, conceived such an idea of its beauty, that they
adopted it as the emblem of their very learned acade¬
my, denominating it Fior de Lince.
COBALT, a metallic substance which was former¬
ly classed with the semimetals. See Chemistry and
Mineralogy Index.
COBBING, a punishment sometimes inflicted at
sea. It is performed by striking the offender a certain
number of times on the breech with a flat piece of
wood called the cohhing-board. It is chiefly used as a
punishment to those who quit their station during the
period of the night-watch.
COBITIS, the Loache, in Ichthyologyt a genus
of fishes belonging to the order of abdominales. See
Ichthyology Index. It is frequent in the stream
near Amesbury in Wiltshire, ^yhere the sportsmen,
through frolic, swallow it down alive in a glass of
white-wine.
COBLE, a boat used in the turbot fishery, twenty
feet six inches long, and five feet broad. It is about
one ton burthen, rowed with three pair of oars, and
admirably constructed for encountering a mountainous
sea.
COBLENTZ, an ancient, handsome, and strong
town of Germany, seated at the confluence of the rivers
Rhine and Moselle, in a fertile country, with mountains
covered with vineyards. It was the usual residence of
the elector of Treves, to whom it belonged. Over the
Rhine is a bridge of twelve arches, built for the con¬
venience of the inhabitants of Coblentz and the adja¬
cent places. A ferry machine is constantly going from
the city to the other side of the Rhine, where there is
a little town and very strong castle built on an eminence
named the rock of honour. This machine is erected on
two boats, in the form of a large square gallery, en¬
compassed with ballustrades. Its inhabitants in l8lj
amounted to about 10,500, including the suburbs. Its
territory produces the best Moselle wine, which is ex¬
ported both to Frankfort and Holland. The situation
of the place is very favourable for trade, as it commu¬
nicates with France by the Moselle, and with Ger¬
many and Switzerland by the Rhine. It is now the
chief town of the Prussian territories on the Rhine.
It has two yearly fairs. E. Long. 7. 32. N. Lat.
50. 24.
COBOB, the name of a dish among the Moors. It
is made of several pieces of mutton wrapt up in the
cawl, and afterwards roasted in it j the poorer people,
instead of the meat, use the heart, liver, and other
parts of the entrails, and make a good dish, though
not equal to the former.
COBOOSE, in sea-language, is derived from the
Dutch kambuis) and denotes a sort of box, resembling
8 ] COB
a sentry box, used to cover the chimneys 0} some mer¬
chant ships. It generally stands against the barricade,
on the fore-part of the quarter-deck. It is called in
the West Indies cobre vega.
COBURG, a town of Germany in the circle of
Franconia, and capital of a principality of the same
name, with a famous college, a fort, and a castle. The
town contains about 7000 inhabitants; the principality
in 1815 contained 72,000. It is seated on the river
Itch, in E. Long. 11. 18. N. Lat. 50. 22.
COBWEB, in Physiology, the fine net-work which
spiders spin out of their own bowels, in order to catch
their prey. See Aranea.
COCCEIUS, John, professor of theology at Bre¬
men, was founder of a sect called Cocceians: they held,
amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign
of Christ in this world, after a general conversion of
the Jews and all other people to the true Christian
faith, as laid down in the voluminous works of Coc-
ceius. He died in 1699, aged 66.
COCCINELLA, in Zoology, a genus of insects of
the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
COCCOLOBO, in Botany, a genus of the trigy-
nia order, belonging to the octandria class of plants j
and in the natural method ranking under the I2th or¬
der, Holoraceee. See Botany Index.
COCCOTHRAUSTES, the trivial name of a spe¬
cies of Loxia. See Ornithology Index.
COCCULUS Indicus, the name of a poisonous
berry, too frequently mixed with malt-liquors in order
to make them intoxicating j but this practice is ex¬
pressly forbidden by act of parliament. It is the fruit
of the Menispermvm Cocculus. Fishermen have a
way of mixing it with paste, which the fish swallow
greedily, and are thereby rendered lifeless for a time,
and float on the water. It is sometimes used with
stavesacre, for destroying vermine in children’s heads.
COCCUS, in Zoology, a genus of insects belonging
to the order of hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
COCCYGiEUS musculus. See Anatomy, 2b-
ble o f the Muscles.
COCCYX, or Coccygis os. See Anatomy In~
dex.
COCHIN, a settlement on the coast of Malabar, in
N. Lat. 10. o. E. Long. 76. 8. The town is not un¬
pleasant. The fortification is irregular, but strong
enough to resist any of the Indian powers, and has 40
or 50 cannon facing the sea. The people in this town
and the country adjacent are subject to a strange dis¬
order of the legs, called Cochin or elephant legs, in which
the swelled limb is sometimes of such an enormous bulk
as to have greatly the appearance both in shape and
size of the leg of an elephant. According to Mr Ives,
this disorder seems to be merely an cedematous swelling,
occasioned by an impoverished state of the blood and
juices. The persons afflicted with this distemper very
seldom apply to European surgeons, and thus are
rarely, if ever, cured. Indeed, our author observes,
that their application would probably be of little avail,
as the only thing that could be prescribed would be an
alteration from the poorest to the most cordial and
nutritious diet j and the Indians are so invincibly wed¬
ded to their own customs, that they would sooner die
than break through them. Of this he says there were
several
Coboose
a
( ocliin.
C O C [ 239 ] c o c
Cochin, several instances in their long passage to Bengal, during
Cochin- which some of the Sepoys perished for want of food,
China, rather than save themselves by partaking of the ship’s
— y 1 provisions after their own had been expended. Most of
those afflicted with the disorder we speak of, are unable
to call any assistance, being the very poorest of the peo¬
ple, who live entirely upon a kind of fish called sardi-
nias, without being able to purchase even the smallest
quantity of rice to eat along with it *, their drink is also
mere water, unless they sometimes procure a draught ot
the simple unfermented juice called toddy. Cochin was
first occupied by the Portuguese, from whom it was ta¬
ken by the Dutch. It remained in the hands of the lat¬
ter till 1795, when it was taken by the British.
Cochin-China, a kingdom of Asia, bounded on the
north by Tonquin j on the east, by the sea of China $
on the south by the Indian ocean j and on the west by
Cambodia, and a ridge of mountains inhabited by a sa¬
vage people called Kemois, who live independent of any
government. Little of the history of this kingdom is
known. M. le Poivre, a French traveller, informs us,
that about half a century before the French first arrived
in these distant regions, a prince of Tonquin, as he fled
from his sovereign, by whom he was pursued as a rebel,
had with his soldiers and adherents crossed the river,
which serves as a barrier between Tonquin and Cochin-
China. The fugitives, who were warlike and civilized
men, soon expelled the scattered inhabitants, who wan¬
dered about without any society or form of government,
and founded a new kingdom, which soon grew rich and
populous. During the reigns of the first six kings, no
nation could be happier than the Cochin-Chinese. 1 heir
monarchs governed them as a father does his family,
establishing no laws but those of nature, to which they
themselves were the first to pay obedience. They ho¬
noured and encouraged agriculture, as the most useful
employment of mankind ; and required from their sub¬
jects only a small annual free-gift to defray the ex¬
pence of their defensive war against the Tonquinese,
who were their enemies. This imposition was regu¬
lated, by way of poll-tax, with the greatest equity.
Every man, able to till the ground, paid in to the prince
a small sum proportioned to the strength of his consti¬
tution, and the vigour of his arm, and nothing more.
Cochin-China continued happy under these princes
for more than a century •, but the discovery of gold¬
mines put a stop to the above mild regulations. Luxu¬
ry immediately took place. The prince began to de¬
spise the simple habitation of his ancestors, and caused
a superb palace to be built a league in circumference,
surrounded with a wall of brick on the model of that
of Pekin, and defended by 1600 pieces of cannon.
Not content with this, he would needs have a winter
palace, an autumn palace, and a summer palace. The
old taxes were by no means sufficient to defray these
expences j new ones were devised j and oppression
and tyranny everywhere took place. His courtiers,
to flatter their prince, gave him the title of the king
of heaven, which he still continues to assume. When
speaking of his subjects, he styles them his chil¬
dren, but by no means behaves as if he was their fa¬
ther $ for our author informs us, that he has seen
whole villages newly abandoned by their inhabitants,
who were harassed with toil and insupportable ex¬
actions j the necessary consequence of which was,
that their lands returned to their former uncultivated Cochin-
state. China.
M. le Poivre represents the Cochin-Chinese as gentle, /—
hospitable, frugal, and industrious. There is not a
beggar in the country, and robbery and murder are
absolutely unknown. A stranger may wander over
the kingdom from one end to the other (the capital
excepted) without meeting with the slightest insult.
He will be everywhere received with the most eager
curiosity, but at the same time with the greatest bene¬
volence. A Cochin-Chinese traveller, who has not
money sufficient to defray his expences at an inn, en¬
ters the first house of the town or village he arrives at,
and waiting the hour of dinner, takes part with the
family, and goes away when he thinks proper, without
speaking a word, or any person’s putting to him a
single question.
The country of Cochin-China is much of the samn
temperature with that of Tonquin •, though rather
milder, as lying near the sea. Like Tonquin, it is an¬
nually overflowed, and consequently fruitful in rice,
which requires no other manure than the mud left by
the inundations. They have sugar-canes, and the
same kinds of fruits common to other parts of India.
The country produces no grapes, and therefore they
drink a liquor brewed from rice. They have vast
woods of mulberry-trees, which run up as fast as our
hemp. Their silk is stronger than that of China, but
not so fine. They have the best timber in the world,
particularly a sort which abounds in the mountains, and
is called the incorruptible tree, because it never rots un¬
der earth or water, and is so solid that it serves for an¬
chors. There are two kinds, black and red. The
trees are very tall, straight, and so big that two men
can scarce grasp them. They have also on the moun¬
tains of the Kemois a tree of the most fragrant scent,
which is supposed to be the same with lignum aloes.
This, being reckoned the best product of the country,
is engrossed by the king, and is sold from five to 16
ducats per pound. It is highly valued both in China
and Japan, where the logs of it are sold for 200 ducats
a pound, to make pillows for the king and nobility j
and among those Indians which continue to burn their
dead, great quantities of it are used in the funeral piles.
The young trees called aquila, or eagle-wood, are eve¬
ry one’s property, which make the old ones called ca*
lamb a so scarce and dear. They have oak, and large
pines, for the building of ships, so that this country is
of the same use to China that Norway is to Britain.
In general, they have the same kind of trees and plants
that are to be met with in Tonquin. They have mines
of gold, as well as diamonds j but the last they do not
value so high as pearl. They also esteem their coral
and amber very much. In all the provinces there are
great granaries filled with rice, in some of which that
grain is kept upwards of 30 years. One of the great¬
est rarities of these parts, especially in grand-entertain¬
ments, is a ragout made of the eatable birds-nests,
which some say are found only in Cochin-China, and
others in four islands that lie south of its coast. See
Bums-Nests.
The merchants of Cambodia, Tonquin, China, Ma¬
cao, Manila, Japan, and Malacca, trade to Cochin-
China with plate, which they exchange for the com¬
modities of the country. The Portuguese are the most
favoured
C O C [ 240 ] c o c
Couliin- favoured here of any Europeans. The Cochin-Chinese
Chin u themselves, not being inclined to travel, seldom sail out
of sight of their own shore, but purchase many trifles
from foreigners at great rates, particularly combs, nee¬
dles, bracelets, glass pendants, &c. They are very
fond of our hats, caps, girdles, shirts, and other clothes ;
and, above all, set a great value on coral. The coun¬
try is said to have 700 miles of coast, with many large
•inlets of the sea, and above 60 convenient landing
places ; which, however, according to Captain Hamil¬
ton, are but seldom visited by strangers.
The people of this country have a great affinity
with those of Tonquin, with whom they have a com¬
mon origin, and from whom they differ very little in
their manner of living, as well as their manners and
customs, all of which they have in a great measure
borrowed from the Chinese. The principal exports
of the country are silk, sugar, ebony, and calamba
wood ; gold in dust or in bars, which is sold for only
ten times its weight in silver; and copper and porce¬
lain brought from China and Japan. From this coun¬
try also are exported the birds-nests esteemed such
a delicacy at the table. They are found in four islands
situated near the coasts of Cochin-China, to the east¬
ward of which are five other smaller ones, where are
found prodigious numbers of turtles, the flesh of which
is so delicate that the Tonquiqese and people of Co¬
chin-China frequently fight desperate battles, in order
to take them from one another. The commodities
which sell most readily in this country are, saltpetre,
sulphur, lead, fine cloth, and barred or flowered
chintz. Pearls, amber, and coral, were formerly in
great request, but at present only the two last are sale¬
able ; and even these will not answer unless the
beads of coral be round, well polished, and of a beau¬
tiful red colour: the amber must also be extremely
clear, the beads of an equal size, and not larger than
a hazel nut.
The only money current in Cochin-China is that of
Japan, which is paid and received by weight. The
money of the country is of copper and as large as our
counters ; of a round figure, and having a hole in
the middle by which the pieces may be strung like
beads. Three hundred of these are put on one side,
and as many on the other, which in Cochin-China
pass for a thousand ; because in 600 are found ten
times 60, which make a century among almost all the
people of the east. There is, however, scarce any
country in which merchants are more apt to be de¬
ceived with regard to the value of money than Cochin-
China, owing to the pieces being unequal in figure
and quality, and the difficulty of determining their va¬
lue, which is regulated only by a few characters stamp¬
ed upon them. The dealers must therefore be at pains
to have honest and skilful people to ascertain the va¬
lue of the pieces they receive, otherwise they run a
great risk of being deceived in their value, as the Co¬
chin-Chinese make a great merit of being able to cheat
an European.
European merchants complain, according to M.
Grosier, unjustly of the demands made, in Cochin-Chi¬
na for entrance, clearance, and anchorage. The du¬
ties, indeed, are very trifling, amounting only, even
those of the customhouse, to 4 per cent.; but nothing
can be removed from a ship which arrives there until
3
she has first been inspected, when the customhouse Cockin,
officers unload her, weigh and count the smallest pieces, China,
and generally take what they look upon to be most
valuable, in order to send it to the king. The mo- '"""V"*"
narch takes what he thinks proper, and returns the va¬
lue ; but the grandees are said to keep part of the goods
also, without paying any thing for them. Thus the
ordinary goods, which, had they been accompanied
with the more valuable part of the cargo, would have
found a ready market, can now scarcely be disposed
of; though our author is of opinion, that the matter
is not altogether without remedy. When the Dutch
sent to this country vessels loaded with cloths, lead,
and saltpetre, their cargoes were suffered to remain
entire, because they had taken the precaution to pay
every year a certain sum for each vessel that entered.
Other nations, by endeavouring to avoid the payment!
of this duty, entirely destroyed their commerce : the
people of Cochin-China, however, for some years past,
have been much more moderate in their demands ; and
whatever their exactions may be, they are far less ex¬
orbitant than those of the Tonquinese.
M. Grosier observes, that a false report has gained
ground in Europe, that when a trading vessel happens
to run aground in Cochin-China, or to be driven into
any of its harbours by stress of weather, the king seizes
the cargo if the rudder be broken. He assures us,
however, that, so far from this being the case, a ves¬
sel in distress is much safer on the coasts of Cochin-
China than almost anywhere else. Barks are imme¬
diately sent to the relief of the crew, and people em¬
ployed to drag the sea with nets in order to recover
the goods that are lost; and, in short, neither labour
nor expences are spared to put the ships in the best
condition possible. Only two things can hurt the
trade of foreigners at Cochin-China, one of which
may be easily avoided. This regards the clearing out
of vessels. Thus, while the master is waiting on the
evening before his departure, or on the day fixed for
sailing, in order to receive his dispatches, it often hap¬
pens that he loses his voyage, which may prove the
ruin of a trader. For this reason, care must be taken
to solicit a clearance a month before ; by which means
one is always certain of obtaining it, and departing
on the day appointed. The other difficulty is occasion¬
ed by the necessity of selling goods on credit, which are
seldom paid at the stipulated time. This, however, is
contrary to the inclination of the prince ; for every
merchant who can convey to him an account of these
unjust delays, is sure to be paid, and sometimes even
with interest.
COCHINEAL, or Cochineel, a drug used by the
dyers, &c. for giving red colours, especially crimsons
and scarlets, and for making carmine; and likewise in
medicine as a cardiac, cordial, sudorific, alexipharmac,
and febrifuge.
The cochineal, in the state in which it is brought
to us, is in small bodies of an irregular figure, usually
convex, ridged and furrowed on one side, and con¬
cave on the other. The colour of the best is a purplish
gray, powdered over with a sort of white dust. All
that the world knew of it for a long time was, that
it was gathered from certain plants in Mexico ; and
therefore it was naturally supposed to be a seed, till
in the year 1692 Father Plunder gave Pomet an ac¬
count
C O C [ 241 ] c o c
ochineal count of its being an animal. And this, though then
II disregarded, has been confirmed by subsequent obser-
;ock.pit. ^ vat;onS. Indeed, to determine the point, we have
1 now the means in our own hands, even in this part of
the world.—We need only moisten and soak in wa¬
ter, or in vinegar, a number of cochineals till they
are swelled and distended, to know that every one is
the more or less perfect body of an insect; the most
imperfect and mutilated specimens always show the
rings of the body ; and from observing others, it will
be easy to find the number and disposition of the legs,
parts, or even whole ones, being left on several, and
often complete pair2. In this way the legs, anten¬
na;, and proboscis, may be discovered. See Coccus
above, and Dyeing.
M. Macquer observes, that the cochineal of Sylves¬
ter is gathered in the woods of Old and New Mexico.
The insect lives, grows, and multiplies on the unculti¬
vated opuntias, which grow there in great abundance.
It is there exposed to the inclemencies of the weather,
and dies naturally. The colour is more durable than
that of the common cochineal, but less bright: but
there is no advantage in using it i for, though cheaper,
a greater quantity is requisite.
COCHLEA, the Shell-snaie. See Helix, Con-
CHOLOGY Index.
Cochlea, in Anatomif. See Anatomy Index.
COCHLEAMA, Scurvy-grass. See Botany
Index.
COCHLITES, in Natural History, an appellation
given to the petrified shells of the cochlese or snails.
COCINTUM, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of the Brutlii, reckoned the longest in Italy, and which
Holstenius and Vossius have restored to Ovid, reading
Cocintia for Ceraunia, Metam. xv. v. 704.—Cocinlum,
also a town 2 2 miles to the south of Scylaceum, al¬
most on the spot where now Stilp stands, from which
the opposite promontory Cocintum is commonly called
Capo de Stilo.
COCK, in Zoology, the English name of the males of
gallinaceous birds, but more especially used for the com¬
mon dunghill cock. See Phasianus, Ornithology
Index.
Black Cock. 1 See Tetrao, Ornithology
Cock of the fPood. 3 Index.
CocK-Chaffer. See Scarab.eus, Entomology In¬
dex.
Cock- Paddle, Lump fish or Sea-owl. See Cyclop-
terus, Ichthyology Index.
CocK-Pit, a sort of theatre upon which game-cocks
fight.
It must appear astonishing to every reflecting mind,
that a mode of diversion so cruel and inhuman as that
of cock-fighting should so generally prevail : that not
only the ancients, barbarians, Greeks, and Romans,
should have adopted it j but that a practice so savage
and heathenish should be continued by Christians of all
sorts, and even pursued in these better and more en¬
lightened times.
The ancient Greeks and Romans, as is well known,
were wont to call all the nations in the world barba¬
rians \ yet certainly, if we consider the many instances
of cruelty practised among them, there was very little
reason for the distinction. Human sacrifices were com¬
mon both to them and the barbarians j and with them
Vol. VI. Part I. f
the exposing of infants, the combats of men with wild Cock-pit.
beasts, and of men with men in the gladiatorial scenes,
were spectacles of delight and festivity.
The islanders of Delos, it seems, were great lovers
of cock-fighting ; and Tanagra a city in Bceotia, the
isle of Rhodes, Chalcis in Euboea, and the country of
Media, were famous for their generous and magnani¬
mous race of chickens. The kingdom of Persia was
probably included in the last, from whence this kind
of poultry was first brought into Greece j and if one
may judge of the rest from the fowls of Rhodes and
Media, the excellency of the broods at that time con¬
sisted in their weight and largeness (as the fowls of
those countries were heavy and bulky), and of the na¬
ture of what our sportsmen call shakebags ox lurnpokes.
The Greeks, moreover, had some method of prepa¬
ring the birds for battle, by feeding $ as may be col¬
lected from Columella.
It should seem, that at first cock-fighting was partly
a religious and partly a political institution at Athens j
and was there continued for the purpose of improving
the seeds of valour in the minds of their youth ; but
was afterwards abused and perverted both here and in
the other parts of Greece to a common pastime, with¬
out any moral, political, or religious intention, and as
it is now followed and practised among us.
At Rome, as the Romans were prone to imitate the
Greeks, we may expect to find them following their
example in this mode of diversion, and in the worst
way, viz. without any good or laudable motives, since
when they took and brought it to Rome, the Greeks
had forgotten every thing that was commendable in it,
and had already perverted it to a low and unmeaning
sport. Signior Hyam thinks the Romans borrowed
the pastime from Dardanus, in Asia j but there is little
reason for making them go so far for it, when it was
so generally followed in Greece, whose customs the Ro¬
mans were addicted to borrow and imitate. However,
it is probable, they did not adopt this opinion very
early. It may be gathered from Columella, that the
Romans did not use the sport in his time. This au¬
thor styles cock-fighting a Grecian diversion; and
speaks of it in terms of ignominy as an expensive a-
musement, unbecoming the frugal householder, and of¬
ten attended with the ruin of the parties that followed
it. “ The words are remarkable. “ Nos enim cense-
mus instituere vectigal industrii patris familias, non ri-
xosarum avium lanistse, cujus plerumque totum patrimo-
ninm pignus aleae, victor gallinaeeus pyctes abstulit
When he describes, as we think, the manner not ot
the Romans, but of the Greeks, who had in his time
converted the diversion of cock-fighting into a species
of gaming, and even to the total ruin of their families,
as happens but too often in England at this day. The
Romans, however, at last gave into the custom, though
not till the decline of the empire. The first cause ot
contention between the two brothers Bassianus and
Geta, sons of the emperor Septimus Severus, happen¬
ed, according to Herodian, in their youth, about
the fighting of their cocks $ and if the battling be¬
tween those two princes was the first instance ot it,
probably they had seen and learned it in Greece, whi¬
ther they had often accompanied the emperor their fa-
^ier* • • 1 r
It is observable, that cocks and quails pitted for the
H h purpose
C O C [ 242 ] c o c
Gock-pit. purpose of engaging one another, a outrance, or to the
~V"~' last gasp, for diversion, are frequently compared, and
with much propriety, to gladiators. Hence Pliny’s
expression, Galloi'um——-ceu gladiatorum ; and that of
Columella, rixosarum avium lanistce ; lanista being the
proper term for the master of the gladiators. Conse¬
quently one would expect, that when the bloody
scenes of the amphitheatre were discarded, as they
were soon after the Christian religion became the
establishment of the empire, the wanton shedding of
men’s blood in sport, being of too cruel and savage
a nature to be patronized and encouraged in an in¬
stitution so harmless and innocent as the Christian
was, one might justly expect that the and
the ttXifcIfvo/utcuut would have ceased of course. The
fathers of the church are continually inveighing
against the spectacles of the arena, and upbraiding
their adversaries with them. These indeed were more
unnatural and shocking than a main of cocks ; but
this, however, had a tendency towards infusing the like
ferocity and implacability in the breasts and disposi¬
tions of men.
Besides, this mode of diversion has been in fact the
bane and destruction of thousands here, as well as of
those lanistce avium, “ cock-feeders,” mentioned by
Columella, whose patrimonial fortunes were totally
dissipated and destroyed by it. ■
The cock is not only an useful animal, but stately in
his figure, and magnificent in his plumage. “ Imperi-
tant suo generi, says Pliny, et regnum in quacunque sunt
domo, exercent.','> Aristophanes compares him to the
king of Persia ; most authors also take notice of the
spectatissimum insigne, serratum, quod eorum verti-
cem regies coronce modo exornat.” His tenderness to¬
wards his brood is such, that, contrary to the custom
of many other males, he will scratch and provide for
them with an assiduity almost equal to that of the hen ;
and his generosity is so great, that, on finding a hoard
of meat, he will chuckle the hens together, and with¬
out touching one bit himself will relinquish the whole
of it to them. Pie was called the bird, xuv by
many of the ancients •, he was highly esteemed in some
countries, and in others was even held sacred, inso¬
much that one cannot but regret that a creature so use¬
ful and noble, should, by a strange fatality, be so enor¬
mously abused by us. It is true, our uXatT^veftaytet, or
the massacre of Shrove Tuesday, is now in a declining
way •, and, in a few years, it is to be hoped, will be
totally disused ; but the cock-pit still continues a re¬
proach to the humanity of Englishmen, and to their
religion ; the purest, the tenderest, and most compas¬
sionate, of all others, not excepting even the Brach-
mannic.
It is unknown when the pitched battle first entered
England, but it was probably brought hither by the
Romans. This bird was here before Ctesar’s arrival,
but no notice of his fighting occurs earlier than the
time of William Eitz-Stephen, who wrote the life of
Archbishop Becket, some time in the reign of Henry II.
and describes the cocking as a sport of school-boys on
Shrove Tuesday. From this time at least the diver¬
sion, however absurd and even impious, was continued
amongst us. It was followed, though disapproved and
prohibited, 39 Edward III. $ also in the reign of
Henry VIII. and A. D. 156,9. It has by some been
called a reyal diversion ; and, as every one knows, the Cock-nit
cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by a crowned head, Cockbnrnt
for the more magnificent celebration of it. There was 1 —■
another pit in Drury-lane, and another in Javin-street.
It was prohibited, however, by one of Oliver’s acts,
March 31. 1664. What aggravates the reproach and
disgrace upon Englishmen, are those species of fight¬
ing which are called the battle-royal and the Welsh-
main, known nowhere in the world but there j neither
in China, nor in Persia, nor in Malacca, nor among the
savage tribes in America. These are scenes so bloody
as almost to be too shocking to relate ; and yet, as
many may not be acquainted with the horrible nature
of them, it may be proper for the excitement of our
aversion and detestation to describe them in a few
words. In the former, an unlimited number of fowls
are pitted, and when they have slaughtered one ano¬
ther for the diversion {THi bonil') of the otherwise ge¬
nerous and humane Englishman, the single surviving
bird is to be esteemed the victor, and carries away the
prize. The Welsh-main consists, we will suppose, of
16 pairs of cocks $ of these, the 16 conquerors are pit¬
ted a second time 5 the 8 conquerors of these are pitted
a third time j the 4 conquerors the fourth time j and
lastly, the two conquerors of these are pitted the fifth
time j so that (incredible barbarity) 31 cocks are
sure to be most inhumanly murdered for the sport and
pleasure, the noise and nonsense, the profane cursing
and swearing, of those who have the effrontery to call
themselves, with all these bloody doings, and with all
this impiety about them, Christians; nay, what with
many is a superior and distinct character, men of be¬
nevolence and morality. Bi»t let the morality and be¬
nevolence of such be appreciated from the following
instance recorded as authentic in the obituary of the
Gentleman’s Magazine for April 1789. “ Died
April 4. at Tottenham, John Ardesoif, Esq. a young
man of large fortune, and in the splendour of his car¬
riages and horses rivalled by few country gentlemen.
His table was that of hospitality, where it may be said
he sacrificed too much to conviviality $ but if he had
his foibles, he had his merits also that far outweighed
them. Mr Ardesoif was very fond of cock-fighting,
and had a favourite cock upon which he had won many
profitable matches. The last bet he laid upon this cock
he lost; which so enraged him, that he had the bird
tied to a spit and roasted alive before a large fire. The
screams of the miserable animal were so affecting, that
some gentlemen who were present attempted to inter¬
fere, which so enraged Mr Ardesoif, that he seized a
poker, and with the most furious vehemence declared,
that he would kill the first man who interposed ; but, in
the midst of his passionate asseverations, he fell down
dead upon the spot. Such, we are assured, were the
circumstances which attended the death of this great
pillar of humanity.”
Cock-pit, of a ship of war, the apartment of the sur¬
geon and his mates, being the place where the wounded
men are dressed in time of battle, or otherwise. It is
situated under the lower deck.
COCKBURNE, Mrs Catharine, a most accom¬
plished lady and celebrated writer, was the daughter of
Captain David Trotter, a native of Scotland, and a sea-
commander in the reign of King Charles II. She was
born in London, August 16. 1679, and baptized in
the
C O C C 243 ] c o c
Bckburne.'tfi6 Protestp.nt church, according to which she was bred
—v——' up. She gave early marks of her genius 5 and learned
to write, and also made herself mistress of the French
language, by her own application and diligence, with¬
out any instructor ; but she had some assistance in the
study of the Latin grammar and logic, of which latter
she drew up an abstract for her own use. The most
serious and important sebjects, and especially religion,
soon engaged her attention.—But notwithstanding her
education, her intimacy with several families of distinc¬
tion of the Romish persuasion, exposed her, while very
young, to impressions in favour of that church, which
not being removed by her conferences with some emi¬
nent and learned members of the church of England,
she embraced the Romish communion, in which she con¬
tinued till the year 1707. In 1695 she produced a tra¬
gedy called Agnes de Castro, which was acted at the
theatre-royal when she was only in her 17th year. The
reputation of this performance, and the verses which
she addressed to Mr Congreve upon his Mourning Bride
in 1697, were probably the foundation of her acquaint¬
ance with that celebrated writer. Her second tragedy,
Fatal Friendship, was acted in 1698, at the new theatre
in Lincoln’s-Inn Fields. This tragedy met with great
•applause, and is still thought the most perfect of her
dramatic performances. Her dramatic talents not be¬
ing confined to tragedy, she brought upon the stage, in
1707, a comedy called Love at a loss, or Most votes
carry it. In the same year she gave the public her
third tragedy, entitled the Unhappy Penitent, acted at
the theatre-royal in Drury-lane. But poetry and dra¬
matic writing did not so far engross the thoughts
of our author, but that she sometimes turned them to
subjects of a very different nature, and distinguished
herself in an extraordinary manner in defence of Mr
Locke’s writings, a female metaphysician being a re¬
markable phenomenon in the republic of letters.
She returned to the exercise of her dramatic genius
in 1703, and fixed upon the revolution of Sweden, un¬
der Gustavus Erickson, for the subject of a tragedy.
This tragedy was acted in 1706, at the queen’s theatre
in the Hay-Market. In 1707, her doubts concerning
the Romish religion, which she had so many years pro¬
fessed, having led her to a thorough examination of
the grounds of it, by consulting the best books on both
sides of the question, and advising with men of the best
judgment, the result was a conviction of the falseness
of the pretensions of that church, and a return to that
of England, to which she adhered during the remain¬
der of her life. In 1708 she was married to the Rev.
Mr Cockburne, then curate of St Dunstan’s in Fleet-
street, bflt he afterwards obtained the living of Long-
Horsely, near Morpeth in Northumberland. He was
a man of considei’able abilities ; and, among several
other things, wrote an account of the Mosaic Deluge,
which was much approved by the learned.
Mrs Cockburne’s remarks upon some writers in the
controversy concerning the foundation of moral duty
and moral obligation, were introduced to the world
in August 1712, in the Literary Journal, entitled, The
History of the Works of the Learned. The strength,
clearness, and vivacity shown in her remarks upon the
most abstract and perplexed questions, immediately rai-
aed the curiosity of all good judges about the conceal¬
ed writer j and their admiration was greatly increased Cockburae
when her sex and advanced age were known. Dr Ru- fl
therford’s Essay on the Nature and Obligations of[ Cocket.
Virtue, published in May 1744, soon engaged her1"
thoughts $ and notwithstanding the asthmatic disorder
which had seized her many years before, and now left
her small intervals of ease, she applied herself to the
confutation of that elaborate discourse, and finished it
with a spirit, elegance, and perspicuity, equal, if not
superior, to all her former writings.
The loss of her husband in 1748, in the 71st year of
his age, was a severe shock to her ; and she did not
long survive him, dying on the nth of May 1749, in
her 71st year, after having long supported a painful
disorder with a resignation to the Divine will, which
had been the governing principle of her whole life, and
her support under the various trials of it.
Her works are collected into two large volumes 8vo
by Dr Birch, who has prefixed to them an account of
her Life and Writings.
COCKERMOUTH, a town of Cumberland in
England, situated in W. Long. 3. 12. N. Lat. 54. 33.
It is a large town, irregularly built, with broad streets.
It is washed by the Derwent on the western side;
divided in two by the Cocker 5 and the parts are con¬
nected by a stone bridge of a single arch. The num¬
ber of inhabitants is between three and four thousand :
the manufactures are shalloons, worsted stockings, and
hats $ the last exported from Glasgow to the West
Indies. It is a borough-town, and the right of vo¬
ting is vested by burgess tenure in certain houses : this
is also the town where the county elections are held.
—Here is a castle seated on an artificial mount on a
bank above the Derwent. It is a square building,
and strengthened with several squai’e towers : on each
side of the inner gate are two deep dungeons capable
of holding 50 persons in either. They are vaulted at
top, and have only a small opening in order to lower
through it the unhappy victims into this dire prison j
and on the outside of each is a narrow slit with a slope
from it, down which were put the provisions allotted
for the wretched inhabitants. This castle was found¬
ed by Waldof, first lord of Allerdale, and son of Gos-
patrick earl of Northumberland, cotemporary with
William the Conqueror. Waldof resided first at Pap-
castle, which he afterwards demolished j and with the
materials built that at Cockermouth, where he and his
family long resided ; but several arms over the gate¬
way, which Camden says are those of the Multons,
Humfranvilles, Lucies, and Percies, evince it to have
belonged in later times to those families. It appears
that it was first granted by Edward II. to Anthony
de Lucie, son of Thomas de Multon, who had assum¬
ed that name, because his mother was daughter and
co-heiress to Richard de Lucie ; and afterwards, by
marriages, this castle and its honours descended to the
Humfranvilles, and finally to the Percies. In 1658,
it was garrisoned for the king ; and being besieged and
taken by the rebels, was burnt, and never afterwards
repaired.—Cockermouth is now in the possession of the
Lowther family, who have here a great property in
coal-works. The town sends two members to parlia¬
ment, and had 2964 inhabitants in 1811.
COCKET, is a seal belonging to the king’s custom-
H h 2 house.
C O C [ 244 ] COD
Cocket house,, or rather a scroll of parchment sealed and deli-
II vered by the officers of the customs to merchants, as a
Codes. warrant tlJat their merchandises are customed.
'' It is also used for the office where goods transported
were first entered, and paid their custom, and had a
cocket or certificate of discharge.
COCKLE. See Cardium, Conchology Index.
Cockle, Schorl, or Shir/e, in Mineralogy, a spe¬
cies of stones, belonging to the siliceous class. See
Mineralogy Index.
COCKNEY, a very ancient nickname for a citizen
of London. Ray says, an interpretation of it is, A
young person coaxed or cockered, made a wanton, or
nestle-cock, delicately bred and brought up, so as when
arrived at man’s estate to be unable to bear the least
hardship. Another, A person ignorant of the terms
of country economy, such as a young citizen, who ha¬
ving been ridiculed for calling the neighing of a horse¬
laughing, and told that it was called neighing, next
morning, on hearing the cock crow, to show instruction
was not thrown away upon him, exclaimed to his for¬
mer instructor, How that cock neighs ! whence the
citizens of London have ever since been called cock-
neighs, or cockneys. Whatever may be the origin of
this term, we at least learn from the following verses,
attributed to Hugh Bagot earl of Norfolk, that it was
in use in the time of King Henry II.
Was I in my castle at Bungay,
Fast by the river Waveney,
I would not care for the king of Cockney.
(i. e. the king of London.)
The king of the cockney occurs among the regula¬
tions for the sports and shows formerly held in the
Middle Temple, on Childermas day, where he had
his officers, a marshal, constable, butler, &c. See
Dugdale’s Origines Juridicales, p. 247.
COCKROACH. See Blatta. In Captain Cook’s
last voyage, the ships, while at Huaheine, were infest¬
ed with incredible numbers of these creatures, whom
it was found impossible by any means to destroy. E-
very kind of food, when exposed only for a few mi¬
nutes, was covered with these noxious insects, and pier¬
ced so full of holes, that it resembled a honey comb.
They were particularly destructive to birds which had
been stuffed for curiosities, and were so fond of ink,
that they ate out the writing on labels. Books, how¬
ever, were secured from their ravages by the closeness
of the binding, which prevented them from getting
in between the leaves. They were of two kinds, the
B/atta Orientalis and Germanica.
COCKSWAIN, or Cockson, an officer on board
a man of war, who hath the care of the boat or sloop,
and all things belonging to it. He is to be always
ready with his boat’s gang or crew, and to man the
boat on all occasions. He sits in the stern of the boat,
and steers $ and hath a whistle to call and encourage
his men.
COCLES, Pub. Horatius, a celebrated Roman,
who alone opposed the whole army of Porsenna at
the head of a bridge, while his companions behind
him were cutting off the communication with the
other shore. When the bridge was destroyed, Codes,
though wounded by the darts of the enemy, leapt
into the Tiber, and swam across it with his arms.
A brazen statue was raised to him in the temple of Coclei
Vulcan, by the consul Publicola, for his eminent ser- [|
vices. t Code*.
COCOA. See Cocos, Botany Index. ¥ ~
COCONATO, a town of Piedmont in Italy, fa¬
mous for being the birth-place of Columbus, who
first discovered America. E. Long. 8. o. N. Lat.
44. 50.
COCOS, in Botany, a genus belonging to the natu¬
ral order of Palmee. See Botany Index.
COCTION, a general term for all alterations made
in bodies by the application of fire or heat.
COCYTUS, one of the rivers of hell, according to
the theology of the poets. It has its name uno rrt
KMKvtn, from groaning and lamenting. Hence Milton,
Cocytus nam’d of lamentation loud,
Heard on the rueful stream.
It was a branch of the river Styx : and flowed, accord¬
ing to Horace, with a dull and languid stream.
COD, in Ichthyology. See Garus and Fishery.
Cod is also a term used, in some parts of the king¬
dom, for a pod. See Pod.
Con-Cape, a promontory on the coast of New Eng¬
land, near the entrance of Boston harbour. W. Long.
69. 50. N. Lat. 42. o.
CODDY MODDY, the English name of a species of
Larus.
CODE (codex'), a collection of the laws and consti¬
tutions of the Roman emperors, made by order of
Justinian. The word comes from the Latin codex,
“ a paper bookso called a codicibus, or caudicibus
arborum, “ the trunks of trees j” the bark whereof be¬
ing stripped off, served the ancients to write their books
on.
The Code is accounted the second volume of the civil
law, and contains twelve books ; the matter of which is
nearly the same with that of the Digests, especially the
first eight books ; but the style is neither so pure, nor
the method so accurate, as that of the digests $ and it
determines matters of daily use, whereas the digest*,
discuss the more abstruse and subtle questions of the
law, giving the various opinions of the ancient lawyers.
Although Justinian’s code is distinguished by the ap¬
pellation of code, by way of eminence, yet there were
codes before his time : such were, 1. The Gregorian
code, and Hermogenean code, collections of the Ro¬
man laws, made by two famous lawyers, Gregorius
and Hermogenes, which included the constitutions of
the emperors from Adrian to Dioclesian and Maximi-
nus. 2. The Theodosian code, comprised in 16 books,
formed out of the constitutions of the emperors from
Constantine the Great to Theodosius the Younger:
this was observed almost over all the west, till it was
abrogated by the Justinian code. There are also seve¬
ral later codes, particularly the ancient Gothic, and
those of the French kings j as the code of Euridic,
code-Lewis, code-Henry, code-Marchande, code des
Eaux, &c. j and the present king of Prussia has lately
published a code, which comprises the laws of his king¬
dom in a very small volume.
CODEX, in antiquity, denotes a book or tablet on
which the ancients wrote. See Code.
Codex also denoted a kind of punishment by means
of a clog or block of wood, to which slaves who had of¬
fended
COE [ 245 ] COE
Code* fended were tied fast, and obliged to drag it along with
H them ; and sometimes they sat on it closely bound.
Coeeum. CODIA, among botanists, signifies the head of any
plant, but more particularly a poppy head $ whence its
syrup is called diacodium.
CODICIL, a writing, by way of supplement to a
will, when any thing is omitted that the testator would
have added, or wants to be explained, altered, or re¬
called.
CODLIN, an apple useful in the kitchen, being the
most proper for baking.
CODLING, an appellation given to the young cod¬
fish. See. Gadus, Ichthyology Index.
CODON (K*J*»), in antiquity, a cymbal, or rather
little brass bell, resembling the head of a poppy. They
were fastened to the trappings and bridoles of horses.
CODRINGTON, Christopher, a brave English
officer, and not less distinguished for his learning and
benevolence, was born at Barbadoes in the year 1668,
and educated at Oxford j after which he betook him¬
self to the army; and by his merit and courage, soon
recommending himself to the favour of King William,
was made a captain in the first regiment of foot-guards.
He was at the siege of Namur in 1695; and, upon the
conclusion of the peace of Ryswick, was made captain-
general and governor in chief of the Leeward and
Caribbee islands. However, in 1701, several articles
were exhibited against him to the house of commons
in England ; to which he published a distinct and par¬
ticular answer, and was honourably acquitted of all
imputations. In 1703, he showed great bravery at the
attack of Guadaloupe, but at last he resigned his go¬
vernment, and lived a studious retired life $ for a few
years before his death, he chiefly applied himself to
church-history and metaphysics. He died at Barba¬
does on the 7th of April 1710, and was buried there
the day following; but his body was afterwards brought
over to England, and interred on the 19th of June
1716, in the chapel of All-Souls College, Oxford. By
his last will, he bequeathed his plantations in Barba¬
does, and part of the island of Barbuda, to the society
for propagating the gospel in foreign parts j and left a
noble legacy to All-Souls College, of which he had
been a fellow. This legacy consisted of his library,
which was valued at 6000I.; and io,oool. to be laid
out, 6000 in building a library, and 4000 in furnish¬
ing it with books. He wrote some of the poems in the
Musce Ang/icanee, printed at London in I741,
CODRUS, the 17th and last king of Athens, son
of Melanthus. When the Heraclidae made war against
Athens, the oracle said that the victory would be
granted to that nation whose king was killed in battle.
The Heraclidge upon this gave strict orders to spare
the life of Codrus $ but the patriotic king disguised
himself and attacked one of the enemy, by whom he
was killed. The Athenians obtained the victory, and
Codrus was deservedly called the father of his coun¬
try. He reigned 21 years, about 2153 years before
the Christian era. To pay more honour to his me¬
mory, the Athenians made a resolution that no man
after Codrus should reign in Athens under the name of
king.
COECUM, or Blind Gut. See Anatomy Index.
Dr Musgrave gives us an account, in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions,, of the coecum of a dog being cut
out without any prejudice to the animal. Mr Giles Coeenm
gives us another of the ccecum of a lady being distend- |1
ed, so as to form a tumor that held almost six pints of Ooelu*.
a thin grayish, almost liquid substance, of which she 1
died. And Mr Knowler a third, of a boy’s coecum
being vastly extended and stuffed with cherry-stones,
which likewise proved mortal.
COEFFICIENTS, in Algebra, are such numbers or
known quantities as are put before letters or quanti¬
ties, whether known or unknown, and into which they
are supposed to be multiplied. Thus in 3 .v, ax, or
b x; 3, a and b, are the coe fficients of a?; and in 6 a,
gb; 6 and 9 are the coefficients of a and b. See
Algebra.
COELESTIAL, or Celestial, in general, de¬
notes any thing belonging to the heavens: thus we say,
celestial observations, the celestial globe, fyc.
COELIAC artery, in Anatomy, that artery which
issues from the aorta, just below the diaphragm. See
Anatomy Index.
Coeliac Vein, in Anatomy, that running through the
intestinum rectum, along with the cceliac artery.
COELIMONTANA Porta (Pliny), one of the
gates of Rome, situated at the foot of Mount Coelius;
and hence its name, thought to be the ancient Asinaria
by some ; but this others doubt. By this gate Alaric
with his Goths is said to have entered and plundered
Rome.
COELIOBRIGA, in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Bracari in the Hither Spain, to the south of
Bracara Augusta, the north of the Durius, and not
far from the Atlantic; a municipium (Coin). Now
thought to be Barcelos, a town of Entre Minho y
D uero. W. Long. 9. 15. Lat. 41. 20.
COELIUS MONs, one of the seven hills of Rome,
so called from Codes, a Tuscan captain, who came to
the assistance of Romulus against the Sabines, (Diony¬
sius Halicarnassus). Called also Querculanus or Quer-
cetulanus, from the oaks growing on it; and Augustus,
by Tiberius (Tacitus, Suetonius). To the east it had
the city walls, on the south the Coeliolus, to the west
the Palatine, and on the north the Esquiline.
COELIOLUS, a part of Mount Coelius to the
south, called Minor Codius (Martial) ; having the city
walls on the east, the Aventine to the south, and on
the west and north the valley through which the rivulet
of the Appia runs.
COELOMA, among physicians, a hollow ulcer,
seated in the tunica cornea of the eye.
COELOS PORTUSj in Ancient Geography, a town
of the Chersonesus of Thrace, to the south of Sestos,
where the Athenians erected a trophy, after a sea vic¬
tory over the Lacedaemonians (Diodorus Siculus).
COELOSYRIA, in the larger sense of the word,
was the name of the whole country lying southward
of Seleucia, and extending as far as Egypt and Arabia;
but this word as principally applied to the valley lying
between Libanus and Antilibanus. This word occurs
only in the apocryphal writings of the Old Testa¬
ment.
COELUS (Heaven), in Pagan mythology, the son
of Aither and Dies, or Air and Day. According to
Hesiod, he married Terra or the Earth, on whom he
begat Aurea or the Mountains, the Ocean, &c. But
having at length imprisoned the Cyclops, who were
also,
c O SF [ 246 ] C O F
C oclus also Ills children, his wife, being offended, incited her
J! son Saturn to revenge the injury done to his brothers j
t cflea~ , and by her assistance, he bound and castrated Ccelus,
when the blood that flowed from the wound produced
the three furies, the giants, ‘and the wood-nymphs 5
and the genital parts being thrown into the sea, im¬
pregnated the waters and formed the goddess Venus.
This deity was called by the Greeks Uranus.
COEMETERY. See Cemetery.
COEMP1IONALES, among the Homans, an ap¬
pellation given to old slaves, which were sold in a lot
with others, because they could not be sold alone.
COENOBITE, a religious who lives in a convent,
or in community, under a certain rule j in opposition
to anchoret or hermit, who lives in solitude. The
word comes from the Greek Kciioq, communis ; and /$<•?,
vita, “ life.” Cassian makes this difference between a
convent and a monastery, that the latter may be applied
to the residence of a single religious or recluse, whereas
the convent implies coenobites, or numbers of religious
living in common. Fleury speaks of three kinds of
monks in Egypt j anchorets, who live in solitude }
coenobites, who continue to live in community j and sa-
rabaites, who are a kind of monks-errant, that stroll
from place to place. He refers the institution of coe¬
nobites to the times of the apostles, and makes it a kind
of imitation of the ordinary lives of the faithful at Je¬
rusalem. Though St Pachomius is ordinarily owned
the institutor of the coenobite life, as being the first who
gave a rule to any community.
COENOBIUM, (x9iva/3<e»), the state oflivi ng in a
society or community, where all things are common.
Pythagoras is thought to be the author or first insti¬
tutor of this kind ol life ; his disciples, though some
hundreds in number, being obliged to give up all their
private estates, in order to be annexed to the joint
stock of the whole. The Essenians among the Jews,
and Platonists, are said to have lived in the same man¬
ner. Many of the Christians also have thought this
the most perfect kind of society, as being that in which
Christ and his apostles chose to live.
COESFELDT, a town of Germany, in Westphalia,
and in the territories of the bishop of Munster, where
lie often resides. It is near the river Burkel. E. Long.
64. 2. N. Lat. 51. j;8.
^ COEVORDEN, one of the strongest towns in the
United Provinces, in Overyssel, fortified by the fa¬
mous Cohorn. It was taken by the bishop of Munster,
1673 > an<^ tP® Hutch retook it the same year. It is
surrounded by a morass. E. Long. 6. 41. N. Lat.
52. 40.
COFFEA, the Coffee-tree. See Botany Index.
The flowers, which are produced in clusters at the root
of the leaves, are of a pure white, and have a very
grateful odour. The fruit, which is the only useful
part, resembles a cherry. When it comes to be of
a deep red, it is gathered for the mill, in order to be
manufactured into those coffee-beans now so generally
known. The mill is composed of two wooden rollers
furnished with iron plates 18 inches long, and 10 or
12 in diameter. These moveable rollers are made to
approach a third which is fixed, and which they call
the chops. Above the rollers is a hopper, in which
they put the coffee, from whence it falls between the
rollers and the chops, where it is stripped of its first
skin, and divided into two parts, as may be seen by the
form of it after it has undergone this operation ; beino-
flat on the one side and round on the other. From this
machine it falls into a brass sieve, where the skin drops
between the wires, while the fruit slides over them into
baskets placed ready to receive it: it is then thrown
into a vessel full of water, where it soaks for one night,
and is afterwards thoroughly washed. When the
whole is finished, and well dried, it is put into an¬
other machine called the peeling-mill. This is a wood¬
en grinder, turned vertically upon its trendle by a
mule or horse. In passing over the coffee it takes off
the parchment, which is nothing but a thin skin that
detaches itsell irom the berry in proportion as it grows
dry. The parchment being removed, it is taken out
ol this mill to be put into another, which is called the
winnowing-mill. This machine is provided with four
pieces ol tin fixed upon an axle, which is turned by a
slave with considerable force ; and the wind that is
made by the motion of these plates clears the coffee
of all the pellicles that are mixed with it. It is after¬
wards put upon a table, where the broken berries,
and any filth that may remain among them, are sepa¬
rated by negroes, after which the coffee is fit for
sale.
The coffee-tree is cultivated in Arabia, Persia, the
East Indies, the isle of Bourbon, and several parts of
America. It is also raised in botanic gardens in seve¬
ral parts of Europe. Prince Eugene’s garden at Vi¬
enna produced more coffee than was sufficient for his
own consumption. It delights particularly in hills and
mountains, where its root is almost always dry, and
its head frequently watered with gentle showers. It
prefers a western aspect, and ploughed ground with¬
out any appearance of grass. The plants should be
placed at eight feet distance from each other, and in
holes twelve or fifteen inches deep. If left to them¬
selves, they would rise to the height of 16 or 18 feet,
as already observed j but they are generally stinted
to five, for the conveniency of gathering their fruit
with the greater ease. Thus dwarft, they extend
their branches so, that they cover the whole spot round
about them. They begin to yield fruit the third year,
hut are not in full bearing till the fifth. With the
same infirmities that most other trees are subject to,
these are likewise in danger of being destroyed by a
worm or by the scorching rays of the sun. The hills
where the coffee-trees are found have generally a
gravelly or chalky bottom. In the last, it languishes
for some time and then dies ; in the former, its roots,
which seldom fail of striking between stones, obtain
nourishment, and keep the tree alive and fruitful for
30 years. This is nearly the period for plants of the
coffee-tree. The proprietor, at the end of this period,
not only finds himself without trees, but has his land
reduced that it is not fit for any kind of culture $ and
unless he is so situated, that he can break up a spot of
virgin land, to make himself amends for that which is
totally exhausted by the coffee-trees, his loss is irrepa¬
rable.
The coffee produced in Arabia is found so greatly
to excel that raised in the American plantations or
elsewhere, that the cultivation of the tree is now but
seldom practised in any of the British colonies. Large
plantations of this kind were formerly made in some
of
Coffea,
Coffee.
C O F
of them; and it was proposed
give a proper encouj-agement for cultivating this com-
J modity there, so as to enable the planters to under¬
sell the importers from Arabia. Accordingly, there
was an abatement of the duty payable on all coffee
imported from our colonies in America, which at that
time was supposed to be sufficient encouragement for
this kind of commerce 5 but the inferiority of the A-
merican coffee to the Arabian hath almost ruined the
project. Mr Miller proposes some improvements in
the method of cultivation. According to him, the
trees are planted in too moist a soil, and the berries
are gathered too soon. They ought, he says, to be
permitted to remain on the trees till their skins are
shrivelled, and they fall from the trees when shaken.
This will indeed greatly diminish their weight, but
the value of the commodity will thereby be increased
to more than double of that which is gathered sooner.
In Arabia, they always shake the berries off the trees,
spreading cloths to receive them, and only take such as
readily fall at each time. Another cause may be
the method of drying the berries. They are, he ob¬
serves, very apt to imbibe moisture, or the flavour of
any thing placed near them. A bottle of rum placed
in a closet, in which a canister of coffee-berries closely
stopped, was standing on a shelf at a considerable di¬
stance, in a few days so impregnated the berries as to
render them very disagreeble. Some years ago, a
coffee-ship from India had a few bags of pepper put on
board, the flavour of which was imbibed by the coffee,
and the whole cargo spoiled. For these reasons coffee-
berries should never be brought over in ships freighted
with rum, or laid to dry in the houses where sugars are
boiled or rum distilled. When they are fully ripe,
they should be taken off when the trees are perfectly
dry, and spread upon cloths to dry in the sun, carry¬
ing them every evening under cover, to prevent the
dews or rain from falling on them. When perfectly
dry, they should have their outer skins beaten off, and
then be carefully packed up in cloths or bags three or
four times double.
CoFFEE also denotes a kind of drink, prepared from
those berries ; very familiar in Europe for these 100
years, and among the Turks for 170.
Its origin is not well known. Some ascribe it to
the prior of a monastery, who being informed by a
goat-herd, that his cattle sometimes hrowzing on the
tree would wake and caper all night, became curious
to prove its virtue: accordingly he first tried it
on his monks, to prevent their sleeping at matins.
Others, from Schehabeddin, refer the invention of
coffee to the Persians, from whom it was learned in
the 15th century by Gemaleddin, mufti of Aden, a city
near the mouth of the Red sea, and who having tried
its virtues himself, and found that it dissipated the
fumes which oppressed the he; I, inspired joy, opened
the bowels, and prevented sleep, without being in¬
commoded by it, recommended it first to bis der-
vises, with whom lie used to spend the night in prayer.
Their example brought coffee into vogue at Aden ;
the professors of the law for study, artisans to work,
travellers to walk in the night, in fine every body
at Aden, drank coffee. Hence it passed to Mecca,
where first the devotees, then the rest of the people,
took it. From Arabia Felix it passed to Cairo. In
C 247 ] C O F
to the parliament to l^n, Kahie Beg prohibited it, from a persuasion that Coffee.
it inebriated, and inclined to things forbidden. But v—-
Sultan Causon immediately after took off the prohibi¬
tion, and coffee advanced from Egypt to Syria and
Constantinople. The dervises declaimed against it
from the Alcoran, which declares, that coal is not of
the number of things created by God for food. Ac¬
cordingly the mufti ordered the coffee-houses to be
shut; but his successor declaring coffee not to he coal,
they were again opened. During the war in Candia
the assemblies of news-mongers making too free with
state affairs, the grand visir Cuproli suppressed the cof¬
fee-houses at Constantinople, which suppression, though
still on foot, does not prevent the public use of the li¬
quor there. Thevenot the traveller, was the first who
brought it into France j and a Greek servant, named
Pasqua, brought into England by Mr Dan. Edwards,
a Turkey merchant, in 1652, to make his coflee, first
set up the profession of coffee-man, and introduced the
drink into this island.
The word coffee is originally Arabic : the Turks pro¬
nounce it caheub, and the Arabians cahaah ; which some
authors maintain to be a general name for any thing
that takes away the appetite, others for any thing that
promotes appetite, and others again for any thing that
gives strength and vigour.—The Mahometans, it is
observed, distinguish three kinds of cahuah. The first
is wine, or any liquor that inebriates 5 the second is
made of the pods that contain the coffee-berry j this
they call the Sultan's coffee, from their having first
introduced it on account of its heating less than the
berry, as well as its keeping the bowels open 5 the
third is that made with the berry itself, which alone
is used in Europe, the pods being found improper for
transportation. Some Europeans who imported the
pods, called them the flower of the coffee-tree. The
deep brown colour of the liquor occasioned its being
called syrup of the Indian mulberry, under which spe¬
cious name it first gained ground in Europe.
The preparation of coffee consists in roasting, or gi¬
ving it a just degrep of torrefaction on an earthen or
metalline plate, till it has acquired a brownish hue
equally deep on all sides. It is then ground in a mill,
as much as serves the present occasion. A proper quan¬
tity of water is next boiled, and the ground coffee put
into it. After it has just boiled, it is taken from the
fire, and the decoction having stood a while to settle
and fine, they pour or decant it into dishes. The or¬
dinary method of roasting coffee among us is in a tin
cylindrical box full of holes, through the middle
whereof runs a spit. Under this is a semicircular hearth,
whereon is a large charcoal fire : by help of a jack the
spit turns swift, and so roasts the berry, being now
and then taken up to be shaken. When the oil rises,
and it is grown of a dark brown colour, it is emptied
into two receivers made with large hoops, whose bot¬
toms are iron plates : there the coffee is shaken, and
left till almost cold ; and if it look bright and oily, it
is a sign it is well done.
Very different accounts have been given of the me¬
dicinal qualities of this berry. To determine its real
effects on the human body, Dr Percival has made se¬
veral experiments, the result of which he gives in the
following words : “ From these observations we may
infer, that coffee is slightly astringent and antiseptic $ ,
that
C O F [ 248 ] C O F
Coffee, that it moderates alimentary fermentation, and is
Coffer, powerfully sedative. Its action on the nervous system
 v -* probably depends on the oil it contains; which re¬
ceives its flavour, and is rendered mildly empyreu-
inatic, by the process of roasting. Neumann obtained
by distillation from one pound of cofl’ee, five ounces
five drachms and a half of water, six ounces and half
a drachm of thick fetid oil, and four ounces and two
drachms of a caput mortuum. And it is well known,
that rye, torrefied with a few almonds, which furnish
the necessary proportion of oil, is now frequently* em¬
ployed as a substitute for these berries.
“ The medicinal qualities of coffee seem to be de¬
rived from the grateful sensation which it produces in
the stomach, and from the sedative powers it exerts on
the vis vitce. Hence it assists digestion, and re¬
lieves the headach ; and is taken in large quantities,
with peculiar propriety by the ^'urks and Arabian^, be¬
cause it counteracts the narcotic effects of opium, to
the use of which those nations are much addicted.
“ In delicate habits, it often occasions watchfulness,
tremors, and many of those complaints which are de¬
nominated nervous. It has been even suspected of
producing palsies ; and from my own observation, I
should apprehend, not entirely without foundation.
Slare affirms, that he became paralytic by the too li¬
beral use of coffee, and that this disorder was removed
by abstinence from that liquor.
“ The following curious and important observa¬
tion is extracted from a letter with which I was ho¬
noured by Sir John Pringle, in April 1773: ‘ On
reading your section concerning coffee, one quality
occurred to me which I had observed of that liquor,
confirming what you hare said of its sedative virtues.
It is the best abater of the paroxysms of the periodic
asthma that I have seen. The coffee ought to be of the
best Mocco, newly burnt, and made very strong imme¬
diately after grinding it. I have commonly ordered
an ounce for one dish j which is to be repeated fresh
after the interval of a quarter or half an hour } and
which I direct to be taken without milk or sugar. The
medicine in general is mentioned by Musgrave, in his
treatise De arthritide anomola ; but I first heard of it
from a physician in this place, who having once practis¬
ed in Litchfield, had been informed by the old people
of that place, that Sir John Floyer, during the latter
years of his life, kept fi’ee from, or at least lived easy
under, his asthma, from the use of very strong coffee.
This discovery, it seems, he made after the publica¬
tion of his book upon that disease. Since the receipt of
that letter, l have frequently directed coffee in the
asthma with great success.”
COFFER, in Architecture^ a square depressure or
sinking in each interval between the modillions of the
Corinthian cornice ; ordinarily filled up with a rose j
sometimes with a pomegranate, or other enrichment.
CoFFER, in Fortification, denotes a hollow lodge¬
ment, athwart a dry moat, from 6 to 7 feet deep,
and from 16 to 18 broad j the upper part made of
pieces of timber raised two feet above the level of
the moat, which little elevation has hurdles laden
with earth for its covering, and serves as a parapet
with embrasures : the coffer is nearly the same with
the caponiere, excepting that this last is sometimes
made beyond the counterscarp on the glacis, and the
coffer always in the moat, taking up its whole breadth,
which the caponiere does not. Jt differs from the
traverse and gallery, in that these latter are made by
the besiegers, and the coffer by the besieged. The
besieged generally make use of coffers to repulse the
besiegers when they endeavour to pass the ditch. To
save themselves from the fire of these coffers, the be¬
siegers throw up the earth on that side towards the
coffer.
COFFERER of the King's Household, a princi¬
pal officer in the court, next under the comptroller.
He was likewise a white-staff officer, and always a
member of the privy council. He had a special charge
and overnight of the other officers of the household.
He paid the wages of the king’s servants below stairs,
and for provisions as directed by the board of green
cloth. This office is now suppressed, and the business
of it is transacted by the lord steward, and paymaster
of the household. lie had tool, a-year wages, and
400I. a year board wages.
COFFIN, the chest in which dead bodies are put
into the ground.
The sepulchral honours paid to the manes of de¬
parted friends in ancient times, demand attention,
and are extremely curious. Their being put into a
coffin has been particularly considered as a mark of
the highest distinction. With us the poorest people
have their coffins. If the relations cannot afford them,
the parish is at the ex pence. On the contrary, in
the east they are not at all made use of in our times;
Turks and Christians, as Thevenot assures us, agree
in this. The ancient Jews seem to have buried their
dead in the same manner : neither was the body of
our Lord, it should seem, put into a coffin ; nor that
of Elisha, 2 Kings xiii. 21. whose bones were touched
by the corpse that was let down a little after into his
sepulchre. However, that they were anciently made
use of in Egypt, all agree ; and antique cofins of stone
and sycamore wood, are still to be seeuin that country;
not to mention those said to be made of a kind of
pasteboard ; formed by folding or glueing cloth to¬
gether a great many times, curiously plastered, and
then painted with hieroglyphics. Its being an ancient
Egyptian custom, and not practised in the neighbouring
countries, were, doubtless, the cause that the sacred
historian expressly observes of Joseph, that he was not
only embalmed, but put into a coffin too * ; both being
managements peculiar to the Egyptians.
Bishop Patrick, in his commentary on this passage,
takes notice of these Egyptian coffins of sycamore
wood and of pasteboard; but he doth not mention
the contrary usage in the neighbouring countries,
which was requisite, one might suppose, in order fully
to illustrate the place ; but even this perhaps would
not have conveyed the whole idea of the sacred au¬
thor. Maillet apprehe-.ds that all were not inclosed
in coffins who were laid in the Egyptian repositories
of the dead; but that it was an honour appropriated
to persons of figure : for after having given an ac¬
count of several niches found in those chambers of
death, he adds f, “ But it must not be imagined that
the bodies deposited in these gloomy apartments were
all inclosed in chests, and placed in niches. The
greatest part were simply embalmed and swathed af¬
ter that manner which every one hath some notion
of;
Coffer
n
Coffin.
* (Jen. i.
a 5.
f Let. vii
p. 1S1.
COG [ 249 ] C O H
of; after which they laid them one by the side of
another without any ceremony. Some were even laid
in these tombs without any embalming at allj or such
a slight one, that there remains nothing of them in
the linen in which they were wrapped, but the bones,
and those half-rotten. It is probable, that each con¬
siderable family had one of these burial-places to
themselves; that the niches were designed for the
bodies of the heads of the families; and that those of
their domestics or slaves had no other care taken of
them than the laying them on the ground, after ha¬
ving been embalmed, or even without that; which,
undoubtedly, was also all that was done even to the
heads of families of less distinction.” After this he
gives an account of a way of burial, practised anci¬
ently in that country, which had been but lately dis¬
covered, and which consisted in placing the bodies, af¬
ter they were swathed, upon a layer of charcoal, and
covering them with a mat, under a depth of sand of
seven or eight feet.
That c(>ffins then were not universally used in E-
gypt, is undoubted from these accounts: and probably
they were only persons of distinction who were buried
in them. It is also reasonable to believe, that in times
so I'emote as that of Joseph, they might be much less
common than afterwards ; and consequently, that Jo¬
seph’s being put in a coffin in Egypt, might be men¬
tioned with a design to express the great honours
which the Egyptians did him at his death, as well as
in life, being interred after the most sumptuous man¬
ner of the Egyptians, embalmed and put into a cojjin.
Agreeably to this, the Septuagint version, which was
made for Egyptians, seems to represent coffins as a
mark of grandeur. Job xxi. 32.
It is no objection to this account, that the widow
pf Nain’s son is represented as carried forth to be
buried in a e-#£oj, or “ on a bier:” for the present in¬
habitants of the Levant, who are well known to
lay their dead bodies in the earth uninclosed, carry
them frequently out to burial in a kind of coffin. So
Dr Russel, in particular, describes the bier used for
the Turks at Aleppo, as a kind of coffin much in the
form of ours, only that the lid rises with a ledge in
the middle. Christians, indeed, as he tells us, are car¬
ried to the grave on an open bier: but as the most
common kind of bier resembles our coffins, that used
by the people of Nain might very possibly be of the
same kind ; in which case the word was very
proper.
GOGGLE, or Cog, a small fishing-boat upon the
coasts of Yorkshire : and cogs (cogones) are a kind of
little ships or vessels used in the rivers Ouse and Hum¬
ber; (Stat. 23 Hen. VIII. c. 18.). Preeparatis co*-
gonibus, galleis, et aliis navibus, SfC. (Mat. Paris,
*nn. 1066.) And hence the cogmen, boatmen, and
seamen, who, after shipwreck or losses by sea, travel¬
led and wandered about to defraud the people, by
begging and stealing, until they were restrained by
proper laws.
COGITATION, a term used by some for the act
of thinking.
COGNAC, a town of France in Angoumois, with
a castle, where Francis I. was born. It is seated on the
river Charante, in a very pleasant country, abounding
Vol. VL Part I. f
in wine, and remarkable for excellent brandy. W. Cognac
Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 45. 44. jj
COGNATE, in Scots Law, any male relation by Cohesion,
the mother. v ^
COGNATION, in the civil law, a term for that
line of consanguinity which is between males and fe¬
males, both descended from the same father ; as ag¬
nation is for the line of parentage between males only
descended from the same stock.
COGNI, (anciently Iconium) a strong town of Ca-
ramania, in Turkey in Asia, and the residence of a
beglerbeg. It is seated in a pleasant country, abounding
in corn, fruits, and cattle. Here are sheep whose tails
weigh 30 pounds. E. Long. 35. 56. N. Lat. 37. 56.
COGNITIONIS CAUSA, in Scots Law. When a
creditor charges the heir of his debtor to enter, in
order to constitute the debt against him, and the heir
renounces the succession, the creditor can obtain no
decreet of constitution of that debt against the heir ;
but only a decreet subjecting the hcereditas jacens, of
the estate which belonged to the debtor, to hi • dili¬
gence : and this is called a decreet cognitionis causa.
COGNIZANCE, or Connusance, in Law, has
divers significations. Sometimes it is an acknowledg¬
ment of a fine, or confession of something done ; some¬
times the hearing of a matter judicially, as to take cog¬
nizance of a cause ; and sometimes a particular juris¬
diction, as cognizance of pleas is an authority to call
a cause or plea out of another court, which no person
can do but the king, except he can show a charter for
it. This cognizance is a privilege granted to a city
or a town to hold plea of all contracts, &c. within the
liberty ; and if any one is impleaded for such matters
in the courts at Westminster, the mayor, &c. of such
franchise may demand cognizance of the plea, and that
it may be determined before them.
Cognizance is also used for a badge on a water¬
man’s or serving-man’s sleeve, which is commonly the
giver’s crest, whereby he is decerned to belong to this
or that nobleman or gentleman.
COGGS. See Goggle.
COHABITATION, denotes the state of a man
and a woman who live together without being legally
married. By the common law of Scotland, cohabita¬
tion for year and day, or a complete twelvemonth, is
deemed equivalent to matrimony.
CO-HEIR, one who succeeds to a share of an in¬
heritance, to be divided among several.
COHESION, one of the four species of attraction,
denoting that force by which the parts of bodies ad¬
here or stick together. 1
This power was first considered by Sir Isaac New- t'onsidefed
ton as one of the properties essential to all matter, and ^
the cause of all that variety we observe in the texture an essential
of different terrestrial bodies. He did not, however, proptny of
absolutely determine that the power of cohesion was matter,
an immaterial one ; but thought it might possibly arise,
as well as that of gravitation, from the action of an z
ether. His account of the original constitution of mat-His account
ter is as follows: It seems probable, that God in the ^
beginning formed matter in solid, massy, impenetrable,0f
moveable particles; of such sizes, figures, and other matter,
properties, and in such proportion to space, as most
conduced to the end for which he formed them ; and
I i that
c o H [ 250 ] C O H
Cohesion, that these primitive particles being- solid, are incom-
'-—-V"—' parably harder than any porous bodies composed of
them; even so very hard as never to wear or break
in pieces •, no ordinary power being able to divide
what God himself made one at the first creation. While
the particles continue entire, they may compose bodies
of one and the same nature and texture in all ages j
but should they wear away, or break in pieces, the
nature of all things depending on them would be chan¬
ged. Water and earth composed of old worn particles
and fragments of particles, would not now be of the
same texture with water and earth composed of en¬
tire particles in the beginning. And therefore, that
nature may be lasting, the changes of corporeal things
are to be placed in the various separations and new
associations and motions of these permanent particles j
compound bodies being apt to break, not in the midst
of solid particles, but where these particles are laid to¬
gether, and toucli in a few points.” It seems farther,
“ Inat these particles have not only a vis inertice, ac¬
companied with such passive laws of motion as natural¬
ly result from that force ; but also that they are moved
by certain active principles, such as that of gravity,
and that which causeth fermentation and the cohesion
of bodies. These principles are to be considered not
as occult qualities, supposed to result from the specific
forms of things, but as general laws of nature by which
the things themselves are formed j their truth appear¬
ing to us by phenomena, though their cause is not yet
3 discovered.”
Attraction The general law of nature, by which all the differ-
liw of116^eUt koc^es in the universe are composed, according
to S*1’ *saac Newton, is that of attraction : i. e. “ Eve¬
ry particle of matter has an attractive force, or a
tendency to every other particle ; which power is
strongest in the point of contact, and suddenly de¬
creases, insomuch that it acts no more at the least sen¬
sible distance *, and at a greater distance is converted
into a repellent force, whereby the parts fly from
each other. On this principle of attraction may we
account for the cohesion of bodies, otherwise inexpli-
4 cable.
Formation “ The smallest particles may cohere by the strong-
Pa!.Ucie? est attractions, and compose bigger particles of weaker
sizes. virtue j and many of these may cohere, and compose
bigger particles, whose virtue is still less : and so on
for divers successions, until the progression end in the
biggest particles, on which the operations in chemistry,
and the colours of natural bodies, depend ; and which,
3 by cohering, compose bodies of a sensible magnitude.
Distinction If the body is compact, and bends or yields inward to
into°hard Press.ure any sliding of its parts, it is hard and
soft, humid. e^astic» returning to its figure with a force arising
&c, from the mutual attraction of its parts. If the parts
slide from one another, the body is malleable or soft.
If they slip easily, and are of a fit size to be agita¬
ted by heat, and the heat is great enough to keep
them in agitation, the body is fluid : and if it be apt
to stick to things, it is humid ; and the drops of every
fluid affect a round figure by the mutual attractions of
their parts, as the globe of the earth and sea affects a
round figure from the mutual attraction and gravity of
its parts. •
“ Since metals dissolved in acids attract but a small
quantity of the acid, their attractive force reaches but
to a small distance. Now, as in algebra, where af- Cohesion
firmative quantities cease, there negative ones begin j ^ ,
so in mechanics, where attraction ceases, there a re- 6
pulsive virtue must succeed. That there really is such Existence
a virtue seems to follow from the reflections and in-ot iePuIsiTe!
flections of the rays of light j the rays being repelled po'VC1'Pro- !
by bodies in both these cases without the immediate'^’
contact of the reflecting and inflecting body. The same
thing seems also to follow from the emission of light \
a ray, as soon as shaken off from a body by the vibra¬
ting motion of the parts of the body, and got beyond
the reach of attraction, being driven away with ex¬
ceeding great velocity j for that force which is suffi¬
cient to turn it back in reflection may be sufficient to
emit it. ! rom the same repelling power it seems to
be that flies walk upon the water without wetting their
feet ; that the object-glasses of long telescopes lie up¬
on one another without touching j and that dry pow¬
ders are difficultly made to touch one another so as to
stick together, without melting them or wetting them
with water, which, by exhaling, may bring them to¬
gether.
“ Ihe particles of all hard homogeneous bodies
which touch one another, cohere with a great force j
to account for which, some philosophers have recourse
to a kind of hooked atoms, which in effect is nothing
else but to beg the question. Others imagine, that
the particles of bodies are connected by rest, i. e. in
effect by nothing at all $ and others, by conspiring mo¬
tions, i. e. by a relative rest among themselves. For
myself, it rather appears to me, that the particles of
bodies cohere by an attractive force, whereby they tend
mutually to each other.”
From this account of the formation and constitution No con-
of bodies, we can conclude nothing, except that they elusion to
are composed of an infinite number of little particles,be draw;n
kept together by a force or power j but of what na- account!
ture that power is, whether material or immaterial,
we must remain ignorant till farther experiments are
made. Some of the Newtonian philosophers, how¬
ever, have positively determined these powers to be
immaterial. In consequence of this supposition, they
have so refined upon attractions and repulsions, that
their systems seem not far from downright scepticism,
or denying the existence of matter altogether. A
system of this kind we find adopted by Dr Priestley *,* °/
from Messrs Boscovicb and Michell, in order to solve Yisim’ yoL
some difficulties concerning the Newtonian doctrine of1' P‘ f2’
light. 11 The easiest method (says he) of solving all Mr Mi-
difficulties, is to adopt the hypothesis of Mr Boscovich, chell’s hjr-
who supposes that matter is not impenetrable, as has P0^68’* a‘
been perhaps universally taken for granted j but that
it consists of physical points only, endued with powers jcv
of attraction and repulsion in the same manner as solid
matter is generally supposed to be: provided, there¬
fore, that any body moves with a sufficient degree of
velocity, or has a sufficient momentum to overcome
any powers of repulsion that it may meet with, it will
find no difficulty in making its way through any body
whatever 5 for nothing else will penetrate one another
but powers, such as we know do in fact exist in the
same place, and counterbalance or overrule one ano¬
ther. Ihe most obvious difficulty, and indeed almost
the only one that attends this hypothesis, as it supposes
the mutual penetrability of matter, arises from the
idea
CT G H
CflhesiBn, *^ea of the nature of matter, and the difficulty we
w—v— meet with in attempting to force two bodies into the
9 same space. But it is demonstrable that the first ob-
Miesj structJon arises from no actual contact of matter, but
iihcr not fr°m mere powers of repulsion. The difficulty we
‘rromac- can overcome; and having got within one sphere of
ujal con- repulsion, we fancy that we are now impeded by the
sf'’ solid matter itself. But the very same is the opinion
of the generality of mankind with respect to the first
obstruction. Why, therefore, may not the next be
only another sphere of repulsion, which may only re¬
quire a greater force than we can apply to overcome
it, without disordering the arrangement of the consti¬
tuent particles ; hut which may he overcome by a body
moving with the amazing velocity of light.
“ This scheme of the immateriality of matter, as it
may be called, or rather the mutual penetration of mat~
10 ter, first occurred to Mr Michell on reading Baxter on
tfrBaxter’s immateriality of the soul. He found that this au-
,'pinion, thor’s idea of matter was, that it consisted, as it were,
of bricks cemented together with immaterial mortar.
These bricks, if he would be consistent with his own
reasoning, were again composed of less bricks, ce¬
mented likevvise bv an immaterial mortar ; and so on
ad infinitum. This putting Mr Michell upon the con¬
sideration of the several appearances of nature, he be¬
gan to perceive that the bricks were so covered with
this immaterial mortar, that if they had any existence
at all, it could not possibly be perceived ; every ef¬
fect being produced, in nine instances of ten certainly,
and probably in the tenth also, by this immaterial spi¬
ritual, and penetrable mortar. Instead therefore of pla¬
cing the world upon the giant, the giant upon the tor¬
toise, and the tortoise upon, he could not tell what, he
n placed the world at once upon itself.”
Cohesion Other philosophers have supposed the powers both of
opposed gravitation and cohesion to be material ; and to be
*lTm^ t° only different actions of the ethereal fluid, or elemen-
Sf(!i ' tary fire. In support of this it has been urged, that
before we have recourse to a spiritual and immaterial
power as the cause of any natural phenomenon, we
ought to be well assured that there is no material sub¬
stance with which we are acquainted, that is capable
of producing such effects. In the present case, we
are so far from having such assurance, that the contra¬
ry is manifest to our senses. One instance of this is
in the experiment with the Magdeburg hemispheres,
as they are called. These are two hollow hemispheres
of brass, exactly fitted to one another, so as to form
one globe when joined together, without admitting any
air at the joining. In this state, if the air within
them is exhausted by means of a pump, they will co¬
here with such force, if they are five or six inches dia¬
meter, as to require a weight of some hundreds of
pounds to separate them. The pressure of the at¬
mosphere, we see, is in this case capable of produ¬
cing a very strong cohesion j and if there is in nature
any fluid more penetrating, as well as more power¬
ful in its effects, than the air we breathe, it is possible
that what is called the attraction of cohesion may some
how or other be an effect of the action of that fluid.
Such a fluid as this is the element of fire. Its activity
is such as to penetrate all bodies whatever; and in the
state in which it is commonly called fire, it acts accord¬
ing to the quantity of solid matter contained in the
C G H
body. In this state, it is capable of dissolving the Cohesion,
strongest cohesions observed in nature; but whatever
is capable of dissolving any cohesion, must necessarily
he endued with greater power than that by which the
cohesion is caused. Fire, therefore, being able to
dissolve cohesions, must also be capable of causing
them, provided its power is exerted for that purpose.
Nor will it seem at all strange that this fluid should
act in two such opposite ways, when we consider the
different appearances which it assumes. These are
three, viz. fire or heat, in which it consumes, de¬
stroys, and dissolves: light, in which it seems deprived
of all destructive or dissolvent power, and to be the
most mild, quiet, and placid being in nature. The
third state of this element is, when it becomes what
is called the electric fluid; and then it attracts, re¬
pels, and moves bodies, in a vast variety of ways,
without either burning or rendering them visible by
its light. In this state it is not less powerful than in
either of the other two ; for a violent shock of elec¬
tricity will displace and tear in pieces the most heavy
and solid bodies. The seeming capricious nature of
this fluid, however, probably renders it less suspected
as the cause of cohesion than it otherwise would be,
were the attractions regular and permanent, which
we observe it to occasion. But here we must observe,
that the fluid has an existence in all bodies before the
experiments are tried which make its effects visible to
us, and is acting in them according to its settled and
established laws. While acting in this manner it is
perfectly invisible ; and all we can do is, to produce
some little infringement of these regular laws accord¬
ing to which it commonly acts. In some cases, how¬
ever, the electrical attractions produced by art are
found to be pretty permanent and strong. Thus, Mr
Symmer, in some experiments upon silk stockings, found
their attraction so strong, that it required upwards of
15 pounds weight to separate them from each other ;
and this attraction would continue for more than an
hour. In plates of glass, too, he observed a remark¬
able cohesion when electrified. In the Philosophical
Transactions for 1777, we find this hypothesis taken
notice of, and in some measure adopted, by Mr Henley,
“ Some gentlemen (says he) have supposed that the
electric matter is the cause of the cohesion of the par¬
ticles of bodies. If the electric matter be, as I suspect,
a real elementary fire inherent in all bodies, that opi¬
nion may probably he well, founded ; and perhaps the
soldering of metals, and the cementation of iron, by fire,
may be considered as strong proofs of the truth of their
hypothesis,”
On this last hypothesis we must observe, that if the
electric, or any other fluid, is supposed to be the cause
of the attraction of cohesion universally, the particles
of that fluid must be destitute of all cohesion between
themselves; otherwise we should be at as great a loss
to account for the cohesion of these particles, as ior
that of terrestrial matter. Philosophers, indeed, do not
suppose any cohesion between the particles of the elec¬
tric fluid themselves; it is generally believed that the
particles of this fluid are repulsive of one another, though
attracted by all other matter. It this is a fact, we
cannot suppose the electric fluid to be the cause ot co¬
hesion. The probability or improbability of the hy¬
pothesis, just mentioned, must greatly depend on its be-
I i 2 ing
r 251 ]
1
C O I [2.
CaficHon ing ascertained, whether the particles of the electric
. II fluid do really repel one another, and attract all other
l °'n’ira- kinds of matter, or not. See the article Cohesion in
the Supplement.
COHOBATION, in Chemistry, an operation by
which the same liquor is frequently distilled from the
same body, either with an intention to dissolve this
body, or to produce some change upon it. This is one
of those operations which the ancient chemists prac¬
tised with great patience and zeal, but which is now
neglected. To make the operation easier, and to pre¬
vent the trouble of frequently changing the vessels, a
particular kind of alembic, called & pelican, was in¬
vented. This vessel was made in the form of a cucur¬
bit with an alembic head, but had two spouts commu¬
nicating with the body. As the vapour rose up into
the head, it was gradually condensed, and ran down
the spouts into the body of the pelican, from whence it
was again distilled ; and so on.
COHORN (N.) the greatest engineer Holland has
produced. Among his other works, which are esteem¬
ed masterpieces of skill, he fortified Bergen-op-zoom j
which, to the surprise of all Europe, wras taken by the
I'rench in 1747 j but that, it is believed, was the ef¬
fect of treachery. He wrote a treatise on fortification,
and died in 1704.
COHORT, in Roman antiquity, the name of part
of the Roman legion, comprehending about 600 men.
'I here were ten cohorts in a legion, the first of which
exceeded all the rest both in dignity and number of
men. When the army was ranged in order of battle,
the first cohort took up the right of the first line ;
the rest followed in their natural order 5 so that the
third was in the centre of the first line of the legion,
and the fifth on the left; the second between the first
and third ; and the fourth between the third and fifth :
the five remaining cohorts formed, a second line ia their
natural order.
COIF, the badge of a sergeant of law, who is call¬
ed sergeant of the coif, front the lawn coif they
wear under their caps when they are created ser¬
geants.
The chief use of the coif was to cover the clerical
tonsure. See Tonsure.
COILING, on shipboard, implies a sort of serpen¬
tine winding of a cable or other rope, that it may oc¬
cupy a small space in the ship. Each of the wind¬
ings of this sort is called a fake $ and one range of
fakes upon the same line is called a tier. There are
generally from five to seven fakes in a tier ; and three
or four tiers in the whole length of the cable. This,
however, depends on the extent of the fakes. The
smaller ropes employed about the sails are coiled upon
cleats at sea, to prevent their being entangled amongst
one another in traversing, contracting, or extending the
sails.
COILON, in the ancient Grecian theatres, the
same with the cavea of the Romans.
COIMBRA, a handsome, large, and celebrated
town of Portugal, capital of the province of Beira,
with a bishop’s see, and a famous university. The
cathedral and the fountains are very magnificent. It
is seated in a very pleasant country, abounding in vine¬
yards, olive-trees, and fruits. It stands oa a mountain,
2 ] c o 1
bv the side of the river Mondego. W. Long. 8. 17.
N. Lat. 40. 12.
COIN, a piece of metal converted into money by the
impression of certain marks or figures thereon.
Coin differs from Money as the species from the
genus. Money is any matter, whether metal, wood,
leather, glass, horn, paper, fruits, shells, or kernels,
which have currency as a medium in Commerce.
Coin is a particular species, always made of metal, and
struck according to a certain process called Coining.
The precise epocha of the invention of money is too
ancient for our annals $ and, if we might argue from
the necessity and obviousness of the thing, must be
nearly coeval with the world.
Whether coins be of equal antiquity, may admit of
some doubt j especially as most of the ancient writers
are so frequent and express in their mention of leathern-
moneys, paper-moneys, wooden-moneys, &c. Some,
however, notwithstanding this, are of opinion, that
the first moneys were of metal : the reasons they give,
are the firmness, neatness, cleanness, durableness, and
universality of metals; which, however, do rather con¬
clude they ought to. have been so, than that they actu¬
ally were so.
In effect, the very commodities themselves were
the first moneys, i. e. were current for one another
by way of exchange; and it was the difficulty of cut¬
ting or dividing certain commodities, and the impos¬
sibility of doing it without great loss, that first put men
on the expedient of a general medium. See Ex¬
change.
Indeed, thus much may be said in behalf of coins,
that, on this view, it was natural for men to have their
first recourse to metals, as being almost the only things
whose goodness, and as it were integrity, is not dimi¬
nished by partition ; besides the advantages above ex¬
pressed, and the conveniences of melting and returning
them into a mass of any size or weight.
It was probably, then, this property of metals which
first accustomed people, who traded together, to ac¬
count them in lieu of quantities of other merchandises
in their exchanges, and at length to substitute them
wholly in their stead ; and thus arose money ; as it was
their other property to preserve any mark or impression
a long time, which confirmed them in the right; and
thus was the first rise of coins.
_ In the first ages, each person cut his metal into
pieces' of diflerent sizes and forms, according to the
quantity to be given for any merchandise, or accord¬
ing to the demand of the seller, or the quantity stipu¬
lated between them. To this end they went to mar¬
ket loaded with metal in proportion to the purchase
to be made, and furnished with instruments for por¬
tioning it, and scales for dealing it out, according as,
occasion required. By degrees, it was found more
commodious to have pieces ready weighed ; and as
there were different weights required according to the
value of the different wares, all those of the same weight
began to be distinguished with the same mark or figure :
thus were coins carried one step further. At length
the growing commerce of money beginning to be di¬
sturbed with frauds, both in the weights and the mat¬
ter, the public authority interposed; and hence the
first stamps or impressions of money; tuwhich succeed-
ed
Coimbra,
Coin.
c O I [ 253 ]
C O I
ed the names of the moneyers ; and at length the effigy
of the prince, the date, legend, and other precautions
to prevent the alterations of the species $ and thus were
coins completed.
Modern Coins. In England the current species of
gold are the guinea, half-guinea, seven-shillings piece,
Jacobus, laureat, angel, and rose noble ; the four last
of which are now seldom to be met with ; having been
most of them converted into guineas, chiefly during the
reign of Charles II. and James II. The silver coins
are the crown, half-crown, shilling, and sixpence. Cop¬
per coins are the farthing, half-penny, penny and two¬
penny pieces.
In Scotland, bv the articles of the Union, it is ap¬
pointed that all the coins be reduced to the English,
and the same accounts observed throughout. Till then
the Scots had their pounds, shillings, and pence, as in
England ; but their pound was but 20 pence English,
and the others in proportion : accordingly, their merle
was 1378. Scots, current in England at 13-^d.; their
noble in proportion. Besides these they had their tur-
norer pence and half-pence ; their penny ^ of that of
England : besides base money of achisons, babees, and
placks. The bodle £ of the penny, ^ of the achison, y
of the babee, and 4 °f the plack.
In Ireland, the coins are as in England, viz. shil¬
lings, pence, &c. with this difference, that their shil¬
ling is but equal to lly^d. sterling: whence their
pound is only 18s. 5|d.
But, for a view of all the coins presently current
in the four quarters of the globe, with their values
and proportions, see the table subjoined to the article
Money.
In many places shells are current for coins $ particu¬
larly a small white kind dug out of the ground in the
Maldives, and some parts of America, called in the In¬
dies cowries or coi'is, on the coast of Africa bonges, and
in kmzvwa. porcelaines; of which it takes a vast num¬
ber to be equivalent in value to a penny. Of zimbis,
another kind of shell current, particularly in the king¬
doms of Angola and Congo, two thousand make what
the negroes call a rnacoute, which is no real money ;
for of this there is none in this part of Africa, but a
manner of reckoning: thus, two Flemish knives they
esteem a macoute \ a copper bason two pounds weight,
and 12 inches diameter, they reckon three macoutes j
a fusee 10, &c.
In some places fruits are current for coins. Of these
there are three sorts used j two in America, particu¬
larly among the Mexicans, which are the cacao and
maize ; the other in the East Indies, viz. almonds
brought thither from Lar, and growing in the desarts of
Arabia. Of cacao 15 are esteemed equivalent to a
Spanish rial, or seven pence sterling. Maize has
ceased to be a common money since the discovery of
America by the Europeans. Almonds are chiefly used
where the cowries are not current. As the year proves
more or less favourable to this fruit, the value of the
money is higher or lower. In a common year 40 al¬
most are set against & pescha, or halfpenny sterling}
which brings each almond to ^ of a farthing.
Ancient Coins are those chiefly which have been
current among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Their
values and proportions are as follow :
JEWISH.
sterl. /. s. d.
Gerah
20
1200
60000
Becah
Shekel
I 20
6000
5°
3000
Maneh
Mina hebraica
6o|Talent
ica^
Solidus aureus, or sextula, worth
Siculus aureus, worth
A talent of gold, worth
GRECIAN.
Lepton
Chalcus - - -
Dichalcus
Hemiobolum
14
28
56
112
224
386
662
I324
1660384
16
32
48
96
112
24
48
96
120
fjObolus
Diobolum
Tetrobolum
5 1.
rt>o
5 J4
342
o
1
5475
3
12
16
o
1
IT1
2|
9
6
o
° OttV
O Oyy
o. 1
Drachma
Didrachmon
sterl. s. d. qrs
O
- O
. o
o
- o
o
o
o
I
Tetrardstat. 2
i-gjPentrad. 3
2t'T
2t
°T
3
2
Q
3
Note : Of these the drachma, didrachma, &c. were
of silver, the rest for the most part of brass. The
other parts, as tridrachm, tribolus, &c. were sometimes
coined.
Note also : The drachma is here, with the genera¬
lity of authors, supposed equal to the denarius } though
there is reason to believe that the drachma was some¬
what the weightier. See Drachma and Denarius.
sterl. /. s. d.
The Grecian gold coin was the stater")
aureus, weighing two Attic drachms, or I
half of the stater argenteus, and exchang- >016 ly
ing usually for 25 Attic drachms of silver
in our money.
According to our proportion of gold to
silver -
There were likewise the stater Cyzice-
nus, exchanging for 28 Attic drachms, or
.Stater Philippicus, and stater Alexan-
drinus, of the same value.
Stater Daricus, according to Josephus, J j 2*
worth 50 Attic drachms, or - 3
Stater Croesius, of the same value.
109
o
18 I
ROMAN.
Teruncius
Semilibella
Libella^
As
24
S
Sestertius
Quinarius 1
Victoriatus 3
2|Denarius
sterl.
s. d. qrs.^
O O
o O ItW
o o 3vV
° I 3i
° 3 3i
° 7' 3 _
Note*
C O I
C6in, Note. Of these the denarius, victoriatus, sestertius,
< oinajre. aru} sometimes the as, were of silver, the rest of brass.
See As, &c.
There were sometimes also coined of brass the triens,
sextans, uncia, sextula, and dupondius.
[ 254 ]
C O I
l, s. d.
0 9
O 12 II
o 16
The Roman gold coin was the aureus,
which weighed generally double the dena- j
rius ; the value of which, according to the
first proportion of coinage, mentioned bv
Pliny, was
According to the proportion that ob-‘'
tains now amongst us, worth
According to the decuple proportion,"
mentioned by Livy and Julius Pollux, ■
worth I
According to the proportion mention-" k
ed by Tacitus, and which afterwards ob¬
tained, whereby the aureus exchanged for
25 denarii, its value,
Coin, in Architecture, a kind of dye cut diagonal¬
ly, after the manner of a flight of a staircase, serving
at bottom to support columns in a level, and at top to
correct the inclination of an entablature supporting a
vault.
Coin is also used for a solid angle composed of two
surfaces inclined towards each other, whether that
angle be exterior, as the coin of a wall, a tree, &c. or
interior, as the coin of a chamber or chimney. See
Quoin.
COINAGE, or Coining, the art of making money,
as performed either by the hammer or mill.
Formerly the fabric of coins was different from
what it is at present. They cut a large plate of metal
into several little squares, the corners of which were
cut off with scissars. After having shaped these pieces,
so as to render them perfectly conformable, in point of
weight, to the standard piece, they took each piece
in hand again, to make it exactly round by a gentle
hammering. This was called &planchet, and was fit
for immediate coining. Then engravers prepared, as
they still do, a couple of steel masses in form of dyes,
cut and terminated by a flat surface, rounded off at the
edges. They engraved or stamped on it the hollow of
a head, a cross, a scutcheon, or any other figure, ac¬
cording to the custom of the times, within a short le¬
gend. As one of these dyes was to remain dormant,
and the other moveable, the former ended in a square
prism, that it might be introduced into the square hole
of the block, which, being fixed very fast, kept the
dye as steady as any vice could have done. The plan-
chet of metal was horizontally laid upon this inferior
mass, to receive the stamp of it on one side, and that
of the upper dye, wherewith it was covered, on the
other. I his moveable dye, having its round engraved
surface resting upon the planchet, had at its opposite
extremity a flat, square, and larger surface, upon which
they gave several heavy blows, with a hammer of an
enormous size, till the double stamp was sufficiently,
in relievo, impressed on each side of the planchet.
This being finished, was immediately succeeded by an¬
other, and they thus became a standard coin, which
had the degree of fineness of the weight and mark de¬
termined by the judgment of the inspectors, to make it
good current money j the strong tempering which
was and is still given to the two dyes, rendering thorn Cojua
capable of bearing those repeated blows. Coining has nr
been considerably improved and rendered expeditious,
by several ingenious machines, and by a wise applica¬
tion of the surest physical experiments to the methods
of fining, dyeing, and stamping the difl'erent metals.
The three finest instruments the mint-man uses, are
the laminating engine ; the machine for making the
impressions on the edges of coins ; and the mill.
Alter they have taken the laminae, or plates of me¬
tal, out of the mould into which they are cast, they do
not beat them on the anvil, as was • formerly done,
but make them pass and repass between the se¬
veral rollers of the laminating engine, which being
gradually brought closer and closer, to each other, pre¬
sently give the lamina its uniform and exact thickness.
Instead ol dividing the lamina into small squares, they
at once cut clean out of it as many planchets as it can
contain, by means of a sharp steel trepan, of a roun¬
dish figure, hollow within, and of a proportionable
diameter, to shape and cut off the piece at one and the
same time. After those planchets have been prepared
and weighed with standard pieces, filed or scraped, to
get off the superfluous part of the metal, and then
boiled and made clean, they arrive, at last, at the ma¬
chine (fig. 1.), which marks them upon the edge j
and finally, the mill (fig. 2), which, squeezing each Plate CJ
of them singly between the two dyes, brought near
each other with one blow, forces the two surfaces or
fields of the piece to fill exactly all the vacancies of the
two figures engraved hollow. The engine which serves
to laminate lead, gives a sufficient notion of that which
serves to flatten gold and silver laminse between rollers
of a lesser size.
The principal pieces of the machine (fig. 1.), to Fig. 1.]
stamp coins on the edge, are two steel laminae, about a
line thick. One half of the legend, or of the ring, is
engraved on the thickness of one of the Jaminee, and
the other half on the thickness of the other} and these
two laminae are straight, although the planchet mark¬
ed with them be circular.
When they stamp a planchet, they first put it be.
tween the laminae in such a manner, as that these be¬
ing each of them laid flat upon a copperplate, which
is fastened upon a very thick wooden table, and the
planchet being likewise laid flat upon the same plate,
the edge of the planchet may touch the two laminse on
each side, and in their thick part.
One of these laminae is immoveable, and fastened
with several screws $ the other slides by means of a
dented wheel, which takes into the teeth that are on
the surface of the lamina. This sliding lamina makes
the planchet turn in such a manner, that it remains
stamped on the edge, when it has made one turn. On¬
ly crown and half-crown pieces can bear the impression
of letters on the thickness of their edges.
The coining engine or mill is so fitted for dispatch,
(fig. 2.), that a single man may stamp 20,QQ0 planch-Hg.
ets in one day ; gold, silver, and copper planchets, are
all of them coined with a mill, to which the coining
squares (fig. 3.) commonly called dyes are fastened;
that of the face under, in a squa.e box furnished with
male and female screws, to fix and keep it steady ; and
the other above, in a little box, garnished with the
same screws, to fasten the coining square. The plan.
diet
c o I [ 255 ] C O K
oinage. c^iet *9 on ^ie SfLuare °f ^ie effigy» which is
-tv—' dormant j and they immediately pull the bar of the
mill by its cords, which causes the screw set within it
to turn. This enters into the female screw, which is
in the body of the mill, and turns with so much strength,
that by pulling the upper square upon that of the efli-
gy, the planchet, violently pressed between both squares,
receives the impression of both at one pull, and in the
twinkling of an eye.
The planchet, thus stamped and coined, goes through
a final examination of the mint wardens, from whose
hands it goes into the world.
In the Coining of Medals, the process is the same in
effect with that of money, the principal difference con¬
sisting in this, that money having but a small relievo,
receives its impression at a single stroke of the engine :
whereas for medals, the height of their relievo makes
it necessary that the stroke be repeated several times:
to this end the piece is taken out from between the
dyes, heated, and returned again; which process, in
medallions and large medals, is repeated 15 or 20
times before the full impression be given : care must be
taken, every time the planchet is removed, to take off
the superfluous metal stretched beyond the circumfe¬
rence with a file. Medallions, and medals of a high
relievo, are usually first cast in sand, by reason of the
difficulty of stamping them in the press, where they
are put only to perfect them ; in regard the sand does
not leave them clear, smooth, and accurate enough.
Therefore we may see that medals receive their form
and impression by degrees, whereas money receives
them all at once.
British Coinage, both by the beauty of the engra¬
ving, and by the invention of the impressions on the
edges, that admirable expedient for preventing the al¬
teration of the species, is carried to the utmost perfec¬
tion.
It was only in the reign of King William lit. that
the hammer money ceased to be current in England,
where till then it was struck in that manner, as in
other nations. Before the hammer specie was called
in, the English money was in a wretched condition,
having been filed and clipped by natives as well as fo¬
reigners, insomuch that it was scarce left of half the
value: the retrieving this distressed state of the Eng¬
lish money is looked upon as one of the glories of King
William’s reign.
The British coinage is now wholly performed in the
Tower of London, where there is a corporation for it,
under the title of the mint. Formerly there were here,
as there are still in other countries, the rights of sein-
orage and brassage $ but since the eighteenth year of
King Charles II. there is nothing taken either for the
king or for the expences of coining ; so that weight is
returned for weight to any person who carries their
gold and silver to the Tower.
The species coined in Great Britain are esteemed
contraband goods, and net to be exported. All foreign
species are allowed to be sent out of the realm, as well
as gold and silver in bars, ingots, dust, &c. See the
regulations of the mint, and the process of coining, fully
explained in the article Coinage in the Supplement.
Barbary Coinage, particularly that of Fez and Tu¬
nis, is under no proper regulations, as every goldsmith,
Jew, or even private person, undertakes it at pleasure.
2
Russian Coinage. In Russia there is no other
coin struck but silver, and that only in the cities of
Moscow, Novogorod, Tvvere, and Pleskow, to which
may be added Petersburgh. The coinage of each of
these cities is let out to farm, and makes part of the
royal revenue.
Persian Coinage. All the money made in Persia
is struck with a hammer, as is that of the rest of Asia j
and the same may be understood of America, and the
coasts of Africa, and even Muscovy: the king’s duty,
in Persia, is seven and a half per cent, for all the mo¬
neys coined, which are lately reduced to silver and
copper, there being no gold coin there except a kind
of medals, at the accession of a new sophi.
Spanish Coinage is esteemed one of the least perfect
in Europe. It is settled at Seville and Segovia, the
only cities where gold and silver are struck.
COIRE, or, as the Germans call it, Chur, a large
and handsome town of Switzerland, and capital of the
country of the Grisons, with a bishop’s see, whose pre¬
late has the right of coining money. It is divided
into two parts j the least of which is of the Roman
Catholic religion, and the greatest of the Protestant.
It is governed by its own laws, and seated in a plain,
abounding in vineyards and game, on the river Ples-
sure, half a mile from the Rhine. E. Long. 9. 2C.
N. Lat. 46. 50.
COITION, the intercourse between male and fe¬
male in the act of generation.
It is observed that frogs are forty days in the act of
coition. Bartholine, &c. relate, that butterflies make
130 vibrations of the wings in one act of coition.
COIX, Job’s-tears. See Botany Index. In
Spain and Portugal the poor people grind the seeds
of this plant in times ef scarcity, and make a coarse
kind of bread of them. The seeds are inclosed in
small capsules about the bigness of an English pea, and
of different colours. These are strung upon silk, and
used instead of bracelets by some of the poorer sort in
the West Indies, but especially by the negroes.
COKE, or Cooke, Sir Edward, lord chief justice
of the king’s bench in the reign of James I. was de¬
scended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and born
at Milcham in 1549. When he was a student in the
Inner-Temple, the first occasion of his distinguishing
himself was the stating the case of a cook belonging to
the Temple so exactly, that all the house, who were
puzzled with it, admired him and his pleading, and the
whole bench took notice of him. After his marriage
with a lady of great fortune, preferments flowed in
upon him. The cities of Norwich and Coventry chose
him for their recorder j the county of Norfolk, for
one of their knights in parliament; and the house of
commons, for their speaker, in the 35th year of Queen
Elizabeth. The queen appointed him solicitor-general
in 1592, and attorney-general the next year. In
1603, he was knighted by King James I.; and in No¬
vember the same year, upon the trial of Sir Walter
Raleigh, &c. at Winchester, he treated that gentle¬
man with a scurrility of language hardly to be paral¬
leled. June 27. he w'as appointed lord chief justice
of the common pleas ; and in 1613, lord chief justice
of the king’s bench, and sworn one of the privy coun¬
cil. In 1615, he was very vigorous in the discovery
and prosecution of the persons employed in poisoning
COL [2
Coke Sir Thomas Overbury in the Tower in 1612. His
|1 contest not long after with the lord chancellor Egerton,
Colbert \vith some other cases, hastened the ruin of his inte-
"' v rest at court; so that he was sequestrated from the
council-table and the office of lord chief justice. In
1621, he vigorously maintained in the house of com¬
mons, that no proclamation is of any force against the
parliament. The same year, being looked upon as
one of the great incendiaries in the house of commons,
he was removed from the council of state with dis¬
grace ; the king saying, “ that he was the fittest in¬
strument for a tyrant that ever was in England he
was also committed to the Tower, and his papers were
seized. Upon the calling of a new parliament in
1625, the court-party, to prevent his being elected a
member, got him appointed sheriff of Buckingham¬
shire j to avoid the office, if possible, he drew up ex¬
ceptions against the oath of a sheriff, but was obliged
to undertake the office. In 1628 he spoke vigorously
upon grievances, and made a speech, in which he af¬
firmed, that “ the duke of Buckingham was the cause
of all our miseries.” While he lay upon his death¬
bed, his papers and last will were seized by an order
of council. He died in 1634, and published many
works: the most remarkable are his Institutes of the
Laws of England j the first part of which is only a
translation and comment of Sir Thomas Littleton, one
of the chief justices of the common pleas in the reign
of Edward IV.
COKENHAUSEN, a strong town of Livonia in
Russia, on the river Dwina. E. Long. 25. 50. N. Lat.
56. 30-
COL, one of the western islands of Scotland, is an¬
nexed to the county of Argyle. It is 13 miles long,
and 9 broad. It abounds in corn, pastui’e, salmon,
eels, and cod. The inhabitants are chiefly employed
in the fisheries. W. Long, 7. 15. N. Lat. 57.
COLAPIS, Colops, in Ancient Geography, a river
of Liburnia, which after a winding north-east course,
falls into the Savus at the Insula Segestica. Now the
Gulpe, the boundary of the Alps, running through Cro¬
atia into the Save. Colapiani, the people living on it
(Pliny).
COLARBASIANS, or Colorbasians, a set of
Christians in the second century ; so called from their
leader Colarbasus, a disciple of Valentinus; who, with
Marcus, another disciple of the same master, maintain¬
ed the whole plenitude and perfection of truth and re¬
ligion to be contained in the Greek alphabet; and that
it was upon this account that Jesus Christ was called
the alpha and omega. This sect was a branch of the
Valentinians. See also Marcosians.
COLBERG, a strong, handsome sea-port town of
Germany, in Pomerania, belonging to the king of Prus¬
sia, with 3000 or 4000 inhabitants. It is remarkable
for its salt works ; and is seated at the mouth of the
river Persaut, on the Baltic sea, 60 miles north-east of
Stetin, and 30 north-east of Camin. It was taken by
the Russians in 1761, but restored at the subsequent
peace. E. Long. 15. 39. N. Lat. 54. 22.
COLBERT, John Baptist, Marquis of Segnelai,
one of the greatest statesmen that France ever had,
was born at Paris in 1619; and descended from a fa¬
mily that lived at Rheims in Champagne, no way
considerable for its splendour and antiquity. His
3
6 ] COL
grandfather is said to have been a wine merchant, and
bis father at first followed the same occupation ; but
afterwards became clerk to a notary. In 1648, his
relation John Baptist Colbert, lord of S. Pouange, pre¬
ferred him to the service of Michael le Tellier, secre¬
tary of state, whose sister he had married ; and here he
discovered such diligence, and exactness in executing
all the commissions that were entrusted to his care, that
he quickly grew distinguished. One day his master
sent him to Cardinal Mazarine, who was then at Se¬
dan, with a letter written by the queen-mother ; and
ordered him to bring it back, after that minister had
seen it. Colbert carried the letter, and would not re¬
turn without it, though the cardinal treated him rough¬
ly, used several arts to deceive him, and obliged him
to wait for it several days. Some time after, the car¬
dinal returning to court, and wanting one to write his
agenda, or memoranda, desired Le Tellier to furnish
him with a fit person for that employment : and Col¬
bert being presented to him, the cardinal had some re¬
membrance of him, and desired to know where he had
seen him. Colbert was afraid of putting him in mind
of Sedan, lest the remembrance of his importunacy, in
demanding the queen’s letter, should renew the cardi¬
nal’s anger. But his eminency was so far from hating
him for his faithfulness to his late master, that he re¬
ceived him on condition that he should serve him with
the like zeal and fidelity.
Colbert applied himself wholly to the advancement
of his master’s interests, and gave him so many marks
•of his diligence and skill, that afterwards he made him
his intendant. He accommodated himself so dexte¬
rously to the inclinations of that minister, by retrench¬
ing his superfluous expences, that he was entrusted
with the management of that gainful trade of selling
benefices and governments. It was by Colbert’s coun¬
sel, that the cardinal obliged the governors of frontier
places to maintain their garrisons with the contribu¬
tions they exacted ; with which advice his eminency
was extremely pleased. He was sent to Rome to ne¬
gotiate the reconciliation of Cardinal de Retz, for
which the pope had showed some concern ; and to per¬
suade his holiness to consent to the disincamerating of
Casto, according to the treaty concluded with his pre¬
decessor Urban VIII. Upon the whole Mazarine had
so high an opinion of Colbert’s abilities, and withal
such a regard for his faithful services, that at his death,
which happened in 1661, he earnestly recommended
him to Louis XIV. as the properest person to regulate
the finances, which at that time stood in much need
of reformation. Louis accepted the recommendation,
and made Colbert intendant of the finances. He ap¬
plied himself to their regulation, and succeeded,
though it procured him many enemies, and some af¬
fronts. France is also obliged to this minister for esta¬
blishing at that time her trade with the East and West
Indies: a great design, and from which she has reaped
innumerable advantages.
In 1664, he became superintendant of the build¬
ings; and from that time applied himself so earnestly to
the enlarging and adorning of the royal edifices, that
they are at present so many masterpieces of architec¬
ture : witness the palace of the Thuilleries, the Lou¬
vre, St Germain, Fountainbleau, and Chambord. As
for Versailles, it may be said that he raised it from the
COL [ 257 ] COL
Colbart ground. It was formerly a dog-kennel, where Louis
— v * XIII. kept his hunting furniture: it is now a palace
fit for the greatest monarch. But royal palaces were
not Colbert’s only care} he formed several designs for
increasing the beauty and convenience of the capital
city, and he did it with great magnificence and gran¬
deur. The public was obliged to this same minister for
the establishment of the academy for painting and sculp¬
ture in 1664. The king’s painters and sculptors, with
other skilful professors of those arts, being prosecuted
at law by the master-painters at Paris, joined together,
and began to form a society, under the name of the
Royal Academy for Sculpture and Painting. Their
design was to keep public exercises for the sake of
improving those fine arts, and advancing them to the
highest degree of perfection. They put themselves un¬
der the protection of Mazarine, and chose Chancellor
Seguier their vice-protector; and after Mazarine’s
death chose Seguier their protector, and Colbert their
vice-protector. It was at his solicitation that they
were finally established by a patent, containing new
privileges, 1664. Colbert, being made protector af¬
ter the death of Seguier, thought fit that a historio¬
grapher should be appointed, whose business it should
be to collect all curious and useful observations that
might be made at their conferences. This was ac¬
cordingly done $ and his majesty was pleased to settle
on him a salary of 300 Hvres. To Colbert also the
lovers of naval knowledge are obliged for the erection
of the Academy of Sciences, for the making of which
the more useful, he caused to be erected, in 1667, the
royal observatory at Paris, which was first inhabited
by Cassini. But these are not the only obligations
France has to that minister. She owes to him all the
advantages she receives by the union of the two seas ; a
prodigious work, begun in 1666 and finished in 1680.
Colbert was also very intent upon matters of a more
private nature, such as regarded the order, decency,
and well-being of society. He undertook to reform
the courts of justice, and to put a stop to the usurpa¬
tion of noble titles, which it seems was then very
common in Fratice. In the former of these attempts
he failed, in the latter he succeeded.
In 1669, he was made secretary of state, and en¬
trusted with the management of affairs relating to the
sea; and his performances in this province were an¬
swerable to the confidence his majesty reposed in him.
He suppressed several offices, which were chargeable,
but useless; and in the mean time, perceiving the
king’s zeal for the extirpation of heresy, he shut up
the chamber instituted by the edicts of Paris and Roan.
He proposed several new regulations concerning cri¬
minal courts, and was extremely severe with the par¬
liament of Thoulouse for obstructing the measures he
took to carry the same into execution. His main de¬
sign in reforming the tedious methods of proceeding at
law, was to give the people more leisure to apply them¬
selves to trading; for the advancement of which he
procured an edict, to erect a general insurance-office
at Paris, for merchants, &c. In 1672, he was made
minister of state; for how busied soever he was in the
regulation of public affairs, yet he never neglected his
own or his family’s interest and grandeur, or missed any
opportunity of advancing either. He had been mar-
Vql. VI. Part I. f
ried many years, had sons and daughters grown up, Colbert,
all of which, as occasion served, he took care to marry Colchester,
to great persons. For though he had no reason to » J‘
doubt of his master’s favour, yet he wisely secured his
fortune by powerful alliances. However, business was
certainly Colbert’s natural turn, and he not only loved
it, but was very impatient to be interrupted in it, as
the following anecdote may serve to show. A lady of
great quality was one day urging him, when he was in
the height of his power, to do her some piece of ser¬
vice, and perceiving him inattentive and inflexible,
threw herself at his feet, in the presence of above IOO
persons, crying, “ I beg your greatness, in the name
of God, to grant me this favour.” Upon which Col¬
bert, kneeling down over against her, replied, in the
same mournful tone, “ I conjure you madam, in the
name of God, not to disturb me.”
This great minister died of the stone, September 6.
1683, in his 65th year, leaving behind him six sons
and three daughters. He was of a middle stature, ra¬
ther lean than fat. His mien was low and dejected,
his air gloomy, and his aspect stern. He slept little,
and was very sober. Though naturally sour and mo¬
rose, he knew how to act the lover, and had mistresses.
He was of a slow conception, but spoke judici¬
ously of every thing after he had once comprehended
it. He understood business pretty well, and he pur¬
sued it with unwearied application. Thus he filled
the most important places with high reputation and
credit; and his influence diffused itself through every
part of the government. He restored the finances,
the navy, the commerce ; and he erected those various
works of art, which have ever since been monuments
of his taste and magnificence. He was a lover of
learning, though he never applied to it himself; and
therefore conferred donations and pensions upon scho¬
lars in other countries, while he established and pro¬
tected academies in his own. He invited into France
painters, statuaries, mathematicians, and artists of all
kinds, who were any way eminent, thus giving new
life to the sciences, and making them flourish, as they
did, exceedingly. Upon the whole, he was a wise, ac¬
tive, generous-spirited minister ; ever attentive to the
interests of his master, the happiness of the people, the
progress of arts and manufactures, and in short to
every thing that could advance the credit and interest
of his country. He was a pattern for all ministers of
state; and every nation may wish themselves blessed
with a Colbert.
COLCHESTER, the chief town of Essex, is plea¬
santly situated upon an eminence, gradually rising on
the south side of the river Colne. It is the ancient
Colonia Camulodunum, from which w'ord, Colonia, both
the town and the river Colne received their names.
The Saxons called it Colneceaster. That it flourished
under the Romans, several buildings full of their bricks,
and innumerable'quantities of coin dug in and about
it, fully evince. In the ye^r 1763, a curious tesse-
lated or mosaic pavement was found in a garden three
feet under the surface of the earth. The emperor
Constantine the Great was born here, his mother He¬
len being daughter of Cool, governor or king of this
district under the Romans. She is said to have found
out the cross of Christ at Jerusalem; and on that ac-
K k count
C 0> L 0- 258 ] COL
Colchester count the arms oF this town are a cross regulee between
I! three ducal coronets, two in chief and one in base, the
Colchis, coronet in base passing through the cross.
V““ 'C----' ^'j]e vva||s 0f t|ie towll are still tolerably entire on the
south, east, and west sides, but much decayed on the
north side ; they are generally about nine feet thick.
By a statute of Henry VIII. this town was made the
see of a suffragan bishop.
This town is the most noted in England for making
of baiz.e j it is also of special note for candying the
eringo roots, and for oysters.
In the conclusion of the civil war 1648, this town
sustained a severe siege of 10 weeks j and the besieged
making a very gallant defence, it was changed into a
blockade, wherein the garrison and inhabitants suffer¬
ed the utmost extremity of hunger, being reduced to
the necessity of eating horse-flesh, dogs, and cats, and
were at last obliged to surrender at discretion, when
their two valiant chief officers, Sir Charles Lucas, and
Sir George Lisle, were shot under the castle walls in
cold blood. Colchester is a borough by prescription,
and under that right sends two members to parliament,
all their charters being silent on that head. The char¬
ter was renewed in 1763. The town is now governed
by a mayor, recorder, 12 aldermen, 18 assistants, 18
common-council men. Quarter sessions are held here
four times in the year.
The famous abbey-gate of St John is still standing,
and allowed to he a surprising, curious, and beautiful
piece of Gothic architecture, great numbers of persons
coming from distant places to see it. It was built, to¬
gether witli the abbey, in 1097*, and Guido, steward
to King William Rufus, laid the first stone.
St Ann’s chapel, standing at the- east end of the
town, is valuable in the esteem of antiquarians as a
building of great note in the early days of Christianity,
and made no small figure in history many centuries
past. It is still pretty entire. St Botoph’s priory
was founded by Ernulphus, in the reign of Henry I.
in the year mo. It was demolished in the wars of
Charles I. by the parliament army under Sir Thomas
Fairfax. The ruins still exhibit a beautiful sketch of
ancient masonry, much admired by the lovers of anti¬
quities. The castle is still pretty entire, and is a mag¬
nificent structure, in which great improvements have
of late been made. Here is an excellent and valuable
library.
The markets, which are on Wednesday and Satur¬
day, are very well supplied with all kinds of provisions.
The town contained 12,544 inhabitants in 1811. Col¬
chester is 51 miles from London, and 22 ENE of
Chelmsford. It had 16 parish churches, in and out of
the walls, only 12 of which are now used, the rest be¬
ing damaged at the siege in 1648. E. Long. I. o.
N. Lat.51. 55.
COLCHI (Arrian, Ptolemy), a town of the Hither
India, thought to be Cochin, on the coast of Malabar j
now a factory and strong fort of the Hutch. E. Jjong.
75. O. N. Lat. 10. o.
C0LCH1CUM, Meadow-saffron. See Botany
Index.
COLCHIS, a country of Asia, at the south of
Asiatic Sarmatia, east of the Euxine sea, north of Ar¬
menia, and west of Iberia. It is famous for the expe¬
dition of the Argonauts, and as the birth-place of Me¬
dea. It was fruitful in poisonous herbs, and produced Colchis
excellent flax. The inhabitants were originally Egyp- H
tians, who settled there when Sesostris king of Egypt , Col(h
extended his conquests in the north.
COLCOTHAR, the substance remaining after the
distillation or calcination of martial vitriol or sulphate
of iron. See CHEMISTRY Index.
COLD, in a relative sense, signifies the sensation
produced by the abstraction of heat from the body.
The nature of cold, and the methods of producing
it artificially, have been treated of under the article
Chemistry, to which we refer the reader.
Great degrees of cold occur naturally in many parts
of the globe in the winter-time. In the winter of
1780, Mr Wilson of Glasgow observed, that a ther¬
mometer laid on the snow sunk to 25° below o } but
this was only for a short time $ and in general our at¬
mosphere does not admit of very great degrees of cold
for any length of time. In 1732, the thermometer at
Petersburgh stood at 28° below o j and in 1737, when
the French academicians wintered at the north polar
circle, or near it, the thermometer sunk to 330 below
o ; and in the Asiatic and American continent, still
greater degrees of cold are very common.
The effects of these extreme degrees of cold are
very surprising. Trees are burst, rocks rent, and ri¬
vers and lakes frozen several feet deep ; metallic sub¬
stances blister the skin like red-hot iron : the air, when
drawn in by respiration, hurts the lungs, and excites a
cough : even the eftects of fire in a great measure
seem to cease j and it is observed, that though metals
are kept for a considerable time before a strong fire,
they will still freeze water when thrown upon them.
When the French mathematicians wintered at Torneo
in Lapland, the external air, when suddenly admitted
into their rooms, converted the moisture of the air
into whirls of snow 5 their breasts seemed to be
rent when they breathed it, and the contact of it
was intolerable to their bodies ; and the alcohol,
which had not been highly rectified, burst some of
their thermometers by the congelation of the aqueous
part.
Extreme cold very often proves fatal to animals in
those countries where the winters are very severe; and
thus 700c Swedes perished at once in attempting to
pass the mountains which divide Norway from Sweden.
It is not necessary indeed, that the cold, in order to
prove fatal to the human life, should be so very intense
as has been just mentioned. There is only requisite a
degree somewhat below 3 2° of Fahrenheit, accompa¬
nied with snow or hail, from which shelter cannot be
obtained. The snow which falls upon the clothes, or
the uncovered parts of the body, then melts, and by
a continual evaporation carries off the animal heat to
sue!) a degree, that a sufficient quantity is not left for
the support of life. In such cases, the person first feels
himself extremely chill and uneasy ; he begins to turn
listless, unwilling to walk or use exercise to keep him¬
self warm ; and at last turns drowsy, sits down to re¬
fresh himself with sleep, but wakes no more. An in¬
stance of this was seen not many years ago at Terra
del Fuego, when Hr Solander, with some others, ha¬
ving taken an excursion up the country, the cold was
so intense, that one of their number died. The Hoc-
tor himself, though he had warned his companions of
the
COL [ 259
Celd danger of sleeping in that situation, yet could not
11 be prevented from making that dangerous experiment
j Cold-finch, himself; and though he was awakened with all possible
expedition, his body was so much shrunk in bulk, that
his shoes fell off his feet, and it was with the utmost
difficulty that he was recovered.
In those parts of the world where vast masses of ice
are produced, the accumulation of it, by absorbing the
heat of the atmosphere, occasions an absolute sterility
in the adjacent countries, as is particularly the case
with the island of Iceland, where the vast collections
of ice floating out from the northern ocean, and
stopped on that coast, are sometimes several years in
thawing. Indeed,' where great quantities of ice are
collected, it would seem to have a power like fire,
both augmenting its own cold and that of the adjacent
bodies. An instance of this is related under the article
Evaporation, in Mr Wedgewood’s experiment,
where the true cause of this phenomenon is also pointed
out. See Cold, Supplement.
Cold, in Medicine. See Medicine Index,
Cold. See Farriery Index.
COLDENIA. See Botany Index.
COLDINGHAM, supposed to be the Colonia of
Ptolemy, and called by Bede the city Coldana and of
Colud (Coludum), situated on the borders of Scot¬
land, about two miles from Eyemouth, was a place
famous many ages ago for its convent. This was the
oldest nunnery in Scotland, for here the virgin-wife
Etheldreda took the veil in 670 ; but by the ancient
name Coludum it should seem that it had before been
inhabited by the religious called Culdees. In 870 it
was destroyed by the Danes, but its name rendered
immortal by the heroism of its nuns $ who, to pre¬
serve themselves inviolate from those invaders, cut off
their lips and noses : and thus rendering themselves
objects of horror, were, with their abbess Ebba, burnt
in the monastery by the disappointed savages. After
this it lay deserted till the year 1098, when King
Edgar founded on its site a priory of Benedictines in
honour of St Cuthbert, aud bestowed it cn the monks of
Durham.
Mr Pennant’s description of the black, joyless,
heathy moor where it was situated, might be sufficient
to guard the fair inhabitants of the nunnery were it
still subsisting. That description, however, is now al¬
together inapplicable: The whole tract, five miles
over, has been since improved, and converted into corn
fields j the cheerless village of Old Cambus is no more}
a decent inn with good accommodations has been esta¬
blished at a convenient distance } and the passage of
the steep glen called the Pease, which terminates the
moor on the road towards Edinburgh, and was former¬
ly the terror of travellers, is now rendered safe and
easy by means of a bridge extending from one side of
the chasm to the other.
COLDINGUEN, a town of Denmark, in North
Jutland, and diocese of Ripen. It is remarkable for
its bridge, over which pass all the oxen and other cat¬
tle that go from Jutland into Germany, which brings
in a considerable revenue to the king. It is seated on
an eminence, in a pleasant country abounding with
game. E. Long, 9. 25, N. Lat. 55. 35.
COLD-finch, a species of Motacilla, See Qr-
kithqlqgy Index,
] c
COLDSHIRE Iron,
O L
that which is brittle when
, , Colctshirc
cold.
COLE, William, the most famous botanist of his Colemin.
time, was born at Adderbury in Oxfordshire about
the year 1626, and studied at Merton college in Ox¬
ford. He at length removed to Putney, near London }
and published “ The Art of Simpling } and Adam in
Eden, or Nature’s Paradise.” Upon the restoration of
King Charles II, he was made secretary to Dr Dup-
pa, bishop of Winchester } but died two years after,
aged 37. ►
COLE-fish, a species of Gadus. See Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
CoLE-Sted, the seed of the napus sativa, or long-
rooted, narrow-leaved rapa, called in English naveiv,
and reckoned by Linnaeus among the brassicas, or cab¬
bage kind. See Brassica.
This plant is cultivated to great advantage in many
parts of England, on account of the rape oil expressed
from its seeds. The practice of sowing it was first in¬
troduced by the Germans and Dutchmen who drain¬
ed the fens of Lincolnshire } and hence the notion
hath generally prevailed, that it will thrive only in a
marshy soil} but this is now found to be a mistake. In
preparing the land which is to receive it, care must
be taken to plough it in May, and again about mid¬
summer, making the ground as fine and even as pos¬
sible. It is to be sown the very day of the last plough¬
ing, about a gallon on an acre. In the months of Ja¬
nuary, February, and March, it affords very good food
for cattle, and will sprout again when cut} after which
it is excellent nourishment for sheep. After all, if it
is not too closely fed, it will bear seed against next
July. The same caution, however, is requisite with
this food as with clover, till cattle are accustomed to
it, otherwise it is apt to swell them. When this plant
is cultivated solely with a view to the seed, it must
be sown on deep strong land without dung, and must
be suffered to stand till one-half of the seeds at least
are turned brown } which, according to the seasons will
be sometimes sooner, sometimes later. In this state
it is to be cut in the same manner and with the same
care as wheat} and every handful as it is cut is to be
regularly ranged on sheets, that it may dry leisurely
in the sun, which will commonly be in a fortnight;
after which it is to be carefully threshed out, and car¬
ried to the mill for expressing the oil. The produce
of cole-seed is generally from five to eight quarters
on an acre} and is commonly sold at 20s. per quar¬
ter.
COLEOPTERA, or Beetle, the name of Lin¬
naeus’s first order of insects. See ENTOMOLOGY Index.
COLEWORT. See Brassica.
COLERAIN, a large town of Ireland, in the
county of Londonderry and province of Ulster; seated
on the river Bann, four miles south of the ocean, in
W. Long. 7. 2. N. Lat. 55. 10. It was formerly a
place of great consideration, being the chief town of a
county erected by Sir John Perrot, during his govern¬
ment of Ireland; whereas it is now only the head ol
one of the baronies in the county of Londonderry ;
but it is still a corporation, and sends two members
to parliament. It is of a tolerable size, and very elev
gantly built. The port is very indifferent, occasioned
by the extreme rapidity of the river, which repels the
K k 2 tide,
Colcrain
ii
Colct.
COL [ 260 ] COL
tide, and makes the coming up to the town difficult j
so that it has but little trade, and might perhaps have
less, if it was not for the valuable salmon-fishery, which
amounts to some thousand pounds a-year. If the na¬
vigation of the Bunn could be opened, which is total¬
ly obstructed by a ridge of rocks, it would quickly
change the face of things j for then, by the help of
this river, and the Newry canal, there would be a di¬
rect communication across the kingdom, and, with the
assistance of the Black-water river, which likewise falls
into Lough Neagh, almost all the counties of the pro¬
vince of Ulster might have a correspondence with each
other by water-carriage, to their reciprocal and very
great emolument.
COLES, Elisha, author of the well known Latin
and English dictionary, was born in Northamptonshire
about the year 1640; and was entered of Magdalene
College Oxford, which he left without taking a de¬
gree } and taught Latin to young people, and English
to foreigners, in London, about the year 1663. He
afterwards became an usher in Merchant-taylors school j
but for some great fault, nowhere expressly mentioned,
he was forced to withdraw to Ireland, whence he never
returned. He was, however, a good critic in the
English and Latin tongues ; and wrote several useful
books of instruction in his profession.
COLET, John, dean of St Paul’s, the son of Hen¬
ry Colet, knight, was born in London in the year 1466.
His education began in St Anthony’s school in that
city, from whence, in 1483, he was sent to Oxford,
and probably to Magdalene college. After seven years
study of logic and philosophy, he took his degrees in
arts. About the year 1493, Mr Colet went to Paris,
and thence to Italy, probably with a design to improve
himself in the Greek and Latin languages, which at
this time were imperfectly taught in our universities.
On his return to England in 1497, he took orders ; and
returned to Oxford, where he read lectures gratis, on
the epistles of St Paul. At this time he possessed the
rectory of St Dennington in Suffolk, to which he had
been instituted at the age of 19- He was also pre¬
bendary of York, and canon of St Martin’s le Grand
in London. In 1502 be became prebendary of Sarum ;
prebendary of St Paul’s in 1505 ; and immediately af¬
ter dean of that cathedral, having previously taken
the degree of doctor of divinity. He was no sooner
raised to this dignity, than he introduced the practice
of preaching and expounding the scriptures ; and soon
after established a perpetual divinity lecture in St Paul’s
church, three days in every week ; an institution which
gradually made way for the reformation. About the
year 1508, Dean Colet formed his plan for the foun¬
dation of St Paul’s school, which be completed in 1312,
and endowed with estates to the amount of 122I. and
upwards. The celebrated grammarian, William Lyle,
was his first master, and the company of mercers were
appointed trustees. The dean’s notions of religion
were so much more rational than those of his contem¬
porary priests, that they deemed him little better than
a heretic 5 and on that account he was so frequently
molested, that he at last determined to spend the rest
of his days in peaceful retirement. With this inten¬
tion he built a house near the palace of .Richmond ;
but being seized with the sweating sickness, he died
in 1519, in the 53d year of his age. He was buried
on the south side of the choir of St Paul’s ; and a Cojet
stone was laid over his grave, with no other inscription j) s
than his name. Besides the preferments above men- Colisniinj
tioned, he was rector of the guild of Jesus at St -“""v--
Paul’s, and chaplain to King Henry VIII. Dean Co-
let, though a Papist, was an enemy to the gross super¬
stitions of the church of Rome, fie disapproved auri¬
cular confession, the celibacy of the priests, and such
other ridiculous tenets and ceremonies as have ever
been condemned by men of sound understanding in
every age and country. He wrote, 1. Ruclimenta
grammatices. 2. The construction of the eight parts of
speech. 3. Daily devotions. 4. Epistolce ad Erasmum.
5. Several sermons : and other works which still remain
in manuscript.
COLIBERTS {Caliberti), in LaiVy were tenants in
soccage, and particularly such villeins as were manu¬
mitted or made freemen. But they had not an abso¬
lute freedom j for though they were better than ser¬
vants, yet they had superior lords to whom they paid
certain duties, and in that respect might be called ser¬
vants, though they were of middle condition between
freemen and servants.
COLIC, a severe pain in the lower venter, so called
because the colon was formerly supposed to be the part
affected. See Medicine Index.
Colic, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
COLIGNI, Gaspard DE, admiral of France, was
born in 1516. He signalized himself in his youth, in
the reigns of Francis I. and Henry II. and was made
colonel of infantry and admiral of France in 1552.
Henry II. employed him in the most important affairs j
but alter the death of that prince, he embraced the
reformed religion, and became the chief of the Prote¬
stant party : he strongly opposed the house of Guise,
and rendered this opposition so powerful, that it was
thought he would have overturned the French go¬
vernment. On the peace made after the battles of
Jernac and Montcontour, Charles XI. deluded Coligni
into security by his deceitful favours j and though he
recovered one attempt on his life, when he attended
the nuptials of the prince of Navarre, yet he was in¬
cluded in the dreadful massacre of the Protestants on
St Bartholomew’s day 1572, and his body treated with
wanton brutality by a misguided Popish populace.
COLIMA, a Sea-port town of Mexico in North
America, and capital of a fertile valley of the same
name. It is seated at the mouth of a river, in W.
Long 103. 20. N. Lat. 18. 30.
COLIOURE, a small, but ancient and strong town
of France, in Rousillon, seated at the foot of the Py¬
renean mountains, with a small harbour. E. Long. 3.
10. N. Lat. 43. 24.
COLIR, an officer in China, who may properly be
called an inspector, having an eye over what passes in
every court or tribunal of the" empire. In order to
render him impartial, he is kept independent, by
having his post for life. The power of the colirs is
such, that they make even the princes of the blood
tremble.
COLISEUM, or Colisjeum, in the ancient archi¬
tecture, an oval amphitheatre, built at Rome by Ves¬
pasian, in the place where stood the bason of Nero’s
gilded diouse. The word is formed from eolosceumy on
account of the colossus of Nero that stood near it*
or,
COL [26
jliseum <>r! according to Nardini, from the Italian coliseo. In
|j this were placed statues, representing all the provinces
1 lateral. 0f tlie empire ; in the middle whereof stood that of
Rome, holding a golden apple in her hand. The same
term, coliseum, is also given to another amphitheatre
of the emperor Severus. In these colisea were repre¬
sented games, and combats of men and wild beasts $
but there is now little remaining of either of them,
time and war having reduced them to ruins.
COLLAERT, Adrian, an eminent engraver who
flourished about 1550, was born at Antwerp. After
having learned in his own country the first principles
of engraving, he went to Italy, where he resided some
time to perfect himself in drawing. He wrought en-
' tirely with the graver, in a firm neat style, but rather
stift and dry. The vast number of plates executed by
his hand sufficiently evince the facility with which he
eaigraved ; and though exceedingly neat, yet they are
seldom highly finished.
Collaert, Hans or John, son to the foregoing,
was also an excellent artist. He drew and engraved
exactly in the style of his father, and was in every
respect equal to him in merit. He must have been
very old when he died ; for his prints are dated from
1555 to 1622. He assisted his father in all his great
works, and engraved besides a prodigious number of
plates of various subjects. One of his best prints is
Moses striking the rock, a large print, lengthwise, from
Lambert Lombard. A great number of small figures
are introduced into this print ; and they are admirably
well executed : the heads are fine, and the drawing
very correct.
COLLAR, in Roman antiquity, a sort of chain put
generally round the neck of slaves that had run away,
after they were taken, with an inscription round it, in¬
timating their being deserters, and requiring their be¬
ing restored to their proper owners, &c.
Collar, in a more modern sense, an ornament con¬
sisting of a chain of gold, enamelled, frequently set
with ciphers or other devices, with the badge of the
order hanging at the bottom, worn by the knights of
several military orders over their shoulders, on the
mantle, and its figure drawn round their armories.
Thus, the collar of the order of the Garter consists
of S. S. with roses enamelled red, within a garter en¬
amelled blue, and the george at the bottom.
Lord Mayor's Collar is more usually called chain.
See Chain.
Knights of the Collar, a military order in the re¬
public of Venice, called also the order of St Maik, or
the Medal. It is the doge and the senate that confer
this order j the knights wear no particular habit, only
the collar, which the doge puts around their neck,
with a medal, wherein is represented the winged lion
of the republic.
Collar of a Hr aught-horse, a part of harness made
of leather and canvas, and stuffed w'ith straw or wool,
to be put about the horse’s neck.
COLLARAGE, a tax or fine laid for the collars
of wine-drawing horses.
COLLATERAL, any thing, place, country, &c.
situated by the side of another.
Collateral, in genealogy, those relations which
proceed from the same stock, but not in the same line
of ascendants or descendants, but being, as it were, aside
i ] COL
of each other. Thus, uncles, aunts, nephews, nieces, Co lateral
and cousins, are collaterals, or in the same collateral P
line : those in a higher degree, and nearer the common Collateral.
root, represent a kind of paternity with regard to those * ~
more remote. See Consanguinity.
Collateral Succession. When a defunct, for want
of heirs descended of himself, is succeeded in his estate
by a brother or sister, or their descendants, the estate
is said to have gone to collateral heirs.
COLLATIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Sabines, thought to be distant between four and five
miles from Rome to the east-, situated on an eminence
(Virgil.) Of this place was Tarquinius Collatinus,
married to Lucretia, ravished by Sextus Tarquinius
(Livy) j situated on this or on the left side of the Anio
(Pliny). Extant in Cicero’s time, but in Strabo’s
day only a village ; now no trace of it remains.—An¬
other supposed Collatia of Apulia, near Mount Gar-
ganus, because Pliny mentions the Collatini in Apulia,
and Frontinus the Ager Collatinus.
COLLATINA PORTA, a gate of Rome, at the
Collis Hortulorum, afterwards called Pinciana, from
the Pincii, a noble family. Its name Collatina is from
Collatia, to the right of which was the Via Collatina,
which led to that town.
COLLINA, a gate of Rome, at the Collis Quiri-
nalis, not far from the temple of Venus Erycina (Ovid) $
called also Solaria, because the Sabines carried their
salt through it (Tacitus). Now Salaro.
COLLATION, in the canon law, the giving or
bestowing of a benefice on a clergyman by a bishop,
who has it in his own gift or patronage. It differs
from institution in this, that institution is performed
by the bishop, upon the presentation of another; and
collation is his own gift or presentation ; and it dif¬
fers from a common presentation, as it is the giving
of the church to the person, and presentation is the
giving or offering of the person to the church. But
collation supplies the place of presentation and insti¬
tution, and amounts to the same as institution where
the bishop is both patron and ordinary. Anciently the
right of presentation to all churches was in the bi¬
shop ; and now if the patron neglects to present to a
church, this right returns to the bishop by collation.
If the bishop neglects to collate within six months after
the elapse of the patron, then the archbishop hath a
right to do it j and if the archbishop neglects, then it
devolves to the king ; the one as superior, to supply
the defects of bishops, the other as supreme, to supply
all defects of government,
Collation, in common law, the comparison or
presentation of a copy to its original, to see whether
or not it be conformable ; or the report or act of the
officer who made the comparison. A collated act is
equivalent to its original, provided all the parties con¬
cerned were present at the collation.
Collation, in Scots L,aw, that right which an heir
has of throwing the whole heritable and moveable
estates of the deceased into one mass, and sharing it
equally with the others in the same degree of kindred,
when he thinks such share will be more than the value
of the heritage to which he had an exclusive title.
Collation is also used among the Romanists for
the meal or repast made in a fast day, in lieu of a sup¬
per. Only fruits are allowed in a collation : F. Lobi-
neao
G L r 2<S2 1 V c O L
Collation neau observes, that anciently there was not allowed
ii even bread in the collations in Lent, nor any thing
Collector, besides a few comfits and dried herbs and fruits j which
"" custom, he adds, obtained till the year I513f Cardi¬
nal Humbert observes farther, that in the middle of
the nth century there were no collations at all allow¬
ed in the Latin church in the time of Lent i and
that the custom of collations was borrowed from the
Greeks, who themselves did not take it up till about
the nth century.
Collation is also popularly used for a repast be¬
tween meals, particularly between dinner and supper.
The word collation, in this sense, Du Cange derives
from collocutioy “ conference,” and maintains, that ori¬
ginally collation was only a conference, or conversation
on subjects of piety, held on fast days in monasteries j
but that, by degrees, the custom was introduced of
bringing in a few refreshments j and that by the ex¬
cesses to which those sober repasts were at length car¬
ried, the name of the abuse was retained, but that of
the thing lost,
Collation of Seals, denotes one seal set on the same
label, on the reverse of another,
COLLEAGUE, a partner or associate in the same
office or magistrature. See ADJUNCT.
COLLECT, Collection, a voluntary gathering
of money, for some pious or charitable purpose. Some
say, the name collect, or collection, was used, by rea¬
son those gatherings were anciently made on the days
of collects, and in collects, i, e. in assemblies of Christi¬
ans, but, more probably, quia colligehatur pccunia.
Collect, is sometimes also used for a tax, or impo¬
sition, raised by a prince for any pious design. Thus,
histories say, that in u(56, the king of England com¬
ing into Normandy, appointed a collect for the relief
of the holy land, at the desire and after the example of
the king of France, See Croisade.
Collect, in the liturgy of the church of England,
and the mass of the Romanists, denotes a prayer accom¬
modated to any particular day, occasion, or the like.
See Liturgy and Mass,
In the general, all the prayers in each office are
called collects i either because the priest speaks in the
name of the whole assembly, whose sentiments and de-
siree he sums up by the word oremns, <c let «s pray,”
as is observed by Rope Innocent HI, or, because those
prayers are offered when the people are assembled to¬
gether, which is the opinion of Famelins on Tertul-
jian.
The congregation itself is in some ancient authors
called collect. The popes Gelasius and Gregory are
said to have been the first who established De-
spence, a doctor of the faculty of Raris, has an express
treatise on collects^ their origin, antiquity, authors,
8cc,
COLLECTIVE, among grammarians, a term ap¬
plied a noun expressing a multitude, though itself
be only singular $ as an array, company, troop, &c,
called collective mum,
COLLECTOR, in general, denotes a person who
gets or brings together things formerly dispersed and
separated, Hence,
Collector, in matters of civil polity, is a person
appointed by the commissioners of any duty, the inha¬
bitants of a parish, &c. to raise or gather any kind of Collecta
tax. _ ^ |j
Collector, among botanists, one who gets toge- Coltega
ther as many plants as he can, without studying botanv '
in a scientifical manner.
CQLLEGATORY, in the Civil Law, a person
who has a legacy left him in common with one or more
other persons.
COLLEGE, an assemblage of several bodies or so¬
cieties, or of several persons into one society.
College, among the Romans, served indifferently for
those employed in the offices of religion, of government,
the liberal and even mechanical arts and trades j so
that, with them, the word signified what we call a cor¬
poration or company.
In the Roman empire, there were not only the college
of augurs, and the college of capitolini, i. e. of those
who had the superintendance of the capitoline games j
but also colleges of artificers, collegium artifcum ; col¬
lege of carpenters, fabricorum or fabrorum tignario*
rum ; of potters, fgulorum ; of founders, cerarior'um $
the college of locksmiths, fabrorum serrariorum; of
engineers of the army, tignariorum; of butchers, /«»
niorum\ of dendrophori, dendrophororum ; ofeentona-
ries, centonariorum; of makers of military casques,
sagariorum; of tent-makers, tabernaculariorum; of
bakers, pistorum } of musicians, tibicinum, &c. Plu¬
tarch observes, that it was Numa who first divided the
people into colleges, which he did to the end that each
consulting the interests of their colleges, whereby they
were divided from the citizens of the other colleges,
they might not enter into any general conspiracy a-
gainst the public repose.
Each of these colleges had distinct meeting places or
halls $ and likewise, in imitation of the state, a trea¬
sury and common chest, a register, and one to repre¬
sent them, upon public occasions, and acts-of govern¬
ment. These colleges had the privilege of manumit¬
ting slaves, of being legates, and making by-laws for
their own body, provided they did not clash with those
of the government.
There are various colleges on foot among the mo¬
derns, founded on the model of those of the ancients.
Such are the three colleges of the empire, viz.
College of Electors, or their Deputies, assembled in
the diet of Ratisbon,
COLLEGE of Evinces; the body of princes, or their
deputies at the diet of Ratisbon.
COLLEGE of Cities, is, in like manner, the body of
deputies which the imperial cities send to the diet.
College of Cardinals, or the Sacred College ; a
body composed of the three orders of cardinals. See
Cardinals.
College, is also used for a public place endowed
with certain revenues, where the several parts of learn¬
ing are taught.
An assemblage of several of these colleges const!,
tntes an university. The erection of colleges is part of
the royal prerogative, and not to be done without the
king’s license.
The establishment of colleges or universities is a
remarkable period in literary history. The schools
in cathedrals and monasteries confined themselves
chiefly to the teaching of grammar. There were on¬
ly
COL
[ 263 ]
COL
allege, ly one or two masters employed in that office. But,
—in colleges, professors are appointed to teach all the
different parts of science. The first obscure mention
of academical degrees in the university of Paris (from
which the other universities in Europe have borrowed
most of their customs and institutions), occurs A. D.
J2iS-
College of Civilians, commonly called Doctors Com¬
mons ; a college founded by Dr Harvey, dean of the
arches, for the professors of the civil law residing in
London ; where usually, likewise, i-eside the judge of
the arches court of Canterbury, judge of the admi¬
ralty, of the prerogative court, &c. with other civi¬
lians j who all live, as to diet and lodging, in a col¬
legiate manner, commoning together ; whence the ap¬
pellation of Doctors Commons. Their house being
consumed in the great fire, they all resided at Exeter-
house in the Strand till 1672 5 when their former house
was rebuilt, at their own expence, in a very splendid
manner. To this college belong 34 proctors, who
make themselves parties for their clients, manage their
causes, &c.
College of Physicians, a corporation of physicians
in London, who, by several charters and acts of par¬
liament of Henry VIII. and his successors, have cer¬
tain privileges, whereby no man, though a graduate
in physic of any university, may, without license, un¬
der the said college-seal, practise physic in or within
seven miles of London ; with power to administer
oaths, fine and imprison offenders in that and several
other particulars •, to searcli the apothecaries shops,
&c. in and about London, to see if their drugs, &e.
be wholesome, and their compositions according to the
form prescribed by the said college in their dispensa¬
tory. By the said charter they are also freed from all
troublesome offices, as to serve on juries, be constables,
keep watch, provide arms, &c.
The society had anciently a college in Knight-rider-
street, the gift of Dr Linacre, physician to King Hen¬
ry VIII. Since that time they have had a house built
them by the famous Dr Harvey, in 1652, at the end
of Amen-corner, which he endowed with his whole in¬
heritance in his lifetime but this being burnt in the
great fire in 1666, a new one was erected at the ex¬
pence of the fellows, in Warwick-lane, with a noble
library, given partly by the marquis of Dorchester, and
partly by Sir Theodore Mayerne.
Of this college there are at present a president, lour
censors, eight electors, a register, and a treasurer cho¬
sen annually in October 5 the censors have, by charter,
power to survey, govern, and arrest, all physicians, or
others practising physic, in or within seven miles of
London, and to fine, amerce, and imprison them, at
discretion. The number of fellows was anciently thir¬
ty, till King Charles II. increased their number to
forty ; and King James II. giving them a new charter,
allowed the number of fellows to be enlarged so as not
to exceed fourscore ; reserving to himself and succes¬
sors the power of placing and displacing any of them
for the future.
The college is not very rigorous in asserting their
privileges $ there being a great number of physicians,
some of very good abilities, who practise in London,
<&c. without their license, and are connived at by the
college $ yet, by law, if any person not expressly al¬
lowed to practise, take on him the cure of any disease, College,
and the patient die under his hand, it is deemed felo-
ny in the practiser. In 1696, the college made a sub¬
scription, to the number of forty-two of their mem¬
bers, to set on foot a dispensatory for the relief of the
sick poor : since that they have erected two other dis¬
pensatories.
Edinburgh College of Physicians was erected on the
26th November 1681. The design of this institution
was, to prevent the abuses daily committed by foreign
and illiterate impostors, quacks, &c. For this reason,
his majesty, at the time above mentioned, granted let¬
ters patent to erect into a body corporate and politic,
certain physicians in Edinburgh and their successors,
by the title of “ the President and Royal College of
Physicians at Edinburgh,” with pow7er to choose an¬
nually a council of seven, one whereof to be president:
these are to elect a treasurer, clerk, and other officers ;
to have a common seal 5 to sue and be sued 5 to make
laws for promoting the art of physic, and regulating
the practice thereof within the city of Edinburgh,
town of Leith, and districts of the Canongate, West-
port, Pleasance, and Potterrow: through all which
the jurisdiction of the college extends. Throughout
this jurisdiction, no person is allowed to practise phy¬
sic, without a warrant from the college, under the pe¬
nalty of 5I. sterling the first month, to be doubled
monthly afterwards while the oft’ence is continued ;
one-half the money arising from such fines to go to
the poor, the other to the use of the college. They are
also empowered to punish all licentiates in physic with¬
in the above-mentioned bounds, for faults committed
against the institutions of the college j and to fine them
of sums not exceeding 40s. On such occasions, how¬
ever, they must have one of the bailies of the city to
sit in judgment along with them, otherwise their sen¬
tence will not be valid. They are also empowered to
search and inspect all medicines within their jurisdic¬
tion, and throw out into the street all such as are bad
or unwholesome. That they may the better attend
their patients, they are exempted from watching, ward¬
ing, and serving on juries. They are, however, re¬
strained from erecting schools for teaching the art of
physic, or conferring degrees on any person qualified
for the office of a physician $ but are obliged to license
all such as have taken their degrees in any other uni¬
versity, and to admit as honorary members all the pro¬
fessors of physic in the rest of the universities of Scot¬
land. These privileges and immunities are not, how¬
ever, to interfere with the rights and privileges of the
apothecary-surgeons, in their practice of curing wounds,
contusions, fractures, and other external operations.
Edinburgh College of Smgeons. This is but a
very late institution, by which the surgeons of Edin¬
burgh are incorporated into a Royal College, and au¬
thorized to carry into execution a scheme for making
provision for their widows and children, &c. They
have also the privilege of examining and licensing, if
found qualified, all practitioners in surgery within cer¬
tain bounds.
College of Justice, the supreme civil court of Scot¬
land ; otherwise called Court of Session, or (f Council
and Session. See Law Index.
Sion College, or the college of the London clergy,
■which has been a religious house time out of mind,
sometimes
COL [ 264 1 COL
College, sometimes under the denomination of a priory, some-
——■ > times under that of a spital or hospital : at its dissolu¬
tion under 31st Henry VIII. it was called Spi¬
tal, from the name of its founder, a mercer, in 1329.
At present it is a composition of both, viz. a college
for the clergy of London, who were incorporated in
1630, in pursuance to the will of Dr White, under
the name of the President and Fellows of Sion College;
and an hospital for ten poor men and as many wo¬
men. The officers of the corporation are the presi¬
dent, two deans, and four assistants, who are annually
chosen from among the rectors and vicars of London ;
and are subject to the visitation of the bishop. They
have a good library, built and stocked by Mr Simpson,
and furnished by several other benefactors, chiefly for
the clergy of the city, without excluding other students
on certain terms j and a half, with chambers for stu¬
dents, generally occupied by the ministers of the
neighbouring parishes.
Gresham College, or College of Philosophy; a
college founded by Sir Thomas Gresham, and endowed
with the revenue of the Royal Exchange. One moiety
of this endowment the founder bequeathed to the
mayor and aldermen of London and their successors,
in trust, that they should find four able persons to read
within the college, divinity, geometry, astronomy, and
music ; who are chosen by a committee of the common
council, consisting of the lord mayor, three aldermen,
and eight commoners, and allowed each, besides lodg-
ing, 30I. per annum. The other moiety he left to
the company of mercers, to find three more able per¬
sons, chosen by a committee of that company, consist¬
ing of the master and three wardens, during their of¬
fice, and eight of the court of assistants, to read law,
physic, and rhetoric, on the same terms j with this li¬
mitation, that the several lecturers should read in term-
time, every day in the week, except Sundays; in the
morning in Latin, in the afternoon the same in Eng¬
lish ; but that in music to be read only in English.
By 8th Geo. HI. cap. 32. the building appropriated
to this college was taken down, and the excise office
erected in its room. Each of the professors is allowed
50I. per annum, in lieu of the apartments, &c. relin¬
quished by them in the college, and is permitted to
marry, notwithstanding the restriction of Sir Thomas
Gresham’s will. The lectures are now read in a room
over the Royal Exchange; and the city and mercer’s
company are required to provide a proper place for this
purpose.
In this college formerly met the Royal Society, that
noble academy, instituted by King Charles II. and ce¬
lebrated throughout the world for their improvements
in natural knowledge. See their history and policy
under Society.
College de Propaganda Fide, was founded at Rome
in 1622 by Gregory XV. and enriched with ample re¬
venues. It consists of thirteen cardinals, two priests,
and a secretary j and was designed for the propagation
and maintenance of the Romish religion in all parts of
the world. The funds of this college have been very
considerably augmented by Urban VIII, and many
private donations. Missionaries are supplied by this
institution, together with a variety of books suited to
their several .appointments. Seminaries for their in-
3
struction are supported by it, and a number of charita- Colleg?
ble establishments connected with and conducive to the |) *
main object of its institution. Collegial
Another college of the same denomination was esta-'—'~'r“|
blished by Urban VIII. in 1627, in consequence of the
liberality of John Baptist Viles, a Spanish nobleman.
This is set apart for the instruction of those who are
designed for the fox-eign missions. It was at first com¬
mitted to the care of three canons of the patriarchal
churches j but ever since the year 1641 it is under the
same government with the former institution.
College of Heralds, commonly called the Herald's
Office; a corporation founded by charter of King
Richard III. who granted them several pi'ivileges, as
to be free from subsidies, tolls, offices, &c. They had
a second charter from King Henry VI. j and a house
built near Doctors Commons, by the earl of Derby, in
the reign of King Henry VII. was given them by the
duke of Norfolk, in the reign of Queen Mary, which
house is now rebuilt.
This college is subordinate to the earl marshal of
England. They are assistants to him in his court of
chivalry, usually held in the common hall of the col¬
lege, where they sit in their rich coats of his majesty’s
arms. See Herald.
College of Heralds in Scotland, consists of Lyon
king at arms, six heralds, and six pursuivants, and a
number of messengers. See Lyon.
COLLEGIANS, Collegiani, Collegiants, a
religious sect formed among the Arminians and Ana¬
baptists in Holland, about the beginning of the seven¬
teenth century $ so called because of their colleges, or
meetings, twice every week, where every one, females
excepted, has the same liberty of expounding the
Scripture, praying, &c. They are said to be all ei¬
ther Arians or Socinians ; they never communicate in
the college, but meet twice a-year from all parts of
Holland at Rhinsbergh, (whence they are also called
Rhinsberghers'), a village two miles from Leyden, where
they communicate together j admitting every one that
presents himself, professing his faith in the divinity of
the Holy Scriptures, and resolution to live suitably to
their precepts and doctrines, without regard to his sect
or opinion. They have no particular ministers, but
each officiates as he is disposed. They never baptize
without dipping.
COLLEGIATE, or Collegial, churches, are
those which have no bishop’s see, yet have the ancient
retinue of the bishop, the canons and prebends. Such
are Westminster, Rippon, Windsor, &c. governed by
deans and chapters.
Of these collegiate churches there are two kinds j
some of royal, and others of ecclesiastical foundation ;
each of them, in matters of divine service, regulated
in the same manner as the cathedrals. There are
even some collegiate churches that have the episcopal
rights. Some of these churches were anciently abbeys,
which in time wrere secularized. The church of St
Peter’s, Westminster, was anciently a cathedral j but
the revenues of the monastery being by act of parlia¬
ment, 1 Elizabeth, vested in the dean and chapter,
it commenced a collegiate church. In several cause#
the styling it cathedral, instead of collegiate church of
Westminster, has occasioned error in the pleadings.
COLLET
COL [ 265 ] COL
Collet COLLET, among jewellers, denotes the horizontal
U face or plane at the bottom of brilliants. See Bril-
Coliins. LIANT.
  Collet, in glass-making, is that part of glass ves¬
sels which sticks to the iron instrument wherewith the
metal was taken out of the melting-pot: these are af¬
terwards used for making green glass.
COLLETICS, in P/iarmacij, denotes much the
same with Agglutinants or Vulneraries.
COLLIER, Jeremy, a learned English nonjuring
divine, born in 165c, and educated in Caius college
Cambridge. He had first the small rectory of Amp-
ton near St Edmund’s Bury in Sufiblk, which in six
years he resigned, to come to London, in 1685,
where he was made lecturer of Gray’s Inn ; but the
change of government that followed, soon rendered
the public exercise of his function impracticable. He
was committed to Newgate for writing against the
revolution ; and again, tor carrying on a correspon¬
dence which that change of events made treasonable;
but was released both times, without trial, by the in¬
tervention ol Iriends. It is observable that he carried
his scruples so far, as to prefer confinement to the ta¬
cit acknowledgement of the jurisdiction of the court
by accepting his liberty upon bail. Suitable to these
principles, he next acted a very extraordinary part
with two other clergymen of his own way of think¬
ing, at the execution of Sir John Friend and Sir Wil¬
liam Perkins for the assassination plot ; by giving them
solemn absolution, and by imposition of hands. Ab¬
sconding lor which, he continued under an outlawry
to the day of his death in 1726. These proceedings
having put a stop to his activity, he employed his re¬
tired hours rather more usefully in literary works.
In 1698, he attempted to reform our theatrical enter¬
tainments, by publishing his “ Short view of the im¬
morality and profanensss of the English stage,” which
engaged him in a controversy with the wits of the time ;
but as Mr Collier defended his censures not only with
wit, but with learning and reason, it is allowed that
the decorum observed, for the most part, by succeed¬
ing dramatic writers, has been owing to his animad¬
versions. He next undertook a translation of Mor-
reri’s great Historical and Geographical Dictionary ;
a work of extraordinary labour, and which appeared
in 4 vols. folio. After this he published “ An Eccle¬
siastical History of Great Britain, chiefly of England,”
in 2 vols. folio ; which is allowed to be written with
great judgment, and even with impartiality. He was
besides engaged in several controversies, which his
conduct and writings gave rise to, not material to men¬
tion. In Queen Anne’s reign, Mr Collier was tempt¬
ed, by oilers of considerable preferment, to a submis¬
sion ; but as he was a nonjuror upon principle, he could
not be brought to listen to any terms.
Collier, or Coallier. See Coallier.
COLLIERY, Coalerr, or Coalliery. See
Coalery.
COLLINS, Anthony, a polemical writer, born
at Hesten near Hounslow in the county of Middlesex
m 1676, was the son of Henry Collins, a gentleman
of about 1500I. a-year. He was first bred at Eton
college, and then went to King’s-college Cambridge,
where he had for his tutor Mr Francis Hare, after¬
wards bishop of Chichester. He was afterwards a
Vol. VI. Part I. f
student of the Temple ; but not relishing the law, Co’lTns.
soon abandoned that study. He was an ingenious —-v—
man, and author of several curious books. His first
remarkable piece was published in 1707, “An Essay
concerning the use of reason in propositions, the evi¬
dence whereof depends on human testimony.” In
1702, he entered into the controversy between Mr
Clark and Dr Dodwell, concerning the immortality
of the soul. In 17139 ^ie published his discourse on
free-thinking, which made a prodigious noise. In
1725j l’e retired into the county of Essex, and acted
as a justice of peace and deputy lieutenant for the
same county, as he had done before for that of Mid¬
dlesex and liberty of Westminster. The same year,
he published a “ Philosophical Essay concerning hu¬
man liberty.” In I7t8> he was chosen treasurer of
the county of Essex ; and this office he discharged
with great honour. In 1724, he published his “Hi¬
storical and critical Essay on the 39 Articles.” Soon
after, he published his “ Discourse of the Grounds and
reasons of the Christian religion to which is prefix¬
ed, “ An Apology for free debate and liberty of
writing; which piece was immediately attacked by
a great number of authors. In 1726 appeared his
“ Scheme of literary prophecy considered, in a view of
the controversy occasioned by a late book entitled, A
discourse of the grounds,” &c. In this discourse he
mentions a MS. dissertation of his, to show the Sibyl¬
line oracles to be a forgery made in the times of the
primitive Christians, who, for that reason, were call¬
ed Sibylhsts by the Pagans ; but it never appeared in
print. His Scheme of literary Prophecy was replied to
• by several writers; and particularly by Dr John Ro¬
gers, in his “ Necessity of divine revelation asserted.”
In answer to which our author wrote, “ A letter to the
Reverend Dr Rogers, on occasion,” &c. His health
began to decline some years before his death, and he
was very much afflicted with the stone, which at last
put an end to his life at his house in Harley square in
1729. He was interred in Oxford chapel, where a
monument was erected to him, with an epitaph in La¬
tin. His curious library was open to all men of letters,
to whom he readily communicated all the assistance in
his power; he even furnished his antagonists with
books to confute himself, and directed them how to give
their arguments all the force of which they were capa¬
ble. He was remarkably averse to all indecency and
obscenity of discourse ; and was, independent of his
scepticism, a sincerely good man.
Collins, John, an eminent accountant and mathe¬
matician, born in 1624, and bred a bookseller at Ox¬
ford. Besides several treatises on practical subjects,
he communicated some curious papers to the Royal So¬
ciety, of which he was a member, which are to he
found in the early numbers of the Philosophical Trans¬
actions : and was the chief promoter of many other
scientifical publications in his time. He died in 1683 ;
and about 25 years after, all his papers coming into the
hands of the learned William Jones, Esq. F. R. S.. it
appeared that Mr Collins held a constant correspond¬
ence for many years with all the eminent mathemati¬
cians ; and that many of the late discoveries in physical
knowledge, if not actually made by him, were yet
brought forth by his endeavours.
Collins, William^ an admirable poet, was horn
L1 at
COL [ 266 ] COL
Co!iins. at Chichester, about the year 1724. He received his
v“—~ classical education at Winchester, after which he stu¬
died at New college in Oxford, was admitted a com¬
moner of King’s college in the same university, and
was at length elected a demy of Magdalene college.
While at Oxford, he applied himself to the study of
poetry, and published his Oriental Eclogues; after
which he came to London. He was naturally pos¬
sessed of an ear for all the varieties of harmony and
modulation ; his heart was susceptible of the finest
feelings of tenderness and humanity, and was particu¬
larly carried away by that high enthusiasm which gives
to imagination its strongest colouring; and he was at
once capable of soothing the ear with the melody of
his numbers, of influencing the passions by the force
of the pathos, and of gratifying the fancy by the luxu¬
ry of description. With these powers, he attempted
lyric poetry*, and in 1746, published his Odes, de¬
scriptive and allegorical $ but the sale of this work be¬
ing not at all answerable to its merit, he burnt the
remaining copies in indignation. Being a man of
a liberal spirit and a small fortune, his pecuniary re¬
sources were unhappily soon exhausted $ and his life
became a miserable example of necessity, indolence,
and dissipation. He projected books which he was
well able to execute ; and became in idea an historian,
a critic, and a dramatic poet j but wanted the means
and encouragement to carry these ideas into execu¬
tion. Day succeeded day, for the support of which
he had made no provision $ and he was obliged to sub¬
sist, either by the repeated contributions of a friend
or the generosity of a casual acquaintance. His spi¬
rits became oppressed, and he sunk into a sullen de¬
spondence. While in this gloomy state of mind, his
uncle Colonel Martin died, and left him a considerable
fortune. But this came too late for enjovmentj he
had been so long harassed by anxiety and distress that
he fell into a nervous disorder, which at length re¬
duced the finest understanding to the most deplorable
childishness. In the first stages of this disorder he en¬
deavoured to relieve himself by travelling, and passed
into France j but the growing malady obliged him to
return ; and having continued, with short intervals, in
this pitiable state till the year 1756, he died in the
arms of his sister.
The following character of the poetry of Collins is
drawn by Mrs Barbauld, and is extracted from an
essay prefixed to an edition of his works published in
1797* acknowledged to possess imagi¬
nation, sweetness, bold and figurative language. His
numbers dwell on the ear, and easily fix themselves in
the memory. His vein of sentiment is by turns ten¬
der and lofty, always tinged with a degree of melan¬
choly, but not possessing any claim to originality. Elis
originality consists in his manner, in the highly figu¬
rative garb in which he clothes abstract ideas, in the
felicity of his expressions, and his skill in embodying
ideal creations. He had much of the mysticism of
poetry, and sometimes became obscure, by aiming at
impressions stronger than he had clear and well-de¬
fined ideas to support. Had his life been prolonged,
and with life had he enjoyed that ease which is neces¬
sary for the undisturbed exercise of the faculties, he
would probably have risen far above most of his contem-
poraries.”
COLLINSON, Peter, an eminent naturalist and GoliinP01i
antiquarian, descended of an ancient family, was born - '..-y
on the paternal estate called Hugal Hall, or Height of
Hugal, near Windermere lake, in the parish of Stavely,
about ten miles from Kendal in Westmoreland. Whilst
a youth, he discovered his attachment to natural history.
He began early to make a collection of dried speci¬
mens of plants, and had access to the best gardens at
that time in the neighbourhood of London. He be¬
came early acquainted with the most eminent natural¬
ists of his time ; the Drs Derham, Woodward, Hale,
Lloyd, and Sloane, were amongst his friends. Among
the great variety of articles which form that superb
collection, now (by the wise disposition of Sir Hans
and the munificence of parliament) the British Mu¬
seum, small was the number of those with whose hi¬
story Mr Collinson was not well acquainted \ he being
one of those few who visited Sir Hans at all times fa¬
miliarly $ their inclinations and pursuits in respect to
natural history being the same, a firm friendship had
early been established between them. Peter Collin¬
son was elected a fellow of the Royal Society on the
12th of December 1728 j and perhaps was one of the
most diligent and useful members, not only in supply¬
ing them with many curious observations himself, but
in promoting and preserving a most extensive corre¬
spondence with learned and ingenious foreigners in all
countries and on every useful subject. Besides his at¬
tention to natural history, he minuted every striking
hint that occurred either in reading or conversation j
and from this source he derived much information, as
there were very few men of learning and ingenuity
who v/ere not of his acquaintance at home 5 and most
foreigners of eminence in natural history, or in arts and
sciences, were recommended to his notice and friend¬
ship. His diligence and economy of time were such,
that though he never appeared to be in a hurry, he
maintained an extensive correspondence with great
punctuality ; acquainting the learned and ingenious in
distant parts of the globe with the discoveries and im¬
provements in natural history in this country, and re¬
ceiving the like information from the most eminent
persons in almost every other. His correspondence
with the ingenious Cadwallader Golden, Esq. of New-
York, and the justly celebrated Dr Franklin of Phila¬
delphia, furnish instances of the benefit resulting from
his attention to all improvements. The latter of these
gentlemen communicated his first essays oh electricity
to Mr Collinson, in a series of letters, which were then
published, and have been reprinted in a late edition of
the Doctor’s ingenious discoveries and improvements.
Perhaps, in some future period, the account procured
of the management of sheep in Spain, published in the
Gentleman’s Magazine for May and June 1764, may
not be considered among the least of the benefits ac¬
cruing from his extensive and inquisitive correspon¬
dence. His conversation, cheerful and usefully enter¬
taining, rendered his acquaintance much desired by
those who had a relish for natural history, or were stu¬
dious in cultivating rural improvements j and secured
him the intimate friendship of some of the most emi¬
nent personages in this kingdom, as distinguished by
their taste in planting and horticulture, as by their rank
and dignity. He was the first who introduced the
great variety of seeds and shrubs which are now the
principal
COL [ 267 ] COL
ollinson principal ornaments of every garden ; and it was ow-
(j ing to his indefatigable industry, that so many persons
jiol'ybus. 0f the first distinction are now enabled to behold groves
' Y transplanted from the western continent flourishing as
luxuriantly in their several domains as if they were
already become indigenous to Britain. He had some
correspondents in almost every nation in Europe, some
in Asia, and even at Pekin ; who all transmitted to
him the most valuable seeds they could collect, in re¬
turn for the treasures of America. The great Lin¬
naeus, during his residence in England, contracted an
intimate friendship with Mr Collinson, which was x-e-
ciprocally increased by a multitude of good offices, and
continued to the last. Besides his attachment to na¬
tural history, he was very conversant in the antiquities
of our own country, having been elected a member of
the Society of Antiquaries April 7. 1737 ; .and he
supplied them often with many curious articles of in¬
telligence and observation, respecting both our own
and other countries. Ele died in 1768, leaving behind
him many materials for the improvement of natural
history.
COLLINSONIA. See Botany Index.
COLLIQUAMENTUM, in Natural History, an
extreme transparent fluid in an egg, observable after
two or three days incubation, containing the first ru¬
diments of the chick. It is included in one of its own
proper membranes, distinct from the albumen. Har¬
vey calls it the oculus.
COLLIQU AT LON, in Chemistry, is applied to
animal, vegetable, and mineral substances, tending to¬
wards fusion. See Fusion.
Colliquation, in Physic, a term applied to the
blood, when it loses its crasis or balsamic texture $ and
to the solid parts, when they waste away by means of
the animal fluids flowing off through the several glands,
and particularly those of the skin, faster than they
ought} which occasions fluxes of many kinds, but
mostly profuse, greasy, and clammy sweats.
COLLIQUATIVE FEVER, in Physic, a fever at¬
tended with a diarrhoea, or with px-ofuse sweats.
COLLISION, the striking of one hard body against
another 5 or the friction or percussion of bodies moving
violently with different directions, and dashing against
each other, as flint and steel.
COLLUM, the same with Neck.
COLLUSION, in Law, a secret understanding
between two parties, who plead or proceed fraudulently
against each, to the prejudice of a third person.
COLLUTHIANS, a religious sect who I'ose about
the beginning of the fourth century, on occasion of
the indulgence shown to Arius by Alexander, patriarch
of Alexandria. Several people being scandalized at
so much condescension j and, among the rest, Colluthus,
a priest of the same city, he hence took a pretence for
holding separate assemblies, and by degrees proceeded
to the ordination of priests, as if he had been a bishop,
pretending a necessity for this authority in order to op¬
pose Arius. To his schism he added heresy, teaching,
that God did not create the wicked ; that he was not
author of the evils that befal men, &c. He was con¬
demned by a council held at Alexandria by Osius, in
the year 330.
COLLYBUS (KoMvSos), in antiquity, the same
with what is now called the rate of exchange*
COLLYR/E, or Collyrides, in antiquity, a cer- Collyr*
tain ornament of hair, worn by the women on their II
necks. It was made up in the form of the small Colinan.
roundish cakes called xeAAvgax, collyrce, “ "
COLLYIUDIANS, in church history, a sect, to¬
wards the close of the 4th century, denominated from
a little cake, called by the Greeks xoXXvgl^ixi, collyridia,
which they offered to the V irgin Mary.
This sect, it seems, consisted chiefly of Arabian
women, who out of an extravagance of devotion to
the Virgin, met on a certain day in the year, to cele¬
brate a solemn feast, and to render divine honours to
Mary as to a goddess, eating the cake which they
offered in her name. St Epiphanius, who relates the
history of this superstitious ceremony, ridicules it.
They sprung up in opposition to the Antidico-Ma-
RIAN1TES.
COLLYRIUM, in Pharmacy, a topical remedy for
a disorder of the eyes, designed to cool and repel hot
sharp humours.
COLMAN, George, a miscellaneous and theatri¬
cal writer, was born at Florence about the year 1733.
He was the son of Mr Colman, at that time British
resident at the court of the duke of Tuscany, and of
a sister of the countess of Bath. He received the early
part of his education at Westminster school, where
Lloyd, Churchill, Bonnel, Thornton, and some others
who became afterwards distinguished literary characters,
were among his intimate companions. While at school
he appeared in the character of a poet, having addressed
a copy of verses to his cousin Lord Pulteney, which
were afterwards published in the magazine of St James.
He was next sent to Christ Church College, Oxford,
where he gave many proofs of his lively genius, unit¬
ing with Thornton in producing a weekly periodical
paper, entitled the “ Connoisseur,” which was con¬
tinued from January 1754, to September 1756, and
afterwards published in 4 vols. izmo. Although this
work met not with an equal share of approbation with
the World, the Adventurer, and the Rambler, which
made their appearance much about the same time, yet
it may with justice be affirmed, that some papers of it
are superior to any which these performances contain,
for a ludicrous delineation of the current manners,
which has always been considered as an essential de¬
partment of every periodical work. When Mr Col¬
man took the degree of A. M. he left the college and
resided in London. He entered at Lincoln’s Inn, and
in proper time was admitted to the bar j but literary
pursuits were much more consonant to the bent of his
genius. He published in 1760 a dramatic piece of
great humour, called Polly Honeycombs, which was suc¬
cessfully acted in Drury-lane ; and the following year
he gave the world his comedy of the Jealous Wife,
deemed the best which had for many yeai’s appeared.
By the demise of Lord Bath he came to the possession
of a handsome fortune, and it was farther augmented
by the death of General Pulteney, in 1767. He still
continued to write for the stage, and produced, along
with Garrick, that excellent comedy called the Clan¬
destine Marriage. He also translated the comedies of
Terence into a kind of blank vex-se, which gained him
considerable applause.
He soon after this made a purchase of Haymarket
theatre from Mr Samuel Foote, which he supplied with
L 1 2 pieces
COL [ 268 1 COL
Colmau pieces either original or translations, and selected the
II ablest actors, particularly in comedy. To a translation
Cologne. j]e nia(}e 0f Horace’s Art of Poetry, he prefixed an in¬
genious account of the intention of its author; and add¬
ed importance to the whole work by many critical notes.
The Genius, and the Gentleman, were other two of his
performances, as also a number of small pieces of the
humorous kind. His understanding was much impair¬
ed by a stroke of the palsy, which seized him in the
year 1789, in consequence of which melancholy event,
his son w'as intrusted with the management of the theatre.
He died in the month of August 1794, in the 62d year
of his age.
COLMAR, a considerable town of France, in the
department of the Upper Rhine, of which it is the ca¬
pital. It has great privileges, and the Protestants have
liberty of conscience. It is seated near the river 111, in
E. Long. 7. 27. N. Lat. dS. 5.
COLMARS, a town of France, in the department
of Lower Alps, and the diocese of Sens. It is seated
near the Alps, in E. Long. 6. 35. N. Lat. 44. 7.
COLNBROOK, a town of Buckinghamshire in
England, seated on the river Coin, which separates
this county from Middlesex. It is a great thorough-
fare on the western road, and has several good inns.
There are some small islands formed in its neighbour¬
hood by the different branches of the river Coin, where
the Danes are supposed to have sheltered themselves
from the attacks of Alfred. W. Long. o. 25. N. Lat.
51* 3°*
COLNE, a town of Lancashire in England, seated
on a small hill near the confines of the county. W.
Long. 2. 5. N. Lat. 53. 50.
COLOCHINA, an ancient town of the Morea, in
Turkey in Europe. E. Long. 22. 25. N. Lat. 36. 32.
COLOCYNTHIS, in Botany, a species of Cu-
CUMIS.
COLOCZA, a town of Hungary, seated on the Da¬
nube, and capital of the county of Bath, with an arch¬
bishop’s see. It was taken by the Turks in 1686, but
afterwards retaken by the Imperialists. E. Long. 18.
29. N. Lat. 46. 38.
COLOGNA, a town of Italy, in Padua, and in the
territory of Venice, now subject to Austria. E. Long.
l 7. 27. N. Lat. 41;. 14.
COLOGNE, The Archbishopric or Diocese of,
formerly one of the states that composed the electoral
circle of the Rhine, in Germany. It wras bounded on
the north by the duchy of Cleves and Gueldres, on the
west by that of Juliers, on the south by the archbisho¬
pric of Cleves, and on the east by the duchy of Berg,
from which it was almost wholly separated by the Rhine.
Tills country is very fruitful in corn and wine, which
the inhabitants dispose of by embarking it on the
Rhine, it extending above seventy miles along that ri¬
ver. It was divided into the Higher and Lower Dio¬
cese : the Higher Diocese contained that part which
lies above Cologne, wherein is Bonne, the capital town
of the electorate, and where the elector resided ; be¬
sides which there were Leichnich, Andernach, Bruyl,
Zulich, and Kerpen. The Lower Diocese was on the
other side of Cologne, and contained the towns of Zonz,
Neuys, Heizarwart, Kempen, Rhynberg, and Alpen.
The city of Cologne and county of Meurs, though
within the diocese of Cologne, did not belong to it;
for Cologne was a free city, and Meurs belonged to the Cologne,
house of Nassau Orange ; but by way of recompense,—y-—>
the elector had considerable dominions in Westphalia,
which they call the Domain. This prelate was one of
the electors of the empire, and held alternately with
that of Treves the second or third rank in the elec¬
toral college. He was arch-chancellor of the empire
in Italy, which dignity was very important when the
emperors were masters of Italy. When the emperors
were crowned at Aix-la-chapelle, the archbishop of
Cologne performed the ceremony, which caused him to
pretend to the same right elsewhere ; but he was op¬
posed by the archbishop of Mentz. This occasioned
an order, that they should each of them have that ho¬
nour in his own diocese, but if it was done elsewhere,
they should perform it alternately. The archbishop of
Cologne was elected by the chapter in that city, which
was the most illustrious in all Germany. They were
all princes or counts, except eight doctors, who have
no occasion to prove their nobility. The archbishopric
was secularised during the French revolution, and is
now subject to Prussia.
Cologne, an ancient and celebrated town of Ger¬
many, in the diocese of that name, with an archbishop’s
see, and a famous university, seated on the river Rhine,
in E. Long, 7. 10. N. Lat. 50. 55. In the times of
the Romans, this city was called Colonia Agrippina, and
Vbiorum, because it was built by Agrippina, the wife
of Claudius I. and mother of Nero ; and because the
Ubii inhabited this country on the Lower Rhine. In
755 it was an archbishopric, and in 1260 entered into
the Hanseatic league, which has now no existence. The
university was established in 1388 by Pope Urban VI.
The city is fortified with strong walls, flanked with 83
large towers, and surrounded with three ditches ; but
these fortifications being executed after the ancient
manner, could make but a poor defence at present. It
lies in the shape of a half-moon, and is said to have
20 gates, 19 parishes, 17 monasteries, and 365 churches
and chapels; but the streets, in general, are dirty
and badly paved, the windows of the houses composed
of small bits of round glass, and the inhabitants are
but few for so large a place. It is inhabited mostly by
Papists ; but there are also many Protestants, who re¬
pair to the neighbouring town of Mulheim, in the
duchy of Berg, for public worship. Its trade, which
is considerable, especially in Rhenish wine, is chiefly
in the hands of Protestants, and carried on by the
Rhine. The ships with which they trade to the Nether¬
lands are of a particular construction, and considerable
burden. The clergy here are very numerous, and have
large revenues. That of the archbishop was 130,000!.
Baron Polnitz says, that though Cologne is one of
the. greatest cities, it is one of the most melancholy in
all Europe; there being nothing to be seen but priests,
friars, and students, many of whom beg alms with a
song, and nothing to be heard but the ringing of
bells ; that there are very few families of quality ; that
the vulgar are very clownish ; and that the noblemen
of the chapter stay no longer in town than their duty
obliges them. Mr Wright, in his Travels, says, that
the women go veiled; and that the best gin is that
distilled from the juniper berries which grow in this
neighbourhood. This city is perhaps the most re¬
markable of any in the world for the great number of
precious.
C O L
[ 269 ] COL
Cologne, precious relics it contains, of which the Popish clergy
—' no doubt make their advantage. In the church of
St Ursula, they pretend to show her tomb, and the
bones of the 11,000 pretended virgin martyrs, though
that story is entirely owing to a mistaken inscription.
The heads of some of these imaginary martyrs are kept
in cases of silver, others are covered with stufts of gold,
and some have caps ot cloth of gold and velvet. Bre-
vat savs, he saw between 4000 and 5000 skulls, decked
with garlands and coronets, ranged on shelves. The
canonesses of St Ursula, who must be all countesses,
have a handsome income. In their church they-pre¬
tend to show three of the thorns of our Saviour’s
crown, and one of the vessels which contained the
water that he converted into wine at the marriage of
Cana. In the church of St Gereon are 900 heads of
Moorish cavaliers, said to have been in the army of
Constantine before it W'as converted, and to have been
beheaded for refusing to sacrifice to idols. Every
one of the heads has a cap of scarlet, adorned with
pearls. In the magnificent cathedral of St Peter, the
three wise men who came from the east to visit our
Saviour, are said to be interred. They lie in a large
purple shrine spangled with gold, set upon a pedes¬
tal of brass, in the midst of a square mausoleum, faced
within and without with marble and jasper. It is
opened every morning at nine o’clock, if two of the
canons of the cathedral are present, when the kings
or wise men are seen lying at full length, with their
heads bedecked with a crown of gold garnished with
precious stones. Their names, which are Gasper, Mel-
c/tier, and Balthasar, are in purple characters on a
little grate, which is adorned with an infinite number
of large rich pearls and precious stones, particularly
an oriental topaz as big us a pigeon’s egg, and valued
at above 30,000 crowns. Over against them are six
large branches of silver, with wax candles, which burn
night and day. The bones of these men, we are told,
were brought to Constantinople by Helena mother to
Constantine, from thence to Milan by Eustorpius
bishop of that see, and afterwards hither by Archbishop
Rainold. In the Jesuits college are the portraits of
the first 13 generals of that order, with Ignatius Lo¬
yola at their head *, and in the church, which is the
finest in Cologne, are many rich statues, with an ama¬
zing quantity of fine silver plate j and the utensils for
mass are all of gold enriched with precious stones. In
the Cordeliers church, is the tomb of the famous Duns
Scotus, surnamed Doctor Subtilis, with this epitaph,
“ Scotia me genuit, Anglia me suscepit, Gallia me
docuit, Colognia me tenet.” Cologne was a free impe¬
rial city, but was deprived of its privileges in 1806,
and is now subject to Prussia. Towards the defence
of the empire, its assessment was 825 florins 5 and to¬
wards the maintenance of the chamber-court, 405 rix-
dollars kruitzers, each term. Its militia consists
of four companies of foot, who keep guard at the gates.
Cologne surrendered to the French in I794> and was
delivered over to the Prussians in 1814. It has re¬
peatedly suffered from inundations of the Rhine, par¬
ticularly in 1784. The wine raised in the adjacent
country is of a very inferior quality. The principal
objects of export are wine, timber, earthen-ware, slates,
hard •ware, and fire-arms.
CoLOGyE-Earih, a kind of very light bastard ochre,
of a deep brown colour.
COLOMBO, a handsome, pleasant, and strong town
of Asia, seated on the western side ot the island of
Ceylon in the East Indies. It was built by the Por¬
tuguese in 1638 ; and in 1658 they were driven from
it by the natives, assisted by the Dutch, who were af¬
terwards dispossessed by the British. It is about three
quarters of a mile long, and as much in breadth. The
natives live in the old town, without the walls of the
new j the streets of this last are wide and spacious j
and the buildings are in the modern taste, particularly
the governor’s house, which is a handsome structure.
E. Long. 80. 25. N. Lat. 7. 10.
COLOMEY, or Colomia, a town of Poland in
Red Russia, seated on the river Pruth, in E. Long. 25.
9. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLOMNA, FaBIO, a very learned botanist, born
at Naples about the year 1567. He became skilled
in the languages, in music, designing, painting, and
the mathematics} and died about the middle of the
17th century. He wrote, 1. Qvro/Sxcrctvos, seu Planta-
rum aliquot (ac piscium) historia. 2. Minus cogni-
tarum rariorumque stirpium sxtp^eirti; itemque de aqua-
tilibus, aliisque nonnullis animalibus, libellus j and
other works.
COLON, in Anatomy, the first and most consi¬
derable of the large intestines. See Anatomy, N°
194.
Colon, in Grammar, a point or character formed
thus [:], serving to mark a pause, and to divide the
members of a period. See POINTING; see also Pe¬
riod, Comma, and Semicolon. Grammarians gene¬
rally assign the use of a colon to be, to mark the mid¬
dle of a period ; or to conclude a sense less perfect than
the dot or period :—but, a sense less perfect than the
period, is an expression extremely vague and indeter¬
minate. See Period.
Others say, a colon is to be used when the sense is
perfect, but the sentence not concluded j but neither is
this over clear and express.
A late author, in a ingenious discourse, De ratione
interpungendi, marks the office of the colon, and where¬
in it differs from the semicolon, &c. more precisely.
A colon, on his principles, serves to distinguish those
conjunct members of a sentence, which are capable of
being divided into other members j whereof one, at
least, is conjunct. Thus, in the sentence, As we can¬
not discern the shadow moving along the dial-plate, so
the advances we make in knowledge are only perceived
by the distance gone over ; the two members being both
simple, are only separated by a comma. In this, As
we perceive the shadow to have moved, but did not per¬
ceive it moving ; so our advances in understanding, in
that they consist of such minute steps, are only perceivable
by the distance ;—the sentence being divided into two
equal parts, and those conjunct ones, since they include
others; we separate the former by a semicolon, and
the latter by commas. But in this, As we perceive
the shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not
perceive it moving ; and it appears the grass has grown,
though nobody ever saw it grow ‘ so the advances we
make in knowledge, as they consist of such minute steps,
arc only perceivable by the distance——advancement
COL [ 270 ] COL
Colon
Colonia
Trajana.
in knowledge is compared to the motion of a shadow,
and the growth of grass ; which comparison divides the
sentence into two principal parts ; but since what is said
of the movement of the shadow, and likewise of the
growth of grass, contains two simple members, they are
to be separated by a semicolon ; consequently a higher
pointing is required to separate them from the other
part of the sentence, which they are opposed to : and
this is a colon. See Punctuation.
COLONEL, in military matters, the commander
in chief of a regiment, whether horse, foot, or dra¬
goons.
Skinner derives the word from colony, being of
opinion, the chiefs of colonies, called coloniales, might
give the name to chiefs of forces. In the French and
Spanish armies, colonel is confined to the infantry and
dragoons : the commanding officer of a regiment of
horse they usually call mestre de camp. Formerly, in¬
stead of colonel, the French used the word coronel:
and this old spelling comes nearer to our common way
of pronouncing the word colonel.
A colonel may lay any officer of his regiment in
arrest, but must acquaint the general with it 5 he is
not allowed a guard, only a sentry from the quarter-
guard.
CoLONEL-Lieutenant, he who commands a regiment
of guards, whereof the king, prince, or other person of
the first eminence, is colonel. These colonel-lieute¬
nants have always a colonel’s commission, and are usu¬
ally general officers.
Lieutenant Colonel, the second officer in a regi¬
ment, who is at the head of the captains, and com¬
mands in the absence of the colonel.
COLONIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Trinobantes, a little above Camelodunum. Now Col¬
chester in Essex, according to Camden, who supposes it
to take its name from the river Colne, and not that it
was a colony ; though others think Antonine’s distance
agrees with Sudbury.
Colonia Equestris, an ancient and noble colony on
the Lacus Lemanus. It appears to be the work of
Julius Csesar, who settled there Equites Limatenei; and
to this Lucan is thought to refer. By the Itinerary it
is supposed to have stood between Lausanne and Gene¬
va, 12 miles from the last place by Peutinger’s map,
which directs to Nyon, placed in Cavo Lemano, ac¬
cording to Lucan’s expression, that is, a bay or cove of
the lake. Its ancient name was Noviodunum, (Notitia
Gallise) : hence its modern name.
Colonia Metallina, or Metallinensis, a town of Lu¬
sitania, situated on the right or west side of the Anas,
or Guadiana j but now on the left or east side, from
the river’s shifting its bed or channel, and called Me-
delin, a town in Estremadura. W. Long. 6. 12. Lat.
38*45*
Colonia Monnorum, a town in Belgica, thought
to be Tarvenna, the capital of the Morini. Now
Terrouen, a town of Artois. E. Long. 2. 15. Lat.
Colonia Norbensis, or Norba Ccesarea, a town of
Lusitania, to the south of Trajan’s bridge on the Ta¬
gus. Now Alcantara, in Estremadura. W. Long.
7. 10. N. Lat. 39. 10.
Colonia Trajana, (Antonine, Peutinger) j a town
of Belgiea, surnamed also Ulpia, (Antonine) j and Colonia
Tricesima, from being the station of the thirtieth le- Tiajana
gion, (Ammian). Now Kellen, a village of the duchy !!
of Cleves, a mile from the Rhine. Colony.
Colonia Valentia, (Ptolemy, Livy) j a town of the
Hither Spain, on the Turias j destroyed by Pompey,
(Sallust) $ restored by Julius Caesar. Still called Va¬
lencia, on the river Guadalaviar, in Valencia. \V.
Long. 35. Lat. 39. 20.
COLONNA, a town of Italy in the Campagna of
Rome, 18 miles eastward of that city. E. Long. 12.
56. N. Lat. 41. 55.
Colonna, Eompey, cardinal archbishop of Mont¬
real in Sicily, and bishop of a very great number of
places, made a conspicuous figure in the world. He
was equally qualified to wear the cardinal’s hat and
the helmet, and experienced more than once the re¬
verses of fortune. Julius II. removed him from all
his dignities; but Leo I. restored him, created him
cardinal, and sent him on several embassies. Cle¬
ment VII. divested him of the purple, and again re¬
stored him to it. It was pretended he was obliged to
him for his exaltation to the papal throne. The pope
refusing him some request, he reproached him, saying,
“ That it was by his interest he had arrived at his
dignity.” The pope replied, “ It is true, but let me
be pope, and do not endeavour to be so yourself; for
by acting as you do, you endeavour to dispossess me
of that you have raised me to.” He died viceroy of
Naples in 1532. He wrote some poems in praise of
Isabella Filamarini, in which he protests the chastity
of his wishes. He wrote another work, De laudibus
mulierum.
COLONNADE, in Architecture, a peristyle of a
circular figure ; or a series r.r columns disposed in a
circle, and insulated within side.
A Polyslyle Colonnade, is that whose numbers of
columns are too great to be taken in by the eye at a
single view. Such is the colonnade of the palace of
St Peter’s at Rome, consisting of 284 columns of the
Doric order, each above four feet and a half diameter,
all in Tiburtine marble.
COLONOS, in Ancient Geography, an eminence
near Athens, whither Oedipus, after his banishment
from Thebes, is said to have retired; and hence it is
that Sophocles calls the tragedy on the subject Oedipus
Coloneus. A place sacred to Neptune, and where stood
an equestrian statue of him. Here also stood Timon’s
tower; who, for his love of solitude, and hatred to
mankind, was called Misantht'opos, (Pansanias.).
COLONSAY, one of the Hebrides or Western
Islands belonging to Scotland. It comprehends^ that
of Oronsay, from which it is only separated in time of
flood, and both belong to the same proprietor, viz.
Mr M‘Neil. See Oronsay.
COLONUS, a husbandman or villager, who was
bound to pay yearly a certain tribute, or at certain
times of the year to plough some part of the lord’s
land ; and from hence comes the word clown, who is
called by the Dutch, boor.
COLONY, a company of people transplanted in¬
to a remote province in order to cultivate and inha¬
bit it.
We may distinguish three kinds of colonies. First,
those
2
COL [ 271 ] . COL
Colony.
those serving to ease or discharge the inhabitants of a
country, where the people are become too nume¬
rous, so that they cannot any longer conveniently sub¬
sist.
The second are those established by victorious prin¬
ces and people, in the middle of vanquished nations, to
keep them in awe and obedience.
The third may be called colonies of commerce ; be¬
cause, in effect, it is trade that is the sole occasion and
object thereof.
It was by means of the first kind of colonies that,
some ages after the deluge, the east first, and succes¬
sively all the other parts of the earth, became inha¬
bited $ and without mentioning any thing of the Phoe¬
nician and Grecian colonies, so famous in ancient hi¬
story, it is notorious that it was for the establishment
of such colonies, that, during the declension of the em¬
pire, those torrents of barbarous nations, issuing, for
the generality, out of the north, overran the Gauls,
Italy, and the other southern parts of Europe j and,
after several bloody battles, divided it with the ancient
inhabitants.
For the second kind of colonies, the Romans used
them more than any other people ; and that to secure
the conquests they had made from the west to the
east. It is well known how many cities in Gaul,
Germany, Spain, and even England, value themselves
on their having been of the number of Roman colo¬
nies.
There were two kinds of colonies among the Ro¬
mans : those sent by the senate $ and the military ones,
consisting of old soldiers, broken and disabled with the
fatigues of war, who were thus provided with lands
as the reward of their services. See Benefice. The
colonies sent by the senate were either Roman or La¬
tin, i. e. composed either of Roman citizens or Latins.
The coloniae Latinae were such as enjoyed the jus La¬
in; said to consist in those two things ; one, that
whoever was edile or praetor in a town of Latium, be¬
came for that reason a Roman citizen j the other, that
the Latins were subject to the edicts of their own and
not to those of the Roman magistrates : in the year of
the city six hundred and sixty-two, after the Social
war, the city was granted to all Latium, by the lex
Julia. The coloniae Romanae, were such as had the
jus Romanum, but not in its full extent j namely, in
the right of sufi’rage, putting up for honours, magistra¬
cies, command in the army, &c. j but the jus Quiri-
tum only, or private right j as right of liberty, of
gentility, or dignity of family, sacrifice, marriage, &c.
For it was long a rule, never to grant the liberty of
the city in full to colonies ; nor is there any instance
to the contrary, till after the Social war, in the year
of the city six hundred and sixty-two. According to
Ulpian (1. 1. D. de Censi) there were other colonies,
which had little more than the name, only enjoying
what they calledy^ Italicum, i. e. they were free from
the tributes and taxes paid by the provinces. Such
were the colonies of Tyre, Berytus, Heliopolis, Pal¬
myra, &c. M. Vaillant has filled a volume in folio
with medals struck by the several colonies, in honour
of the emperors who founded them. The ordinary
symbol they engraved on their medals, was either an
eagle; as when the veteran legions were distributed in
the colonies : or a labourer, holding a plough drawn
by a pair of oxen ; as when the colony consisted of or- Colony,
dinary inhabitants. On all the medals are seen the
names of the decemviri, who held the same rank and
had the same authority there as the consuls had at
Rome.
Lastly, the colonies of commerce are those esta¬
blished by the English, French, Spaniards, Portuguese,
and other nations, within these two last centuries; and
which they continue still to establish, in several parts
of Asia, Africa, and America : either to keep up a
regular commerce with the natives, or to cultivate the
ground, by planting sugar canes, indigo, tobacco, and
other commodities. The principal of this kind of co¬
lonies are in the one and the other America, north¬
ern and southern ; particularly Peru, Mexico, Canada,
(lately Virginia, New England, Carolina), la Loui¬
siana, 1’Acadia, Hudson’s Bay, the Antilles islands,
Jamaica, Domingo, and the other islands.—In Africa,
Madagascar, Cape of Good Hope, Cape Verd, and its
islands, and all those vast coasts extending thence as far
as to the Red sea. Lastly, in Asia, the famous Batavia
of the Dutch ; Goa, Diu, of the Portuguese ; and some
other less considerable places of the English, French,
and Danes.
The practice of settling commercial colonies in di¬
stant countries hath been adopted by the wisest nations
of antiquity, who acted systematically upon maxims
of sound policy. This appears to have been the case
with the ancient Egyptians, the Chinese, the Phoeni¬
cians, the commercial states of Greece, the Carthagi¬
nians, and even the Romans ; for though the colonies
of the latter were chiefly military, it could easily be
shown that they were likewise made use of for the pur¬
poses of trade. The savage nations who ruined the Ro¬
man empire, sought nothing but to extirpate or hold in
vassalage those whom they overcame ; and therefore,
whenever princes enlarged their dominions at the ex¬
pence of their neighbours, they had recourse to strong
forts and garrisons to keep the conquered in awe.
For this they have been blamed by the famous Machi-
avel, who labours to show, that the settling of colonies
would have been a cheaper and better method of brid¬
ling conquered countries, than building fortresses in
them. John de Witt, who was one of the ablest and
best statesmen that ever appeared, strongly recom-
mended colonies ; as affording a refuge to such as had
been unfortunate in trade ; as opening a field for such
men to exert their abilities, as through want of inte¬
rest could not raise themselves in their own country;
and as a supplement to hospitals and other charitable
foundations, which he thought in time might come to
be overcharged. Some, however, have ridiculed the
supposed advantages of colonies, and asserted that they
must always do mischief by depopulating the mother-
country.
The history of the British colonies undoubtedly
shows, that when colonists become numerous and opu¬
lent, it is very difficult to retain them in proper sub¬
jection to the parent state. It becomes then a ques¬
tion not very easily answered, how far they are entit¬
led to the rights they had as inhabitants of the mother-
country, or how far they are bound by its laws ? On
this subject Mr Blackstone hath the following observa-
tions.
“ Plantations, or colonies in distant countries are
either
COL [ 272 ] COL
Colour, either such where the lands are claimed by right of
 v" - occupancy only, by finding them desert and unculti¬
vated, and peopling them from the mother-country ;
or where, when already cultivated, they have either
been gained by conquest, or ceded to us by treaties.
And both the rights are founded upon the law of na¬
ture, Or at least on that of nations. But there is a
difference between these two species of colonies with
respect to the laws by which they are bound. For it
hath been held, that if an uninhabited country be dis¬
covered and planted by English subjects, all the Eng¬
lish laws then in being, which are the birthright of
every subject, are immediately there in force. But
this must be understood with many and very great re¬
strictions. Such colonists carry with them only so
much of the English law as is applicable to their own
situation, and the condition of an infant colony j such,
for instance, as the general rules of inheritance, and of
protection from personal injuries. The artificial re¬
finements and distinctions incident to the property of a
great and commercial people, the laws of policy and
revenue (such especially as are enforced by penalties),
the mode of maintenance for the established clergy, the
jurisdiction of spiritual court?, and a multitude of other
provisions, are neither necessary nor convenient for
them, and therefore are not in force. What shall be
admitted, and what rejected, at what times, and under
what restrictions, must, in cases of dispute, be decid¬
ed in the first instance by tbeir own provincial judica¬
ture, subject to the revision and controul of the king
in council ; the whole of their constitution being also
liable to be new-modelled and reformed by the gene¬
ra] superintending power of the legislature in the mo¬
ther-country. But in conquered or ceded countries
that have already laws of their own, the king may in¬
deed alter and change those laws $ but, till he does
actually change them, the ancient laws of the country
remain, unless such as are against the law of God, as
in an infidel country. Our American plantations are
principally of this latter sort, being obtained in the
last century, either by right of conquest and driving
out the natives (with what natural justice I shall not at
present inquire), or by treaties. And therefore, the
common law of England, as such, has no allowance or
authority there ; they being no part of the mother-
country, but distinct (though dependent) dominioHS.
They are subject, however, to the controul of the par¬
liament j though (like Ireland, Man, and the rest) not
bound by any acts of parliament, unless particularly
named.”
With respect to their interior polity, our colonies,
whether those we formerly possessed or still possess,
may be distinguished into three sorts. 1. Provincial
establishments, the constitutions of which depend on
the respective commissions issued by the crown to
the governors, and the instructions which usually ac¬
company those commissions ; under the authority of
which provincial assemblies are constituted, with the
power of making local ordinances not repugnant to
the laws of Britain. 2. Proprietary governments,
granted out by the crown to individuals, in the nature
of feudatory principalities, with all their inferior rega¬
lities, and subordinate powers of legislation, which
formerly belonged to the owners of counties palatine ;
yet still with these express conditions, that the ends
3
for which the grant was made be substantially pursued, Colony
and that nothing be attempted which may derogate [j
from the sovereignty of the mother-country. 3. Char-*'0*0Ph°n)r-
ter governments, in the nature of civil corporations ; ’'■““Y—J
with the power of making bye-laws for their own in¬
terior regulation, not contrary to the laws of Britain ;
and with such rights and authorities as are specially
given them in their several charters of incorporation.
The form of government, in most of them, is bor¬
rowed from that of England. They have a governor
named by the king (or, in some proprietary colonies,
by the proprietor), who is representative or deputy.
They have courts of justice of their own, from whose
decisions an appeal lies to the king in council here in
England. Their general assemblies, which are their
house of commons, together with their council of state,
being their upper house, with the concurrence of the
king, or his representative the governor, make laws
suited to their own emergencies. But it is particu¬
larly declared, by stat. 7 and 8 W. III. c. 22. that all
laws, bye-laws, usages, and customs, which shall be in
practice in any of the plantations, repugnant to any
law made or to be made in this kingdom relative to
the said plantations, shall be utterly void and of none
effect. And, because several of the colonies had claim¬
ed the sole and exclusive right of imposing taxes upon
themselves, the statute 6 Geo. III. c. 12. expressly
declares, that all his majesty’s colonies in America,
have been, are, and of right ought to be, subordinate
to and dependent upon the imperial crown and parlia¬
ment of Great Britain, who have full power and au¬
thority to make laws and statutes of sufficient validity
to bind the colonies and people of America, subjects to
the crown of Great Britain in all cases whatsoever.
And the attempting to enforce this by other acts of par¬
liament, penalties, and at last by military power, gave
rise, as is well known, to the late revolt and final sepa¬
ration of thirteen colonies. See the article America.
This country is now detached from Britain, and con¬
sists of 21 independent states. See the article COLO¬
NY, Supplement.
COLOPHON, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Ionia, in the Hither Asia, on a promontory on the iE-
gean sea, and washed by the Halesus. The ancient
Colophon was destroyed by Lysimachus, in his war
with Antigonus, in order to enlarge Ephesus. Pau-
sanias says, it was rebuilt in the neighbourhood, in a
more commodious scite. This was one of the cities
that laid claim to Homer. Colophonem addere, a pro¬
verbial saying, explained by Strabo to denote, that the
Colophonian horse turned the scales in favour of the
side on which they fought. The Colophonians had a
grove, a temple, and an oracle of Apollo Clarius
(Strabo). Of this town was tiie poet Antimachus,
remarked on for his turgid style by Catullus. He
wrote a life of Homer, whom he makes a Colophonian
(Plutarch).
COLOPHONY, in Pharmacy, black resin, or tur¬
pentine, boiled in water, and afterwards dried ; or,
which is still better, the caput mortuum remaining af¬
ter the distillation of the ethereal oil, being further
urged by a more intense and long continued fire.—It
receives its name of colophonia, from Colophon, a city
of Ionia, because the best was formerly brought from
thence. Two sorts are mentioned in ancient writings;
the
COL
]olophony the one dry, the other in a liquid state.
lj seems to have been liquid pitch, which is the crude
Colour. resin of the pine brought from Colophon j the other
was called resina fricta, and consisted only of the for¬
mer deprived of its humid parts.
COLOQUINTIDA, in Botany. See Cucumis.
COLORATURA, in Music, denotes all manner of
variations, trillos, diminutions, &c. serving to make a
song agreeable.
COLORNO, a town of Italy, in the Parmasan,
near the river Po, eight miles from Parma. The duke
of Parma has a pleasure-house here, one of the most
delightful seats in all Italy, and the gardens are very
fine. E. Long. 9. 15. N. Lat. 44. 34.
COLOSSiE, or Colose^e, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a considerable town of Phrygia Magna, in which
the Lycus falls into a gulf, and at the distance of five
stadia emerges again, and runs into the Meander (He¬
rodotus). Others say, the genuine name is Colossce,
and the people Colossenses, to whom St Paul wrote an
epistle : Strabo calls them Colosseni. In Nero’s time
the town was destroyed by an earthquake (Orosius).
COLOSSUS, a statue of enormous or gigantic size.
The most eminent of this kind was the Colossus of
Rhodes, a statue of Apollo, so high that ships passed
with full sails betwixt its legs. It was the workman¬
ship of Chares, a disciple of Lysippus, who spent 12
years in making it : it was at length overthrown by an
earthquake, after having stood 1360 years. Its height
was six score and six feet: there were few people who
could fathom its thumb, &c. When the Saracens be¬
came possessed of the island, the statue was found pro¬
strate on the ground: they sold it to a Jew, who load¬
ed 900 camels with the brass.
The basis that supported it was a triangular figure j
its extremities were sustained with 60 pillars of marble.
There was a winding staircase to go up to the top of
it, from whence one might discover Syria, and the
ships that went into Egypt, in a great looking glass,
that was hung about the neck of the statue. Among
the antiquities of Rome, there are seven famous colos-
suses ; two of Jupiter, as many of Apollo, one of Nero,
one of Domitian, and one of the Sun.
COLOSTRUM, the first milk of any animal after
bringing forth young, called in some places beestings.
It is remarkable that this milk is generally cathartic,
and purges the meconium ; thus serving both as ali¬
ment and medicine.
An emulsion prepared with turpentine dissolved
with the yolk of an egg, is sometimes called by this
name.
COLOSWAR, a large and celebrated town of
Transylvania, where the senates have their meetings
It is seated on the river Samos, in E. Long. 21. 35
N. Lat. 46. 53.
COLOUR, in Physics, a property inherent in light
by which, according to the various sizes of its parts
or from some other cause, it excites difierent vibrations
in the optic nerve ; which propagated to the sensorium
affect the mind with different sensations. See Chro
matics and Optics.
Colour, in Painting, is applied both to the drugs,
and to the tints produced by those drugs variously mix¬
ed and applied.
The principal colours used by painters are red and
Vol. VI. Part I. f
[ 273 ] COL
The latter white lead or ceruse ; yellow and red ochres \ several
kinds of earth, umber, orpiment, lamp-black, burnt
ivory, black lead, cinnabar or vermilion, gamboge,
lacca, blue and green ashes, verdigris, bistre, bice,
smalt, carmine, ultramarine ; each of which, with
their uses, &c. are to be found under their proper
articles.
Of these colours, some are used tempered with gum-
water, some ground with oil, others only in fresco $
and others for miniature.
Painters reduce all the colours they use under these
two classes, of dark and light colours : dark colours
are black, and all others that are obscure and earthy,
as umber, bistre, &c.
Under light colours are comprehended white, and all
others that approach nearest to it.
Painters also distinguish colours into simple and
mineral.
Under simple colours they rank all those which are
extracted from vegetables, and which will not bear
Colour.
the fire 5 as the yellow made of saffron, French ber¬
ries, lacca, and other tinctures extracted from flowers,
used by limners, illuminers, &c.
The mineral colours are those which being drawn
from metals, &c. are able to bear the fire, and there¬
fore used by enamellers. Changeable and permanent
colours is another division, which, by some, is made of
colours.
Changeable colours are such as depend on the situa¬
tion of the objects with respect to the eye, as that of
a pigeon’s neck, taffeties, &c.: the first, however, be¬
ing attentively viewed by the microscope, each fibre
of the feathers appears composed of several little
squares, alternately red and green, so that they are fix¬
ed colours.
JPater-CoLOURS are such as are used in painting
with gum-water or size, without being mixed with
oil.
Incapacity of distinguishing Colours. Of this extra¬
ordinary defect in vision, we have the following in¬
stances in the Philosophical Transactions for 1777.
One of the persons lived at Maryport in Cumberland.
The account was communicated by Mr Huddart to
Or Priestley, and is as follows. “ His name was
Harris, by trade a shoemaker. I had often heard
from others, that he could discern the form and mag¬
nitude of all objects very distinctly, but could not di¬
stinguish colours. This report having excited my cu¬
riosity, I conversed with him frequently on this sub¬
ject. The account he gave was this : That he had
reason to believe other persons saw something in ob¬
jects which he could not see; that their language
seemed to mark qualities with precision and confidence,
which he could only guess at with hesitation, and fre¬
quently with error. His first suspicion of this arose
when he was about four years old. Having by acci¬
dent found in the street a child’s stocking, he carried
it to a neighbouring house to inquire for the owner ;
he observed the people called it a red stocking, though
he did not understand why they gave it that denomi¬
nation, as he himself thought it completely described
by being called a stocking. This circumstance, how¬
ever, remained in his memory, and, together with sub¬
sequent observations, led him to the knowledge of his
defect.
Mm “ He
COL [ 274 ] COL
Colour. “ He also observed, that when young, other chil-
——v " ■■1 dren could discern cherries on a tree, by some pre¬
tended difference of colour, though he could only dis¬
tinguish them from the leaves by the difference of
their size and shape. He observed also, that by means
of this difference of colour they could see the cherries
at a greater distance than he could, though he could
see other objects at as great a distance as they, that is,
where the sight was not assisted by the colour. Large
objects he could see as well as other persons •, and
even the smaller ones if they were not enveloped in
other things, as in the case of cherries among the
leaves.
“ I believe he could never do more than guess the
name of any colour $ yet he could distinguish white
from black, or black from any light or bright colour.
Dove or straw colour he called white, and different
colours he frequently called by the same name *, yet
he could discern a difference between them when pla¬
ced together. In general, colours of an equal degree
of brightness, however they might otherwise differ, he
confounded together. Yet a striped ribbon he could
distinguish from a plain one ; but he could not tell what
the colours were with any tolerable exactness. Dark
colours, in general, he often mistook for black; but
never imagined white to be a dark colour, nor dark to
be a white colour.
“ He was an intelligent man, and very desirous of
understanding the nature of light and colours j for
which end he had attended a course of lectures in na¬
tural philosophy.
“ He had two brothers in the same circumstances as
to sight; and two other brothers and sisters, who, as
well as their parents, had nothing of this defect.
“ One of the first mentioned brothers, who is now
living, I met with at Dublin, and wished to try his
capacity to distinguish the colours in a prism j but not
having one by me, I asked him, Whether he han ever
seen a rainbow ? he replied, He had often, and could
distinguish the different colours j meaning only, that
it was composed of different colours, for he could not
tell what they were.
“ I then procured and showed him a piece of rib¬
bon j he immediately, and without any difficulty, pro¬
nounced it a striped, and not a plain, ribbon. He
then attempted to name the different stripes: the se¬
veral stripes of white he uniformly and without hesi¬
tation called white ; the four black stripes he was
deceived in ; for three of them he thought brown,
though they were exactly of the same shade with the
other, which he properly called black. He spoke,
however, with diffidence, as to all those stripes; and
it must be owned, that the black was not very di¬
stinct ; the light green he called yellow j but he was
not very positive; he said, “ I think this is what you
call yellow.” The middle stripe, which had a slight
tinge of red, he called a sort of blue. But he was
most of all deceived by the orange colour, of which he
spoke very confidently, saying, “ This is the colour of
grass, this is green.” I also showed him a great va¬
riety of ribbons, the colour of which he sometimes
named rightly, and sometimes as differently as possible
from the true colour.
“ I asked him whether he imagined it possible for
all the various colours he saw to be mere difference of
light and shade $ and that all colours could be compo- Coloui.
sed of these two mixtures only ? With some hesitation *■—-v —
he replied, No, he did imagine there was some other
difference.
“ It is proper to add, that the experiment of the
striped ribbon was made in the day-time, and in a good
light.”
Colours for staining different kinds of Stones. See
Chemistry.
Colour, in Dyeing. See Dyeing.
Colour of Plants, is an attribute found to be very
variable. Different colours are observed, not only in
different individuals of the same species, but likewise in
different parts of the same individual. Thus, marvel
of Peru, and sweet-william, have frequently petals of
different colours on the same plant. Three or four
different colours are frequently found upon the same
leaf or flower, as on the leaves of the amaranthus
tricolor, and the flowers of the tulip, auricula, three-
coloured violet and others. To produce the most
beautiful and striking variety of colours in such
flowers, is the principal delight and business of the
florist.
The primitive colours, and their intermediate shades
or gradations enumerated by botanists, are as follow:
Water-colour, hyalinuz.
White.
Lead-colour, cinereus.
Black, niger.
Piovn\,fuscus.
Pitch-black, ater.
Yellow, luteus.
Straw-colour, flavus.
Flame-colour,
Iron-colour, gilvus.
Red.
Fleshy colour, incarnatus.
Scarlet, coccineus.
Purple.
Violet-colour, ceeruleo-purpureus.
Blue, cceruleus.
Green.
These colours seem to be appropriated to particular
parts of the plant. Thus white is most common in
roots, sweet berries, and the petals of spring flowers.
Water-colour, in the filaments and styles. Black, in
the roots and seeds $ rarely in the seed-vessel, and
scarce ever to be found in the petals. Yellow is fre¬
quent in the antheroe or tops of the stamina •, as like¬
wise in the petals of autumnal flowers, and the com¬
pound ligulated flowers of Linnaeus. Red is common
in the petals of summer flowers, and in the acid fruits.
Blue and violet-colour in the petals. Green in the
leaves and calyx, but rarely in the petals. In the in¬
terchanging of colours, which in plants is found to
depend upon differences in heat, climate, soil, and cul¬
ture, a sort of elective attraction is observed to take
place. Thus, red is more easily changed into white
and blue *, blue into white and yellow j yellow into
white $ and white into purple. A red colour is often
changed into a white, in the flowers of heath, mother
of thyme, betony, pink, viscous campion, cueubalus,
trefoil, orchis, foxglove, thistle, cudweed, saw-wort,
rose,
COL [ 275 ] COL
Colour, rose, poppy, fumitory, and geranium. Red passes into parts of plants. Berries frequently change from green ,
—  1 blue in pimpernel. Blue is changed into white in to red, and from red to white. Even in ripe fruits
bell-flower, greek-valerian, bind-weed, columbine, vi- the colour, whether white, red, or blue, is apt to vary •
olet vetch, milk-wort, goat’s rue, viper’s bugloss, com- particularly in apple, pear, plum, and cherry trees!
frey, borrage, hyssop, dragon’s head, scabious, blue- Seeds are more constant in point of colour than the
bottle, and succory. Blue is changed into yellow in vessel which contains them. In the seeds, however,
crocus. Yellow passes easily into white in melilot, agri- of the poppy, oats, pea, bean, and kidney-bean, va!
mony, mullein, tulip, blattaria or moth-mullein, and riations are frequently observed. The root, too al-
corn marigold. White is changed into purple in wood- though not remarkably subject to change, is’found to
sorrel, thorn-apple, pease, and daisy. vary in some species of carrot and raddish. Leaves
Although plants are sometimes observed to change frequently become spotted, as in a species of orchis,
their colour upon being moistened with coloured juices, hawk-weed, ranunculus, knot-grass, and lettuce •, but
yet that quality in vegetables seems not so much seldom relinquish their green colour altogether. Those
owing to the nature of their nourishment, as to the ac- of some species of amaranthus, or flower-eentle, are
tion of the internal and external air, heat, light, and beautifully coloured. The spots that appear on the
the primitive organization of the parts. In support of surface of the leaves are of different colours, liable to
this opinion, we may observe with Dr Grew, that vary, and not seldom disappear altogether. The
there is a far less variety in the colours of roots, than leaves of officinal lung-wort, and some species of sow-
°f the other parts of the plant; the pulp within the bread, sorrel, trefoil, and ranunculus, are covered with
skin, being usually white, sometimes yellow, rarely white spots. Those of dog’s-tooth violet, with purple-
red. That this effect is produced by their small inter- and white. Those of several species of ranunculus and
course with the external air, appears from this circum- orchis, with black and purple. Those of amaranthus tri-
stance, that the upper parts of roots, when they hap- color, with green, red, and yellow. Those of ranunculus
pen to stand naked above the ground, are often dyed acris, and a species of bog bean, with red or purple. The
with several colours: thus the tops of sorrel roots under surface of the leaves of some species of pimpernel
turn red; those of turnips, mullein, and radishes, and the sea-plantain is marked with a number of dots or
purple; and many others green; whilst those parts of points; a white line runs through the leaves of Indian
the same roots which lie more underground, are com- reed, black-berried heath, and a species of Canary
monly white. The green colour is so proper to leaves, grass: and the margin or brim of the leaf, in some spe-
that many, as those of sage, the young sprouts of St cies of box, honeysuckle, ground-ivy, and the ever-
John’s wort, and others which are reddish when in the green oak, is of a silver-white colour. The whole plant
bud, acquire a perfect green upon being fully expand- is often found to assume a colour that is unnatural or
ed. In like manner, the leaves of the sea-side grape (po- foreign to it. The varieties in some species of eryngo,
/ygowwm), which when young are entirely red, become, mug-wort, orrach, amaranthus, purslane, and lettuce!
as they advance in growth, perfectly green, except the furnish examples.
middle and transverse ribs, which retain their former Such being the inconstancy of colours in all the parts
colour. of the plant, specific names derived from that quality
As flowers gradually open and are exposed to the are very properly, by Linnaeus, deemed erroneous;
air, they throw off their old colour and acquire a new whether they respect the colour of the flower, fruit,
one. In fact, no flower has its proper colour till it is seeds, roots, leaves, or express in general the beauty
fully expanded. Thus the purple stock julyflowers or deformity of the entire plant, with a particular
are white or pale in the bud. In like manner ba- view to that circumstance. Of this impropriety, com-
chelor’s buttons, blue-bottle, poppy, red daisies, and mitted by former botanists, Linnseus himself is not
many other flowers, though of divers colours when always guiltless. Thus the two species of or
blown, are all white in the bud. Nay, many flowers the side-saddle flower, are distinguished by the colour
change their colour thrice successively ; thus, the very of their petals into the yellow and purple sarracena ;
young buds of. lady’s looking-glass, bugloss, and the although the shapes and figure of the leaves afforded
like, are all white ; the larger buds purple or murrey; much more constant as well as striking characters. The
and the open flowers blue. same may be said of his lupinus albus and luteus; re-
With respect to the colours of the juices of plants, seda alba, glauca, and lutea; angelica atro-purpurea ;
we may observe, that most resinous gums are tinctured ; dictamnus albus ; lamium album ; selago coccinea ; sida
some, however, are limpid; that which drops from the alba ; passiflora rubra, lutea, incarnata, and coerulea ;
domestic pine is clear as rock-water. The milk of and of many others, in which the specific name is de-
some plants is pale, as. in burdock ; of others white, as rived from a character or quality that is so liable to vary
»n dandelion, euphorbium, and scorzonera; and of in the same species.
others yellow, as in lovage, and greater celandine. We shall conclude this article with observing, that
Most mucilages have little colour, taste, or smell. Of of all sensible qualities, colour is the least useful in in-
all the colours above enumerated, green is the most dicating the virtues and powers of vegetables. The
common to plants, black is the most rare. following general positions on this subject are laid down
Colour being a quality in plants so apt to change, by Linnaeus, and seem sufficiently confirmed by expe-
ought never to be employed in distinguishing their riment. A yellow colour generally indicates a bitter
species. These ought to be characterized from cir- taste; as in gentian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and
cumstances not liable to alteration by culture or other other yellow flowers. Red indicates an acid or sour
accidents. 1 he same inconstancy of colour observed taste ; as in cranberries, barberries,currants, raspberries,
w the flowers, is likewise to be found in the other mulberries, cherries, the fruit of the rose, sea-buck-
Mm2 thorn,
Colours,
Colour-
making.
COL [ 276 ] COL
thorn, and service-tree. Hei’bs that turn red toward#
autumn, have likewise a sour taste } as sorrel, wood-
sorrel, and bloody dock. Green indicates a crude al¬
kaline taste, as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale co¬
lour denotes an insipid taste, as in endive, asparagus,
and lettuce. White promises a sweet luscious taste j
as in white currants and plums, sweet apples, &c.
Lastly, black indicates a harsh, nauseous, disagreeable
taste ; as in the berries of deadly night-shade, myrtle¬
leaved sumach, herb-christopher, and others j many of
which are not only unpleasant to the taste, but perni¬
cious and deadly in their effects.
To be ascertained of the acid or alkaline property of
any plant, express some of the juice, and rub it upon a
piece of blue paper ; which, if the plant in question is
of an acid nature, will turn red ; if of an alkaline,
green. For the method of extracting colours from
the ditferent parts of plants, see the article Colour-
Making.
Difference of Colour in the Human Species. See
Complexion.
Colour, in Heraldry. The colours generally used
in heraldry are, red, blue, black, green, and purple ;
which the heralds call gides, azure, sable, vert or si-
nople, and purpure ; tenne or tawny, and sanguine, are
not so common ; as to yellow and white, called or and
argent, they are metals, not colours.
The metals and colours are sometimes expressed in
blazon by the names of precious stones, and sometimes
by those of planets or stars. See Blazoning.
Oenomaus is said first to have invented the distinc¬
tions of colours, to distinguish the gundillse of comba¬
tants at the Circensian games ; the green for those who
represented the earth, and blue for those who repre¬
sented the sea.
Colours, in the military art, include the banners,
flags, ensigns, &c. of all kinds, borne in the army or
fleet. See Flag and Standard.
Colours, in the Latin and Greek churches, are used
to distinguish several mysteries and feasts celebrated
therein.
Five colours only are regularly admitted in the La¬
tin church : these are white, green, red, violet, and
black. The white is for the mysteries of our Saviour,
the feast of the Virgin, those of the angels, saints, and
confessors : the red is for the mysteries and solemnities
of the holy sacrament, the feasts of the apostles and
martyrs; the green for the time between pentecost and
advent, and from epiphany to septuagesima ; the violet
in advent and Christmas, in vigils, rogations, &c. and
in votive masses in time of war; lastly, the black is for
the dead, and the ceremonies thereto belonging.
In the Greek church, the use of colours is almost
abolished, as well as among us. Red was, in the Greek
church, the colour for Christmas and the dead, as black
among us.
To Colour Strangers Goods, is when a freeman al¬
lows a foreigner to enter goods at the customhouse in
his name.
CoLOUR-Making, the art of preparing the different
kinds of colours used in painting.
This art properly belongs to chemistry; and is one
of the most curious, though least understood, parts of
it. The principles on which colour-making depends
are entirely different from those on which the theory of Colour,
other parts of chemistry is founded ; and the practical making,
part being in the hands of those who find it their in- '■“•“v——'
terest to conceal their methods as much as possible, it
thence happens, that there is not only no distinct theory
of this art, but scarce a single good receipt for making
any one colour hath ever yet appeared. *’ t
The first general division of colours is into opaque Divuion of
and transparent. By the first are meant such colours coloursin-
as, when laid over paper, wood, &c. cover them fu^y>
so as to efface any other painting or stain that mightparenti
have been there before ; the others are of such a nature
as to leave the ground on which they are laid visible
through them. Of the first kind are white-lead, red-
lead, vermilion, &c. ; of the latter kind are the colours
used for illuminating maps, &c. ' 2
Another division is into oil-colours and water-co-Oil and
lours ; by which is meant such as are appropriated towatel to-
painting in oil and in water. Most ol all those which'ours‘
are proper for painting in water, are also proper for
being used in oil. There is, however, this remarkable
difference betwixt colours when mixed with water and
with oil, that such as are quite opaque in water will
become perfectly transparent in oil. Thus, blue ver-
diter, though exceedingly opaque in water, if ground
with oil, seems totally to dissolve, and will become
very transparent. The same thing happens to such
colours as have for their basis the oxide of tin, alabas¬
ter, or calcareous earth. The most perfectly opaque
colours in oil are such as have lead, mercury, or iron,
for their basis : to the latter, however, Prussian blue
is an exception ; for though the basis of that colour is
iron, it proves quite transparent when ground with oil.
In water colours, those prepared from metals, Prus¬
sian blue alone excepted, are always opaque ; from
vegetables or animals, transparent. Coals, however,
whether vegetable or animal, are opaque both in water
and oil. 3
Colours, again, may be considered as either simple Simple and |
or compound. The simple ones are such as require no-oompmmd
thing to be superadded to them, in order to make a full01165,
strong colour, without regarding whether they are form¬
ed of many or new ingredients ; and in this view, white-
lead, red-lead, vermilion, oxides of iron, &c. are simple
colours. The compound ones are formed by the union
of two or more colouring substances ; as blue and yel¬
low united together to form a green, red and yellow to
form an orange, a white earth or oxide with the red
colour of cochineal or brazil to form a lake, &c.; and
thus carmine, lake, rose-pink, Dutch-pink, English-
pink, &c. are compound colours. 4
The last and most important division of colours is True and j
in o true and false. By. the former are meant those ja^co' j
which retain their colour under every possible variety 0
of circumstances, without fading in the least: the others
are such as do not; but either lose their colour alto¬
gether, or change to some other. What is chiefly apt
to affect colours, is their being exposed to the sun in
summer, and to the cold air in winter: but to this
there is one exception, viz* white-lead ; which, when
gi’ound with oil, retains its whiteness if exposed to the
weather, but degenerates into a brownish or yellowish
colour if close kept. In water this substance is very
apt to lose its colour, whether exposed to the air or
COL [ 277 ] COL
'olour- not. The great desideratum in colour-making is to
iaking. produce the first kind of colours, viz. such as will not
fade by exposure to the weather ; and indeed it is to
be regretted, that the most beautiful are in general the
least permanent. It may, for the most part, however,
be expected, that the more simple any colour is, the
less liable will it be to change upon exposure to the
air.
The great difficulty of knowing a priori whether a
colour will fade or not, is owing to our ignorance con¬
cerning the nature of colouring substances. With all
our disadvantages, however, we may observe, that
whatever change of colour is produced in any substance
by exposure to the sun and air, that colour to which
it changes will bid fair for being permanent, and
therefore ought to be employed where it can be done.
Of these changes the instances are but very rare,
stances of ^ne *s ^ie PurP'e 0f ^ ancients, which assumed
lours pro-its colour by exposure to the sun, and consequently
ced by was exceedingly permanent. Another is in the solu-
posure to tJon 0f silver j which being mixed with chalk, the
e sun and preeipitate turns to purplish black where it is exposed
to the sun.. A third is in solutions of indigo by alka¬
line substances, which constantly appear green till ex¬
posed to the air by spreading them very thin, upon
which they become almost instantaneously blue, and
f the mix-cont>nue 80 ever after. Sometimes, though still more
re of two rarely, a very remarkable change of colour happens,
getable upon mixing two vegetable juices together. Almost
lces’ the only instance of this we have on the authority of
Mr George Forster, who informs us, that the inhabi¬
tants of Otaheite dye their cloth of a crimson colour,
by mixing together the yellow juice of a small species
of fig with the greenish juice of a kind of fern. But
the most remarkable alterations of colour are effected
by different metallic and saline solutions mixed with
certain animal or vegetable substances ; and with these
the colour-maker will be principally conversant,
ffects of ^ a common observation in chemistry, that acids
•ids and mixed with blue vegetable juices turn them red, and
kalies on alkalies green. It is equally certain, though not so
•lours. generally known, that acids of all kinds generally tend
to heighten red colours, so as to make them approach
to the scarlet or true crimson j and alkalies to darken,
or make them approach to blue or purple. Mixed
with yellow colours, acids also universally tend to
brighten the yellow j and alkalies to turn it to an
orange, and make it become more dull. But though
this is very generally the case, we are not to expect
that all acids are equally powerful in this respect. The
nitric acid is found to heighten the most of any, and
the muriatic acid the least of the mineral ones. The
vegetable, as might be expected, are less powerful
than the mineral acids. Thus, if with a tincture of
cochineal, either in water or alcohol, is mixed the
pure nitrous acid, it will change the colour to an ex¬
ceeding high orange or flame colour, which it will
impart to cloth. If sulphuric acid is used, a full
scarlet, inclining to crimson rather than orange, is
produced. With muriatic acid, a true crimson colour,
bordering on purple, is the consequence. Alkalies,
both fixed and volatile, change the colour to a purple,
which is brighter with the volatile than the fixed al¬
kalies.
Here it is obvious, that whatever colours are pro¬
duced by the mixture of different substances together; Colour-
the permanency of these colours can only be in pro- making,
portion to the ability of such mixtures to resist the —y—-*
weather. Thus, suppose a high scarlet or orange c0* perm8aneu_
lour is produced by means of spirit of nitre, it is plain cyofco
that, was such a colour exposed to the air, it could re- lours, by
main no longer than the spirit of nitre which produced w|’at c^eter-
it remained. In proportion, therefore, as the spiritm*ne°'
of nitre was exhaled into the air, or otherwise destroy¬
ed, the colour behoved to fade, and at last to be total¬
ly destroyed ; and thus, in proportion to the destructi-
bility of the substances by which colours are produced,
will be the disposition of such colours to fade, or the
contrary. In this respecl alkalies are much more de¬
structible than acids, and consequently less proper for
the preparation of colours. With regard to acids, the
nitric seems most destructible, the sulphuric less so, and
the muriatic the least of all. From the extreme fixity
of the phosphoric acid and sedative salt, perhaps they
might be of service in preserving colours.
As all colours, whether derived from the animal or
vegetable kingdom, must be extracted either by pure
water or some other liquid menstruum, they cannot
be used for the purposes of painting till the colouring
substance is united with some earthy or solid matter
capable of giving it a body, as the workmen call it; Opaque or
and, according to the nature of this substance, the co- transparent
lour . will be transparent or otherwise. This basis C01°U1S>
ought to be of the most fixed and durable nature ; |1“vv foun~
unalterable by the weather, by acids, or by alkalies.
It ought also to be of a pure white colour, and easily
reducible into an impalpable powder. For this reason
all earthy substances should be avoided as being acted
upon by acids; and therefore, if any of these were
added to heighten the colour, they Would not fail to
be destroyed, and their effect totally lost. Precipitates
of lead, bismuth, &c. though exceedingly fine and
white, ought also to be avoided, as being apt to turn s ^
black by exposure. The only substance to be chosen oxide 0p
in preference to all others, is oxide of tin, prepared tin, the
either by fire orj the nitric acid. Thisissoexceed-niostPr>°"
ingly refractory as not only to be unalterable by al-^
kalies, acids, or the sun and weather, but even byjourg
the focus of a very large burning mirror. It is be¬
sides white as snow, and capable of being reduced to
an extreme degree of fineness, insomuch that it is
made use of for polishing metallic speculums. For
these reasons, it is the most proper basis for all fine co- ir
lours. For coarse ones, the white precipitate of lead, Precipitate
mentioned under the article Chemistry, will answer of lead mo*t
very well. It hath a very strong body, i. e. is very ProPer i0L'
J j ■11 n , • •> coarse ones,
opaque, and will cover well; may be easily ground
fine, and is much less apt to turn black than white
lead ; it is besides very cheap, and may be prepared at
the small expence of 3d. per pound. I2
If what we have just now observed is attended to, General
the general method of extracting colours from any method of
vegetable or animal substance, and fixing them on a preparing
proper basis, must be very easily understood. Forcoouis.
this purpose, a quantity of oxide of tin is to be procu¬
red in proportion to the quantity of colour desired.
This must be well rubbed in a glass mortar, with a
little of the substance designed for brightening the
colour, as aldm, cream of tartar, spirit of nitre, &c.
after which it must be dried, and left for some time, ,
that i
Colour-
making.
COL t 278 ]
that the union between the two substances may be eye-bright, iris
colour is to be a very
13
Effects of
different
kinds of
salts.
as perfect as possible. If the
J fine one, suppose from cochineal, the colouring mat¬
ter must be extracted with alcohol without heat.
When the spirit is sufficiently impregnated, it is to
be poured by little and little upon the oxide, rub¬
bing it constantly, in order to distribute the colour
equally through all parts of the oxide. The spirit soon
evaporates, and leaves the oxide coloured with the co¬
chineal. More of the tincture is then to be poured
on, rubbing the mixture constantly as before ; and
thus, with proper management, may very beautiful
colours, not inferior to the best carmine, be prepared
at a moderate expence. If, instead of cochineal, we
substitute brazil-wood, turmeric, logwood, &c. differ¬
ent kinds of red, yellow, and purple, will be produced.
For the coarser colours, aqueous decoctions are to be
used in a similar manner; only, as these are much
longer in evaporating than the alcohol, very little must
be poured on at. a time, and the colours ought to be
made in large quantity, on account of the tediousness
of the process.
Hitherto we have considered only the effects of the
pure and simple salts, viz. acids and alkalies, on differ¬
ent colours $ but by combining the acids with alka¬
lies, earths, or metals, these effects may be varied
almost in infinitum ; neither is there any rule yet laid
down by which we can judge a priori of the changes
of colour that will happen on the admixture of this or
that particular salt with any colouring substance. In
general, the perfect neutrals act weakly $ the imper¬
fect ones, especially those formed from metals, much
more powex-fully. Alum and sal ammoniac consider¬
ably heighten the colour of cochineal, brazil, turme¬
ric, fustic, madder, logwood, &c. The same thing
is done, though in a less degree, by common salt,
Glauber’s salt, nitre, and many other neutrals. So¬
lutions of iron in all the acids strike a black with
every one of the above mentioned substances ; and
likewise with sumach, galls, and other astringents.
Solutions of lead, or saccharum saiurni, universally
debase red colours to a dull purple. Solution of cop¬
per changes the purple colour of logwood to a pretty
good blue $ and, in general, solutions of this metal are
friendly to blue colours. The effects of solutions of
gold, silver, and mercury, are not so well known $
j, they seem to produce dark colours of no great beauty.
Solution of The most powerful solution, however, with regard to a
tin the most great number of colours, is that of tin, made in ni-
powerful. tro-muriatic acid. Hence we may see the fallacy of
* See Chro-Mr Delaval’s hypothesis concerning colours*, that
Colour.;
making
matics,
•N° S.
the least refrangible ones are produced by the most
dense metals : for tin, which hath the least density of
any metal, hath yet, in a state of solution, the most ex¬
traordinary effects upon the least refrangible colours, as
well as those that are most so. The colour of cochi¬
neal is changed by it into the most beautiful scarlet;
a similar change is made upon the colouring matter of
gum-lac. Brazil-wood is made to yield a fine pur¬
plish crimson j logwood, a beautiful dark purple $ tur¬
meric, fustic, weld, and all yellow-colouring woods and
flowers, are made to communicate colours far more
beautiful than can be got from them by any other me¬
thod. The blue colour of the flowers of violets.
COL
&c. are heightened so as to equal,
if not excel, the blue produced by a solution of cop¬
per in volatile alkali. In short, this solution seems v—■
to be of much moi'e extensive use in colour-making,
when properly applied, than any thing hitherto thought
of. It is not, however, universally serviceable. The
colour of madder it totally destroys, and likewise that
of saf-flower, changing them both to a dull orange.
It likewise spoils the colour of archil ; and what is very
remarkable, the 'fine red colour of tincture of roses
made with sulphuric acid is by solution of tin changed
to a dirty green.
The most important consideration in colour-making Directior
is to make choice of such materials as produce the for the
most durable colours j and if these can be produced,ch°ice of
an ordinary colour from them is to be preferred to^teriah
a bright one from those which fade sooner. In what
the difference consists between the colours that fade
and those which do not, is not known with any de¬
gree of certainty. From some appearances it would
seem, that those substances which are most remarkable
for keeping their colour, contain a viscous glutinous
matter, so combined with a resinous one as to be so¬
luble both in water and alcohol. The most durable
red colour is prepared from gum-lac. This is very
strongly resinous, though at the same time so far
glutinous, that the colouring matter can be extracted
from it by water. Next to gum-lac are madder-roots
and cochineal. The madder is an exceedingly pene¬
trating substance, insomuch that, when given to ani¬
mals along with their food, it tinges their bones of a
deep red colour. Its colouring matter is soluble both
in water and alcohol. Along with the pure red, how¬
ever, there is in madder a kind of viscous astringent
substance, of a dark brown colour, which seems to
give the durability to the whole. The colouring
matter of cochineal, though soluble both in water and
alcohol, is very tenacious and mucilaginous, in which
it bears some resemblance to the purpura of the an¬
cients, which kept its colour exceedingly well. Where
the colours are fugitive, the tinging substance seems to
be too resinous or too mucilaginous. Thus the colours
of brazil, turmeric, &c. are very resinous, especially
the latter, insomuch that the colouring matter of tur¬
meric can scarcely be extracted by water. Both these
are perishable, though beautiful colours 5 and much
more are the red, purple, and blue flowers, commonly
to be met with. These seem to be entirely mucila¬
ginous, without the least quantity of resinous matter.
The yellow flowers are different, and in general keep
their colour pretty well. Whether it would be possi¬
ble, by adding occasionally a proper quantity of gum
or resin, to make the fugitive colours more dux-able,
hath not yet been tried, but seems to have some proba-
bility. What tends a little to confirm this, is a pro-M. Hello
cess given by M. Hellot for imparting durability to method ®
the colour of brazil. It consists only in letting decoc-*!^,0^
tions of the wood stand for some time in wooden casks J1™
till they grow stale and ropy. Pieces of woollen cloth ail-wood,
now dyed in the liquor acquired a colour so durable,
that they were not in the least altered by exposure to
the air during four months in the winter season.
Whether this change in the durability of the colour
was effected by the ropiness following the fermenta¬
tion,
COL [ 279 ] COL
Colour- tlon, or by some other cause, or whether the experi-
making. ment can be at all depended upon, must be referred to
—v—' future observation.
*7 Having thus collected all that can as yet be de-
-P-, pended upon for establishing a general theory of co¬
tent co- lour-making, we shall now proceed to give an account
urs. of the different pigments generally to be met with in
18 the colour-shops.
amp- 1, Black. These are lamp-black, ivory-black, blue-
aclj' black, and Indian-ink. The first is the finest of what
are called the soot-blacks, and is more used than any
other. Its preparation is described in the Swedish
Transactions for the year 1754, as a process dependent
on the making of common resin : the impure resinous
juice collected from incisions made in pine and fir
trees, is boiled down with a little water, and strained
whilst hot through a bag; the dregs and pieces of
bark left in the strainer are burnt in a low oven,
from which the smoke is conveyed through a long
passage into a square chamber, having an opening on
the top on which is a large sack made of thin woollen
stuff: the soot, or lamp-black, concretes partly in the
chamber, from whence it is swept out once in two or
three days, and partly in the sack, which is now and
then gently struck upon, both for shaking down the
soot, and for clearing the interstices betwixt the
threads, so as' to procure aTsufficient draught of air
through it. In this manner lamp-black is prepared at
the turpentine houses in England, from the dregs and
refuse of the resinous matters which are there manu-
19 factored.
)r Lewis’s On this subject Dr Lewis hath some curious obser-
bsem- vations, “ The soot (says he) arising in common
chimneys, from the more oily or resinous woods, as the
fir and pine, is observed to contain more dissoluble
matter than that from the other woods ; and this dis¬
soluble matter appears, in the former, to be more of
an oily or resinous nature than in the latter, alcohol
extracting it most powerfully from the one, and water
from the other. The oiliness and solubility of the
soot seeming therefore to depend on those of the
subject it is made from, it has been thought that lamp¬
black must possess these qualities in a greater degree
than any kind of common soot. Nevertheless, on ex¬
amining several parcels of lamp-black, procured from
different shops, I could not find that it gave any tinc¬
ture at all, either to alcohol or to water.
Suspecting some mistake or sophistication, or that
the lamp-black had been burnt or charred, as it is to
fit it for some particular uses, I prepared myself some
soot from linseed-oil, by hanging a large copper pan
over the flame of a lamp to receive its smoke. In this
manner the more curious artists prepare lamp-black
for the nicer purposes; and from this collection of it
from the flame of a lamp, the pigment probably recei¬
ved its name. The soot so prepared gave no tincture
either to water or to alcohol, any more than the com¬
mon lamp-black of the shops. I tried different kinds
of oily and resinous bodies with the same result j even
the soots obtained from fish oils and tallow did not ap¬
pear to differ from those of the vegetable oils and re¬
sins. They were all of a finer colour than the lamp¬
black commonly sold.
“ Some soot was collected in like manner from fir
and other woods, by burning small pieces of them
slowly under a copper-pan. All the soots were of a Colour-
deeper black colour than those obtained from the same making,
kinds of wood in a common chimney $ and very little, ' '
if at all, inferior to those of the oils : they gave only
a just discernible tincture to water and alcohol, while
the soots of the chimney imparted a strong deep one to
both. The soot of mineral bitumens, in this close way
of burning, appears to be of the same qualities with
those of woods, oil, and resins: in some parts of Ger-
many, great quantities of good lamp-black are prepared
from a kind of pit-coal.
“ It appears, therefore, that the differences of soots
do not depend altogether on the qualities of the sub¬
jects, but in a great measure on the manner in which
the subject is burnt or the soot caught. The soots
produced in common chimneys, from difi’erent kinds of
wood, resinous and not resinous, dry and green, do not
differ near so much from one another, as those which
are produced from one kind of wood in a common chim¬
ney, and in the confined way of burning above men¬
tioned. ao
Ivory-black is prepared from ivory or bones burnt Ivory-
in a close vessel. This, when finely ground, forms b'ac*t’
a more beautiful and deeper colour than lamp-black j
but in the common methods of manufacturing, it is so
much adulterated with charcoal-dust, and so grossly le¬
vigated, as to be unfit for use. An opaque deep black
for water-colours, is made by grinding ivory-black
with gum water, or with the liquor which settles from
the whites of eggs after they had been suffered to
stand a little. Some use gum water and the whites
of eggs together,’and report, that a small addition of
the latter makes the mixture flow more freely from
the pencil, and improves its glossiness. It may be ob¬
served, however, that though ivory-black makes the
deepest colour in water as well as in oil painting, yet
it is not on this account always to be preferred to
other black pigments. A deep jet-black colour is sel¬
dom wanted in painting; and in the lighter shades,
whether obtained by diluting the black with white
bodies, or by applying it thin on a white ground, the
particular beauty of the ivory-black is in a great mea¬
sure lost. 4I
Blue black is said to be prepared from the burnt Blue-black,
stalks and tendrils of the vine. These, however, the
colour-makers seldom give themselves the trouble of
procuring, but substitute in its place a mixture of ivory-
black, and the common blue used for clothes. ^
Indian-ink is an excellent black for water-colours. jncjian.jllk-
It hath been discovered by Dr Lewis to consist of a
mixture of lamp-black and common glue. Ivory black,
or charcoal, he found to answer equally well, provided
they were levigated to a sufficient degree of fineness,
which indeed requires no small trouble. 23
2. White. The white colours commonly to be met White-
with are, white-flake, white-lead, calcined hartshorn, colour-
pearl-white, Spanish-white, egg-shell white, and ni¬
trate of bismuth. The flake-white and white-lead are
properly the same. The preparation of the former is
kept a secret; the method of preparing the latter is
described under Chemistry, N° 1856. Ihese are the
only whites that can be used in oil, all the rest being
transparent unless they are laid on with water. Cal¬
cined hartshorn is the most useful of the earthy whites,
as being the least alkaline. Spanish white is only
COL [ 280 ] COL
Colour- finely prepared chalk. Pearl-white is made from
making;, oyster-shells j and egg-shell white from the shells of
‘v ■' eggs. All these, by their attraction for acids, must
necessarily destroy such colours as have any acid or
metallic salt in their composition. The nitrate of bis¬
muth is apt to turn black, as are also flake-white and
white-lead, when used in water. The white precipi¬
tate of lead recommended under Chemistry, N° 1856.
is greatly superior as a water-colour to all these, being
perfectly free of any alkaline quality, and not at all
apt to lose its own colour, or to injure that of other sub¬
stances. It is a carbonate of lead.
Red To 3* The red colours used in painting are of
lours. two sorts, viz. those which incline to the purple, and
such as are of a full scarlet, and tend rather to the orange.
The first are carmine, lake, rose-pink, red-ochre, and
Venetian-red. The second are vermilion, red-lead,
scarlet-ochre, common Indian red, Spanish-brown, and
terra di Sienna, burnt.
We have already laid down some general rules for
the preparation of carmine and lake. Particular re¬
ceipts have been delivered with the greatest confidence
for making these fine colours ; but all of them must
necessarily prove ineffectual, because an earthy basis
is recommended for striking the colour upon. From
the principles of chemistry, however, we are certain,
that if nitric acid, or solution of tin, is made use of
for brightening a colour made with any earthy basis, it
must infallibly be destroyed by that basis, by reason of
its alkaline quality. Carmine is the brighest and most
beautiful red colour known at present; the best comes
from France. Lake differs from it in being capable
of mixture with oil, which carmine is not, unless with
great difficulty. The former is also much more in¬
clined to purple than carmine. This last quality, how¬
ever, is reckoned a defect; and accordingly, the more
that lake approaches to the scarlet or true crimson, the
more it is valued. On dropping solution of tin into
an aqueous tincture of brazil wood, a beautiful preci¬
pitate falls, of a purplish crimson colour. This may
_ be very well substituted in place of the dearer lakes on
many occasions.
Rose-pink is a very beautiful colour, inclining more
to the purple than scarlet. It seems to be made of chalk,
coloured with a decoction of brazil-wood, heightened
by an alkaline salt; for which reason it is exceedingly
perishable, and but little esteemed. The colour might
be made much more durable, as well as better, by em¬
ploying for a basis the white precipitate of lead above-
mentioned, and brightening it with solution of tin.
Red ochre and Venetian red differ in nothing from
the colcothar of vitriol well calcined. The oxides of
iron may be made to appear either purplish, or in¬
clining to the scarlet, according to the manner in which
the calcination is performed. If the matter is per¬
fectly deprived of its phlogiston, and subjected to an
intense fire, it always turns out red ; but the mixture
of a small quantity of inflammable matter gives it a pur¬
plish cast. Hence various paints are kept in the shops
under different names, which yet differ from each other
only in the slight circumstances above mentioned ; and
such are the scarlet-ochre, Spanish brown, and terra
di Sienna burnt. It is remarkable, that the oxides of
iron never show their colour till they become cold.
3
Colcothar of vitriol, while hot, always appears of a Colonr-
very dark dusky purple. making.
Of the preparation of vermilion and red-lead, an ac-
count is given under the article Chemistry, N° 1701.
1832. These are very durable colours : the first is the
best red used in oil painting, but does not answer well
in water; the other is rather an orange; and, like
other preparations of lead, is in some cases apt to turn
black. 2,
4. Orange. The only true orange-coloured paints Orange
are red orpiment and orange lake. The first is a sub-colours,
limate formed of arsenic and sulphur; the other may
be prepared from turmeric infused in alcohol having
its colour struck upon oxide of tin, and brightened
by a solution of that metal. All the shades of orange,
however, may be extemporaneously prepared by mix¬
ing red and yellow colours together, in due propor¬
tions. 25
5. Yellow. The yellow paints most commonly in Yellow
use are, king’s-yellow, Naples-yellow, Dutch-pink, colours
English-pink, masticot, common orpiment, yellow-
ochre, terra di Sienna unburnt, and turpith mineral.
King’s-yellow is evidently an arsenical preparation.
Its colour is exceedingly beautiful, but apt to fade;
on which account, and its great price, it is seldom
used.
Naples-yellow was for a long time thought to be a
preparation of arsenic, but is now discovered to have
lead for its basis. It is therefore apt to turn black and
lose its colour, which makes it the less valuable. It is
nevertheless used in preference to king’s-yeilow, on ac¬
count of its inferiority in price. This colour is parti¬
cularly liable to be spoiled by iron when moist, and
therefore should never be touched by that metal unless
previously ground in oil.
Dutch-pink is said to be prepared by striking the
colour of yellow berries upon finely levigated chalk.
But of this there is great reason to doubt; the basis
of Dutch-pink seems much more hard and gritty than
chalk, and its colour more durable than those struck
upon that earth usually are. Very good yellows may
be prepared with the white precipitate of lead, for¬
merly mentioned, by using either yellow berries, fustic,
or any other substance capable of yielding that colour.
English pink is paler than the Dutch, and keeps its
colour greatly worse.
Masticot is prepared by calcining white-lead till it
assumes a yellowish colour. It is not apt to change,
but the colour is so dull that it is seldom used either in
oil or water.
Common orpiment is a pretty bright greenish-yel¬
low, prepared by subliming arsenic with sulphur. Its
nauseous smell, which is greatly increased by grinding
in oil, makes it very disagreeable ; nor does it keep its
colour for any length of time. That kind of orpiment
least inclined to green is to be preferred for the pur¬
poses of painting.
Yellow-ochre and terra di Sienna are ferruginous
earths, capable of becoming red by calcination. Green
vitriol precipitated by lime may be advantageously sub¬
stituted for either of them. See Chemistry.
Turpith mineral is but little used in painting, though
its fine yellow colour seems greatly to recommend it.
Th is preparation is in all probability very durable ;
and
Colour.
making.
27
reen co¬
irs.
28
he 00.
urs,
COL [ 281
and should seem therefore worthy of a preference either
to king’s or Naples yellow. See Chemistry Index.
J Gamboge is a paint that can only be used in water,
and is the most common yellow made use of for co¬
louring maps, &c. } but for this it is not very proper,
being neither quite transparent, nor very durable.
6. Green. The only simple green colour that hath
a tolerable degree of brightness is verdigris, or pre¬
parations of it. This, however, though a very beau¬
tiful colour, is far from being durable. It is improved
in colour, though not in durability, by dissolution and
crystallization in distilled vinegar, in which state it is
called distilled vei'digris. A more durable watercolour
is made by dissolving the verdigris in cream of tar¬
tar, or rather the pure tartaric acid ; but in oil this is
found to be equally fugitive with the verdigris itself.
See Chemistry Index.
Compound greefts are either made of Prussian or
some other blue, mixed with yellow ; but in whatever
way these colours can be compounded, the beauty of
the green produced is greatly inferior to distilled, or
even common verdigris. The tartaric solution of
verdigris, mixed with a little gamboge, is the best
transparent green water-colour we have had an oppor¬
tunity of trying ; and a mixture of Prussian blue and
turpith-mineral is probably the best opaque one.
Sap-green is a simple colour, but exceedingly infe¬
rior to distilled verdigris, or even to the tartaric
solution of verdigris with gamboge. It is prepared
from the juice of unripe buckthorn berries evaporated
to the consistence of a gum. Its green colour is greatly
inclined to yellow. A kind of compound green has
been sometimes used, called Prussian green, which con¬
sists only of Prussian blue and yellow ochre. It has
no beauty, nor is it durable. It is prepared as Prus¬
sian blue, only not pouring on any muriatic acid to
dissolve the ochreous sediment which falls at the same
time.
Another green sometimes used is called terre verte.
This is a native earth, probably impregnated with cop¬
per. It is of a bluish-green colour, much of that tint
called sea-green. It is gritty, and therefore must be
well levigated before it is used. Its colour is durable,
but not very bright.
7. JBlue. The blue colours are ultramarine, Prus¬
sian blue, verditer, smalt, bice, and indigo. Of these
the ultramarine is the finest, but its great price bin¬
ders it being much used. It is a preparation from
lapis lazuli; is an exceeding bright colour, and never
fades with whatever substance it is mixed. It is now,
however, in a great measure superseded by Prussian
blue, to the disadvantage of painting in general; as
Prussian blue, though very beautiful, is far from being
durable. For an account of its preparations, see the
article Ultramarine.
The process for making Prussian blue is described,
and its nature fully considered, under Chemistry,
N° 774j so that it is sufficient here to observe, that
Prussian blue is to be accounted of the best quality
when it is deep, bright, and not inclined to purple.
It ought to be tried by mixture with white lead, as
the brightness of the colour will appear much more
when diluted than when concentrated in the lumps of
the blue itself.
The preparation of blue verditer is kept a secret, and
Vol. VI. Part I. f
]
COL
Colour-
making.
the best chemists have been puzzled to find out the
method. The colour is exceedingly bright, and has a
considerable tinge of green. A method of preparing »“
a colour equally beautiful, and agreeing in all respects
with what is sold in the shops, except that of effer¬
vescing with acids, we have found to be as follows : .
Dissolve copper in strong caustic alkali, until the liquid
has assumed a very deep blue colour j and the deeper
this colour is, the finer will your verditer be. When
the menstruum has dissolved as much of the metal as it
can take up, it is to be poured out into a broad and
well glazed earthen pan, held over a very gentle fire j
and from the moment it is put on, the liquor is to be
continually agitated with a wooden spatula, so that the
liquor may be heated as equally as possible. The
whole secret consists in properly regulating the degree
of heat; for if it exceeds the due proportion ever so
little, the verditer will turn out of a dirty green. The
proper degree is about 90° of Fahrenheit’s thermome¬
ter. In this gentle heat the alkali slowly evaporates ;
and in proportion to its doing so the verditer falls to
the bottom. Alter it is once formed, freed from the
alkaline liquor, and dried, it can bear the effusion of
boiling water without the least injury. Dr Priestley,
in his sixth volume, takes notice, that a solution of
copper in volatile alkali affords a blue precipitate by
heat, but without taking notice of the requisites for its
success. In making this preparation it is necessary to
dissolve copper in its metallic state ; for the solution of
any oxide will not yield a blue but a green colour.
This colour is durable in water, but dissolves in oil,
and has then all.the inconveniences of verdigris above
mentioned.
Smalt is glass coloured with zaffre, a preparation
from cobalt*. It is commonly so grossly powdered * See Zo/t
that it cannot be used in painting, and its texture is so/fe a,1<*
hard that it cannot easily be levigated. Its colour is^”0
exceedingly bright and durable ; so that when finely
levigated it is used instead of ultramarine. The most
proper materials for levigating this substance seem to
be the plates of M. Reaumur’s porcelain recommended
by Dr Lewis. See Chemistry Index. For the pre¬
paration and qualities of bice, see the articles Armenus
Lapis and Bice.
Indigo is but little used in painting either in oil or
water, on account of the dulness of the colour. It re¬
quires no other preparation than being washed over.
Its goodness is known by the darkness and brightness of
the colour. See Indigo. 2<>
8. Purple. The only simple colour of this kind used Purple co¬
at present is colcothar of vitriol. A beautiful purple*ours*
lake may be prepared from logwood by means of solu¬
tion of tin } but this method of preparing colours is
very little known as yet.
9, Brown. The brown colours are, bistre, brown-Brown co¬
ochre, Cologne-earth, umber, and brown-pink. Underl°ul‘s-
the article Bistre is given a process for making that
colour, by infusing soot in water, pouring off the tine- 31
ture, and then evaporating it to an extract j but Dr Or Lewis’s
Lewis is of opinion, with M. Landois in the French0P“1'011
Encyclopedic, that the soot is either boiled in water, nin^
or ground with a little liquid of some kind into a smooth
paste •, it is then diluted with more water, and after
standing for about half an hour till the grosser sub¬
stance of the soot has settled, the liquor is poured off
N n into
Colour-
niaking.
Attempts
to make
lake ol all
colours.
33
Black from
astringents
* See Itye.
mg.
COL* [ 282 ]
into another vessel, and set by for two or three clays, filter,
that the finer parts may fall to the bottom, and this
fine matter is the bistre. This is a very useful colour
in water, being exceedingly fine, durable, and not apt
to spoil any other colours with which it is mixed. The
brown pink is said to consist of chalk tinged with the
colouring matter of fustic, heightened by fixed alka¬
line salts. It is therefore very perishable, and is sel*
dom used. The other browns are a kind of ochreous
earths $ for a description of which see their proper ar¬
ticles.
Having now considered most of the colouring sub¬
stances usually to be met with in the shops, we shall
next take notice of some attempts that have been made
to produce all the different colours from vegetables,
after the manner of lakes ; which, though the methods
hitherto tried have for the most part failed of success,
may perhaps some time or other be found applicable to
valuable purposes.
From infusions of astringent vegetables mixed with
green vitriol, is produced a deep black liquor of very
extensive use in dyeing *. The substances which pro¬
duce the deepest blacks are galls and logwood. When
a decoction or infusion of the galls is dropped into a
solution of the vitriol largely diluted with water, the
first drops produce bluish or purplish red clouds, which
soon mingling with the liquor, turn it uniformly of
their own colour. It seems to be on the quality of
the jvater that this difference in the colour depends.
With distilled water, or the common spring waters,
the mixture is always blue. If we previously dissolve
in the water the most minute quantity of any alkaline
salt, too small to be discovered by any of the common
ineans by which waters are usually tried, or if the wa¬
ter is in the least putrid, the colour of the mixture proves
purple or reddish. Kain-water, caught as it falls from
the clouds in an open field in clean glass-vessels, gives
a blue ; but such as is collected from the tops of the
houses, grows purple with the mixture of vitriol and
galls: from whence it may be presumed, that this last
has contracted a putrid tendency, or received an alka¬
line impregnation, though so slight as not to be sensi¬
ble on other ways of trial.
Both the purple and blue liquors, on adding more
of the astringent infusion, deepen to a black, more
or less intense, according to the nature of dilution : if
the mixture proves of a deep opaque blackness, it again
becomes bluish or purplish when further diluted. If
suffered to stand in this diluted state for two or three
days, the colouring matter settles to the bottom in
form of a fine black mud, which by slightly shaking
the vessel is diffused again through the liquor, and
tinges it of its former colour. When the mixture is
of a full blackness, this separation does not happen, or
in a far less degree ; for though a part of the black mat¬
ter precipitates in standing, yet so much remains dis¬
solved, that the liquor continues black. This suspen¬
sion of the colouring substance, in the black liquid,
may be attributed in part to the gummy matter of the
astringent infusion increasing the consistence of the
watery fluid j for the separation is retarded in the
diluted mixture by a small addition of gum arabic.
If the mixture either in its black or diluted state is
poured into a filter,, the liquor passes through colour¬
ed j only a part of the black matter remaining on the
Colour.
makinjr.
COL
The filtered liquor, on standing for some time,
becomes turbid and full of fine black flakes : being
freed from these by a second filtration, it again puts '
on the same appearance : and thus repeatedly till all
the colouring parts are separated, and the liquor has
become colourless.
Hr Lewis, from whose Philosophical Commerce of
Arts this account is taken, further informs us, that this
colouring matter, when separated from the liquor and
dried, appeared of a deep black, which did not seem
to have suffered any change from the air by exposure
for upwards of four months. Made red hot, it glowed
and burnt, but did not flame, and became a rusty
brown powder, which was readily attracted by a mag¬
netic bar j though in its black state the magnet had
no action upon it. Sulphuric acid, diluted with wa¬
ter and digested on the black powder, dissolved the
greatest part of it, leaving only a very small quantity
of whitish matter. Solution of pure fixed alkaline
salt dissolved very little of it : the liquor received a
reddish brown colour, and the powder became blackish
brown. This residuum was attracted by the magnet
after being red hot, though not before : the alkaline
tincture, passed through a filter, and mixed with a
solution of green vitriol, struck a deep brownish black
colour, nearly the same with that which results from
mixing with the vitriolic solution an alkaline tincture
of galls.
It hath also been attempted to produce black from BlacITf/om
a combination of other colours 5 as green may be pro-a combina-
duced from a mixture of blue and yellow. M. le Blon,^0” of e"
in his Harmony of Colours, gives a method of forming
34
black, by mixing together the three colours called
primitive, viz. blue, red, and yellow ; and M. Castel,
in his Optique des Couloirs published in 1740, say&
that this compound black has an advantage in paint¬
ing, above the simple ones, of answering better for
the darkening of other colours. Thus, if blue, by the
addition of black, is to be darkened into the colour
called blue-black, the simple blacks, according to him,
if used in sufficient quantity to produce the requisite
deepness, conceal the blue, while the compound blacks
leave it distinguishable. Le Blon does not mention
the proportion of the three colours necessary for pro¬
ducing black. Castel directs 15 parts of blue, five of
red, and three of yellow, but takes notice that these
proportions are rather speculatively than practical¬
ly just, and that the eye only can be the true judge j
our colours all being very imperfect, and our pigments
or other bodies of one denomination of colour being
very unequal in their degree of intensity. He ob¬
serves, that the pigments should all be of the deepest
and darkest kind j and that instead of taking one pig¬
ment for each colour, it/ is better to take as many as
can be got; for the greater discord there is of hete¬
rogeneous and discordant drugs, the more true and
beautiful, he says, will the black be, and the more
capable of uniting with all other colours, without
suppressing them, and even without making them
tawny.
Dr Lewis acquaints us, that by mixing different
blue,.red, and yellow colours, he has not been able to
produce a perfect black 5 but has often obtained frorrr
them very dark colours, such as may be called brown-
blacks or gray-blacks ; such as we commonly see in the
dark
ther co-
ours*
COL [ 283 ] COL
Colour- ^a,‘k °f paintings, and such as the charcoal and
making, s00^ blacks appear when diluted a little. The ingre-
—y—■«* dients being each of a dark deep colour is a very neces¬
sary condition $ for bright blues, bright reds, and bright
yellows, mixed in such proportions that neither colour
prevailed, produced only a gray. In effect, all com¬
positions of this kind, physically considered, can be no
other than grays, or some of the intermediate tints
between whiteness and darkness; and these grays will
he so much the lighter or darker as the component co¬
lours of themselves are bright or dark.
With regard to the extraction of the colouring
matter from the different kinds of vegetables com¬
monly to be met with of all colours, this would cer¬
tainly be a very valuable acquisition, could the colours
so procured be made durable. On this subject nothing
hath yet appeared more satisfactory than what is de¬
livered by Dr Lewis in his notes on Neumann’s che¬
mistry. His observations are curious, but promise very
little success to any who shall attempt to fix these
Vegetable colours.
3S “ Among the infinite variety of colours (says he),
)r Lewis s glow in the flowers of plants, there are very
lents on ^ew w^'c^ have any durability, or whose fugitive
egetablc beauty can be arrested by art, so as to be applied to
olours. any valuable purposes. The only permanent ones are
the yellow, the red, the blue •, and all the intermediate
shades of purple, crimson, violet, &c. are extremely
perishable. Many of these flowers lose their colours
on being barely dried *, especially if they are dried
slowly, as has been usually directed, in a shady, and
not warm place. The colours of all of them perish
on keeping even in the closest vessels. The more
hastily they are dried, and the more perfectly they
are secured from the air, the longer they retain their
beauty. The colouring matter extracted and ap¬
plied on other bodies is still more perishable: often¬
times it is changed or destroyed in the hands of the
operator.
“ The colour of many blue flowers is extracted by
infusion in water 5 but there are some from which water
gains only reddish or purplish blue. Of those that have
been tried there is not one which gives any blue tinc¬
ture to spirituous liquors: some give no colour at all,
and some a reddish one. The juice pressed out from
the fresh flowers is for the most part blue. The blue
juices and infusions are changed red by all acids. The
muriatic acid seems to strike the most florid red. The
flowers themselves, macerated in acid liquors, impart
also a deep red tincture. Alkalies, both fixed and
volatile, and lime-water, change them to a green.
Those infusions of the juices which have nothing of
the native colour of the flowers, suffer the same changes
from the addition of acid and alkaline liquors : even
when the flowers have been kept till their colour is
lost, infusions made from them acquire still a red co¬
lour from the one, and a green from the other, though
in a less degree than when the flowers were fresh .
The red colour produced by acids is scarcely more
durable than the original blue: applied upon other
bodies and exposed to the air, it gradually degenerates
into a faintish purple, and at length disappears, leaving
hardly any stain behind. The green produced by
alkalies changes to a yellow, which does not fade so
soon. The green, by lime-water, is more permanent
and more beautiful j green lakes, prepared from these
flowers by lime-water, have been used as pigments by
the painter. The flowers of cyanus have been greatly
recommended, as affording elegant and durable blue
pigments j but I have never been able to extract from
them any blue colour at all. They retain their colour
indeed, when hastily dried, longer than some other
blue flowers j but they communicate nothing of it to
any kind of menstruum. Infusions of them in watery,
spirituous, and oily liquors, are all of them more or
less of a reddish cast, without any tendency to blue.
Alum, which is said to heighten and preserve their
blue colour, changes it, like that of other blue flowers,
to a purplish red j acids to a deep red $ alkalies and
lime-water to a green : solution of tin added to the
watery infusion, turns it to a fine crimson j on stand¬
ing, a beautiful red fgecula subsides, but it loses all
its colour as soon as it is dry. The watery infusion,
inspissated to the consistence of an extract, appears of
a dark reddish brown : an extract made with rectified
spirit is of a purplish colour. The colour of both ex¬
tracts spread thin, and exposed to the air, quickly
fades. The flowers employed in these experiments
were those of the common blue-bottle of the corn¬
fields.
“ Red flowers readily communicate their own red
colour to watery menstrua ; among those that have
been tried, there is not one exception. Those of a
full red colour give to rectified spirit also a deep red
tincture, brighter, though somewhat paler, than the
watery infusion : but the lighter red flowers, and
those which have a tendency to purplish, impart very
little colour to spirit, and seem to partake more of the
nature of the blue flowers than of the pure red. Infu¬
sions of red flowers are supposed to be heightened by
acids, and turn green by alkalies, like those of the
blue} but this is far from being universal. Among
these I have examined, the rose-colours and purplish
reds were changed nearly in the same manner as the
blues j but the full deep reds were not. The deep
infusion of red poppies is changed by alkalies, not to a
green, but to dusky purple.
“ The colours of yellow flowers, whether pale or
deep, are in general durable. Many of them are as
much so perhaps, as any of the native colours of ve¬
getables. The colour is extracted both by water and
by spirit. The watery infusions are the deepest. Nei¬
ther alkalies nor acids alter the species of the colour ;
though both of them vary its shade ; acids rendering
it paler, and alkalies deeper ; alum likewise consider¬
ably heightens it, though not so much as alkalies.
An infusion of the flowers, made in alkaline ley, pre¬
cipitated by alum, gives a durable yellow lake. In some
of the deep reddish yellow, or orange-coloured flowers,
the yellow matter seems to be of the same kind with
that of the pure yellow flowered, but the red to be of
a different kind from the pure red ones j watery men¬
strua take up only the yellow, and leave the red,
which may afterwards be extracted by alcohol, or
by water acuated by fixed alkaline salt. Such par¬
ticularly are the saffron-coloured flowers ol carthamus.
These, after the yellow matter has been extracted by
water, are said to give a red tincture to ley} from
which, on standing at rest for some time, a deep
bright red fsccula subsides } called from one of the
N n 2 names
Coloul'-
makin^.
COL [ 284 ] COL
Colour- names of the plant which produces it, safflower; and
making, from the countries whence it is commonly brought to
v us, Spanish-red, and China-lake. This pigment im¬
pregnates alcohol with a beautiful red tincture, but
communicates no colour to water. I have endea¬
voured to separate, by the same treatment, the red
matter of some of the other reddish yellow flowers,
as those of garden marigold, but without success.
Plain vyater extracted a yellow colour, and alkaline
ley extracted afterwards only a paler yellow : though
the digestions were continued till the flowers had lost
their colour, the tinctures were no other than yellow,
and not so deep as those obtained from the pure yel¬
low flowers. The little yellow flocculi, which in some
kinds of flowers are collected into a compact round
disc, as in the daisy and corn marigold, agree, so far
as they have been examined, with the expanded yellow
petala. Their colour is affected in the same manner
by a^ids, by alkalies, and by alum 5 and equally ex¬
tracted by water and by spirit. But the yellow farina,
or fine dust, lodged on the tips of the stamina of flowers,
appears to be of a different kind. It gives a fine bright
yellow to spirit, and a duller yellow to water j the un¬
dissolved part proving in both cases of a pale yellowish
white. Both the watery and spirituous tinctures were
heightened by alkaline liquors, turned red by acids,
and again to a deep yellow on adding more of the al¬
kali : I know no other vegetable yellow that is turned
red by acids.
“ White flowers are by no means destitute of colour¬
ing matter. Alkaline lixivia extract from some of them
a green tincture, and change their colourless expressed
juices to the same colour 5 but I have not observed that
they are turned red by acids. The flowers of the com¬
mon wild convolvulus or bind-weed, which in all their
parts are white, give a deep yellow or orange tincture
to plain water ; which, like the tinctures of flowers
that are naturally of that colour, is rendered paler by
acids, heightened a little by alum, and more consider¬
ably by alkaline salts. The vapours of the volatile sul¬
phuric acid, or of burning sulphur, which whiten or
destroy the colour of the coloured flowers, make no
36 change in the white.
Colours « The red juices of fruits, as currants, mulberries,
from fruits* elder-berries, morello, black cherries, &c. gently in¬
spissated to dryness, dissolve again almost totally in
water, and appear nearly of the same red colour as at
first. Rectified spirit extracts the tinging particles,
leaving a considerable portion of mucilaginous matter
undissolved *, and hence the spirituous tincture proves
of a brighter colour than the watery. The red solu¬
tions, and the juices themselves, are sometimes made
dull, and sometimes more florid by acids, and gene¬
rally turned purplish by alkalies. The colours of these
juices, are, for the most part, perishable. They resist,
indeed, the power of fermentation, and continue al¬
most unchanged, after the liquor has been converted
into wine } but when the juice is spread thin upon
other bodies, exsiccated, and exposed to the air, the
colour quickly alters and decays j the bright lively red
changes the soonest : the dark dull red stain from the
juice of the black cherry, is of considerable durability.
The fruit of the American opuntia or prickly pear,
the plant upon which the cochineal insect is produced,
is perhaps an exception : This bright red fruit, ac-
2
cording to Labat, gives a beautiful red dye. Some Colour,
experiments, however, made upon the juice of that making,
fruit, as brought into England, did not promise to be
of any great advantage 5 but the particulars I cannot
now recollect.
“ The ripe berries of buckthorn stain paper of a
green colour. From these is prepared the substance
called sap preen, a pigment sufficiently durable, rea¬
dily soluble in water, but not miscible with oil. The
berries dried while green, and macerated in alum-
water, are said to yield a yellow pigment ; and when
they have grown over ripe so as to fall off spontane¬
ously, a purple one. It is said that the berry of the
heliotropum tricoccum, which grows wild about Mont¬
pelier, stains paper of a green colour, and that this
green turns presently to a blue : that the common blue
paper X’eceives its colour from this juice : and that the
red rags called turnsol, employed for colouring wines
and other liquors, are tinctured by the same juice
turned red by acids. According to M. Nissole of the
French academy of sciences (as quoted by Savary in
his Dictionnaire de Commerce), the following juice is
obtained, not from the berries, but from tops of the
planted gathered in August, ground in mills, and then
committed to the press. The juice is exposed to the
sun about an hour, the rags dipt in it, dried in the sun,
moistened by the vapour which arises during the slack¬
ing of quicklime with urine, then dried again in the sun,
and dipped again in the juice. The Dutch and other's
are said to prepare turnsol rags, and turnsol in the mass,
from diflerent ingredients, among which archil is a prin¬
cipal one.
“ In some plants, peony for instance, the seeds at
a certain point of maturity are covered with a fine
shining red membrane. The pellicles of the seeds oi
a certain American tree afford the red masses brought
into Europe under the names of annotto, orlean, and
raucou*. Mr Pott, in the Berlin Memoirs for the*See>tn
year 1752, mentions a very extrordinary property ofnotto.
this concrete. ‘ With sulphuric acid it produces a blue
colour, of extreme beauty but with this capital defect,
that all salts and liquors, and even common water, de¬
stroy it.’ The specimen of annotto, which I examin¬
ed, was not sensibly acted upon by sulphuric acid ; it
received no change in its own colour, and communicat¬
ed none to the liquor. Nor did any visible changes
ensue upon dropping the acid into tincture of annotto
made in water, or in spirit. 37
“ The green colour of the leaves of plants is ex-Colours
tracted by rectified spirit of wine and by oils. The from
spirituous tinctures are generally of a fine deep green,leaves*
even when the leaves themselves are dull-coloured, or
yellowish, or hoary. The colour, however, seldom v'
continues long even in the liquor ; much less when the
tinging matter is separated in a solid form, and expo¬
sed with a large surface to the air. The editor of the
Wirtemberg Pharmacopoeia observes, that the leaves
of acanthus, brankursine, or bear’s-breach, give a
more durable green tincture to spirit than those of any
other herb. Alkalies heighten the colour both of the
tinctures and green juices ; acids weaken, destroy, or
change it to a brownish : lime water improves both
the colour and durability : by means of lime, not in¬
elegant green lakes are procurable from the leaves of
acanthus, lily of the vallev, and several other plants.
There
’olour-
laking.
iee In¬
to and
oad.
38 .
eduction
indigo
counted
A
COL [2
There are very few herbs which communicate any
share of their green colour to water j perhaps none
that give a green of any considerable deepness. It is
said, however, that the leaves of some plants give a
green dye to woollen, without the addition of any
other colouring matter ; particularly those of the wild
cervil, or cow-weed, the common ragwort, and de-
vil’s-bit. The leaves of many kinds of herbs and
trees give a yellow dye to wool or woollen cloth that
has been previously boiled with a solution of alum and
tartar. Weld, in particular, affords a fine yellow,
and is commonly made use of for this purpose by the
dyers, and cultivated in large quantity in some parts
of England. There is no colour for which we have
such plenty of materials as for yellow'. M. Hellot
observes that all leaves, barks, and roots, which on
being chewed discover a slight astringency, as the
leaves of the almond, peach, and pear trees, ash bark,
(especially that taken off after the first rising of the
sap in the spring), the roots of wild patience, &c.
yield durable yellows, more or less beautiful accord-
ding to the length of time that the boiling is conti¬
nued, and the proportions of alum and tartar in the
preparatory liquor: that a large quantity of alum
makes these yellow's approach to the elegant yellow
of weld : that if the tartar is made to prevail, it in¬
clines them to an orange j that if the roots, barks, or
leaves be too long boiled, the yellow proves tarnish¬
ed, and acquires shades of brown.” See the article
Dyeing.
The most capital preparations from the leaves of
plants are those of indigo, and weld ; which are both
very much used in dyeing, though the first only in
painting *. Both the indigo and woad plants, give
out their colour, by proper management, to water,
in form of a blue fsecula or lake. M. Hellot suspects
that a like blue faecula is procurable from many other
vegetables. Blue and yellow blended together, com¬
pose a green. He supposes the natural greens in ve¬
getables to be compounded in like manner of these
two colours $ and that the blue is oftentimes the most
permanent, so as to remain entire after the putrefac¬
tion or destruction of the yellow. The theory is spe¬
cious, and perhaps just: we know of no other that
accounts in any degree for the production of the indigo
and woad blue. Dr Lewis, however, informs us, that
he never was able to produce the least appearance of
either blue or yellow from any of the plants he tried
by treating them in the manner used for the prepara¬
tion of indigo.
There are sundry mosses, which in their natural
state, like the indigo and woad plants, promise nothing
of the elegant colours that can be extracted from them
by art. The most remarkable of these is archil 5 for
the preparation of which, and the colours that may
be produced from it, see the article. Linnaeus su¬
spects that there are several other more common
mosses from which valuable colours might be extract¬
ed : a quantity of sea-moss, having rotted in heaps on
the shore, he observed the liquor in the heaps to be
as red as blood 5 the sea-water, the sun, and the
putrefaction, having brought out the colour. Mr
Kalm, in an appendix to Linnseus’s paper, in 1745,
mentions two sorts of mosses actually employed in
Sweden for dyeing woollen red : one is the lichenoides
85 ] COL
coralliforme apicibus coccineis of Ray’s Synopsis ; the Colour-
other the lichenoides tartareum, farinaceum, scutel- making,
larum umbone fusco, of Dillenius. This last is a white
substance like meal clotted together, found on the sides
and tops of hills. It is shaved off from the rocks
after rain, purified from the stony matters intermixed
with it by washing with water, then dried in the
sun, ground in mills, and again washed and dried : it
is then put into a vessel with urine, and set by for a
month : a little of this tincture added to boiling w'ater
makes the dyeing colour. In the same Transactions
for the year I754> there is an account of another moss
which, prepared with urine, gives a beautiful and
durable red or violet dye to wool and silk. This is the
lichen foliaceus umbilicatus subtus lacunensis, Linn,
flor. Suec. It grows upon rocks, and is readily dis¬
tinguishable from others of that class, by looking as
if burnt or parched, consisting of leaves as thin as
paper, convex all over on the upper side, with corre¬
sponding cavities underneath, adhering firmly to the
stones by a little root under the leaves, and coming
asunder, when dry, as soon as touched. It is gathered
after rain, as it then holds best together, and parts
easiest from the stone. In France, a crustaceous moss,
growing upon rocks in Auvergne, is prepared with
lime and urine, and employed by the dyers as a suc-
cedaneum for the Canary archil, to which it is said to
be very little inferior. M. Hellot relates, that he
has met with several other mosses, which on being
prepared in the same manner, acquire the same co¬
lour. The most expeditious way, he says, of trying
whether a moss will yield an archil or not, is to moisten
a little of it with a mixture of equal parts of spirit
of sal ammoniac and strong lime water, and add a
small proportion of crude sal ammoniac. The glass
is then to be tied over with a piece of bladdei', and
set by for three or four days. If the moss is of the
proper kind, the little liquor which runs from it upon
inclining the vessel, will appear of a deep crimson
colour; and this afterwards evaporating, the plant
itself acquires the same colour. Dr Lewis informs us,
that he has tried a good number of the common
mosses, many both of the crustaceous and foliaceous
kind, and not a few of the fungi $ as also the herbs cha¬
momile and milfoil, which yield a blue essential oil 5
and thyme, whose oil becomes blue by digestion with
volatile spirits j but never met with any that yielded a
colour like archil. Most of them gave a yellow or
reddish brown tincture. A few gave a deep red co¬
lour to the liquor: but when diluted, it showed a yel¬
lowish cast, and when applied on cloth it gave only a
yellowish red* 40
To these observations we shall only add, that though Some blue
in general the blue colours of flowers are exceedingly
perishable, there seem to be at least two exceptions
to this rule j for the blue flowers of iris, or flower-niaucut co¬
de-luce, and those of columbine, when treated withlours,
solution of tin, yielded a colour tolerably permanent.
Indeed when experiments are made with a view to
extract the colour from any part of a vegetable, it
will always be proper to try whether it can bear a
mixture with this solution. If the colour is not de¬
stroyed by it, there is a very great probability that the
solution will, by proper management, preserve, and
give a durability to it, which could scarce be obtained
by-
Colour-
making
cL.
4t
Colours
42
Colours
for maps.
C 'O I, '[ 286
by any other method. It must, however, be observed,
that there are several substances used in colour-making,
which solution of tin cannot bear to be mixed with.
These are principally sugar of lead and cream of tar¬
tar, as well as all the calcareous earths and alkaline
salts. With alum it may he mixed very safely, and
is in many cases the better for it. The roots of plants,
from roots, however, seem to promise more durability of colour
*than the upper parts. We have seen a blue colour of
considerable durability and brightness prepared from
>the roots of common radishes by expressing the juice,
combining it with tobacco-pipe clay, and brightening it
with a little alum. The root of the red beet is also
said to yield a durable colour of a beautiful red, in¬
clining to scarlet j but this we cannot affirm from our
own experience.
With regard to liquid colours for maps, Stc. we
apprehend there can be very little difficulty in pre¬
paring all the possible varieties of them, if what we
have above laid down is attended to. The only co¬
lour with which there can be any difficulty is blue;
but the common solution of indigo in alkalies or acids
may be made to answer this purpose, though, on ac¬
count of their strongly saline quality, they are not very
proper. A very curious method of procuring a beau¬
tiful transparent blue colour is by extracting the colour¬
ing matter from Prussian blue, by means of a caustic
alkali. This, when laid upon paper, appears of a dirty
brown colour j but if washed over with a weak solution
of green vitriol, is instantly changed to a most beauti¬
ful blue. This seems to afford a method of procuring
blue transparent colours of greater beauty than they are
usually met with.—See specimens of transparent colours
.prepared according to the above rules, on the Chart
subjoined to History.
COLOURING, among painters, the manner of ap¬
plying and conducting the colour of a picture ; or the
mixtures of light and shade, formed by the various co¬
lours employed in painting. See Painting.
Colouring of Glass. See Glass.
Colouring of Porcelain. See Porcelain.
COLT, in Zoology, a general name for the young of
the horse kind : the male being likewise, for distinc¬
tion’s sake, called a. horse-colt \ the female, a filly.
After the colts have been foaled, you may suffer
tionanj.tC^^tm *° run mare till about Michaelmas,
sooner or later, according as the cold weather comes
in} then they must be weaned ; though some persons
are for having them weaned after Martinmas, or the
middle of November. The author of the Complete
Horseman is of opinion, that the reason why most foals
advance so slowly, and are not capable of service till
they are six or seven years old, is because they have
not suckled long enough ; whereas, if they had sucked
the whole winter over, they would be as good at four
or five years old as they are now at eight.
They ought now to be kept in a convenient house,
with a low rack and manger for their hay and oats,
which must be sweet and good $ with a little wheaten
bran mixed with the oats to cause them to drink, and
to keep their bodies open. But, since there are some
who allege, that oats make foals become blind,
their teeth crooked 5 the same author is of
that oats will wear their teeth, and make them the
sooner to change, and also to raze j therefore he judges
t
]
COL
or
opinion,
it to be the best way to break them in a mill, because,
that by endeavouring with their jaws to bruise and chew 1
them, they stretch and swell their eye and nether-jaw
veins, which so attract the blood and humours that they
fall down upon the eyes, and frequently occasion the
loss of them j so that it is not the heating quality of
the oats, but the difficulty in chewing, that is the cause
of their blindness.
Further, colts thus fed with grain do not grow
thickish upon their legs, but grow broader and better
knit than if they had eaten nothing but hay and bran,
and will endure fatigue the better. But above all
they must be kept from wet and cold, which are hurt¬
ful to them, nothing being more tender than they are,.
For proof of this, take a Spanish stallion, and let him
cover two mares, which for age, beauty, and comeli¬
ness, may admit of no difference between them ; and
if they produce both horse-colts, or both fillies, which
is one and the same thing, let one run abroad, and the
other be housed every winter, kept warm, and ordinari¬
ly attended ; and that colt which has been kept abroad
shall have large fleshy shoulders, flabby and gouty
legs, weak pasterns, and ill hoofs $ and shall be a dull
heavy jade, in comparison to the other which is housed,
and orderly kept j and which will have a fine forehead,
be fine shaped, and have good legs and hoofs, and be
of good strength and spirit; by which you may know,
that to have the finest stallion, and the most beautiful
mare, is nothing, if they are spoiled in the breeding
up. It is worth observation, that some foals, under six
months old, though their dams yield plenty of milk,
yet decay daily, and have a cough, proceeding from
certain pellicles or skins that breed in their stomachs,
which obstruct their breathing, and at last destroy
them entirely. To remedy this malady, take the bag
wherein the colt was foaled, dry it, and give him as
much of it in milk as you can take up with three fin¬
gers $ but if you have not preserved the bag, procure
the lungs of a young fox, and use it instead of the afore¬
said powder.
It will be proper to let the colts play an hour or
two in some court-yard, &c. when it is fair weather,
provided you put them up again carefully, and see
that they take no barm. When the winter is spent,
turn them into some dry ground, where the grass is
short and sweet, and where there is good water, that
they may drink at pleasure ; for it is not necessary
that a colt should fill his belly immediately, like a
horse that labours hard. The next winter you may
take them into the house, and use them just as you do
your other horses ; but let not your horse-colts and
fillies be kept together after the first year. This me¬
thod may be observed every summer and winter till
you break them, which you may do after they have
been three years old $ and it will be a very easy thing,
if you observe the aforesaid method of housing them j
for ordering them the second year as you do your
other horses, they will be so tame and gentle, that
you need not fear their leaping, plunging, kicking,
or the like ; for they will take the saddle quietly. As
for all those ridiculous methods of beating and curbing
them, they are in effect spoiling them, whatever they
call it, in ploughed fields, deep ways, or the like j
instead of which, let the rider strive to win them by
gentle usage, never correcting them but when it is
necessary,
COL [ 2
necessary, and then with judgment and moderation,
i You will not need a cavesson of cord, which is a head
strain, nor a pad of straw ; but only a common saddle,
and a common cavesson on his nose, such as other
horses are ridden with ; but it ought to be well lined
with double leather ; and, if you please, you may put
on his mouth a watering bit, but without reins, only
the head-stall, and this but for a few days ; and then
put on such a bit as he should be always ridden with $
and be sure not to use spurs for some time after back¬
ing. Take notice, that as yearlings must be kept a-
broad together, so those of two years old together;
and the like for those of three yearlings $ which order¬
ing is most agreeable to them.
In order to make him endure the saddle the better,
the way to make it familiar to him will be by clap¬
ping the saddle with your hand as it stands upon his
back, by striking it, and swaying upon it, dangling
the stirrups by his sides, rubbing them against his sides,
and making much of them, and bringing him to be fa¬
miliar with all things about him} as straining the
crupper, fastening and loosening the girths, and tak¬
ing up and letting out the stirrups. Then, as to his
motion, when he. will trot with the saddle obe¬
diently, you may wash a trench of a full mouth, and
put the same into his mouth, throwing the reins over
the forepart of the saddle, so that he may have a full
feeling of it, then put on a martingale, buckled at
such a length that he may but just feel it when he
jerks up his head} then take a broad piece of leather,
and put it about his neck, and make the ends of it
fast by plaiting it, or some other way, at the withers,
and the middle part before his weasands, about two
handfuls below the thropple, betwixt the leather and
his neck } let the martingale pass so, that when at any
time he offers to duck, or throw down his head, the
cavesson being placed upon the tender gristle of his
nose, may correct and punish him } which will make
him bring his head to, and form him to an absolute
rein } trot him abroad, and if you find the reins or mar¬
tingale grow slack, straiten them, for when there is no
feeling, there is no virtue.
Colt Evil, among farriers. See Farriery.
CoLT-Taming, is the breaking of a colt so as to en¬
dure a rider. Colts are most easily broken at three
or four years of age} but he who will have patience to
see his horse at full five, will have him much more free
of diseases and infirmities than if he was broken sooner.
Preparatory to their breaking for the saddle, they
should be used to familiar actions, as rubbing, clawing,
haltering, leading to water, taking up their feet,
knocking their hoofs, &c. In order to bridle and
saddle a colt, when he is made a little gentle, take a
sweet watering trench, washed and anointed with
honey and salt, which put into his mash, and so place
it that it may hang about his tush } then offer him the
saddle, but take care not to frighten him with it. Suf¬
fer him to smell at it, to be rubbed with it, and then to
feel it} after that fix it, and gird it fast, and make that
motion the most familiar to him to which he seems
most averse. Being thus saddled and bridled, lead
him out to water, and bring him in again ’y when he
has stood reined upon the trench an hour or more,
take off the bridle and saddle, and let him go to his
meat till the evening, and then lead him out as before }
Colmirfia.
87 ] COL
and when you carry him in again to set him up, take Colt
off his saddle gently, clothing him for the night.
COLT IE, a term used by timber-merchants, for a y
defect or blemish in some of the annular circles of a
tree, whereby its value is much diminished.
COLUBER, in Zoology, a genus of serpents be¬
longing to the order of amphibia. See Ophiology
Index.
COLUMB-KILL. See Jona.
COLUMBA, the Pigeon, in Ornithology, a genus
of birds belonging to the order of passeres. See OR¬
NITHOLOGY Index.
COLUMBA, St, in allusion to whose name the
island of Jona (one of the Hebrides), received its
name : Jona being derived from a Hebrew word sig¬
nifying a dove. This holy man, instigated by his zeal,
left his native country, Ireland, in the year 565, with
the pious design of preaching the gospel to the Piets.
It appears that he left his native soil with warm re¬
sentment, vowing never to make a settlement within
sight of that hated island. He made his first trial at
Oransay; and finding that place too near to Ireland,
succeeded to his wish at Hy, for that was the name of
Jona at the time of his arrival. He repeated here the
experiment on several hills, erecting on each a heap of
stones } and that which he last ascended is to this day
called Carnan-chul-reh-Eirium, or “ The eminence of
the back turned to Ireland.”
Columba was soon distinguished by the sanctity of
his manners : a miracle that he wrought so operated
on the Pictish king Bradeus, that he immediately made
a present of the little isle to the saint. It seems that
his majesty had refused Columba an audience ; and
even proceeded so far as to order the palace-gates to
be shut against him : but the saint by the power of his
word, instantly caused them to fly open. As soon as
he was in possession of Jona, he founded a cell of monks,
borrowing his institutions from a certain oriental mo¬
nastic order. It is said that the first religious were
canons regular, of whom the founder was the first
abbot } and that his monks, till the year 716, differed
from those of the church of Rome, both in the obser¬
vation of Easter, and in the clerical tonsure. Columba
led here an exemplary life, and was highly respected
for the sanctity of his manners for a considerable num¬
ber of years. He is the first on record who had the
faculty of second-sight, for he told the victory of Aidan
over the Piets and Saxons on the very instant it hap¬
pened. He had the honour of burying in hit island,
Convallius and Kinnatil, two kings of Scotland, and
of crowning a third. At length worn out with age,
he died in Jona in the arms of his disciples} and was
interred there, but (as the Irish pretend) in after times
translated to Down } where, according to the epitaph,
his remains were deposited with those of St Bridget and
St Patrick.
Hi tres in Duno tumulo tumulantur in uno}
Brigida, Patricius, atque Columba pius.
But this is totally denied by the Scots } who af¬
firm, that the contrary is shown in the life of the
saint, extracted out of the Pope’s library, and transla¬
ted out of the Latin into Erse, by Father Call 0 haranj
which decides in favour of Jona the momentous dis--
pUte‘ COLUMBANUS,,
COL [ 288 ] COL
CoTtnnbanus COLUMBANUS, a saint and a poet, was born in
11 Ireland, and brought up to a religious life among the
C°rootbj' di30'?'63 Columba. He made uncommon pro-
» t ' * g~rpRS in learning: and very early^ in life distinguished
himself for poetical abilities, by the composition of a
book >f psalms, and a number of moral poems, intend¬
ed also to be set to music. Jonas, a writer of eccle¬
siastical history, mentions, that Columbanus belonged
originally to a monastery of the name of Benchar. The
same monastery is mentioned by St Bernard in his life
of his friend St Malachi j and he relates that it sent
out a great number of monks, who spread over Eu¬
rope. Columbanus passed from Britain into France,
in the year 589, and founded the monastery of Luxeville
near Besan^on. He had been kindly received and pa¬
tronized by King Childebert; but he was afterwards
expelled out of France by the wicked queen Brunichild.
He retired to Lombardy in Italy, where he founded
the monastery of Bobio.
COLUMBARIA, in Ancient Geography, an island
like a rock on the west of Sicily, opposite to Drepa-
num, now Columbara.
COLUMBIA river, a large river of North Ame¬
rica, which rises in the Rocky mountains near the 54th
degree of north latitude, and after receiving the large
branches called Lewis river, and Clarke’s river, falls
into the Pacific ocean in N. Lat. 45. 50. W. Long.
124. The tide flows up the Columbia 183 miles, and
vessels of considerable burden may ascend as far as the
first fall, which is 261 miles from the mouth. By
means of this river, and the Missouri, whose head bran¬
ches approach near one another, the Americans have
established an inland communication with the Pacific
ocean.
COLUMBIC acid. See Chemistry Index.
COLUMBINE. See Aquilegia, Botaky Index.
COLUMBIUM, a new metal which was discover¬
ed in a mineral from North America. See Chemis¬
try Index.
COLUMBO root, an article lately introduced in¬
to the materia medica, the natural history of which is
not yet well known. According to Dr Percival’s ac¬
count, it grew originally on the continent of America,
from whence it was transplanted to Columbo, a town
in Ceylon, which gives name to, and supplies all
India with it. The inhabitants of these countries have
for a long time used it in disorders of the stomach and
bowels. They carry it about with them, and take it
sliced or scraped in Madeira wine. This root comes
to us in circular pieces, which are from half an inch
or an inch to three inches in diameter j and divided in¬
to /ms to, which measure from two inches to one quar¬
ter of an inch. The sides are covered with a thick
corrugated bark, of a dark brown hue on its external
surface, but internally of a light yellow colour. The
surfaces of the transverse sections appear very unequal,
highest at the edges, and forming a concavity towards
the centre. On separating this surface, the root is
observed to consist of three lamina, viz. the cortical,
■which in the larger roots, is a quarter of an inch
thick ; the ligneous, about half an inch $ and the me¬
dullary, which forms the centre, and is near an inch
in diameter. This last is much softer than the other
parts, and, when chewed, seems mucilaginous $ a num¬
ber of small fibres run longitudinally through it, and
appear on the surface. The cortical and ligneous parts Columbo.
are divided by a black circular line. All the thicker ^00,•
pieces have small holes drilled through them, for the 'r*mJ
convenience of drying. Columbo-root has an aroma¬
tic smell, but is disagreeably bitter, and slightly pun¬
gent to the taste, somewhat resembling mustard seed,
when it has lost, by long keeping, part of its essential
oil. Yet, though ungrateful to the taste, when recei¬
ved into the stomach, it appears to be corroborant,
antiseptic, sedative, and powerfully antiemetic. In
the cholera morbus it alleviates the violent tormina,
checks the purging and vomiting, corrects the putrid
tendency of the bile, quiets the inordinate motions of
the bowels, and speedily recruits the exhausted strength
of the patient. It was administered to a great number
of patients, sometimes upwards of 20 in a day, afflict¬
ed with the cholera morbus, by Mr Johnson of Che¬
ster, in 1756. He generally found that it soon stopped
the vomiting, which was the most fatal symptom, and
that the purging and remaining complaints quickly
yielded to the same remedy. The dose he gave was
from half a drachm to two drachms of the powder,
every three or four hours, more or less according to
the urgency of the symptoms. Though this medi¬
cine possesses little or no astringency, it has been ob¬
served to be of great service in diarrhoeas, and even in
the dysentery. In the first stage of these disorders,
where astringents would be hurtful, Columbo-root may
be prescribed with safety j as, by its antispasmodic
powers, the irregular actions of the primae vise are cor¬
rected. But as a cordial, tonic, and antiseptic remedy,
it answers better when given towards their decline. Its
efficacy has also been observed in the vomitings which
attend the bilious cholic j and in such cases, where an
emetic is thought necessary, after administering a small
dose of ipecacuan, the stomach may be washed with an
infusion of Columbo-root. This will tend to prevent
those violent and convulsive retchings which in irrita¬
ble habits abounding with bile are sometimes excited
by the mildest emetic. In bilious fevers, 15 or 20
grains of this root, with an equal or double quantity
of vitriolated tartar, given every four, five, or six
hours, produce very beneficial effects. From its effi¬
cacy in these bilious diseases of this country, it is pro¬
bable that it may be useful in the yellow fever of the
West Indies, which is always attended with great sick¬
ness, violent retchings, and a copious discharge of bile.
The vomiting recurs at short intervals, often becomes
almost incessant, and an incredible quantity of bile is
sometimes evacuated in a few hours. Children during
dentition are often subject to severe vomitings and di¬
arrhoeas. In these cases the Columbo-root is an use¬
ful remedy, and hath often procured almost instant re¬
lief, when other remedies often efficacious have been
tried in vain. This root is also extremely beneficial in
a languid state of the stomach, attended with want of
appetite, indigestion, nausea, and flatulence. It may
be given either in substance, with some grateful aro¬
matic, or infused in Madeira wine. Habitual vomi¬
ting, when it proceeds from a weakness or irritability
of the stomach, from an irregular gout, acidities, acri¬
monious bile, or an increased and depraved secretion of
the pancreatic juice, is greatly relieved by the use of
Columbo-root, in conjunction with aromatics, chaly-
beates, or the testaceous powders. In the nausea and
vomiting
COL [ 289 ] . COL
umbo- vomiting occasioned by pregnancy, an infusion of Co-
oot lumbo-root succeeds better than any other medicine
I! that hath been tried.
umbu5', From Dr Percival’s experiments on this root, it ap~
~v pears, that rectified spirit of wine extracts its virtues
in the greatest perfection.' The watery infusion is
more perishable than that of other bitters. In 24
hours a copious precipitation takes place j and in two
days it becomes ropy, and even musty. The addition
of orange peel renders the infusion of Columbo-root
less ungrateful to the palate. An ounce of the powder¬
ed root, half an ounce of orange peel, two ounces of
French brandy, and 14 ounces of water, macerated 12
hours without heat, and then filtrated through paper,
afford a sufficiently strong and tolerably pleasant infu¬
sion. The extract made first by spirit and then with
water, and reduced by evaporation to a pilular consist¬
ence, is found to be equal, if not superior, in efficacy to
the powder. As an antiseptic, Columbo-root is infe¬
rior to the bark ; but, as a corrector of putrid gall, it
is much superior ; whence also it is probable that it
would be of service in the West India yellow fever.
It also restrains alimentary fermentation, without im¬
pairing digestion, in which property it resembles mus¬
tard. Hence its great services in preventing acidities.
It hath also a remarkable power of neutralizing acids
already formed. It doth not appear to have the least
heating quality j and therefore may be used with pro¬
priety and advantage in the phthisis pulmonalis and in
hectical cases, to correct acrimony and strengthen di¬
gestion. It occasions no disturbance, and agrees very
well with a milk diet, as it abates flatulence, and is in¬
disposed to acidity.
Columbo, a maritime town of the island of Ceylon
in the East Indies. See Colombo.
COLUMBRETES, a cluster of islands belonging
to Spain, off the coast of Valentia.
COLUMBUS, or Congregation oj St Columbus, a
society of regular canons, who formerly had 100 abbeys
or monasteries in the British isles.
Columbus, Christopher, a Genoese, the celebrated
navigator, and first discoverer of the islands of Ameri¬
ca, was a subject of the republic of Genoa. Neither
the time nor the place of his birth, however, are known
with certainty j only he was descended of an honour¬
able family, who, by various misfortunes, had been
reduced to indigence. His parents were seafaring peo¬
ple $ and Columbus having discovered, in his early
youth, a capacity and inclination for that way of life,
was encouraged by them to follow the same profession.
He went to sea at the age of 14: his first voyages
were to those ports in the Mediterranean frequented by
the Genoese, after which he took a voyage to Iceland;
and proceeding still further north, advanced several de¬
grees within the polar circle. After this, Columbus
entered into the service of a famous sea captain of his
own name and family. This man commanded a small
squadron, fitted out at his own expence $ and by cruis¬
ing, sometimes against the Mahometans, and sometimes
against the Venetians, the rivals of his country in trade,
had acquired both wealth and reputation. With him
Columbus continued for several years, no less distin¬
guished for his courage than his experience as a sailor.
At length, in an obstinate engagement off the coast of
Portugal, with some Venetian caravals returning richly
Vol. VI. Part I. t
laden from the Low Countries, the vessel on board Columbus,
which he served took fire, together with one of the ——v——j
enemies ships to which it was fast grappled. Colum¬
bus threw himself into the sea, laid hold of a floating
oar, and by the support of it, and his dexterity in swim¬
ming, he reached the shore, though above two leagues
distant.
After this disaster, Columbus repaired to Lisbon,
where he married a daughter of Bartholomew Pere-
strello, one of the captains employed by Prince Henry
in his early navigations, and who had discovered and
planted the islands of Porto Santo and Madeira. Hav¬
ing got possession of the journals and charts of this ex¬
perienced navigator, Columbus was seized with an ir¬
resistible desire of visiting unknown countries. In order
to indulge it, he made a voyage to Madeira, and con¬
tinued during several years to trade with that island,
the Canaries, Azores, the settlements in Guinea, and
all the other places which the Portuguese had discover¬
ed on the continent of Africa.
By the experience acquired in such a number of
voyages, Columbus now became one of the most skil¬
ful navigators in Europe. At this time the great ob¬
ject of discovery was a passage by sea to the East
Indies. This was attempted, and at last accomplished,
by the Portuguese, by doubling the Cape of Good
Hope. The danger and tediousness of the passage,
however, supposing it to be really accomplished, which
as yet'it was not, set Columbus on considering whe¬
ther a shorter and more direct passage to these regions
might not be found out} and, after long consideration,
he became thoroughly convinced, that, by sailing
across the Atlantic ocean, directly towards the west,
new countries, which probably formed a part of the
vast continent of India, must infallibly be discovered.
His reasons for this were, in the first place, a know¬
ledge he had acquired of the true figure of the earth.
The continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa, as far as
then known, form but a small part of the globe. It
was suitable to our ideas, concerning the wisdom and
beneficence of the Author of Nature, to believe, that
the vast space, still unexplored, was not entirely cover¬
ed by a waste and barren ocean, but occupied by
countries fit for the habitation of man. It appeared
likewise extremely probable, that the continent on
this side the globe was balanced by a proportional
quantity of land in the other hemisphere. These
conjectures were confirmed by the observations of mo¬
dern navigators. A Portuguese pilot having stretch¬
ed farther to the west than was usual at that time,
took up a piece of timber, artificially carved, floating
upon the sea ; and as it was driven towards him by a
westerly wind, he concluded that it came from some
unknown land situated in that quarter. Columbus’s
brother-in-law had found to the west of the Madeira
isles a piece of timber fashioned in the same manner,
and brought by the same wind} and had seen also
canes of an enormous size floating upon the waves,
which resembled those described by Ptolemy as pro¬
ductions peculiar to the East Indies. After a course
of westerly winds, trees torn up by the roots were
often driven upon the coast of the Azores ; and at
one time the dead bodies of two men, with singular
features, which resembled neither the inhabitants ol
Europe nor Africa, were cast ashore there. The most
O 0 cogent
COL [290] COL
Columbus, cogent reason, however, was a mistaken notion of
'■i- v'"" ' the ancient geographers concerning the immense ex¬
tent of tiie continent of India. Though hardly any
of them had penetrated beyond the river Ganges, some
Greek writers had ventured to describe the provinces
beyond that river, which they represented as regions
of an immense extent. Ctesias affirmed that India
was as large as all the rest ot Asia. Onesicritus, whom
Pliny the naturalist follows, contended that it was equal
to a third part of the habitable earth. Nearchus as¬
serted that it would take four months to march from
one extremity of it to the other in a straight line. The
journal of Marco Polo, who travelled into Asia in the
13th century, and who had proceeded towards the east
far beyond the limits to which any European had ever
advanced, seemed also so much to confirm these ac¬
counts, that Columbus was persuaded that the distance
from the most westerly part of Europe to the most
easterly part of Asia was not very considerable ; and
that the shortest, as well as most direct course to the
remote regions of the east, was to be found by sailing
due west.
In 1474, Columbus communicated his ideas on this
subject to one Paul a physician in Florence, a man
eminent for his knowledge in cosmography. He
approved of the plan, suggested several facts in con¬
firmation of it, and warmly encouraged Columbus
to persevere in an undertaking so laudable, and which
must redound so much to the honour of this country
and the benefit of Europe. Columbus, fully satisfied
of the truth of his system, was impatient to set out on
a voyage of discovery. The first step towards this
was to secure the patronage of some of the considera¬
ble powers of Europe capable of undertaking such an
enterprise. He applied first to the republic of Genoa j
but his countrymen, strangers to his abilities, incon¬
siderately rejected his proposal as the dream of a chi¬
merical projector, and thus lost for ever the opportu¬
nity of restoring their commonwealth to its ancient
lustre. His next application was to the coart of Por¬
tugal, where King John II. listened to him in the
most gracious manner, and referred the consideration
of his plan to Diego Ortiz, bishop of Ceuta, and two
Jewish physicians, eminent cosmographers, whom he
was accustomed to consult in matters of this kind.
Unhappily these were the persons who had been the
chief directors of the Portuguese navigations, and had
advised to search for a passage to India by steering a
course directly opposite to that which Columbus had
recommended as shorter and more certain. They
could not therefore approve of his proposal, without
submitting to the double mortification of condemning
their own theory, and of acknowledging his superio¬
rity. The result of their conferences was, that they
advised the king to fit out a vessel privately, in order
to attempt the proposed discovery, by following exact¬
ly the course which Columbus seemed to point out.
John, forgetting on this occasion the sentiments of a
monarch, meanly adopted this perfidious counsel. But
the pilot chosen to execute Columbus’s plan had nei¬
ther the genius nor fortitude of its author. Contrary
winds arose j no sign of approaching land appear¬
ed i his courage failed j and he returned to Lisbon,
execrating the project as equally extravagant and dan¬
gerous.
On discovering this dishonourable transaction, Co- Columbus,
lumbus immediately quitted Portugal, and applied to v ■—
the king of Spain 3 but lest he should be here again
disappointed, he sent his brother Bartholomew into
England, to whom he had fully communicated his ideas,
in order that he might negotiate at the same time
with Henry VII. who was reckoned one of the most
sagacious as well as opulent princes of Europe. Bar¬
tholomew was very unfortunate in his voyage : he fell
into the hands of pirates, who stripped him of every
thing, and detained him a prisoner for several years.
At last he made his escape, and arrived in Lon¬
don, but in such extreme indigence that he was obli¬
ged to employ himself, during a considerable time,
in drawing and selling maps, in order to pick up as
much money as would purchase a decent dress in
which he might venture to appear at court. The pro¬
posals were received by Henry with more approbation
than by any monarch to whom they had hitherto been
presented.
Columbus himself made his proposals to the king of
Spain, not without many doubts of success, which
soon appeared to be well founded. True science had
^s yet made so little progress in the kingdom of Spain,
that most of those to whom the consideration of his
plan was refeiTed were utterly ignorant of the first
principles on which he founded his hopes. Some,
from mistaken notions concerning the dimensions of the
globe, contended that a voyage to those remote re¬
gions of the east which Columbus expected to dis¬
cover, could not be performed in less than three
years. Others concluded, that either he would find
the ocean of infinite extent, according to the opinion
of some ancient philosophers 3 or that if he should per¬
sist in steering westwards beyond a certain point,
the convex figure of the globe must infallibly pre¬
vent his return; and he must perish in the vain at¬
tempt to unite the two opposite hemispheres, which
nature had for ever disjoined. Even without design¬
ing to enter into any particular discussion, some re¬
jected the scheme in general, upon the credit of a
maxim made use of by the ignorant in all ages, “ That
it is presumptuous in any person to suppose that he
alone possesses knowledge superior to all the rest of
mankind united.” By continual disappointments and
delays, he was at last wearied out, and resolved to
repair to the court of England in person, in hopes
of meeting with a favourable reception there. He
had already made preparations for this purpose, and
taken measures for the disposal of his children during
his absence, when Juan Perez, the prior of the mo¬
nastery of Eabida near Palos, in which they had been
educated, earnestly solicited him to defer his journey
for a short time. Perez was a man of considerable
learning, and some credit with Queen Isabella. To
her therefore he applied 3 and the consequence of his
application was a gracious invitation to Columbus back
to court, accompanied with the present of a small
sum to equip him for the journey. Ferdinand, how¬
ever, still regarded the project as chimerical 3 and had
the address to employ, in this new negotiation with
him, some of the persons who had formerly pro¬
nounced his scheme to be impracticable. To their
astonishment, Columbus appeared before them with
the same confident hopes of success as formerly, and
insisted
( imbHs,
COL t 291 ] COL
Insisted on the same high recompense. He proposed
that a small fleet should be fitted out, under his com¬
mand, to attempt the discovery ; and demanded to
be appointed perpetual and hereditary admiral and
viceroy of all the seas and lands which he should disco¬
ver ; and to have the tenth of the profits arising from
them settled irrevocably upon him and his descendants
for ever. At the same time he offered to advance
the eighth part of the sum necessary for accomplishing
his design, on condition that he should be entitled to a
proportional share in the adventure. If the enterprise
should totally miscarry, he made no stipulation for any
reward or emolument whatever. These demands
were thought unreasonable ; Isabella broke off the
treaty she had begun, and Columbus was once more
disappointed. He now resolved finally to leave Spain j
and had actually proceeded some leagues on his jour¬
ney, when he was overtaken by a messenger from
Isabella, who had been prevailed upon by the argu¬
ments of Quintanilla and Santangel, two of Colum¬
bus’s patrons, again to favour his undertakings. The
negotiation now went forward with all manner of fa¬
cility and dispatch 5 and a treaty with Columbus was
signed on the 17th of April 1492. The chief articles
of it were, that Columbus should be constituted high
admiral in all the seas, islands, and continents he should
discover, with the same powers and prerogatives that
belonged to the high admiral of Castile, within the li¬
mits of his jurisdiction. He was also appointed vice¬
roy in all those countries to be discovered $ and a
tenth of the products accruing from their productions
and commerce was granted to him for ever. All con¬
troversies or law-suits with respect to mercantile trans¬
actions were to be determined by the sole authority of
Columbus, or of judges to be appointed by him. He
was also permitted to advance one-eighth part of the
expence of the expedition, and of carrying on com¬
merce with the new countries 5 and was entitled, in re¬
turn, to an eighth part of the profit. But though the
name of Ferdinand was joined with Isabella in this
transaction, his distrust of Columbus was still so vio¬
lent, that he refused to take any part in the enterprise
as king of Arragon 5 and as the whole expence of the
expedition was to be defrayed by the crown of Castile,
Isabella reserved for her subjects of that kingdom an
exclusive right to all the benefits which might accrue
from its success.
At last our adventurer set sail with three small ships,
the whole expence of which did not exceed 4000I.
During his voyage he met with many difficulties from
the mutinous and timid disposition of his men. He
was the first who observed the variation of the com¬
pass, which threw the sailors into the utmost terror.
For this phenomenon Columbus was obliged to invent
a reason, which, though it did not satisfy himself, yet
served to dispel their fears, or silence their murmurs.
At last, however, the sailors lost all patience j and
the admiral was obliged to promise solemnly, that in
case land was not discovered in three days he should
return to Europe. That very night, however, the
island of San Salvador was discovered, which quickly
put an end to all their fears. The sailors were then as
extravagant in the praise of Columbus as they had be¬
fore been insolent in reviling and threatening him.
They threw themselves at bis feet, implored his pardon,
and pronounced him to be a person inspired by heaven Columbus,
with more than human sagacity and fortitude, in order Columella,
to accomplish a design so far beyond the ideas and con-
ception of all former ages. Having visited several of
the West India islands, and settled a colony in Hispa¬
niola*, he again set sail for Spain 5 and after escaping^ gee
great dangers from violent tempests, arrived at the porQwjio/a.
of Palos on the 15th of March 1493.
As soon as Columbus’s ship was discovered ap¬
proaching, all the inhabitants of Palos ran eagerly
to the shore, where they received the admiral with
royal honours. The court was then at Barcelona,
and Columbus took care immediately to acquaint
the king and queen of his arrival. They were no
less delighted than astonished with this unexpected
event. They gave orders for conducting him into the
city with all imaginable pomp. They received him
clad in their royal robes, and seated on a throne under
a magnificent canopy. When he approached, they
stood up} and, raising him as he kneeled to kiss their
hands, commanded him to take his seat upon a chair
prepared for him, and give a circumstantial account
of his voyage. When he had finished his oration,
which he delivered with much modesty and simplicity,
the king and queen, kneeling down, offered up solemn
thanks to God for the discovery. Every possible mark
of honour that could be suggested by gratitude or
admiration was conferred on Columbus j the former
capitulation was confirmed, his family was ennobled,
and a fleet was ordered to be equipped, to enable him
to go in quest of those more opulent countries which he
still confidently expected to find.
Notwithstanding all this respect, however, Colum¬
bus was no longer regarded than he was successful.
The colonists he carried over with him were to the
last degree unreasonable and unmanageable $ so that
he was obliged to use some severities with them j and
complaints were made to the court of Spain against
him for cruelty. On this, Francis de Bovadilla, a
knight of Calatrava, was appointed, to inquire into the
conduct of Columbus ; with orders, in case he found
the charge of maladministration proved, to supersede
him, and assume the office of governor of Hispaniola.
The consequence of this wras, that Columbus was sent
to Spain in chains. From these, however, he was
freed immediately on his arrival, and had an opportu¬
nity granted him of vindicating his innocence. He
was, however, deprived of all power; and notwith- (
standing his great services, and the solemnity of the
agreement between him and Ferdinand, Columbus ne¬
ver could obtain the fulfilment of any part of that trea¬
ty. At last, disgusted with the ingratitude of a mo¬
narch whom he had served with such fidelity and suc¬
cess, and exhausted with fatigues, he ended his life on
the 29th of May 1506.
Columbus, Bartholomew, brother to Christopher
famous for his marine charts and spheres, which he
presented to Henry VII. of England. He died in
Columbus, T)on Ferdinand, son of Christopher,
and writer of his life. He entered into the ecclesiasti¬
cal state 5 and founded a library, which he bequeathed
to the church of Seville, to this day called the Colum¬
bine library. He died in 1560.
COLUMELLA, Lucius Junius Moderatus, a
O 0 2 Homan
'
COL [ 292 ] COL
Column.
Columella Roman philosopher, was a native of Cadiz, and lived
ii under the emperor Claudius, about the year 42. He
wrote a book on agriculture, entitled De Re Rustica,
and another De Arbonbus.
COLUMEY, a town of Red Russia in Poland, seat¬
ed on the river Pruth, towards the confines of Molda¬
via, about 38 miles from Halicz, and 63 south of Leo-
pol. This town has been often pillaged by the Cossacks,
insomuch that it is now inconsiderable, though there
are several mines of salt in its district. E. Long.
16. 25. N. Lat. 48. 45.
COLUMN, in Architecture, a round pillar made
to support and adorn a building, and composed of a
base, a shaft, and capital. See Architecture, N°
33-
Columns, denominated from their use.—Astronomi¬
cal column is a kind of observatory, in form of a very
high tower built hollow, and with a spiral ascent to an
armillary sphere placed a-top for observing the motions
of the heavenly bodies. Such is that of the Doric or¬
der erected at the Hotel de Soissons at Paris, by Catha¬
rine de Medicis, for the observations of Orontius Fine-
us, a celebrated astronomer of that time.
Chronological Column, that which bears some histo¬
rical inscription digested according to the order of time;
as by lustres, olympiads, fasti, epochas, annals, &c. At
Athens, there were columns of this kir,d, whereon was
inscribed the whole history of Greece digested into
olympiads.
Funeral Column, that which bears an urn, wherein
are supposed to be inclosed the ashes of some deceased
hero ; and whose shaft is sometimes overspread with
tears and flames, which are symbols of grief and of
immortality.
Gnomonic Column, a cylinder whereon the hour of
the day is represented by the shadow of a stile. See
Dial.
Historical Column, is that whose shaft is adorned
with a basso-relievo, running in a spiral line its whole
length, and containing the history of some great perso¬
nage : such are the Trajan and Antonine columns at
Rome.
Hollow Column, that which has a spiral staircase
withinside for the convenience of ascending to the top ;
as the Trajan column, the staircase whereof consists of
185 steps, and is illuminated by 43 little windows, each
of which is divided by tambours of white marble. The
Monument, or fire-column at London, has also a stair¬
case ; but it does not reach to the top. These kinds
of columns are also called columnce, coclidece, or coch-
lidece.
Indicative Column, that which serves to show the
tides, &c. along the sea-coasts. Of this kind there is
one at Grand Cairo of marble, on which the overflow¬
ings of the Nile are expressed ; by this they form a
judgment of the succeeding seasons ; when the water,
for instance, ascends to 23 feet, it is a sign of great fer¬
tility in Egypt. See Nilometer.
Instructive Column, that raised, according to Jose¬
phus, lib. i. cap. 3. by the sons of Adam, whereon
were engraven the principles of arts and sciences.
Baudelot tells us, that the son of Pisistratus raised ano¬
ther of this kind, of stone, containing the rules and
precepts of agriculture.
Itinerary Column, a column with several faces, pla¬
ced in the cross ways in large roads; serving to show Colnnm
the different routes by inscriptions thereon. -y—
Lactary Column, at Rome, according to Festus, was
a column erected in the herb-market, now the place
Montanara, which had a cavity in its pedestal, where¬
in young children abandoned by their parents, out of
poverty or inhumanity, were exposed, to be brought up
at the public expence.
Legal Column. Among the Lacedaemonians there
were columns raised in public places, whereon were en¬
graven the fundamental laws of the state.
Limitj'ophous or Boundary Column, that which shows
the limits of a kingdom or country conquered. Such
was that which Pliny says Alexander the Great erect¬
ed at the extremity of the Indies.
Manuhiary Column,irom the Latin manubice, “spoils
of the enemy ;” a column adorned with trophies built
in imitation of trees, whereon the spoils of enemies were
anciently hung. See Trophy.
Memorial Column, that raised on occasion of any
remarkable event, as the Monument of London, built
to’perpetuate the memory of the burning of that city
in 1666. It is of the Doric order, fluted, hollow,
with a winding staircase ; and terminated a-top with
waving flames. There is also another of the kind, in
form of an obelisk, on the banks of the Rhine in the
Palatinate, in memory of the famous passage of that ri¬
ver by the great Gustavus Adolphus and his army.
Menian Column, any column which supports a bal¬
cony or meniana. The origin of this kind of column,
Suetonius and Ascanius refer to one Menias ; who ha¬
ving sold his house to Cato and Flaccus, consuls, to be
converted into a public edifice, reserved to himself the
right of raising a column withoutside, to bear a balco¬
ny, whence he might see the shows.
Military Column, among the Romans, a column
whereon was engraven a list of the forces in the Roman
army, ranged by legions, in their proper order ; with
design to preserve the memory of the number of sol¬
diers, and of the order preserved in any military ex¬
pedition. They had another kind of military column,
which they called columna bellica, standing before the
temple of Janus; at the foot whereof the consul decla¬
red war by throwing a javelin towards the enemies
countries.
Milliary Column, was a column of marble raised by
order of Augustus in the middle of the Roman forum ;
from whence, as the centre, the distances of the several
cities, &c. of the empire were reckoned, by other mil¬
liary columns disposed at equal distances on all the
grand roads. This column was of white marble, the
same with that which is now seen on the ballustrade of
the perron of the capitol at Rome. Its proportion is
massive, being a short cylinder, the symbol of the globe
of the earth. It was called milliarium aureutn, as
having been gilt, at least the ball, by order of Augus¬
tus. It was restored by the emperors Vespasian and
Adrian, as appears by the inscriptions.
Sepulchral Column, anciently was a column erected
on a tomb or sepulchre, with an inscription on its base.
Those over the tombs of persons of distinction were
very large ; those for the common people small; these
last are called stellce and cippi.
Statuary Column,that which supports a statue. Such
was that erected by Pope Paul V. on a pedestal before
the
COL [ 293 ] COM
Column the church of St Maria at Rome $ to support a statue
(| of the Virgin, which is of gilt brass. This column was
Colyba. jug Up ;n the temple of Peace ; its shaft is a single
v ' block of white marble 49J feet high, and five feet eight
inches diameter, of the Corinthian order.
The term statuary column may likewise be applied
to Caryatides, Persians, termini, and other human fi¬
gures, which do the office of columns ; and which Vi¬
truvius calls telamones and atlantes. See Architec¬
ture, N° 54.
Triumphal Column, a column erected among the
ancients in honour of a hero $ the joints of the stones,
or courses whereof, were covered with as many crowns
as he had made different military expeditions. Each
crown had its particular name, as vallaris, which was
beset with spikes, in memory of having forced a pali¬
sade. Muralis, adorned with little turrets, or battle¬
ments, for having mounted an assault. Navahs, of
prows and beaks of vessels j for having overcome at
sea. Obsidionalis, or graminalis, of grass j for having
raised a siege. Ovans, of myrtle ; which expressed an
ovation, or little triumph ; and triumphalis, of laurel,
for a grand triumph. See Crown.
COLUMNARIUM, in Roman antiquity, a heavy
tribute demanded for every pillar of a house. It was
first laid on by Julius Caesar, in order to put a stop to
the extravagant expences laid out on sumptuous build¬
ings.
COLUMNEA. See Botany Index.
COLUMNIFERI, in Botany, an order of plants
in the fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus. See
Botany Index.
COLURES, in Astronomy and Geography, two
great circles supposed to intersect each other at right
angles in the poles of the world, and to pass through
the solstitial and equinoctial points of the ecliptic. See
Geography.
COLURI, a little island in the gulf of Engia, in
the Archipelago, formerly called Salamis. The prin¬
cipal town is of the same name, and seated to the south
side, at the bottom of the harbour, which is one of the
finest in the world. The famous Grecian hero, Ajax,
who makes such a figure in Homer’s Iliad, was king
of this island. It is now, however, but a poor place j
its commodities consist of wheat, barley, tar, rosin,
pit-coal, sponges, and pot-ashes, which they carry to
Athens. It is seven miles south from Athens, and is
separated from the continent by a strait about a mile
over.
COLUTEA, Bastard-sena. See Botany Index.
COLYBA, or Colybus j a term in the Greek li-
turgy, signifying an offering of corn and boiled pulse,
made in honour of the saints, and for the sake of the
dead.
Balsamon, P. Goar, Leo Allatius, and others, have
written on the subject of colybce; the substance of what
they have said is as follows : 1 he Greeks boil a quan¬
tity of wheat, and lay it in little heaps on a plate ;
adding beaten peas, nuts cut small, and grape-stones,
which they divide into several compartments, sepa¬
rated from each other by leaves of parsley. A little
heap of wheat, thus seasoned, they call They
have a particular formula for the benediction of the
cohjhce, wherein, praying that the children of Babylon
may be fed with pulse, and that they may be in better
condition than other people, they desire God to bless Col)ba
those fruits, and those who eat them, because offered ||
to his glory, to the honour of such a saint, and in me- Con|l)ina
mory of the faithful deceased. Balsamon refers the . tl<>11,
institution of this ceremony to St Athanasius; but
the Greek Synaxary to the time of Julian the apo¬
state.
COLYMBUS, a genus of birds belonging to the or¬
der of anseres. See Ornithology Index.
COM, a town of Asia in the empire of Persia, and
province of Irac-agemi. It is a large populous place,
but has suffered greatly by the civil w'ars. E. Long.
51. 56. N. Lat. 34. 5.
COMA, or Coma-vigil, a preternatural propensity
to sleep, when, nevertheless, the patient does not sleep,
or if he does, awakes immediately w'ithout any relief.
See Medicine Index.
Coma Berenices, Berenice’s hair, in Astronomy, a
modern constellation of the northern hemisphere, com¬
posed of unformed stars between the Lion’s tail and
Bootes. This constellation is said to have been form¬
ed by Conon, an astronomer, in order to console the
queen of Ptolemy Euergetes for the loss of a lock of
her hair, which was stolen out of the temple of Venus,
where she had dedicated it on account of a victory ob¬
tained by her husband. The stars of this constella¬
tion, in Tycho’s Catalogue, are fourteen ; in Heveli-
us’s, twenty-one j and in the Britannic Catalogue, for¬
ty-three.
Coma Somnolentum, is when the patient continues
in a profound sleep j and, when awakened, immedi¬
ately relapses, without being able to keep open his
eyes.
COMARUM, Marsh-cinquefoil. See Botany
Index. ,
COMB, an instrument to clean, untangle, and dress
flax, wool, hair, &c.
Combs for wool are prohibited to be imported into
England.
Comb is also the crest, or red fleshy tuft, growing
upon a cock’s head.
COMBAT, in a general sense, denotes an engage¬
ment, or a difference decided by arms. See Battle.
Combat, in our ancient law, was a formal trial of
some doubtful cause or quarrel, by the swords or ha¬
stens of two champions. This form of proceeding was
very frequent, not only in criminal but in civil causes j
being built on a supposition that .God would never
grant the victory but to him who had the best right.
The last trial of this kind in England was between
Donald Lord Reay appellant, and David Ramsay, Esq.
defendant, when, after many formalities, the matter
was referred to the king’s pleasure. See the article
Battle.
COMBINATION, properly denotes an assemblage
of several things, two by two.
Combination, in Mathematics, is the variation or
alteration of any number of quantities, letters, or
the like, in all the different manners possible. See
Changes.
Aphorisms. I. In all combinations, if from an aritlio
metic decreasing series, whose first term is the number
out of which the combinations are to be formed, and
whose common difference is 1, there be taken as many
terms as there are quantities to be combined, and these
terms
COM [ 294 ] COM
Comblna- terms lie multiplied into each other 5 and if from the
tion. series, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. there may be taken the same
' » ‘ number of terms, and they be multiplied into each
other j and the first product be divided by the second j
the quotient will be the number of combinations re¬
quired. Therefore, if you would know how many
ways four quantities can be combined in seven, multi¬
ply the first four terms of the series, 7, 6, 5, 4, &c.
together, and divide the product, which will be 840,
by the product of the first four terms of the series, 1,
2, 3, 4, which is 24, and the quotient 35 will
be the combination of 4 in 7. II. In all permutations,
if the series I, 2, 3, 4, &c. be continued to as many
terms as there are quantities to be changed, and those
terms be multiplied into each other; the product will
be the number of permutations sought. Thus, if you
would know how many permutations can be formed with
five quantities, multiply the terms I, 2, 3, 4, 5, together,
and the product 120 will be the number of all the per¬
mutations.
Problems. 1. To find the number of changes that
may be rung on 12 bells. It appears by the second
aphorism, that nothing more is necessary here than to
multiply the numbers from I to 12 continually into
each other, in the following manner, and the last pro¬
duct will be the number sought.
1
2
2
_3_
6
4
24
_±
120
6
the quotient, which is 478,741,050,720,092,160, will Combinaj
be the number of yards required, to contain the tion
above-mentioned number of permutations. But as all —y—“
the 24 letters are contained in every permutation,
it will require a space 24 times as large $ that is,
11,489,785,217,282,211,840. Now the number of
square yards contained on the surface of the whole
earth is but 617,197,435,008,000, therefore it would
require a surface 18620 times as large as that of the
earth to write all the permutations of the 24 letters in
the size above mentioned.
III. To find bow many different ways the eldest
hand at picquet may take in his five cards. The eldest
hand having 12 cards dealt him, there remain 20
cards, any five of which may be in those he takes in $
consequently we are here to find how many ways five
cards may be taken out of 20. Therefore, by apho¬
rism I. if we multiply 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, into each
other, which will make 1860480, and that number be
divided by I, 2, 3, 4, 5, multiplied into each other,
will make 120, the quotient, which is 15504, will be
the number of ways five cards may be taken out of
20. From hence it follows, that it is 15503 to I,
that the eldest hand does not take in any five certain
cards.
IV. To find the number of deals a person may play
at the game of whist, without ever holding the same
cards twice. The number of cards played with at
whist being 52, and the number dealt to each person
being 13, it follows, that by taking the same me¬
thod as in the last experiment, that is, by multiply¬
ing 52 by 51, 50, &c. so on to 41, which will make
3,954,242,643,911,239,680,000, and then dividing
that sum by I, 2, 3, &c. to 13, which will make
6,227,020,800, the quotient, which is 635,013,559,600
will be the number of different ways 13 cards may be
taken out of 52, and consequently the number sought.
720
7
5040
 8
40320
  9
362880
10
3628800
11
39916800
 12
479,001,600
II. Suppose the letters of the alphabet to be wrote
so small that no one of them shall take up more space
than the hundredth part of a square inch : to find how
many square yards it would require to write all the
permutations of the 24 letters in that size. By fol¬
lowing the same method as in the last problem, the
number of permutations of the 24 letters will be found
to be 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000. Now the
inches in a square yard being 1296, that number mul¬
tiplied by 100 gives 129,600, which is the number of
letters each square yard will contain 5 therefore if we
divide 62,044,840,173,323,943,936,000 by 129600,
W
o
&
<!
1—1
E-i
H
£
H
>—1
<1
CQ
O <1 M
^ -
til
£
* . S • VO
M
M 00 . 3.6
. NO ^ fS
M !>• CO • VO CS
.OO S w .
M VO . C* ^
* a « .
^ vo . 2
d £ 2 . vp
CO 0
M
vd
cb
o
cs .
to <S . >0 w
^ M o T}- ,4
• vo >1 I-t
*0 >0 . cs
O
^ CO
CS
00
vo
o co to
cs . ON
^ M to Tj-
V® VO .
^ eg M o
OO . Tj-
CN .
VO
vo
tw CO '"3* voV© t->00 Ov O >-1 M
The
Combina¬
tion.
COM [ 295 ] COM
The construction of this table is very simple. The
line A. a consists of the first 12 numbers. The line
Ab consists everywhere of units ; the second term 3,
of the line B c, is composed of the two terms 1 and 2
in the preceding rank: the third term 7, in that line,
is formed of the two terms 3 and 3 in the preceding
rank: and so of the rest j every term, after the first,
being composed of the two next terms in the preced¬
ing rank: and by the same method it may be conti¬
nued to any number of ranks. To find by this table
how often any number of things can be combined in
another number, under 13, as suppose five cards out of
8 : in the eighth rank look for the fifth term, which is
56, and that is the number required.
Though we have shown in the foregoing problems
the manner of finding, the combination of all number’s
whatever, yet as this table answers the same purpose,
for small numbers, by inspection only, it will be found
useful on many occasions j as will appear by the follow¬
ing examples.
V. To find how many different sounds may he pro¬
duced by striking on a harpsichord two or more of
the seven natural notes at the same time. 1. The
combinations of two in seven, by the foregoing tri¬
angle are, - - - - 21
2. The combinations of 3 in 7, are - 35
3. The combinations of 4 in 7, are - ”35
4. The combinations of 5, are - - 21
5. The combinations of 6, are " ” 7
6. The seven notes altogether once, - 1
Therefore the number of all the sounds will be 120
VI. Take four square pieces of pasteboard, of the
same dimensions, and divide them diagonally, that is,
by drawing a line from two opposite angles, as in the
figures, into 8 triangles ; paint 7 of these triangles
with the primitive colours, red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo, violet, and let the eighth be white. To
find how many chequers or regular four-sided figures,
different either in form or colour, may be made out
of those eight triangles. First, by combining two of
these triangles, there may be formed either the trian¬
gular square A, or the inclined square B called a rhomb.
Secondly, by combining four of the triangles, the large
square C may be formed $ or the long square D, called
a parallelogram.
Now the first two squares, consisting of two parts Combina-
out of 8, they may each of them, by the eighth rank tio*1-
of the triangle, be taken 28 different ways, which
makes 56. And the last two squares, consisting of
four parts, may each be taken by the same rank of the
triangle 70 times, which makes
To which add the foregoing number
And the number of the different squares that
may be formed of the 8 triangles will be 3
VII. A man has 12 different sorts of flowers, and a
large number of each sort. He is desirous of setting
them in beds or flourishes in his parterre : Six flowers
in some, 7 in others, and 8 in others •, so as to have the
greatest variety possible j the flowers in no two beds to
be the same. To find how many beds he must have.
1. The combinations of 6 and 12 by the last rank of the
triangle, are _ - - - 524
2. The combinations of 7 in 12, are - 792
3. The combinations of 8 in 12, are - 495
56
196
Therefore the number of beds must be - 2211
VIII. To find the number of chances that may be
thrown on two dice. As each die has six faces, and as
each face of one die may be combined with all the
faces of the others, it follows that 6 multiplied by 6,
that is, 36, will be the number of all the chances j as
is also evident from the following table :
Points.
2
3
4
5
63
76
8
96
10
11
12
2.2
4.1
3
.1
4.4
•3
5-
6- i
6.6
1.2
3-1
1.4
5*1
1.6
6.2
3-6
4
5.6
56
!-3
3-2
5-2
2.6
5*4
4.6
2-3
4.2
2-5
5-3
4-5
2.4
4-3
3-5
3-4
Numb, of
chances.
36
Numb, of
points.
2
6
12
20
3°
42
40
36
3°
22
12
252
It appears by this table, 1. That the number of
chances for each point continually increases to the point
of seven, and then continually decreases till 12: there¬
fore if two points are proposed to be thrown, the equa¬
lity, or the advantage of one over the other, is clearly
visible (a). 2. The whole number of chances on the
dice being 252, if that number be divided by 36, the
number of different throws on the dice, the quotient is
7 : it follows therefore, that at every throw there is
an equal chance of bringing seven points. 3. As there
are 36 chances on the dice, and only 6 of them
doublets, it is 5 to I, at any one throw, against throw¬
ing a doublet. ^
L By
(a) It is easy from hence to determine whether a bet proposed at hazard, or any other game wi ie ice, e
advantageous or not $ if the dice be true (which, by the way, is rarely the case for ^ny ong time to^e icr, as 1
is so easy for those that are possessed of a dexterity ol hand to change the true dice for ia se.J i
COM
COM [296
By the same method the number of chances upon
any number of dice may be found: for if 36 be mul¬
tiplied by 6, that product, which is 216, will be the
chances on 3 dice j and if that number be multiplied
by 6, the product will be the chances of 4 dice, &c.
" Combinations of the Cards. The following expe¬
riments, founded on the doctrine of combinations, may
possibly amuse a number of our readers. The tables
given are the basis of many experiments, as well on
numbers, letters, and other subjects, as on the cards;
but the effect produced by them with the last is the
most surprising, as that which should seem to prevent
any collusion, that is, the shuffling of the cards, is on
the contrary the cause from whence it proceeds.
It is a matter of indifference what numbers are made
use of in forming these tables. We shall here confine
ourselves to such as are applicable to the subsequent
experiments. Any one may construct them in such
manner as is agreeable to the purposes he intends they
shall answer.
To make them, for example, correspond to the nine
digits and a cipher, there must be ten cards, and at
the top of nine of them must he written one of the
digits, and on the tenth a cipher. These cards must
be placed upon each other in the regular order, the
number I being on the first, and the cipher at bottom.
You then take the cards in your left hand, as is com¬
monly done in shuffling, and taking off the two top
cards 1 and 2, you place the two following, 3 and 4,
upon them $ and under those four cards the three fol¬
lowing 5, 6, and 7 j at the top you put the cards 8
and 9, and at the bottom the card marked o j con¬
stantly placing in succession 2 at top and 3 at bottom :
And they will then be in the following order :
8.9.. 3.4..1.2...5.6.7..0
If you shuffle them a second time, in the same manner,
they will then stand in this order:
6.7.. 3.4..8.9..1.2.5.7..0
Thus, at every new shuffle they will have a differ¬
ent order, as is expressed in the following lines :
1 shuffle 8.9.3.4.1.2.5.6.7.0
2 6.7.3.4.8.9.1.2.5.0
3 2.5.3.4.6.7.8.9.1.0
4 9.1.3.4.2.5.6.7.8.0
5 7.8.3.4.9.1.2.5.6.0
6 5.6.3.4.7.S.9.1.2.0
7 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0
Tables of Combinations,
Constructed on the foregoing principles.
I. For ten Numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the ad. After the
2
5
These tables, and the following examples at piquet,
except the 36th, appear to have been composed by
M. Guyot.
II. For twenty four Numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
1 22
2 24
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
*3
M
16
17
18
J9
20
21
22
23
24
18
J9
x3
H
8
9
3
4
1
2
5
6
7
10
11
12
15
16
*7
20
21
22
21
22
12
15
5
6
9
3
18.
*9
23
24
*3
I4
8
4
1
2
7
10
11
16
*7
20
*7
20
2
7
I3
x4
3
18
12
x5
21
22
5
6
9
19
23
24
8
4
1
10
1 r
16
III.
It is a remarkable property of this number, that
the cards return to the order in which they were first
placed, after a number of shuffles, which added to the
number of columns that never change the order, is
equal to the number of cards. Thus the number of
shuffles is 7, and the number of columns in which the
cards marked 3, 4, &c. never change their places is 3,
which are equal to 10, the number of the cards. This
property is not common to all numbers j the cards
sometimes returning to the first order in a less number,
and sometimes in a greater number of shuffles than that
of the cards.
For twenty-seven Numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the ad. After the 3d.
*7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
23
24
18
x9
13
14
8
9
3
4
1
2
5
21
22
12
IS
5
6
9
3
18
19
13
24
I3
20
2
7
I3
x4
3
18
12
16
21
22
5
x4
COM
Order before dealing.
H
15
16
17
18
*9
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
After 1st deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
6
7
10
11
12
15
16
17
20
21
22
25
26
27
14
8
4
1
2
7
10
11
16
17
20
25
26
27
6
9
J9
23
24
8
4
1
10
11
16
2J
26
27
297 ] COM
which, after they have been twice shuffled, shall give Combina-
the following answer : tion.
A dream of joy that soon is o'er.
First write one of the letters in that line on each of
the cards (b). Then write the answer on a paper, and
assign one of the 24 first numbers to each card, in the
following order:
IV. For Thirty-two Numbers.
Order before dealing. After 1st deal. After the 2d. After the 3d.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
*5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
28
29
23
24
18
'9
*3
14
8
9
3
4
1
2
5
6
7
10
11
12
15
16
17
20
21
22
25
26
27
3°
31
32
26
27
17
20
10
n
1
2
14
8
23
24
28
29
18
J9
J3
9
3
4
5
6
7
12
16
21
22
25
32>
31
32-
22
25
7
12
9
3
28
29
2
14
J7
20
26
27
10
11
1
8
23
24
18
J9
*3
4
5
6
16
21
30
31
32
I. “ Several letters that contain no meaning, being
“ written upon cards, to make them, after they have
“ been twice shuffled, to give an answer to a question
“ that shall be proposed $ as, for example, What is
“ hve Let 24 letters be written on as many cards
I 2
1 S
DREAM
3 4 5 6
O’ E R.
OFJOY THAT SOON
7 8 9 10111213141516171819
20 21 22 23 24.
Next write on another paper a line of numbers
from 1 to 24, and looking in the table for 24 combi¬
nations, you will see that the first number after the se¬
cond shuffle is 21 5 therefore the card that has the first
letter of the answer, which is A, must be placed
against that number, in the line of numbers you have
just made (c). In like manner the number 22 being
the second of the same column, indicates that the card
which answers to the second letter D of the answer,
must be placed against that number j and so of the rest.
The cards will then stand in the following order :
1234 56789 10 11
OOFSAMNTO I S
12 13
R H
14
A
16 18
O ’E
!9
J
20
R
21
A
22
D
24
T
From whence it follows, that after these cards have
been twice shuffled, they must infallibly stand in the
order of the letters in the answer.
Observe, 1. You should have several questions, with
their answers, consisting of 24 letters, written on cards ;
these cards should he put in cases and numbered, that
you may know to which question each answer belongs.
You then present the questions $ and when any one of
them is chosen, you pull out the case that contains the
answer, and showing that the letters written on them
make no sense, you then shuffle them, and the answer
becomes obvious.
2. To make this experiment the mere extraordi¬
nary, you may have three cards, on each of which
an answer is written; one of which cards must be
a little wider, and another a little longer, than the
others. You give these three cards to any one, and
when he has privately chosen one of them, he gives
you the other two, which you put in your pocket with¬
out looking at them, having discovered by feeling
which he has chosen. You then pull out the case that
contains the cards that answer to his question, and per¬
form as before.
* 3. You may also contrive to have a long card at the
bottom after the second shuffle. The cards may be
then cut several times, till you perceive by the touch
that the long card is at bottom, and then give the an¬
swer ;
(b) These letters should be written in capitals on one of the corners of each card, that the words may be easily
legible when the cards are spread open.
(c) For the same reason, if you would have the answer after one shuffle, the cards must be placed according
to the first column of the table j or if after three shuffles, according to the third column.
Vol. VI. Part I. + P P
COM [ 298 ] COM
Combina- swer; for the repeated cuttings, however often, will
^oa. make no alteration in the order of the cards,
y—j The second of these observations is applicable to
some of the subsequent experiments, and the third may¬
be practised in almost all experiments with the cards.
You should take care to put up the cards as soon as
the answer has been shewn ; so that if any one should
desire the experiment to be repeated, you may offer
another question, and pull out those cards that contain
the answer.
Though this experiment cannot fail of exciting at all
times pleasure and surprise, ye t it must be owned that
a great part of the applause it receives arises from the
address with which it is performed.
II. “ The 24 letters of the alphabet being written
“ upon so many cards, to shuffle them, and pronounce
“ the letters shall then be in their natural order j but
“ that not succeeding, to shuffle them a second time,
“ and then show them in proper order.” Write the
24 letters on the cards in the following order:
1234 56789101112
RSHQ EFTPG U X C
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
NODYZ IK&ABLM
The cards being disposed in this manner, show them
upon the table, that it may appear they are promiscu¬
ously marked. Then shuffle and lay them again on the
table, pronouncing that they will be then in alphabe¬
tical order. Appear to be suprised that you have fail¬
ed •, take them up again, and give them a second shuffle,
and then counting them down on the t^ble they will
all be in their natural order.
III. “ Several letters being written promiscuously
“ upon 32 cards, after they have been once shuffled, to
“ find in a part of them a question ; and then shuffling
“ the remainder a second time, to show the answer.
“ Suppose the question to be, What is each Briton's
“ boast0? and the answer, His liberty; which taken
“ together contain 32 letters.”
After you have written those letters on 32 cards,
write on a paper the word, his liberty, and annex to
the letters the first ten numbers thus:
HISLIBERTY.
123456 789 10
Then have recourse to the table of combinations for
ten numbers, and apply the respective numbers to them
in the same manner as in experiment I. taking the first
column, as these are to be shuffled only once according
to that order.
12345678910
IBS L ERTHIY
This is the order in which these cards must stand
after the whole number 32 has been once shuffled, so
ihat after a second shuffle they may stand in their pro¬
per order. Next dispose the whole number of letters
according to the first column for 32 letters; the last
ten are to be here placed in the order above ; as fol¬
lows :
WHATI SEACHBRI TON’S
1 2 34 5 ^ 7 8 91011121314151617
BOAST? Combii
IBSLERTHIY
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
Therefore, by the first column of the table, they will
next stand thus :
1 234 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 i2 13 14 15 16
ITBRONSCHB O A E A S T long card.
17 18 10 20 21 22 23 24 2? 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
I 1 S B S LIBER T W H II I Y
You must observe, that the card here placed the
16th in order, being the last of the question, is a long
card ; that you may cut them, or have them cut, after
the first shuffle, at that part, and by that means sepa¬
rate them from the other ten cards that contain the
answer.
Your cards being thus disposed, you show that they
make no meaning ; then shuffle them once, and cut¬
ting them at the long card, you give the first part to
any one, who reads the question, but can find no an¬
swer in the other, which you open before him ; you
then shuffle them a second time, and show the answer
as above.
IV. “ To write 32 letters on so many cards, then
“ shuffle and deal them by twos to two persons, in
“ such manner, that the cards of one shall contain a
“ question, and those of the other an answer. Sup-
“ pose the question to be, Is nothing certain ? and the
“ answer, Yes, disappointment.''''
Over the letters of this question and answer, write
the following numbers, which correspond to the order
in which the cards are to be dealt by two and two.
ISNOTHI NG CE RTAIN?
31 32 27 28 23 24 19 20 15 16 11 12 7 8 3 4
YES, DI SAPOINTMENT.
29 30 25 26 21 22 17 18 13 14 9 10 5 6 1 2
Then have recourse to the first column of the table
for 32 numbers, and dispose these 32 cards in the fol¬
lowing order, by that column.
I 2 3 4 c 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
O I ERG CAN T P I N T A IS
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
TMEHSDINNOYNTE IS
The cards being thus disposed, shuffle them once,
and deal them two and two : when one of the parties
will necessarily have the question, and the other the
answer.
Instead of letters you may write words upon the 32
cards, 16 of which may contain a question, and the re¬
mainder the answer; or what other matter you please.
If there be found difficulty in accommodating the
words to the number of cards, there may be two or
more letters or syllables written upon one card.
V. “ The five beatitudes.” The five blessings we
will suppose to be, 1. Science. 2. Courage. 3. Health.
4. Riches, and, 5. Virtue. These are to be found
upon cards that you deal, one by one, to five persons.
First, write the letters of these words successively, in
the
Mnbina-
tion.
COM [ 299 ]
tlie order they stand, and then add the numbers here
annexed to them.
SCIENCECOURAGE
31262116x16 1 32272217127 2
H E A L T H R I CHES
28 23 18 13 8 3 29 24 19 14 94
VIRTUE
30 25 20 15 105
II Nine }sPa,les
17 King clubs
18 Ten 7 u
19 Nine Jhearts
^ 20 Seven clubs
21 Ace diamonds
22 Knave spades
23 Queen hearts
COM
24 Knave hearts
25 Ace spades
26 King diamonds
27 Nine clubs
28 Ace
1
hearts
29 King
30 Eight clubs
32 Sen }sPa'1,‘3
Then range them in order agreeable to the first co¬
lumn of the table for 32 numbers, as in the experi¬
ment. Thus,
I 2 345 67 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
LHNATEREUA C R G T 1U
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32
E EC I I CHSOHREEVS C
Next take a pack of cards and write on the four first
the word Science j on the four next, the word Courage j
and so of the rest.
Matters being thus prepared, you show that the
cards on which the letters are written convey no mean¬
ing. Then take the pack on which the words are writ¬
ten, and spreading open the first four cards, with their
backs upward, you desire the first person to choose one.
Then close those cards, and spread the next four to the
second person 5 and so to all the five j telling them to
hold up their cards lest you should have a confederate
in the room.
You then shuffle the cards, and deal them one by
one, in the common order, beginning with the person
who chose the first card, and each one will find in his
hand the same word as is written os his card. You
will observe, that after the sixth round of dealing, there
will be two cards left, which you give to the first and
second persons, as their words contain a letter more
than the others.
VI. “ The cards of the game of piquet being mixed
together, after shuffling them, to bring, by cutting
them, all the cards of each suit together.” The order
in which the cards must be placed to produce the effect
desired being established on the same principle as that
explained in experiment II. except that the shuffling
is hex-e to be repeated three times, we think it will be
sufficient to give the order in which they are to be
placed before the first shuffle.
Order of the Cards.
clubs
1 Ace
2 Knave
3 Eight J. (jjanjondg
4 beven
wide card
5 Ten clubs
6 Eight 7 1
7 beven j r
wide card
8 Ten
9 Nine y diamonds
10 Queen
. j
II Knave J
12 Queen clubs
12 1 hearts ’
14 beven 3 *
wide card
You then shuffle the cards, and cutting at the wide
card, which xvill be the seven of hearts, you lay the
eight cards that are cut, which will be the suit of
hearts, down on the table. Then shuffling the remaining
cards a second time, you cut at the second wide card,
which will be the seven of spades, and lay, in like
manner, the eight spades down on the table. You
shuffle the cards a third time, and offering them to
any one to cut, he will naturally cut them at the wide
card (d), which is the seven of diamonds, and con¬
sequently divide the remaining cards into two equal
parts, one of which will be diamonds and the other
clubs.
VII. “ The cards at piquet being all mixed together,
to divide the pack into two equal parts, and name
the number of points contained in each part.” You
are first to agree that each king, queen, and knave, shall
count, as usual, 10, the ace 1, and the other cards ac¬
cording to the number of the points. Then dispose
the cards, by the table for 32 numbers, in the following
order, and observe that the last card of the first divi¬
sion must be a wide card.
Ox-der of the Cards before shuffling.
' 1 Seven hearts
2 Nine clubs
3 Eight hearts
4 Eigflt 7
5 Knave > spades
6 Ten J
i 'tr
9 Ace hearts
wide card
10 Nine hearts
11 Queen spades
12 Knave clubs
13 Ten diamonds
14 Ten T
15 King > hearts
16 Queen J
17 Nine diamonds
18 Ace spades
19 Ten clubs
20 Knave T
21 Eight > diamonds
22 Knave j
23 Seven spades
24 Seven 1 ,
4 Queen r1’
26 Knave hearts
27 King clubs
28 Nine 7 j
29 King IsPadeS
30 Ace diamonds
31 Seven 1 , ,
32 Eight j-clubs
You then shuffle them carefully, according to the
method before described, and they will stand in the fol¬
lowing order.
P p 2 I Nine'
(d) You must take particular notice whether they be cut at the wide card, and if they are not, you mast have
them cut, or cut them again yourself.
c
Cards.
Numbers,
O M
Cards.
[ 3°o ]
C
1 Nine *1 9
2 King > spades 10
3 Seven J 7
4 Seven diamonds 7
5 Ace spades 1
carried up 34
Numbers,
brought up 34
6 Ten clubs 10
7 Ten diamonds 10
8 Ten hearts t 10
9 Ace clubs I
10 Ace hearts (wide card) 1
total 66
11 Eight hearts
12 Eight spades
13 Seven hearts
14 Nine clubs
'Ar:r}^
17 Queen clubs
18 Nine hearts
19 Queen spades
20 Knave clubs
21 King hearts
8
8
7
9
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
22 Queen hearts
23 Nine
24 Knave
25 Eight
26 King
27 Queen
28 Knave hearts
29 King clubs
30 Ace diamonds
brought up 101
diamonds
31 Seven!
32 Eight j
clubs
10
9
10
8
10
10
10
10
1
7
8
carried up 101
total 194
1 Eight hearts
2 Eight " 1
3 Knave | > spades
4 Ten , 1
5 Queen
6 Knave
7 King
8 Queen
9 Eight *"
10 fy"S diamonds
11 Queen
12 Ace
clubs
hearts
13 Seven 1 , ,
14 Eight j cl“l>s
15 Knave hearts
16 King clubs
17 Nine
}
18 Knave
19 Nine hearts
20 Queen spades
21 Seven hearts
22 Nine clubs
23 Ten hearts
24 Ace clubs
diamonds
25 Seven spades
26 Seven diamonds
27 Nine spades
28 IP"g1
29 Ace j r
O M
30 Ten clubs
31 Ten diamonds
32 Ace hearts
wide card.
The cards being thus disposed, you ask your adver¬
sary in what suit you shall repique him ? If he say in
clubs or diamonds, you must deal the cards by threes,
and the hands will be as follows:
Elder.
Hearts, king
■ ' queen
■■ ■    knave
   — nine
 eight
■ seven
Spades, queen
. ■ — - knave
■ —  eight
Diamonds, eight
Clubs, eight
Younger.
Clubs, ace
 king
•  ■ " queen
- knave
Diamonds, ace
 king
—— — queen
—— knave
nine
When the cards are by shuffling disposed in this or"
der, you cut them at the wide card, and pronounce
that the cards you have cut off contain 66 points, and
consequently the remaining part 194.
VIII. “ The Inconceivable Repique (e).” When
you would perform this experiment with the cards used
in the last, you must observe not to disorder the first 10
cards in laying them down on the table. Putting
those cards together, in their proper order therefore,
you shuffle them a second time in the same manner, and
offer them to any one to cut, observing carefully if he
cut them at the wide card, which will be the ace of
hearts, and will then be at top 5 if not, you must make
him, under some pretence or other, cut them till it is j
and the cards will then be ranged in such order that
you will repique the person against whom you play,
though you let him choose (even after he has cut) in
what suit you shall make the repique.
Order of the cards after they have been shuffled and
cut.
Rentree, or take in of
the elder.
Seven spades
Seven diamonds
Nine T
King > spades
Ace J
Spades, ten
Hearts, ten
Rentr^e of the younger
Ten clubs
Ten diamonds
Ace hearts
If he against whom you play, who is supposed to be
elder hand, has named clubs for the repique, and has
taken in five cards, you must then lay out the queen,
knave, and nine of diamonds, and you will have, with
the three cards you take in, a sixiem major in clubs,
and quatorze tens. If he leave one or two cards, you
must discard all the diamonds.
If he require to be repiqued in diamonds, then dis¬
card the queen, knave, and nine of clubs : or all the
clubs, if he leave two cards j and will then have a
hand of the same strength as before.
Note. If the adversary should discard five of his
hearts, you will not repique him, as he will then have
a septiem in spades: or if he only take one card : but
neither of these any one can do, who has the least
knowledge of the game. If the person against whom
you play would be repiqued in hearts or spades, you
must deal the cards by twos, and the game will stand
thus :
Elder hand.
King
nLT 5-‘>iaraon‘ls
Eight
der!
}
clubs
Younger hand.
Ace 1
King J
Queen
Queen
(e) This manoeuvre of piquet was invented by the countess of L-
ted by her to M. Guyot.
(a French lady), and communica-
Elder hand.
1
1
clubs
hearts
Queen
Knave j
Nine
Eight
Seven
Eight
Seven
Eight spades
Ken tree
Seven spades
Seven diamonds
Nine T
King > spades
Ace \
COM
Younger hand.
Queen T
Knave > spades
Ten J
King
Queen
Knave !> hearts
Ten
Nine
Rentree.
Ten clubs
Ten diamonds
Ace hearts
If he require to be repiqued in hearts, you keep the
quint to a king in hearts, and the ten of spades, and
lay out which of the rest you please j then, even if he
should leave two cards, you will have a sixiem major
in hearts, and quatorze tens, which will make a re¬
pique.
But if he demand to be repiqued in spades; at the
end of the deal you must dexterously pass the three
cards that are at the bottom of the stock (that is, the
ten of clubs, ten of diamonds, and ace of hearts) to
the top (f), and by that means you reserve the nine,
king, and ace of spades for yourself j so that hy keep¬
ing the quint in hearts, though you should be obliged
to lay out four cards, you will have a sixiem to a king
in spades, with which and the quint in hearts you must
make a repique.
Observe here likewise, that if the adversary lay out
only three cards, you will not make the repique 5 but
that he will never do, unless he be quite ignorant of the
game, or has some knowledge of your intention.
This last stroke of piquet has gained great applause,
when those that have publicly performed it have
known how to conduct it dexterously. Many persons
who understand the nature of combining the cards,
have gone as far as the passing the three cards from
the bottom of the stock, and have then been forced
to confess their ignorance of the manner in which it
was performed.
XI. w The Metamorphosed Cards.” Provide 32
cards that are differently coloured, on which several
different words are written, and different objects paint¬
ed. These cards are to be dealt two and two to four
persons, and at three different times, shuffling them
each time. After the first deal, every one’s cards are
to be of the same colour $ after the second deal they
are all to have objects that are similar : and after the
third, words that convey a sentiment.
3°i ]
Cards*
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
*4
15
16
18
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31 .
32
Dispose of the cards in the following order.
Cards.
1
2
3
4
Colours.
Yellow
Yellow
Green
Green
Objects.
Bird
Bird
Flower
Flower
Words.
I find
In you
Charming
Flowers
Colours.
White
White
Red
Red
Red
Red
Green
Green
White
White
Yellow
Yellow
White
Yellow
Yellow
White
Red
Red
Green
Green
Green
Green
Yellow
Red
Red
Yellow
White
White
c o
Objects.
Bird
Orange
Butterfly
Flower
Flower
Butterfly
Butterfly
Butterfly
Flower
Flower
Orange
Flower
Orange
Butterfly
Butterfly
Bird
Orange
Orange
Orange
Orange
Bird
Bird
Flower
Bird
Bird
Orange
Butterfly
Butterfly
M
Words.
To hear
Beauty
My
Notes
In
Shepherdess
Lover
Your
Of
An inconstant
Image
Enchanting
Adorn
My
Phyllis
Birds
Sing
Dear
And sweetness
The
Of
Present
As
Changes
Bosom
Me
Your
I long
The cards thus coloured, figured, and transcribed,
are to be put in a case, in the order they here stand.
When you would perform this experiment, you take
the cards out of the case, and show, without changing
the order in which they were put, that the colours,
objects, and words, are all placed promiscuously. You
then shuffle them in the same manner as before, and deal
them, two and two, to four persons, observing that they
do not take up their cards till all are dealt, nor mix
them together: and the eight cards dealt to each person
will be found all of one colour. You then take each
person’s cards, and put those of the second person un¬
der those of the first, and those of the fourth person
under those of the third. After which you shuffle them
a second time $ and having dealt them in the same
manner, on the first person’s cards will be painted all
the birds j on the second person’s cards all the butter¬
flies j on those of the third, the oranges ; and on those
of the fourth, the flowers. You take the cards a se¬
cond time, and observing the same precautions, shuffle
and deal them as before j and then the first person, who
had the last time the birds in his hand, will have the
words that compose this sentence :
Sing, dear birds ; I long to hear your enchanting notes.
The second person, who the last deal* had the butter¬
flies, will now have these words :
Of an inconstant lover your chajiges present me the image.
The third, who had the oranges, will have this sen¬
tence :
As
(f) The manner of doing this is explained in the article Legf.RDEMAIN.
c o
M
[ 302 ] COM
Combina¬
tion
Cotnedv.
As in my ’Phyllis, I find in you heauty and sweetness.
The fourth, who had the flowers, will have these
words :
Charming floivers, adorn the bosom ofi my shepherdess.
It seems quite unnecessary to give any further detail,
as they who understand the foregoing experiments will
easily perform this.
Among the different purposes to which the doctrine
of combinations may be applied, those of writing in
cipher, and deciphering, hold a principal place. See
the article CIPHER.
Combination, in Chemistry, signifies the union of
two bodies of different natures, from which a new
compound body results. For example, when an acid
is united with an alkali, we say that a combination be¬
twixt these two saline substances takes place $ because
fi'om this union a neutral salt results, which is compo¬
sed of an acid and an alkali.
COMBUST, in Astronomy. When a planet is in
conjunction with the sun, or not distant from it above
half its disk, it is said to be combust, or in com¬
bustion.
According to Argol, a planet is combust, or in com¬
bustion, when not above eight degrees and thirty mi¬
nutes distant from the sun, either before or after him.
COMBUSTIO FECUNliE, the ancient way of trying
mixed and corrupt money, by melting it down, upon
payments into the exchequer. In the time of King
Henry II. a constitution was made, called the trial by
combustioni the practice of which differed little or no¬
thing from the present method of assaying silver. But
whether this examination of money by combustion was
to reduce an equation of money only to sterling, viz.
a due proportion of alloy with copper, or to reduce it
to pure fine silver, does not appear. On making the
constitution of trial it was considered, that though the
money did answer numero et pondere, it might be de¬
ficient in value $ because mixed with copper or brass,
&c.
COMBUSTION, a term denoting the operation of
fire upon any inflammable substance, by which it
smokes, flames, and is reduced to ashes.
There is not a phenomenon in nature by which the
attention of philosophers has been more engaged, or
which has puzzled them more to account for, than this
very common operation. To explain it, theories have
been invented, the most opposite and contradictory to
one another that can be imagined; and, till very
lately, the state of science did not afford data sufficient
to explain it in a rational manner. See Chemistry
Index.
COMEDY, a sort of dramatic poetry, which gives
a view of common and private life, recommends vir¬
tue, and corrects the vices and follies of mankind by
means of ridicule. See the article Poetry.
This last kind alone was received among the Ho¬
mans, who nevertheless made a new subdivision of it
into ancient, middle, and new, according to the vari¬
ous periods of the commonwealth. Among the an¬
cient comedies were reckoned those of Emus Andro-
nicus $ among the middle those of Pacuvius j and a-
raong the new ones, those of Terence. They likewise
3
distinguished comedy according to the quality of the Comedy
persons represented, and the dress they wore, into ||
togatse, prsetextatse, trabeatae, and tabernariae, which Comet,
last agrees pretty nearly with our farces. Among us,
comedy is distinguished from farce, as the former re¬
presents nature as she is ; the other distorts and over¬
charges her. They both paint from the life, but with
different views : the one to make nature known, the
other to make her ridiculous. '
COMENIUS, John Amos, a grammarian and
Protestant divine, born in Moravia in 1592. He was
eminent for his design to introduce a new method
of teaching languages ; for which purpose he publish¬
ed some essays in 1616, and had prepared some others,
when the Spaniards pillaged his library, after having
taken the city of Fulnec, where he was minister and
master of the school. Comenius fled to Lesna, a city
of Poland, and taught Latin there. The book he pub¬
lished in 1631, under the title of Janua Linguarum
rescrata, gained him a prodigious reputation, insomuch
that he was offered a commission for regulating all the
schools in Poland. The parliament of England desi¬
red his assistance to regulate ths schools in that king¬
dom. He arrived at London in 1641 ; and would
have been received by a committee to hear his plan,
had not the parliament been taken up with other mat¬
ters. He therefore went to Sweden, being invited
by a generous patron, who settled a stipend upon him
that delivered him from the fatigues of teaching j and
now he employed himself wholly in discovering ge¬
neral methods for those who instructed youth. In
1657 he published the different parts of his new me¬
thod of teaching. He was not only taken up with the
reformation of schools ; but he also filled his brain with
prophecies, the fall of Antichrist, Millennium, &c. At
last Comenius took it into his head to address Louis
XIV. of France, and to send him a copy of the pro¬
phecies of Drabicius j insinuating, that it was to this
monarch God promised the empire of the world. He
became sensible at last of the vanity of his labours, and
died in 1671.
COMET, an opaque, spherical, and solid body
like a planet, performing revolutions about the sun
in elliptical orbits, which have the sun in one of their
foci.
There is a popular division of comets into tailed,
bearded, and hairy comets j though this division rather
relates to the difl’erent circumstances of the same co¬
met, than to the phenomena of several. Thus, when
the light is westward of the sun, and sets after it, the
comet is said to be tailed, because the train follows it
in the manner of a tail : when the comet is eastward
of the sun, and moves from it, the comet is said to be
bearded, because the light marches before it in the
manner of a beard. Lastly, when the comet and the
sun are diametrically opposite (the earth between
them), the train is hid behind the body of the comet,
except a little that appears round it in form of a bor¬
der of hair: and from this last appearance the word
comet is derived j as cometa, comes from ftofin,
coma, hair. But there have been comets whose disk
was as clear, as round, and as well defined, as that of
Jupiter, without either tail, beard, or coma. See
Astronomy Index.
COMETAMUM,
COM C 303 ] COM
Cometa- COMETARIUM, a curious machine, exhibiting
riuin an idea of the revolution of a comet about the sun.
II. See Astronomy Index.
Coroitia. ^ COMETEAN, a town of Bohemia in the circle of
* Saltz, with a handsome town-house. It was taken by
storm in 1421, and all the inhabitants, men, women,
and children, put to the sword. It is seated in a fer¬
tile plain, in E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 5c. 30.
COMETES. See Botany Index.
COMFREY. See Symphytum, Botany Index.
COMINES, Philip de, an excellent historian,
born of a noble family in Flanders in 1446. He lived
in a kind of intimacy with Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy, for about eight years 5 but being seduced
to the court of France by Louis XI. he was highly
promoted by him, and executed several successful ne¬
gotiations. After this king’s death he experienced
many troubles on account of being a foreigner, by the
envy of other courtiers, and lay long in prison before
he was discharged : he died in 1309. Comines was
a man of more natural abilities than learning-, he
spoke several living, but knew nothing of the dead
languages; he has left behind him some memoirs of
his own times, that are admired by all true judges of
history. Catherine de Medicis used to say, that Co¬
mines made as many heretics in politics as Luther had
done in religion.
Comines, a town of French Flanders, on the lines
which the French have made to defend their country
against the Austrian Netherlands. It is situated on
the river Lis, in E. Long. 3. I. N. Lat. 50. 30.
COMITATUS, in Law, a county. Ingulphus tells
us, that England was first divided into counties by
King Alfred j and the counties into hundreds, and
these again into tythings: and Fortescue writes, that
regnum Anglice per comitatus, ut regnum Franciee per
ballivatus distinguitur. Sometimes it is taken for a ter¬
ritory or jurisdiction of a particular place $ #is in Mat.
Paris, anno 1234. See County.
COMITIA, in Roman antiquity, were general as-
1 semblies of the people, lawfully called by some magis¬
trate for the enjoinment or prohibition of any thing
by their votes.
The proper comitia were of three sorts 5 curiata,
centuriata, and tributa; with reference to the three
grand divisions of the city and people into curice, cen-
turice, and tribes: For, by comitia calaia, which we
sometimes meet with in authors, in earlier times were
meant all the comitia in general j the word calata
from xxXix, or calo, being their common epithet j though
it was at last restrained to two sorts of assemblies, those
for the creation of priests, and those for the regulation
of last wills and testaments.
The comitia curiata owe their origin to the division
which Romulus made of the people into 30 curiae -,
ten being contained in every tribe. They answered
in most respects to the parishes in our cities, being not
only separated by proper bounds and limits, but di¬
stinguished too by their different places set apart for
the celebration of divine service, which was performed
by particular priests (one to every curia), with the
name of curiones.
Before the institution of the comitia centuriata, all
the grand concerns of the state were transacted in the
assembly of the curia j as the election of kings and
other chief officers, the making and abrogating of Comitia.
laws, and the judging of capital causes. After the ex- —v—
pulsion of the kings, when the commons had obtained
the privilege to have tribunes and sediles, they elected
them for some time at these assemblies; but that ce¬
remony being at length transferred to the comitia tri¬
buta, the curiae were never convened to give their
votes, except now and then upon account of making
some particular law, relating to adoptions, wills, and
tastaments, or the creation of officers for an expedi¬
tion ; or for electing come of the priests, as \\\z jlami-
nes, and the curio maximus, or superintendant of the
curiones, who were themselves chosen by every parti¬
cular curia.
The power of calling these assemblies belonged at
first only to the kings ; but upon the establishment of
the democracy, the same privilege was allowed to most
of the chief magistrates, and sometimes to the ponti-
fices.
The persons %vho had the liberty of voting here
were such Roman citizens as belonged to the curiae j
or such as actually lived in the city, and conformed
to the customs and rites of their proper curiae; all
those being excluded who dwelt without the bounds
of the city, retaining the ceremonies of their own
country, though they had been honoured with ihejus
civitatis, or admitted free citizens of Rome. The
place where the curiae met was the comitmm, a part of
the forum: No set time was appointed for the holding
these, or any other of the comitia, but only as business
required.
The people being met together, and confirmed by
the report of good omens from the augurs (which was
necessary in all the assemblies), the rogatio, or business
to be proposed to them was publicly read. After
this (if none of the magistrates interposed), upon
the order of him that presided in the comitia, the
people divided into their proper curias, and consulted
of the matter \ and then the curias being called out,
as it happened by lot, gave their votes man by man,
in ancient times viva voce, and afterwards by tablets j
the most votes in every curia going for the voice of the
whole curia, and the most curiae for the general con¬
sent of the people.
In the time of Cicero, the comitia curiata were so
much out of fashion, that they were formed only by
30 lictors representing the 30 curiae -, whence, in his
second oration against Rullus, he calls them comitia
adumbrata.
The comitia centuriata were instituted by Servius
Tullius * who, obliging every one to give a true ac¬
count of what he was worth, according to those ac¬
counts, divided the people into six ranks or classes,
which he subdivided into 193 centuries. The first
classis, containing the equites and richest citizens,
consisted of 98 centuries. The second, taking in the
tradesmen and mechanics, consisted of 22 centuries.
The third, 20. The fourth, 22. The fifth, 30.
The sixth, filled up with the poorer sort, but one
century: and this though it had the same name with
the rest, yet was seldom regarded, or allowed any
power in public matters. Hence it is a common thing
with the Roman authors, when they speak of the classes,
to reckon no more than five, the sixth not being
worth their notice. This last classis or order was di¬
vided
COM [ 3°4 1 COM
Comitia. vlded into two parts or orders; t\\c proletarii and the
 v capite censi. The former, as their name implies, were
designed purely to stock the republic with men, since
they could supply it with so little money : and the
latter, who paid the lowest tax of all, were rather
counted and marshalled by their heads than by their
estates.
Persons of the first rank, by reason of their pre-emi¬
nence, had the name of classici; whence came the name
of classici auctores for the most approved writers. All
others, of what classis soever, were said to be infra
classem. The assembly of the people by centuries was
held for the electing of consuls, censors, and praetors;
as also for the. judging of persons accused of what they
called crimen perduellionis, or actions by which the
party had showed himself an enemy to the state, and
tor the confirmation of all such laws as were proposed
by the chief magistrates, who had the privilege of cal¬
ling these assemblies.
The place appointed for their meeting was the cam¬
pus martins ; because in the primitive times of the com¬
monwealth, when they were under continual appre¬
hensions of enemies, the people, to prevent any sudden
assault, went armed, in martial order, to hold these
assemblies ; and were for that reason forbidden by the
laws to meet in the city, because an army was upon
no account to be marshalled within the walls ; yet, in
later ages, it was thought sufficient to place a body
of soldiers as a guard in the janiculum, where an im¬
perial standard was erected, the taking down of which
denoted the conclusion of the comitia.
Though the time of holding these comitia for other
matters was undetermined ; yet the magistrates, after
the year of the city 601, when they began to enter on
their place, on the kalends of January, were constant¬
ly designed about the end of July and the beginning of
August.
All the time between their election and confirmation
they continued as private persons, that inquisition
might be made into the election, and the other candi¬
dates might have time to enter objections, if they met
with any suspicion of unfair dealing. Yet, at the elec¬
tion of the censors, this custom did not hold ; but as
soon as they were elected, they were immediately in¬
vested with the honour.
By the institution of these comitia, Servius Tullius
secretly conveyed the whole of the power from the
commons-^ for the centuries of the first and richest
class being called out first, who were three more in
number than all the rest put together, if they all a-
greed, as generally they did, the business was already
decided, and the other classes were needless and insig¬
nificant. However, the three last scarce ever came to
vote.
The commons, in the time of the free state, to re¬
medy this disadvantage, obtained, that before they
proceeded to voting any matter at these comitia, that
century should give their suffrages first upon whom it
fell by lot, with the name of centuria prerogativa ; the
rest being to follow according to the order of their
classes. After the constitution of the 35 tribes into
which the classes and their centuries were divided, in
the first place, the tribes cast lots which should be the
prerogative tribe ; and then the centuries of the tribes
for the honour of being a prerogative century. All
the other tribes and centuries had the appellation of Comitia
jure vocatce, because they were called out according to t v —
their proper places.
The prerogative century being chosen by lot, the
chief magistrate, sitting in a tent in the middle of the
campus martius, ordered that century to come out and
give their voices ; upon which they presently separated
from the rest of the multitude, and came into an inclo¬
sed apartment, which they termed septa or ovilia, pas¬
sing over the pontes or narrow boards laid there for the
occasion ; on which account de pontibus dejici signifies
to be denied the privilege of voting, and persons thus
dealt with are called depontani.
At the higher end of the pontes stood the diribitores
(a sort of under officers, so called from their marshall¬
ing the people), and delivered to every man, in the
election of magistrates, as many tablets as there appear¬
ed candidates, one of whose names was written upon
every tablet. A proper number of great chests were
set ready in the septa, and every body threw in which
tablet he pleased.
By the chests were placed some of the public ser¬
vants, who taking out the tablets of every century,
for every tablet, made a prick or a point in another
tablet which they kept by them. Thus, the business
being decided by most points gave occasion to the
phrase omne tulit punctum, and the like.
The same method was observed in the justiciary pro¬
cess at these comitia, and in the confirmation of laws ;
except that, in both these cases, only two tablets were
offered to every person ; on one of which was written
U. R. and on the other A, in capital letters; the two
first standing for uti rogas, “ be it as you desire,” rela¬
ting to the magistrate who proposed the question; and
the last for antique, or “ I forbid it.”
It is remarkable, that though in the election of ma¬
gistrates, and in the ratification of laws, the votes of
that century, whose tablets were equally divided, sig¬
nified nothing ; yet in the trials of life and death, if the
tablets pro and con were the same in number, the per¬
son was actually acquitted.
The division of people into tribes was an invention
of Romulus, after he had admitted the Sabines into
Rome ; and though he constituted at that time only
three, yet as the state increased in power, and the
city in number of inhabitants, they rose by degrees to
35. For a long time after this institution, a tribe sig¬
nified no more than such a space of ground with its in¬
habitants. But at last the matter was quite altered,
and a tribe was no \ox\gerpars urbis, but civitatis ;
not a quarter of the city, but a company of citizens
living where they pleased. This change was chiefly
occasioned by the original difference between the tribes
in point of honour. For Romulus having committed
all sordid and mechanic arts to the care of strangers,
slaves, and libertines; and reserved the more honest
labour of agriculture to the freemen and citizens, who
by this active course of life might be prepared for
martial service; the tribus rusticce were for this rea¬
son esteemed more honourable than the tribus vrbance.
And now all persons being desirous of getting into the
more creditable division ; and there being several ways
of accomplishing their wishes, as by adoption, by the
power of censors, or the like ; that rustic tribe which
had the most worthy names in its roll had the prefe¬
rence
COM
t 305 ]
COM
Comida rence to all others, though of the same general de-
U nomination. Hence all of the same great family
Comma, bringing themselves by degrees into the same tribe,
- » gave the name of their family to the tribe they ho¬
noured ; whereas at first the generality of the tribes
did not borrow their names from persons but from
places.
The first assembly of the tribes we meet with is
about the year of Rome 263, convened by Sp. Sici-
nius, tribune of the commons, upon account of the trial
of Coriolanus. Soon after, the tribunes of the com¬
mons were ordered to be elected here; and at last
all the inferior magistrates, and the collegiate priests.
The same comitia served for the enacting of laws re¬
lating to war and peace, and all others proposed by
the tribunes and plebeian officers, though they had not
properly the name of leges, hni plebiscita. They were
generally convened by the tribunes of the commons ;
but the same privilege was allowed to all the chief
magistrates. They were confined to no place; and
therefore sometimes we find them held in the comitium ;
sometimes in the campus martius, and now and then
in the capitol. The proceedings were in most respects
answerable to those already described in the account
of the other comitia, and therefore need not be insist¬
ed on. Only we may farther observe of the comitia
in general, that when any candidate was found to have
most tablets for a magistracy, he was declared to be
designed or elected by the president of the assembly ;
and this they termed renunciari consul, preetor, or the
like ; and that the last sort of the comitia only could
be held without the consent or approbation of the
senate, which was necessary to the convening of the
other two.
COMITIALIS MORBUS, an appellation given to
the Epilepsy, by reason the comitia of ancient Rome
were dissolved if any person in the assembly happened
to be taken with this distemper.
COMITIUM, in Roman antiquity, a large hall in
the forum, where the Comitia were ordinarily held.
COMMA, among grammarians, a point or charac¬
ter marked thus (,), serving to denote a short stop,
and to divide the members of a period. Different au¬
thors define and use it differently. According to F.
Buffier, the comma serves to distinguish the members
of a period, in each of which is a verb and the nomi¬
native case of the verb : thus, “ That so many people
are pleased with trifles, is owing to a weakness of
mind, which makes them love things easy to be com¬
prehended.” Besides this, the comma is used to distin¬
guish, in the same manner of a period, several nouns-
substantive, or nouns-adjective, or verbs not united by
a conjunction : thus, “ Virtue, wit, knowledge, are
the chief advantages of a man or, “ A man never
becomes learned without studying constantly, metho¬
dically, with a gust, application,” &c. If those words
are united in the same phrase with a conjunction, the
comma is omitted : thus, “ the imagination and the
judgment do not always agree.”
The ingenious author of the tract De ratione in-
terpungendi, printed with Vossius’s Element. Rhetor.
Bond. 1734. lays down the use of a comma to be, to
distinguish the simple members of a period or sentence ;
i- e. such as only consist of one subject, and one defi¬
nite verb. But this rule does not go throughout; the
Vol. VI. Parti. f
same author instancing many particular cases not yet Comma
included herein, where yet the comma is advisable. II
See Punctuation. Commen-
It is a general rule that a comma ought not to come , ^ ^
between a nominative and a verb, or an adjective and
substantive, when these are not otherwise disjoined:
thus, in the sentence, God ruleth with infinite wisdom,
a comma between God and ruleth, or between infinite
and wisdom, would be absurd. But to this exceptions
may occur; as when riot a single word, but a sentence,
happens to be the nominative ; thus, in the example
first above given, where the sentence that so many
people are pleased with trifles, forms the nominative to
the verb is, a comma at trifles is proper, both for the
sake of perspicuity, and as coinciding with a slight na¬
tural pause.
Comma, in Music. See Interval.
COMM ANDINUS, Frederick, born at Urbino
in Italy, and descended from a very noble family, in the
16th century. To a vast skill in the mathematics, he
had added a great knowledge in the Greek tongue, by
which he was well qualified to translate the Greek
mathematicians into Latin : accordingly he transla¬
ted and published several, which no writer till then
had attempted j as Archimedes, Apollonius, Euclid,
&c.
COMMANDRY, a kind of benefice or fixed reve¬
nue. belonging to a military order, and conferred on
ancient knights who had done considerable services to
the order.
There are strict or regular commandries, obtain¬
ed in order and by merit ; there are others of grace
and favour, conferred at the pleasure of the grand
master; there are also commandries for the religious
in the orders of St Bernard and St Anthony. The
kings of France have converted several of the hos¬
pitals for lepers into commandries of the order of St
Lazarus.
The commandries of Malta are of different kinds ;
for as the order consists of knights, chaplains, and bro¬
thers servitors, there are peculiar commandries or re¬
venues attached to each. The knight to whom one
of these benefices or commandries is given is called
commander, which agrees pretty nearly with the
praepositus set over the monks in places at a distance
from the monastery, whose administration was called
obedientia; because depending entirely upon the ab¬
bot who gave him his commission. Thus it is with 1
the simple commanders of Malta, who are rather far¬
mers of the order than beneficiaries; paying a certain
tribute or rent, called responsio, to the common trea¬
sury of the order.
COMMELTNA. See Botany Index.
COMMEMORATION, in a general sense, the re¬
membrance of any person or thing, or the doing any
thing to the honour of a person’s memory, or in re¬
membrance of any past event. Thus, the eucharist is
a commemoration of the sufferings of Jesus Christ.
COMMENDAM, in the ecclesiastical law, the trust
or administration of the revenues of a benefice, given
either to a layman, to hold by way of depositum for
six months, in order to repairs, &c. or to an ecclesias¬
tic or beneficed person, to perform the pastoral duties
thereof, till once the benefice is provided with a regu¬
lar incumbent. ^
Q q Anciently
COM
[ 3°6 ]
COM
Anciently the administration of vacant bishoprics
belonged to the nearest neighbouring bishop; which is
still practised between the archbishopric cl Jj\ons and
the bishopric of Autun 1 on this account they weie
called commendatory bishops.
This custom appears to be very ancient. St Atha¬
nasius says of himself, according to Nicephorus, that
there had been given him in commendam, i. e. in ad¬
ministration, another church besides that of Alexandria
whereof lie was stated bishop.
The care of churches, it seems, which had no pastor,
was committed to a bishop, till they were provided
with an ordinary : the register of Pope Gregory I. is
full of these commissions, or commendams, granted du¬
ring the absence or sickness ol a bishop, or the vacancy
of the see.
Some say, that Pope lieo IV. first established the
modern commendams, in favour of ecclesiastics who had
been expelled their benefices by the Saracens ; to whom
the administration of the vacant churches was commit¬
ted for a time, in expectation of their being restored j
though St Gregory is said to have used the same while
the Lombards desolated Italy.
In a little time the practice of commendams was ex¬
ceedingly abused j and the revenues of monasteries gi¬
ven to laymen for their subsistence. The bishops also
procured several benefices, or even bishoprics, in com-
mendam, which served as a pretext for holding them
all, without directly violating the canons. Part of the
abuse has been retrenched $ but the use of commendams
is still retained as an expedient to take oft the incom¬
patibility of the person by the nature of the benefice.
When a parson is made bishop, his parsonage becomes
vacant ; but if the king give him power, he may still
hold it in commendam.
COMMENDATUS, one who lives under the pro¬
tection of a great man. Commendati homines, were
persons who, by voluntary homage, put themselves
Commen.
tary.
under the protection of any superior lord : for ancient Coin men
homage was either predial, due for some tenure $ or dams
personal, which was by compulsion, as a sign of neces¬
sary subjection ; or voluntary, with a desire of protec¬
tion 5 and those who, by voluntary homage, put them¬
selves under the protection of any man of power, were
sometimes called homines ejus commendati, as often oc¬
curs in Doomsday. Commendati dimidii were those
who depended on two several lords, and paid one half of
their homage to each ; and sub-commendati were like
under-tenants under the command of persons that were
themselves under the command of some superior lord :
also there were dimidii sub-commendati, who bore a
double relation to such depending lords. This phrase
seems to be still in use in the usual compliment, “ Com¬
mend me to such a friend,” &c. which is to let him
know, “ I am his humble servant.”
COMMENSURABLE, among geometricians, an
appellation given to such quantities as are measured by
one and the same common measure.
Commensurable Numbers, whether integers or frac¬
tions, are such as can be measured or divided by some
other number without any remainder j such are I2and
18, as being measured by 6 and 3.
Commensurable in Power, is said of right lines,
when their squares are measured by one and the same
space or superfices.
Commensurable Surds, those that being reduced
to their least terms, become true figurative quantities
of their kind ; and are therefore as a rational quantity
to a rational one.
COMMENTARY, or Comment, in matters of li¬
terature, an illustration of the difficult or obscure pas¬
sages of an author.
Commentary, or Commentaries, likewise denotes a
kind of history, or memoirs of certain transactions,
wherein the author had a considerable hand : such are
the Commentaries of Caesar.
COMMERCE,
TS an operation by which the wealth, or work, either
-*■ of individuals or of societies, may be exchanged by
a set of men called merchants, for an equivalent, proper
for supplying every want, without any interruption to
industry, or any check upon consumption.
Chap. I. History 0/Commerce.
§ 1. General History.
It is a point as yet undecided by the learned, to
what nation the invention and first use of commerce
belonged : some attribute it to one people, some to
another, for reasons that are too long to be discussed
here. But it seems most probable that the inhabitants
of Arabia were those that first made long voyages.
It must be allowed, that no country was so happily
situated for this purpose as that which they inhabited,
being a peninsula washed on three sides by three fa¬
mous seas, the Arabian, Indian, and Persian. It is
also certain, that it was very early inhabited 5 and the
first notice we have of any considerable trade refers
it to the Ishmaelites, who were settled in the hither
part of Arabia. To them Joseph was sold by his
brethren, when they were going down with their ca¬
mels to Egypt with spicery, balm, and myrrh. It
may seem strange to infer from hence, that commerce
was already practised by this nation, since mention is
here made of camels, or a caravan, which certainly
implies an inland trade $ and it must be likewise al¬
lowed, that balm and myrrh were the commodities of
their country. But whence had they the spicery ? Or
how came Arabia to be so famous in ancient times for
spices ? Or whence proceeded that mistake of many
great authors of antiquity, that spices actually grew
there ? Most certainly, because these people dealt ill
them} and that they dealt in them the first of any
nation that we know of, appears from this very in¬
stance. Strabo and many other good authors assure
us, that in succeeding times they were very great
traders: they tell us particularly what ports they had ",
what prodigious magazines they kept of the richest
kinds
COMMERCE,
Hittory. kinds of goods ; what wonderful wealth they obtained j
—y—' in what prodigious magnificence they lived, and into
what excesses they fell in respect to their expences for
carving, building, and statues. All this shows that
they were very great traders j and it also shows, that
they traded to the East Indies j and from thence only
they could have their spices, their rich gums, their
sweet-scented woods, and their ivory, all which it is
expressly said they had in the greatest abundance.
This therefore proves, that they had an extensive and
flourishing commerce j and that they had it earlier
than any other nation, seems evident from their deal¬
ing at that time in spices. Besides, there is much less
difficulty in supposing that they first discovered the
route to the Indies, than if we ascribe that discovery
to any other nation ; for, in the first place, they lay
nearest, and in the next they lay most conveniently j
to which we may add, thirdly, that as the situation
of their country naturally inclined them to navigation,
so by the help of the monsoons they might make re¬
gular voyages to and from the Indies with great facili¬
ty ; nor is it at all unlikely that this discovery might
be at first owing to chance, and to some of their vessels
being blown by a strong gale to the opposite coast, from
whence they might take the courage to return, by ob¬
serving the regularity of the winds at certain seasons.
All these reasons taken together seem to favour this
opinion, that commerce flourished first among them ;
and as to its consequences in making them rich and
happy, there is no dispute about them.
We find in the records of antiquity no nation cele¬
brated more early for carrying all arts to perfection
than the inhabitants of Egypt: and it is certain also,
that no art was there cultivated more early, with
more assiduity, or with greater success, than trade.
It appears from the foregoing instance, that the richest
commodities were carried there by land j and it is no
less certain, that the most valuable manufactures were
invented and brought to perfection there many ages
before they were thought of in other countries; for,
as the learned Dr Warburton very justly observes, at
the time that Joseph came into Egypt, the people
were not only possessed of all the conveniences of
life, but were remarkable also for their magnificence,
their politeness, and even for their luxury j which ar¬
gues, that traffic had been of long standing amongst
them. To say the truth, the great advantages deri¬
ved from their country’s lying along the Red sea, and
the many benefits that accrued to them from the Nile,
which they very emphatically called The liivej', or The
River of Egypt, and of which they knew how to make
all the uses that can be imagined, gave them an op¬
portunity of carrying their inland trade not only to a
greater height than in any country at that time, but
even higher than it has been carried anywhere, Chi¬
na only excepted $ and some people have thought it
no trivial argument to prove the descent of the Chi¬
nese from the Egyptians, that they have exactly the
same sort of genius, and with wonderful industry and
care have drawn so many cuts and canals, that their
country is almost in every part of it navigable. It
was by such methods, by a wise and well-regulated
government, and by promoting a spirit of industry
amongst the people, that the ancient Egyptians be¬
came so numerous, so rich, so powerful} and that
3^7
their country, for large cities, magnificent structures, History,
and perpetual abundance, became the glory and won- ‘"1 '» . -f
der of the world.
The Phoenicians, though they possessed only a nar¬
row slip of the coast of Asia, and were surrounded by
nations so powerful and so warlike that they were
never able to extend themselves on that side, became
famous, by erecting the first naval power that makes
any figure in history, and for the raising of which they
took the most prudent and ciTectual measures. In or¬
der to this, they not only availed themselves of all the
creeks, harbours, and ports, which nature had bestow¬
ed very liberally on their narrow territory, but im¬
proved them in such a manner, that they were no less
remarkable for their strength than considerable for
their conveniency ; and so attentive were they to
whatever might contribute to the increase of their
power, that thev were not more admired for the vast
advantages they derived from their commerce, than
they were formidable by their fleets and armies.
They were likewise celebrated by antiquity as the in¬
ventors of arithmetic and astronomy j and in the last-
mentioned science they must have been very consider¬
able proficients, since they had the courage to under¬
take long voyages at a time when no other nation
(the Arabians and Egyptians excepted) durst venture
farther than their own coasts. By these arts Tyre
and Sidon became the most famous marts in the uni¬
verse, and were resorted to by all their neighbours,
and even by people at a considerable distance, as the
great storehouses of the w;orld. We learn from the
Scriptures how advantageous their friendship and al¬
liance became to the two great kings of Israel, David
and Solomon ; and we see, by the application of the
latter for architects and artists to Hiram king of Tyre,
to what a prodigious height they had carried manufac¬
tures of every kind.
It is very certain that Solomon made use of their
assistance in equipping his fleets at Elath and Rzionge-
ber j and it is very probable that they put him upon
acquiring those ports, and gave him the first hints of
the amazing advantages that might be derived from
the possession of them, and from the commerce he
might from thence be able to carry on. Ihese ports
were most commodiously situated on the Arabian
gulf j and from thence his vessels, manned chiefly by
Phoenicians, sailed to Ophir and Tharsis, wherever
those places were. Some writers will needs, have
them to be Mexico and Peru, which is certainly a
wild and extravagant supposition ; others believe that
we are to look for Ophir on the coast of Afiica,
and Tharsis in Spain j but the most probable opinion
is, that they were both seated in the East Indies.
By this adventurous navigation, he brought into his
country curiosities not only unseen, but unheard of be¬
fore, and riches in such abundance, that, as the Scrip¬
ture finely expresses it, “ He made silver in Jerusalem
as stones, and cedar-trees as sycamores that grow in the
plains.” The metaphor is very bold and emphatical }
but when wre consider that it is recorded in this Hi¬
story, that the return of one voyage only to Ophir
produced 450 talents of gold, which makes 51,320
pounds of our Troy weight, about 2,463,744!. sterling,
we cannot doubt of the immense profit that acciued 10m
this commerce. It is also observable that the queen of
Q q 2 Sheba,
308 COMMERCE.
History. Sheba, or Saba, which lies in that part of Arabia be-
fore mentioned, surprised at the reports that were spread
of the magnificence of this prince, made a journey to
his court on purpose to satisfy herself, whether fame had
not exaggerated the fact 5 and from the presents she
made him of 120 talents of gold (656,640!.), of spices
in great abundance, and precious stones, we may dis¬
cern the true reason of her curiosity, which proceeded
from an opinion that no country could be so rich as her
own. And there is another circumstance very rema'rk-
able, and which seems strongly to fortify what we have
advanced in the beginning of this section ; it is added,
u neither were there any such spices as the queen of
Sheba gave to King Solomon which seems to inti¬
mate, that the Arabians had penetrated farther into
the Indies than even the fleets of this famous prince,
and brought from thence other spices (perhaps nut¬
megs and cloves) than had ever been seen before. It
was by his wisdom, and by his steady application to
the arts of peace, all of which mutually support each
other, as they are all driven on by the wheel of com¬
merce, which supplies every want, and converts every
superfluity into merchandise, that this monarch raised
his subjects to a condition much superior to that of
any of their neighbours, and rendered the land of Is¬
rael, while he governed it, the glory and wonder of
the East. He made great acquisitions without making
wavs ; and his successor, by making wars, lost those
acquisitions. It was his policy to keep all his people
employed j and, by employing them, he provided
equally for the extension of their happiness, and his
own power; but the following kings pursued other
measures, and other consequences attended them.
The trade of Judea sunk almost as suddenly as it rose,
and in process of time they lost those ports on the
lied sea, upon which their Indian commerce depend¬
ed.
The whole trade of the universe became then, as
it were, the patrimony of the Phoenicians and the
Egyptians. The latter monopolized that of the In¬
dies, and, together with her corn and manufactures,
brought such a prodigious balance of wealth continu¬
ally into the country, as enabled the ancient monarchs
of Egypt to compass all those memorable works, that,
in spite of time and barbarous conquerors, remain the
monuments of their wisdom and power, and are like
to remain so as long as the world subsists. The Phoe¬
nicians drew from Egypt a great part of those rich
commodities and valuable manufactures which they
exported into all the countries between their own and
the Mediterranean sea $ they drew likewise a vast re¬
sort to their own cities, even from countries at a
great distance ; and we need only look into the pro¬
phets Isaiah and Ezekiel in order to be convinced that
these governments, founded on trade, were infinitely
more glorious and more stable than those that were
erected by force. All this we find likewise confirmed
by profane histories •, and by comparing these, it is
evident, that the industry of the inhabitants of this
small country triumphed over all obstacles, procured
the greatest plenty in a barren soil, and immense
riches, where, without industry, there must have been
the greatest indigence. It is true, that old Tyre was
destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, but not till she had
flourished for ages} and even then she fell witE dig¬
nity, and after a resistance that ruined the army of Histoiy.
the great conqueror of Asia. Out of the ashes of ‘t-—
this proud city the great spirit of its inhabitants pro¬
duced a phoenix, little, if at all, inferior in beauty to
its parent. New Tyre was situated on an island } and
though her bounds were very narrow, yet she became
quickly the mistress of the sea, and held that supreme
dominion till subdued by Alexander the Great, whom
no power could resist. The struggle she made, how¬
ever, though unsuccessful, w7as great, and very much
to the honour of her inhabitants : it must be owned,
that the Greek hero found it more difficult to master
this single place, than to overcome the whole power of
Persia.
The views of the Macedonian prince were beyond
comparison more extensive than his conquests j and
whoever considers Alexander’s plan of power, and
enters into it thoroughly, will think him more a po¬
litician than he was a conqueror. He framed in his
own mind an idea of universal monarchy, which it
was indeed impossible to accomplish } but the very no¬
tion of it does him far greater honour than all his vic¬
tories. He thought of placing his capital in Arabia }
and of disposing things in such a manner, as to have
commanded the most remote part of the Indies, at
the same time that he maintained a connexion with
the most distant countries in Europe. He was for
making use of force to acquire, but be very well
knew, that commerce only could preserve, an empire,
that was to have no other limits than those which na¬
ture had assigned the world. He desired to be master
of all } but at the same time he was willing to be a
wise and gracious master, and to place his happiness
in that of his people, or rather in making all the na¬
tions of the earth but one people. A vast, an extra¬
vagant, an impracticable scheme it was, of which he
lived not long enough to draw the outlines ; but the
sample he left in his new city of Alexandria sufficiently
shows how just and how correct his notions were, and
how true a judgment he had formed of what might
be effected by those methods upon which he depended.
That city, which he might be said to design with his
own hand, and which was built, as it were, under his
eye, became in succeeding times all that he expected,
the glory of Egypt, and the centre of commerce for
several ages.
While Tyre was in the height of her glory, and had
no rival in the empire of the sea, she founded her
noble colony of Carthage on the coast of Africa. The
situation of the city was everywhere admirable, whe¬
ther considered in the light of a capital, of a strong
fortress, or of a commodious port. It was equally
distant from all the extremities of the Mediterranean
sea, had a very fine country behind it, and was not in
the neighbourhood of any power capable of restraining
its commerce or its growth. It is almost inexpressible
how soon its inhabitants became not only numerous
and wealthy, but potent and formidable. By degrees
they extended themselves on all sides, conquered the
best part of Spain, and erected there a new Carthage }
the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, or at least the
best part of them, submitted likewise to their yoke.
Their conquests, however, were inconsiderable in ex¬
tent, when compared with their navigation. On one
side they stretched. as far westward as Britain } and
the
COMMERCE.
History, the Scilly islands, which are now so inconsiderable,
—v~-—' were to them an Indies, the route to which they used
the utmost industry to conceal. On the other hand,
they discovered a great part of the coast of Africa,
the Canary islands ; and some there are who believe
they first found the way to America. While they
consigned themselves to trade, and the arts which be¬
longed thereto, their power was continually increas-
sing $ but when industry gave way to luxury, and a
spirit of ambition banished their old maxims of fruga¬
lity and labour, their acquisitions remained at a stand.
The Romans began to grow jealous ef their naval
power, which it cost them two obstinate wars of 40
years continuance to humble. When she w’as at length
destroyed, her very ruins were majestic*, for at the
beginning ol the third fatal Punic war, this city con¬
tained 700,000 inhabitants alone, and had 300 cities
in Africa under her dominion. Such was the empire
of Carthage, raised entirely by commerce: and to
which, if she had been content to have applied herself
with the same steadiness in her highest prosperity as in
her early beginnings, there is no doubt she had pre¬
served her freedom much longer than she did ; for as
economy, diligence, and good faith, are the pillars of
a commercial state *, so when these are once shaken, it
is not only natural that she should decline, but also
unavoidable.
The Ptolemies, who were the successors of Alex¬
ander in Lgypt, entered deeply into that hero’s scheme,
and reaped the benefit of his wise establishment. Pto¬
lemy Philadelphus, by encouraging trade, made his
subjects immensely rich, and himself inexpressibly
powerful. We are told by an ancient author, that he
had 120 galleys of war of an enormous size, and up¬
wards of 4000 other vessels, small and great. This
would appear incredible, if other wonders were not
related of him, which seem to explain and confirm
these. He raised a new city on the coast of the Red
sea ; he was at an immense expence in opening har¬
bours, constructing quays, in raising inns at proper
distances on the road, and in cutting a canal from sea
to sea. A prince who comprehended the importance
of commerce to a degree that induced him to dare
such expences as these, might have what treasures,
what armies, what fleets he pleased. In his time,
Alexandria appeared in pomp and splendour. She
owed her birth to Alexander ; but it was Ptolemy,
who caught a double portion of his master’s spirit,
which raised her to that magnificence that ages could
not deface. We may guess at what she was in her
glory, by what we are told was the produce of her
customs, which fell little short of two millions of our
money annually; and yet we cannot suppose that
Ptolemy, who understood trade so well, would cramp
it by big!) duties, or extravagant impositions. When
the revenue of the prince from a single port was so
great, what must have been the riches of his subjects ?
But what shows us Alexandria in the highest point
of light, is the credit she maintained after Egypt sunk
from an empire into a province. The Romans them¬
selves were struck with the majesty of her appearance ;
and though till then they had little regarded traffic,
yet they were not long before they comprehended
the advantages of such a port, and such a mart as
Alexandria : they confirmed her privileges, they pro-
3°9
tected her inhabitants, they took every measure pos- History,
sible to preserve her commerce; and this with so good v——'
an effect, that she actually preserved it longer than
Rome herself could preserve her power. She follow¬
ed, indeed, the fortune of the empire, and became at
last dependant upon Constantinople, when its founder
removed thither the capital of the empire; and his
successor found means to transfer also a part of the
trade of Alexandria to the same place. Yet this city
continued still to hold up her head, and though she
sunk under the barbarous power of the Arabs, yet
they grew polished by degrees ; by degrees she re¬
covered somewhat of her ancient pre-eminence; and
though she never rose to any thing like her former
lustre, yet she remained the centre of what little trade,
there was in the world ; which is more than can be said
of almost any place that has fallen under the Moham¬
medan power.
When the Roman empire was overrun by barbari¬
ans, and arts and sciences sunk with that power which
had cultivated and protected them, commerce also vi¬
sibly declined ; or, to speak with greater propriety,
was overwhelmed and lost. When that irruption of
various nations had driven the Roman policy out of
the greatest part of Europe, some straggling people
either forced by necessity, or led by inclination, took
shelter in a few straggling islands that lay near the
coasf of Italy, and which would never have been
thought worth inhabiting in a time of peace. This
was in the 6th century ; and at their first fixing there
they had certainly nothing more in view than living in
a tolerable state of freedom, and acquiring a subsistence
as well as they could. These islands being divided
from each other by narrow channels, and those chan¬
nels so encumbered by shallows that it was impossible
for strangers to navigate them, these refugees found
themselves tolerably safe; and uniting amongst them¬
selves for the sake of improving their condition, and
augmenting their security, they became in the 8th
century a well-settled government, and assumed the
form of a republic.
Simple and mean as this relation may appear, yet it
is a plain and true account of the rise, progress, and
establishment of the famous and potent republic of Ve¬
nice. Her beginnings were indeed weak and slow ;
but when the foundation was once well laid, her
growth was quick, and the increase of her power
amazing. She extended her commerce on all sides ;
and takino' advantage of the barbarous maxims of the
Mohammedan monarchies, she drew to herself the
profits of the Indian trade, and might in some sense,
he said to make Egypt a province, and the Saracens
her subjects. By this means her traffic swelled beyond
conception ; she became the common mart of all na¬
tions ; her naval power arrived at a prodigious height;
and making use of every favourable conjuncture, she
stretched her conquests not only over the adjacent ter¬
ra firma of Italy, but though the islands of the Ar¬
chipelago, so as to be at once mistress of the sea, ot
many fair and fruitful countries, and of part of the
great city of Constantinople itself. But ambition, and
the desire of lording it over her neighbours, brought
upon her those evils which first produced a decay of
trade and then a declension of power. General hi¬
stories indeed ascribe this to the league of Cambrays,
when
COMMERCE.
310
History, when all the great powers in Europe combined against
u—this republic : and in truth, from that period the
sinking ot her power is truly dated: but the \ enetian
writers very justly observe, that though this eil'ect
followed the league, vet there was another more la¬
tent, but at the same time a more eftectual cause,
which was, the falling off of their commerce j and
they hav;e ever since been more indebted to their wis¬
dom than their power} to the prudent concealing
of their own weakness, and taking advantage oi the
errors of their enemies, than to any other cause, for
their keeping up that part which they still bear, and
which had been lost long ago by any other nation but
themselves.
At the same time that Venice rose, as it were, out
of the sea, another republic was erected on the coast
of Italy. There could not well be a worse situation
than the narrow, marshy, unprofitable, and unwhole¬
some islands in the Adriatic, except the rocky, barren,
and inhospitable shores of Liguria 5 and yet as com¬
merce raised Venice the Rich on the one, so she erect¬
ed Genoa the Proud on the other. In spite ol ambi¬
tious and warlike neighbours, in spite of a confined
and unproducing country, and, which were still great¬
er impediments, in spite of perpetual factions and
successive revolutions, the trade of Genoa made her
rich and great. Her merchants traded to all countries,
and throve by carrying the commodities of the one to
the other. Her fleets became formidable; and, be¬
sides the adjacent island of Corsica, she made larger
and important conquests. She fixed a colony at Caffa,
and was for some time in possession of the coasts on
both sides of the Black sea. The emulation which
is natural to neighbouring nations, and that jealousy
which rises from the pursuit of the same mistress, com¬
merce, begat continual wars between these rival re¬
publics ; which, after many obstinate and bloody bat¬
tles, were at last terminated in favour of Venice, by
that famous victory of Chiozzo gained by her doge
Andrew Contarini, from which time Genoa never pre¬
tended to be mistress of the sea. These quarrels were
fatal to both; but what proved more immediately
destructive to the Genoese, was their avarice, which
induced them to abandon the fair profits of trade for
the sake of that vile method of acquiring wealth by
usury.
But we must now look to another part of the world.
In the middle age of the German empire, that is,
about the middle of the 13th century, there was
formed a confederacy of many maritime cities, or at
least of cities not far from the sea. This confederacy
solely regarded commerce, which they endeavoured to
promote and extend, by interesting therein a great
number of persons, and endeavouring to profit by
their different views and different lights. Though the
cities of Germany held the principal rank in the Teu¬
tonic Hanse, they did not however forbear associating
many other cities, as well in France as in England and
in the Low Countries; the whole, however, without
hurting the authority, without prejudice to the rights
of the sovereign on whom they depended. This confe¬
deracy had its laws, its ordinances, and its judgments,
which were observed with the same respect as the ma¬
ritime code of the Rhodians, who passing for the ab¬
lest seamen in all antiquity, their constitutions were
observed by the Greeks and Romans. The Teutonic Histor*
Hanse grew in a short time to so high a rank in power—y—
and authority by the immense riches it acquired, that
princes themselves rendered it a sincere homage from
principles of esteem and admiration. Those of the
north principally had frequent occasion for their cre¬
dit, and borrowed of them considerable sums. The
grand masters of the Teutonic order, who were at
that time sovereigns of Livonia, declared themselves
conservators of the rights and privileges of the Hanse :
all succeeded, not only to, but beyond their wishes;
and Germany, charmed with their progress, looked
on them with the same eyes as a curious gardener
does on certain rare plants, though not of his own
raising and culture. The kings of France and Eng¬
land granted also various privileges to the Teutonic
confederacy ; they exempted their vessels in case of
shipwreck from all demands whatsover from the ad¬
miralty, or from private persons ; they forbade any
disturbance to their navigation at all times, and even
when France was at war with the emperor, or the
princes of the north. In fine, during the course of
these unhappy wars which were styled Croisades, the
Hanse was signally consulted, and gave always puis¬
sant succours in money and in ships to the Christians
oppressed by infidels. It is astonishing that cities at so
great a distance from each other, subject to different
kings, sometimes in open war, but always jealous of
their rights, should be able to confederate and live to¬
gether in so strict an union. But when this union had
rendered them very rich and powerful, it cannot seem
at all strange, that on the one hand they grew arro¬
gant and overbearing, took upon them not only to
treat with sovereigns on the foot of equality, but even
to make war with them, and more than once with
success. It will, on the other hand, appear still less
strange, that such behaviour as this awakened various
princes to a more particular view of the dangers that
such a league might produce, and the advantages that
would naturally flow to their respective states, by re¬
covering their trade, thus made over, at least in some
part, to others, entirely to themselves ; and these, in
few words, were the causes of the gradual declension
of the Hanseatic alliance, which is now totally dis¬
solved, although the cities of Lubeck, Hamburgh, and
Bremen, maintain sufficient marks of that splendour
and dignity with which this confederacy was once
adorned.
We must now turn our eyes to Portugal and Spain,
where in the space of about 50 years there happened
a train of events which gradually led on to such dis¬
coveries as changed the whole face of affairs in the
commercial world, and gave to the knowledge of later
ages what for some thousand years had been kept se¬
cret from all mankind ; we mean a perfect and distinct
notion of that terraqueous globe which they inhabit.
The kingdom of Portugal was small, but well cultiva¬
ted, very populous, and blessed with a variety of good
ports ; ail which, however, had stood them in little
stead, if they had not had a succession of wise princes,
who, instead of involving themselves in war with
their neighbours to gratify their ambition, endeavour¬
ed to extend the happiness and wealth of their subjects,
and consequently their own power, in the softer and
more successful method of protecting arts and sciences,
encouraging
History.
ee Colum-
w (Chris-
tpher).
COMM
encouraging industry, and favouring trade. This, with
the convenient situation of their country, in the begin-
ing of the 15th century, prompted some lively spirits
to attempt discoveries j and these, countenanced by a
heroic young prince, pushed on their endeavours with
such success, that step by step the coast of Africa was
surveyed as far as the Cape of Good Hope, to which
they gave that name. The point they had in view
was a new route to the East Indies, which Vasquez
de Gama happily discovered *, and in a short space of
time Portugal, from one of the least considerable, grew
to be one of the richest powers in Europe, gained pro¬
digious dominions in Asia and Africa, and raised a
naval power superior to any thing that had been seen
for many ages before.
But while this was doing, Christopher Columbus, a
Genoese of great capacity, though of almost unknown
original, who had been bred to the sea from his youth,
and who had carefully studied what others made a
trade, formed in his mind the amazing project of
counteracting experience, and sailing to the Indies by
a western course. He ofl’ered this project to the Por¬
tuguese, by whom it was considered and rejected as a
chimera. He proposed it afterwards to other states,
but with no better fortune *, and at last owed the dis¬
covery of the New World to the high spirit of a he¬
roine, the famous Isabella, queen of Castile, who al¬
most at her own expence, and with very little counte¬
nance from her husband, who yet was styled Ferdi¬
nand the JFtse, furnished the adventurous Columbus
with that poor squadron, with which, at once, in spite
of all the difficulties that the envy of his officers, and
the obstinacy of his mutinous crew, threw in his way,
he perfected his design, and laid open a new Indies,
though in reality he aimed at the discovery of the old.
Neither was this noble effort of his matchless under¬
standing defeated *, for after his decease, Ferdinand
Magellan, a Portuguese, proposed to the emperor
Charles V. the discovery of a passage to the spice
islands by the South seas, which was what Columbus
aimed at; and though Magellan lived not to return,
yet in one voyage the discovery was perfected. It is
inconceivable almost how many and how great benefits
accrued to Europe from these discoveries $ of which,
however, it is certain, that the Portuguese made a
very indifferent, and the Spaniards a much worse, use j
the former making slaves of, and the latter rooting
out the natives. This, as it was a most ungrateful
return to divine Providence for so high a blessing $ so
it might have been easily foreseen it would prove, as
experience has shown it did prove, highly prejudicial
to their own interests, by depopulating very fine coun¬
tries, which have been thereby turned into deserts :
and though on their first discovery infinite treasures
were returned from them, which were coined in the
mints of Spain ; yet by an obstinate pursuit of this
false policy, the Spanish islands in the West Indies are
now brought so low as to be scarce worth keeping.
The consequences that naturally followed on the dis¬
covery of a passage by the Cape of Good Hope, and
of a fourth part of the globe in the western hemi¬
sphere, were, as it has been already hinted, the cause
of an entire change in the state of Europe, and pro¬
duced, not only in Portugal and Spain, but in most
other nations, a desire of visiting these remote parts j of
2
E R C E.
establishing colonies and manufactures ; of export¬
ing and importing commodities, and of raising, set¬
tling, and protecting.^ new manufactures. By this
means, as the reader cannot but perceive, not only
particular nations brought about signal advantages to
themselves, but Europe in general received a lasting
and invaluable benefit 5 for its potentates made them¬
selves formidable, and even terrible in those distant
parts of the earth, where their fame had hardly reach¬
ed before. It is however true, that this has not been
carried on as high as it might have been j for though
there was room enough for every nation to have had
its share, and though it might be demonstrated that
the good of the whole would have contributed suffi¬
ciently to the profit of every state, the subjects
of which had engaged in this traffic; yet instead ot
prosecuting so natural and so equitable a measure,
they have taken a quite contrary course ; and by de¬
crying, attacking, and destroying each other, have
very much lessened that prodigious reverence which
the Asiatics, Africans, and Americans, at first had for
the inhabitants of Europe.
The naval power of the Portuguese received an in¬
curable wound by falling under the power ot the
Spaniards; and though human policy would have sug¬
gested, that this alone must have raised the latter to
the monopoly of commerce, and the universal dominion
of the sea; yet the very pursuit ot a design so visibly
detrimental to the interest of mankind, proved very
quickly their ruin also. For the Spaniards, from the
natural haughtiness of their temper, misled by the
boundless ambition of their princes, and endeavouring
to become the lords of Europe, forced other nations in
their own defence to make a much quicker progress
in navigation than otherwise they could have done.
For the English and Dutch, who till this time seemed
blind to the advantages of their situation, had their
eyes opened by the injuries they received ; and by de¬
grees the passion of revenge inspired them with designs
that possibly public spirit would never have excited. In
short, the pains taken by Spain to keep all the riches
that flowed from these discoveries to herself, and the
dangerous, detestable, and destructive purposes to
which she applied the immense wealth that flowed in
upon her from them, produced effects directly opposite
to those which she proposed, and made her enemies
rich, great, powerful, and happy, in proportion as her
commerce dwindled away, and as her naval power
sunk and crumbled to pieces, merely by an improper
display, an ill managed exertion, and a wrong applica¬
tion of it.
It was from hence that the inhabitants of the Seven
Provinces, whom her oppression had made poor, and her
severities driven mad, became first free, then potent,
and by degrees rich. Their distresses taught them
the necessity of establishing a moderate and equal go¬
vernment ; the mildness of that government, and the
blessings which it procured to its subjects, raised
their number and elevated their hopes. The conse¬
quences became quickly visible, and in a short time
amazing both to friends and enemies ; every fish¬
ing village improved into a trading town ; their little
towns grew up into large and magnificent cities;
their inland boroughs were filled with manufactures;
and in less than half a century the distressed States of
Holland
COMMERCE,
312
History. Holland became high and mighty $ nay, In spite of the
* V'11' dangers and expences which attended a war made all
that time against a superior force, these people, sur¬
rounded with enemies, loaded with taxes, exposed to
personal service, and to a thousand other disadvantages,
grew up to such a strength as not only made the Spa¬
niards despair of reducing them any more under their
dominion, but inclined them to wish, and at last forced
them to solicit, their friendship.
This, at least as far as ancient or modern histories
inform us, was the quickest and strongest of all the
productions of commerce that the world has ever seen.
For it is beyond dispute that the republic of the United
Provinces owes her freedom, her power, and her wealth,
entirely to industry and trade. The greatest part of
the country is far from being fertile : and what is so,
produces not enough to suffice the tenth part of the
inhabitants for the tenth part of the year : the climate
is rather tolerable than wholesome $ and its havens are
rather advantageous from the difficulty of entering
them, than from their commodiousness in any other
respect. Of native commodities they have few or
none $ timber and maritime stores are entirely want¬
ing j their country cannot boast so much as of a coal¬
mine ; and yet these provinces, upon which nature has
bestowed so little, in consequence of an extensive trade,
are enriched with all things. Their store-houses are
full of corn, even when the harvest in corn-countries
fails $ there is no commodity, however bulky, or scarce
and hard to be come at, which may not be had from
their magazines. The shipping of Holland is prodi¬
gious j and to see the quantities of naval stores with
which their yards and ports abound, astonishes those who
are unacquainted with the vigour of that cause which
produces this abundance. But above all, the populous¬
ness of this country is the greatest miracle. That men
should resort to a Canaan, and desire to live in a land
flowing with milk and honey, is nothing strange j but
that they should make it their choice to force nature,
to raise palaces, lay out gardens, dig canals, plant
woods, and ransack all the quarters of the earth for
fruits and flowers, to produce an artificial paradise in
a dead plain, or upon an ungrateful heath in the midst
of fogs and standing lakes, would in so critical an age
as this pass for a fable, if the country did not lie so
near us as to put the truth of it out of question.
§ 2. British History.
We may easily conceive, that foreign commerce by
the natives of this island must have been a work of
time 5 for men first think of necessaries, then of con¬
veniences, and last of superfluities. Those who came
originally from the continent might have better no¬
tions of things y but as it must be presumed that ei¬
ther fear of indigence drove them hither, so it is easy
to apprehend that succeeding generations must for some
time sink much below their ancestors in their notions
of the commodities of life ; and, deriving their man¬
ners from their circumstances, become quite another
sort of people. But those on the opposite continent,
knowing that this island was inhabited, and having
the use, though in ever so imperfect a degree, of ves¬
sels and of foreign traffic, came over hither, and bar¬
tered their goods for the raw commodities of the Bri¬
tons, till by degrees perhaps they taught the latter to
make some improvements in those slight leather and
wicker boats, which they used for passing their own
rivers, and creeping along their coasts, till at last they
ventured themselves over to Gaul, and entered upon
some kind of correspondence with their neighbours.
All this is so deducible from the laws of nature, that
we might have conceived thus much by the light of
reason, if we had not the Commentaries of Ctesar to
guide us, and to strengthen by the authority of history,
the facts that might have been found out by the force
of rational conjecture.
Things were precisely in this situation wdien the
Romans invaded Britain j and there is no doubt that
our ancestors falling under the power of that empire,
and under its power at a time when, with respect to
arts and sciences, it was in a most flourishing condi¬
tion, was a great advantage to them •, and though from
their love of civil liberty, which, when under the di¬
rection of reason, is the most natural and laudable of
all passions, they made a long and vigorous, and in
some sense a noble and glorious, resistance $ yet by
degrees they caught the manners and customs of their
conquerors, and grew content to be happy rather than
free. With learning and politeness the Romans in¬
troduced foreign commerce j and according to the
nature of their policy, as they made high roads through
the island, established colonies in proper places, and
fixed standing camps, which were a kind of fortresses,
where they thought proper ; so they were no less care¬
ful with regard to marts or emporiums for the conve-
niency of traders, and of which what they found was
uncertain ; but that they left many, is without ques¬
tion •, and among the rest London, which is not more
famous for her present extensive trade, than venerable
for her unrecorded antiquity.
When the Romans unwillingly left Britain, and the
Britons as unwillingly made way for the Saxons, a
new deluge of barbarity overflowed this island ; al¬
most all the improvements of our civilized conquerors
were effaced j and upon the establishment as it were
of a new people, things were all to begin again.
This necessarily took up a great deal of time j and
before they were in any tolerable posture, the Saxons
found themselves distressed by fresh swarms of barba¬
rians. Yet there still remain some evidences of their
having been acquainted with, inclined to, and, if their
circumstances would have permitted, most certainly
would have entered upon and carried foreign com¬
merce to a great height. We have authentic testi¬
monies, that Alfred the Great formed projects of vast
discoveries to the North, as he actually sent persons
of great prudence and abilities into the East j and the
curiosities which they brought home were for many
ages preserved in the treasury of the church of Salis*-
bury.
As for the Danes, they were not long our masters ;
but as they became so by a maritime force, and as
their countrymen had established themselves not only
on the opposite shore of France, but in other parts of
Europe, it is reasonable to believe that they held some
correspondence with them from thence j and that,
if their dominion had lasted longer, this might have
been better regulated, and productive of many advan¬
tages. But they had soon to do with their brethren
in
COMMERCE.
History. *n another way ; for the Normans, men of the same
y—' race, but better established in another country, dispos¬
sessed them here ; and partly under colour of right,
partly by force, erected that monarchy, which, not
without various alterations and changes, subsists even
to our times, and to the subsistence of which, with the
help of those changes and alterations, we owe that
happy constitution under which we live $ that univer¬
sal improvement which adorns the face of our country 5
that domestic trade which nourishes so numerous a peo¬
ple, by plentifully rewarding their industry 5 and that
extensive commerce which is at once the source of our
wealth and the support of our liberty.
It cannot be expected, that in a work like this we
should attempt to trace the progress of trade through
every reign ; show how it was encouraged and protect¬
ed, or discountenanced and checked ; what occasions
were luckily seized, or what opportunities unfortunate¬
ly lost. It may be sufficient for us, after what has
been already said, to observe, that the opinion com¬
monly entertained, of our having little or no trade be¬
fore the reign of Queen Elizabeth, is very far from be¬
ing well founded.
In fact, the reign of that princess was great and
glorious in whatever light we consider it ; but it was
most so in this, that under Providence, it became
great and glorious by the wisdom and prudence of the
queen and her ministers. The English nation never
was in so desperate a condition as at her accession.
The crown was in debt, the treasury empty, the na¬
tion involved in a foreign war directly against her own
interests, her coasts naked ; in a word, without credit
abroad, and without concord at home, no settled reli¬
gion, the great men split into factions, and the com¬
mon people distracted and dejected. Sad circumstances
these ! and yet from thence arose the grandeur of that
reign, and the establishment of our commerce. The
queen found herself obliged to act with great caution,
to derive assistance from every quarter, to employ it
faithfully, and to promote to the utmost of her power
the welfare of her subjects, whom nothing but the pu¬
blic-spiritedness of her government could enable to
grow rich enough to support the necessary expences of
the crown. It was this gave a popular turn to her
councils. She encouraged her subjects to arm against
the Spaniards, that they might be accustomed to the
sea, and acquire that knowledge in navigation, with
which, till then, fhey had been unacquainted. She
passed many laws for the public good, erected several
companies, and saw that those companies pursued the
ends for which they were erected ; in short, she did
every thing that could be expected, during the whole
course of her reign, to excite and encourage industry
at home, and to enable us to make a proper figure a-
broad. In a word, she furnished us with stock and
credit, put us upon improving our commodities and
manufactures, brought the art of ship-building amongst
us, filled our ports with able seamen, showed a just re¬
spect to English merchants, reduced Ireland so as to
render it beneficial to Britain, and approved our send¬
ing colonies into America j and thus the seeds of Bri¬
tish wealth were sown in her time, though the harvest
Was reaped in the days of her successors. See the ar¬
ticles Coalery, Colony, Fisheries, Manufac¬
tures, Shipping, and Trade.
Vol. VI. Part I.
Chap. II. Principles of Commerce.
Sect. I. Origin of Trade.
The most simple of all trade is that which is car¬
ried on by bartering the necessary articles of subsist¬
ence. If we suppose the earth free to the first pos¬
sessor, this person who cultivates it will first draw
from it his food, and the surplus will be the object of
barter : he will give this in exchange to any one who
will supply his other wants. This naturally supposes
both a surplus quantity of food produced by labour,
and also free hands j for he who makes a trade of agri¬
culture cannot supply himself with all other necessaries,
as well as food ; and he who makes a trade of supply¬
ing the farmers with such necessaries, in exchange for
his surplus of food, cannot be employed in producing
that food. The more the necessities of man increase,
the more free hands are required to supply them ; and
the more free hands are required, the more surplus food
must be produced by additional labour, to supply their
demand.
This is the least complex kind of trade, and may be
carried on to a greater or less extent, in different
countries, according to the different degrees of the
wants to be supplied. In a country where there is no
money, nor any thing equivalent to it, the wants of
mankind will be confined to few objects} to wit, the
removing the inconveniences of hunger, thirst, cold,
heat, danger, and the like. A free man, who by his
industry can procure all the comforts of a simple life,
will enjoy his rest, and work no more } and, in gene¬
ral, all increase of work will cease, so soon as the de¬
mand for the purposes mentioned comes to be satisfied.
There is a plain reason for this. When the free hands
have procured, by their labour, wherewithal to supply
their wants, their ambition is satisfied : so soon as the
husbandmen have produced the necessary surplus for
relieving theirs, they work no more. Here then is
a natural stop to industry, consequently to barter-
ing.
The next thing to be examined is, how bartering
grows into trade, properly so called, and understood,
according to the definition given of it above } how
trade comes to be extended among men } how ma¬
nufactures, more ornamental than useful, come to be
established } and how men come to submit to labour,
in order to acquire what is not absolutely necessary for
them.
This, in a free society, is chiefly owing to the intro¬
duction of money, and a taste for superfluities in those
who possess it.
In ancient times money was not wanting} but the
taste for superfluities not being in proportion to it,
the specie was locked up. This was the case in Eu¬
rope four hundred years ago. A new taste for super¬
fluity has drawn, perhaps, more money into circula¬
tion, from our own treasures, than from the mines of
the new world. The poor opinion we entertain of
the riches of our forefathers, is founded upon the mo¬
dern way of estimating wealth, by the quantity of coin
in circulation, from which we conclude, that the great¬
est part of the specie now in our hands must have come
from America.
t
Hr
It
COMMERCE.
3H
Principles, It is more, therefore, through the taste of super-
> i...—v-m than in consequence of the quantity of coin,
that trade comes to be established } and it is only
in consequence of trade that we see industry carry
things in our days to so high a pitch of refinement and
delicacy. Let us illustrate this, by comparing toge¬
ther the different operations of barter, sale, and com¬
merce.
When reciprocal wants are supplied by barter, there
is not the smallest occasion for money : this is the most
simple of all combinations.
When wants are multiplied, bartering becomes more
difficult: upon this money is introduced. This is the
common price of all things : it is a proper equivalent
in the hands of those who want, perfectly calculated
to supply the occasions of those who, by industry, can
relieve them. This operation of buying and selling is
a little more complex than the former j but still we
have here no idea of trade, because we have not in¬
troduced the merchant, by whose industry it is carried
on.
Let this third person be introduced, and the
whole operation becomes clear. What belore we
called wants, is here represented by the consumer $
what we called industry, by the manufacturer ; what
we called money, by the merchant. The merchant
here represents the money, by substituting credit in
its place j and as the money was invented to facili¬
tate barter, so the merchant, with his credit, is a new
refinement upon the use of money. This renders it
still more effectual in performing the operations of
buying and selling. This operation is trade : it re¬
lieves both parties of the whole trouble of transporta¬
tion, and adjusting wants to wants, or wants to
money $ the merchant represents by turns both the
consumer, the manufacturer, and the money. To
the consumer he appears as the whole body of manu¬
facturers } to the manufacturers as the whole body of
consumers j and to the one and the other class his cre¬
dit supplies the use of money. This is sufficient at pre¬
sent for an illustration. We now return to the simple
operations of money in the hands of the two contract¬
ing parties, the buyer and the seller, in order to show
how men come to submit to labour in order to acquire
superfluities.
So soon as money is introduced into a country, it
becomes an universal object of want to all the inhabi¬
tants.
The consequence is, that the free hands of the state
who before stopt working, because all their wants were
provided for, having this new object of ambition before
their eyes, endeavour, by refinements upon their la¬
bour, to remove the smaller inconveniences which re¬
sult from a simplicity of manners. People, who for¬
merly knew but one sort of clothing for all seasons, wil-
lingly part with a little money to procure for themselves
difl'erent sorts of apparel properly adapted to summer
and winter, which the ingenuity of manufacturers, and
their desire of getting money, may have suggested to
their invention.
Indeed these refinements seem more generally ow¬
ing to the industry and invention of the manufactu¬
rers (who by their ingenuity daily contrive means of
softening or relieving inconveniencies which mankind
seldom perceive to be such, till the way ef removing
2
them is contrived), than to the taste for luxury in the principlei
rich, who, to indulge their ease, engage the poor toy—»
become industrious.
Let any man make an experiment of this nature up¬
on himself, by entering into the first shop. He will
nowhere discover so quickly his wants as there. Every
thing he sees appears either necessary, or at least highly
convenient j and he begins to wonder how he could
have been so long without that which the ingenuity of
the workman alone bad invented, in order that from
the novelty it might incite his desire $ for perhaps when
it is bought, he will never once think of it more, nor
ever apply it to the use for which at first it appeared
so necessary.
Here then is a reason why mankind labour though
not in want. They become desirous of possessing the
very instruments of luxury, which their avarice or
ambition prompted them to invent for the use of
others.
What has been said represents trade in its infancy,
or rather the materials with which that great fabric is
built.
We have formed an idea of the wants of mankind
multiplied even to luxury, and abundantly supplied by
the employment of all the free hands set apart for that
purpose. But if we suppose the workman himself dis¬
posing of his work, and purchasing with it food from
the farmer, clothes from the clothier j and, in general,
seeking for the supply of every want from the hands
of the person directly employed for the purpose of re¬
lieving it j this will not convey an idea of trade ac¬
cording to our definition.
Trade and commerce are an abbreviation of this
long process; a scheme invented and set on foot by
merchants, from a principle of gain, supported and ex¬
tended among men, from a principle of general utility
to every individual, rich or poor; to every society,
great or small.
Instead of a pin-maker exchanging his pins with 50
different persons, for whose labour he has occasion, he
sells all to the merchant for money or for credit; and
as occasion offers, he purchases all his wants, either di¬
rectly from those who supply them, or from other mer¬
chants, who deal with manufacturers in the same way
his merchant dealt with him.
Another advantage of trade is, that industrious peo¬
ple in one part of the country may supply customers in
another, though distant. They may establish them¬
selves in the most commodious places for their respec¬
tive business, and help one another reciprocally, with¬
out making the distant parts of the country suffer for
want of their labour. They are likewise exposed
to no avocation from their work, by seeking for cu¬
stomers.
Trade produces many excellent advantages j it marks
out to the manufacturers when their branch is under or
overstocked with hands. If it is understocked, they
will find more demand than they can answer 5 if it is
overstocked, the sale will be slow.
Intelligent men, in every profession, will easily dis¬
cover when these appearances are accidental, and when
they proceed from the real principles of trade.
Posts, and correspondence by letters, are a conse¬
quence of trade j by the means of which merchants are
regularly informed of every augmentation or dimi¬
nution
COMM
principles*
nution of industry in every branch, in every part of
the country. From this knowledge they regulate the
prices they offer j and as they are many, they serve as
a check upon one another, from the principles of com¬
petition.
From the current prices, the manufacturers are as
well informed, as if they kept the correspondence
themselves : the statesman feels perfectly where hands
are wanting, and young people destined to industry,
obey, in a manner, the call of the public, and fall na¬
turally in to supply the demand.
Two great assistances to merchants, especially in the
infancy of trade, are public markets for collecting the
work of small dealers, and large undertakings in the
manufacturing way by private hands. By these means
the merchants come at the knowledge of the quantity
of work in the market, as on the other hand the manu¬
facturers learn, by the sale of the goods, the extent of
the demand for them. These two things being justly
known, the price of goods is easily fixed.
Public sales serve to correct the small inconveni¬
ences which proceed from the operations of trade. A
set of manufacturers got all together into one town,
and entirely taken up with their industry, are thereby
as well informed of the rate of the market as if every
one of them carried thither his work ; and upon the
arrival of the merchant, who readily takes it off their
hands, he has not the least advantage over them from
his knowledge of the state of demand. This man
both buys and sells in what is called wholesale; and
from him retailers purchase, who distribute the goods
to every consumer throughout the country. These
last buy from wholesale merchants in every branch,
that proportion of every kind of merchandise which is
suitable to the demand of their borough, city, or pro¬
vince.
Thus all inconveniences are prevented, at some ad¬
ditional cost to the consumer, who must naturally re¬
imburse the whole expence. The distance of the ma¬
nufacturer, the obscurity of his dwelling, the caprice
in selling his work, are quite removed ; the retailer
has all in his shop, and the public buys at a current
price.
§ 2. How the price of Goods is determined by Trade.
In the price of goods, two things must be considered
as really existing, and quite different from one another j
to wit, the real value of the commodity, and the profit
upon alienation.
I. The first thing to be known of any manufacture,
when it comes to be sold, is how much of it a person
can perform in a day, a week, a month, according to
the nature of the work, which may require more or
less time to bring it to perfection. In making such
estimates, regard is to be had only to what, upon an
average, a workman of the country in general may
perform, without supposing him the best or the worst
in his profession, or having any peculiar advantage or
disadvantage as to the place where he works.
Hence the reason why some people prosper by their
industry, and others not j why some manufactures
flourish in one place and not in another.
II. The second thing to be known is, the value of
the workman’s subsistence, and necessary expence, both
for supplying his personal wants and providing the
E R C E. 315
instruments belonging to his profession, which must Principles,
be taken upon an average as above, except when the ——•v"-—*
nature of the work requires the presence of the work¬
man in the place of consumption ; for although some
trades, and almost every manufacture, may be carried
on in places at a distance, and therefore may fall under
one general regulation as to prices; yet others there
are, which, by their nature, require the presence of
the workman in the place of consumption 5 and in that
case the prices must be regulated by circumstances re¬
lative to every particular place.
III. The third and last thing to be known, is the
value of the materials, that is, the first matter employ¬
ed by the workman j and if the object of his industry
be the manufacture of another, the same process of in¬
quiry must be gone through with regard to the first as
the second ; and thus the most complex manufactures
may be at last reduced to the greatest simplicity.
These three articles being known, the price of ma¬
nufacture is determined. It cannot be lower than the
amount of all the three, that is, than the real value j
whatever it is higher, is the manufacturer’s profit.
This will ever be in proportion to demand, and there¬
fore will fluctuate according to circumstances.
Hence appears the necessity of a great demand, in
order to promote flourishing manufactures.
By the extensive dealings of merchants, and their
constant application to the study of the balance of
work and demand, all the above circumstances are
known to them, and are made known to the industrious,
who regulate their living and expence according to
their certain profit.
Employ a workman in a country where there is
little trade or industry, he proportions his price al¬
ways to the urgency of your want, or your capacity
to pay, but seldom to his own labour. Employ ano¬
ther in a country of trade, he will not impose upon
you, unless perhaps you be a stranger, which supposes
your being ignorant of the value $ but employ the
same workman in a work not usual in the country,
consequently not demanded, and therefore not regula¬
ted as to the value, he will proportion his price as in
the first supposition.
We may therefore conclude, from what has been
said, that in a country where trade has been establish¬
ed, manufactures must flourish, from the ready sale, the
regulated price of work, and the certain profit result¬
ing from industry. Let us next inquire into the con¬
sequences of such a situation.
§ 3. How foreign Trade opens to an industrious Peo¬
ple, and the consequences of it to the Merchants who
set it on foot.
The first consequence of the situation described in
the preceding section is, that wants are easily supplied
for the adequate value of the thing wanted.
The next consequence is, the opening of foreign
trade, under its two denominations of passive and ac¬
tive. Strangers and people of distant countries, find¬
ing the difficulty of having their wants supplied at
home, and the ease of having them supplied from this
country, immediately have recourse to it. This is pas¬
sive trade. The active is when merchants, who have
executed this plan at home with success, begin to trans-
R r 2 port
716 COMMERCE,
Principtes. port the labour of their countrymen into other re-
“”““v gi°ns> which either produce, or are capable of produ¬
cing such articles of consumption, proper to be manu¬
factured, as are most demanded at home ; and conse¬
quently will meet with the readiest sale, and fetch the
largest profits.
Here then is the opening of foreign trade, under its
two denominations of active and passive.
What then are the consequences of this new com¬
merce to our merchants, who have left their homes in
quest of gain abroad ?
The first is, that, arriving in any new country, they
find themselves in the same situation with regard to th«
inhabitants, as the workman in the country of no trade,
with regard to those who employ him •, that is, they
proportion the price of their goods to the eagerness of
acquiring, or the capacity of paying, in the inhabi¬
tants, but never to their real value.
The first profits then, upon this trade, must be very
considerable j and the demand from such a country will
be high or low, great or small, according to the spirit,
not the real wants of the people j for these in all coun¬
tries must first be supplied by the inhabitants them¬
selves, before they cease to labour.
If the people of this not-trading country be abun¬
dantly furnished with commodities useful to the traders,
they will easily part with them, at first, for the instru¬
ments of luxury and ease ; but the great profit of the
traders will insensibly increase the demand for the pro¬
duction of their new correspondents: this will have
the effect of producing a competition between them¬
selves, and thereby throwing the demand on their side.
This is perpetually a disadvantage in traffic; the most
unpolished nations in the world quickly perceive the
effects of it, and are taught to profit by the discovery,
in spite of the address of those who are the most ex¬
pert in commerce.
The traders will therefore be very fond of falling
upon every method and contrivance to inspire this
people with a taste of refinement and delicacy. A-
bundance of fine presents, consisting of every instru¬
ment of luxury and superfluity, the best adapted to the
genius of the people, will be given to the prince and
leading men among them. Workmen will even be
employed at home, to study the taste of the strangers,
and to captivate their desires by every possible means.
The more eager they are of presents, the more lavish
the traders will be in bestowing and diversifying them.
It is an animal put up to fatten 5 the more he eats, the
sooner he is fit for slaughter. When their taste for
superfluity is fully formed, when the relish for their
former simplicity is sophisticated, poisoned, and obli¬
terated, then they are surely in the fetters of the
traders, and the deeper they go, the less possibility
there is of being extricated. The presents then will
die away, having served their purpose ; and if after¬
wards Jhey are found to be continued, it will probably
be to support the competition against other nations,
who will incline to share of the profits.
If, on the contrary, this not-trading nation does not
abound with commodities useful to the traders, these
will make little account of trading with them, what¬
ever their turn may be ; but, if we suppose this coun¬
try inhabited by a laborious people, who, having ta¬
ken a taste for refinement from the traders, apply pn',u;p
themselves to agriculture, in order to produce articles ^ i
of subsistence, they will solicit the merchants to give
them part of their manufactures in exchange for those j
and this trade will undoubtedly have the effect of mul-
tiplying numbers in the trading nation. But if food
cannot be furnished, nor' any other branch of produc¬
tion found out to support the correspondence, the taste
for refinement will soon die away, and trade will stop
in this quarter.
Had it not been for the furs in those countries ad¬
jacent to Hudson’s bay, and in Canada, the Europeans
never would have thought of supplying instruments of
luxury to those nations j and if the inhabitants of those
regions had not taken a taste for the instruments of
luxury furnished to them by the Europeans, they ne¬
ver would have become so indefatigable nor so dex¬
terous hunters. At the same time we are not to sup¬
pose that ever these Americans would have come to
Europe in quest of our manufactures. It is, there¬
fore, owing to our merchants, that these nations are
become in any degree fond of refinement $ and this
taste, in all probability, will not soon exceed the pro¬
portion of the productions of their country. From
these beginnings of foreign trade it is easy to trace its
increase.
One step towards this, is the establishing correspon¬
dences in foreign countries j and these are more or less
necessary in proportion as the country where they are
established is more or less polished, or acquainted with
trade. They supply the want of posts, and point out
to the merchants what proportion the productions of
the country bear to the demand of the inhabitants for
manufactures. This communicates an idea of com¬
merce to the not-trading nation, and they insensibly
begin to fix a determined value upon their own pro¬
ductions, which perhaps bore no determined value at
all before.
Let us trace a little the progress of this refinement
in the savages, in order to show how it has the effect of
throwing the demand upon the traders, and of creating
a competition among them for the productions of the
new country.
Experience shows, that, in a new discovered coun¬
try, merchants constantly find some article or other of
its productions, which runs out to a great account in
commerce j and we see that the longer such a trade
subsists, and the more the inhabitants take a taste for
European manufactures, the more their own produc¬
tions rise in their value, and the less profit is made by
trading with them, even in cases where the trade is
carried on by companies ; which is a very wise insti¬
tution for one reason, that it cuts off a competition be¬
tween our merchants.
This is the best means of keeping prices low in fa¬
vour of the nation 5 however, it may work a contrary
effect with respect to individuals who must buy from
these monopolies.
When companies are not established, and when trade
is open, our merchants, by their eagerness to profit by
the new trade, betray the secrets of it; they enter into
competition for the purchase of the foreign produce y
and this raises prices, and favours the commerce of the
most ignorant savages.
5 4s*
k
COMMERCE. 317
rincipies. ^ ^ Consequences of the Introduction of a passive Fo-
’ ' reign Trade among a People who live in Simplicity
and Idleness.
We now suppose the arrival of traders, all in one
interest, with instruments of luxury and refinement, at
a port in a country of great simplicity of manners, a-
bundantly provided by nature with great advantages
for commerce, and peopled by a nation capable of adopt¬
ing a taste for superfluities.
The first thing the merchants do is, to expose their
goods, and point out the advantages of many things,
either agreeable or useful to mankind in general, such
as wines, spirits, instruments of agriculture, arms and
ammunition for hunting, nets for fishing, manufactures
for clothing, and the like. The advantages of these
are presently perceived, and such commodities are ea¬
gerly sought after.
The natives, on their side, produce what they most
esteem, generally something superfluous or ornamental.
The traders, after examining all circumstances, de¬
termine the object of their demand, giving the least
quantity possible in return for this superfluity, in order
to impress the inhabitants with a high notion of the
value of their own commodities ; but as this parsimony
may do more hurt than good to their interest, they are
very generous in making presents, from the principles
mentioned above.
When the exchange is completed, and the traders
depart, regret is commonly mutual j the one and the
other are sorry that the superfluities of the country fall
short. A return is promised by the traders, and assu¬
rances are given by the natives of a better provision
another time.
What are the first consequences of this revolution ?
It is evident, that, in order to supply an equivalent
for this new want, more hands must be set to work
than formerly. And it is evident also, that this aug¬
mentation of industry will not essentially increase num¬
bers : Why? Because the produce of the industry is,
in this case, intended to be exported. But, if we can
find out any additional consumption at home, even im¬
plied by this new trade, it will have the efiect of aug¬
menting numbers. An example will make this plain.
Bet us suppose the superfluity of this country to be
the skins of wild beasts, not proper for food j the ma¬
nufacture sought for, brandy. The brandy is sold for
furs. He who has furs, or he who can spare time to
hunt for them, will drink brandy in proportion j but
there is no reason to conclude from this simple opera¬
tion, that one man more in the country must necessari¬
ly be fed, or that any augmentation of agriculture must
of consequence ensue from this new traffic.
But let us throw in a circumstance which may imply
an additional consumption at home, and then examine
the consequences.
A poor creature who has no equivalent to offer for
food, who is miserable, and ready to perish for want
of subsistence, goes a hunting, and kills a wolf 5 he
comes to a farmer with the skin, and says, You are
well fed, but you have no brandy j if you will give
me a loaf, I will give you this skin, which the stran¬
gers are so fond of, and they will give you brandy.
But, says the farmer, I have no more bread than what
is sufficient for my own family. As for that, replies
the other, I will come and dig in your ground, and Principles,
you and I will settle our account as to the small quan-
tity I desire of you. The bargain is made : the poor
fellow gets his loaf, and lives at least; perhaps he
marries, and the farmer gets a dram. But had it not
been for this dram, that is, this new want, which was
purchased by the industry of this poor fellow, by what
argument could he have induced the farmer to part
with a loaf ?
Here the sentiment of charity is excluded. This
alone is a principle of multiplication j but as true it is,
on the other hand, that could the poor fellow have got
bread by begging, he would not probably have gone a
hunting.
Here then it appears, that the very dawning of
trade, in the most unpolished countries, implies a mul¬
tiplication. This is sufficient to point out the first step,
and to connect the subject of our present inquiries
with what has already been discussed in relation to
other circumstances.
So soon as all the furs are disposed of, and a taste for
superfluity is introduced, both the traders and the na¬
tives will be equally interested in the advancement of
industry in this country. Many new objects of profit
for the first will be discovered, which the proper em¬
ployment of the inhabitants, in reaping the natural ad¬
vantages of their soil and climate, will make effectual.
The Traders will therefore endeavour to set on foot
many branches of industry among the savages, and the
allurements of brandy, arms, and clothing, will animate
these in the pursuit of them.
When once this revolution is brought about j when
those who formerly lived in simplicity become industri¬
ous ; matters put on a new face.
That is to say, we now find two trading nations
instead of one j with this difference, however, that as
hitherto we have supposed the merchants all in one
interest, the compound demand, that is, the competi¬
tion of the buyers, has been, and must still continue on
the side of the natives. This is a great prejudice to
their interest: but as it is not supposed sufficient to
check their industry, nor to restrain their consumption
of the manufactures, let us here examine, a little more
particularly the consequences of the principle of de¬
mand in such a situation ; for although we allow, that
it can never change sides, yet it may admit of different
modifications, and produce different effects, as we shall
presently perceive.
The merchants we suppose all in one interest, con¬
sequently there can be no competition among them ‘y
no check can be put upon their raising their prices, as
long as the prices they demand are complied with. So
soon as they are raised to the full extent of the abili¬
ties of the natives, or of their inclination to buy, the
merchants have the choice of three things, which are
all perfectly in their option ; and the preference to be
given to the one or the other, depends entirely upon
themselves, and upon the circumstances we are going
to point out.
First, they may support their high demand j that
is, not lower their price, which will preserve a high
estimation of the manufactures in the opinion of the
inhabitants, and render the profits upon their trade
the greatest possible. This part they may possibly
take, if they perceive the natives doubling their dili¬
gence, ,
3i3
COMMERCE.
Principles, gence, in order to become able, in time, to purchase
"V'—' considerable cargoes at a high value ; from which sup¬
position is inferred a strong disposition in the people to
become luxurious, since nothing but want of ability
prevents them from complying with the highest de¬
mand : but still another circumstance must concur to
engage the merchants not to lower their price. The
great proportion of the goods they seek for in re¬
turn, must be found in the hands of a few. This will
be the case if slavery he established ; for then there
must be many poor and few rich j and they are com¬
monly the rich consumers who proportion the price
they offer, rather to their desires, than to the value of
the thing.
The second thing which may be done is, to encou¬
rage a great demand j that is, to lower their prices.
This will sink the value of the manufactures in the
opinion of the inhabitants, and render profits less in
proportion, although indeed, upon the voyage, the pro¬
fits may be greater.
This part they will take, if they perceive the inha¬
bitants do not incline to consume great quantities of
the merchandise at a high value, either for want of
abilities or inclination ; and also, if the profits upon
the trade depend upon a large consumption, as is the
case in merchandise of a low value, and suited chiefly to
the occasions of the lower sort. Such motives of expe¬
diency will be sufficient to make them relinquish a high
demand, and prefer a great one j and the more, when
there is a likelihood that the consumption of low-priced
goods in the beginning may beget a taste for others of
a higher value, and thus extend in general the taste of
superfluity.
A third part to be taken is the least politic, and
perhaps the most familiar. It is to profit by the com¬
petition between the buyers, and encourage the rising
of demand as long as possible ; when this comes to a
stop, to make a kind of auction, by first bringing down
the prices to the level of the highest bidders, and so to
descend by degrees, in proportion as demand sinks.
Thus we may say with propriety, that demand com¬
monly becomes great, in proportion as prices sink. By
this operation, the traders will profit as much as possi¬
ble, and sell off as much of their goods as the profits
will permit.
But this plan, in a new discovered country, is not po¬
litic, as it both discovers a covetousness and a want of
faith in the merchants, and also throws open the secrets
of their trade to those who ought to be kept ignorant
of them.
Let us next suppose, that the large profits of our
merchants shall be discovered by others, who arrive at
the same ports in a separate interest, and who enter in¬
to no combination which might prevent the natural ef¬
fects of competition.
Let the states of demand among the natives be sup¬
posed the same as formerly, both as to height and great¬
ness, in consequence of the operation of the different
principles, which might have induced our merchants
to follow one or other of the plans we have been de¬
scribing : we must, however, still suppose, that they
have been careful to preserve considerable profits upon
every branch.
If we suppose the inhabitants to have increased in
numbers, wealth, and taste for superfluity, since the
last voyage, demand will be found rather on the rising prjnc;
hand. Upon the arrival of the merchants in competi- 't '
tion with the former, both will offer to sale ; but if
both stand at the same prices, it is very natural to sup¬
pose, that the former dealers will obtain a preference j
as, cceteris paribus^ it is always an advantage to know
and to be known. The last comers, therefore, have no
other way left to counterbalance this advantage, but to
lower their prices.
This is a new phenomenon : here the fall of prices
is not voluntary as formerly, nor consented to from
expediency ; not owing to a failure of demand, but
to the influence of a new principle of commerce, to
wit, a double competition, which we shall now ex-
§ 5. Of double Competition.
When competition is much stronger on one side of
the contract than on the other, it is called simple.
This is the species of competition which is implied in
the terms high demand, or when it is said that demand
raises prices.
Double competition is, when, in a certain degree, it
takes place on both sides of the contract at once, or
vibrates alternately from one to the other. This is
what restrains prices to the adequate value of merchan¬
dise.
The great difficulty is to distinguish clearly between
the principles of demand and those of competition: here
then follow the principal differences between the two
relatively to the effects they produce severally in the
mercantile contract of buying and selling, which we
here express shortly by the word contract.
Simple demand is what brings the quantity of com¬
modity to market. Many demand^ who do not buy $
many offer, who do not sell. This demand is called
great oy small; it is said to increase, to augment, to
swell; and is expressed by these and other synonymous
terms, which mark an augmentation or diminution of
quantity. In this species, two people never demand the
same thing, but a part of the same thing, or things
quite alike.
Compound demand is the principle which raises
prices, and can never make them sink 5 because in this
case more than one demands the very same thing. It is
solely applicable to the buyers, in relation to the price
they offer. This demand is called high or low, and is
said to rise, to fall, to mount, to sink, and is expressed
by these and other synonymous terms.
Simple competition, when between buyers, is the same
as compound or high demand; but differs from it in so
far, as this may equally take place among sellers, which
compound demand cannot j and then it works a con¬
trary effect: it makes prices sink, and is synonymous
with low demand ; it is this competition which over¬
turns the balance of work and demand.
Double competition is what is understood to take
place in almost every operation of trade ; it is this
which prevents the excessive rise of prices ; it is this
which prevents their excessive fall. While double
competition prevails, the balance is perfect, trade and
industry flourish.
The capital distinction, therefore, between the terms
demand and competition is, that demand is constantly re¬
lative to the buyers y and when money is not the price,
as
COMM
nciples. as in barter, then it is relative to that side upon which
-v—“■ the greatest competition is found.
We therefore say, with regard to prices, demand is
high or low. With regard to the quantity of merchandise,
demand is great or small. With regard to competition,
it is always called great or small, strong or weak.
Competition is, with equal propriety, applicable to
both parties in the contract. A competition among
buyers is a proper expression 3 a competition among sel¬
lers, who have the merchandise, is fully as easily under¬
stood, though it be not quite so striking, for reasons
which an example will make plain.
You come to a fair, where you find a great variety
of every kind of merchandise, in the possession of dit-
ferent merchants. These, by offering their goods to
sale, constitute a tacit competition 3 every one of them
wishes to sell in preference to another, and at the same
time with the best advantage to himself.
The buyer begins by cheapening at every shop.
The first price asked marks the covetousness of the
seller j the first price offered, the avarice of the buyer.
From this operation competition begins to work its
effects on both sides, and so becomes double. The
principles which influence this operation are now to be
deduced.
It is impossible to suppose the same degree of eager¬
ness either to buy or sell, among several merchants 3
because the degree of eagerness is exactly in propor¬
tion to their views of profit 3 and as these must necessari¬
ly be influenced and regulated by different'circumstan¬
ces, that buyer, who has the best prospect of selling
again with profit, obliges him, whose prospect is not so
good, to content himself with less 3 and that seller who
has bought to the best advantage, obliges him, who has
paid dearer for the merchandise, to moderate his desire
of gain.
It is from these principles that competition among
buyers and sellers must originate. This is what con¬
fines the fluctuation of prices within limits which are
compatible with the reasonable profits of both buyers
and sellers 3 for we must constantly suppose the whole
operation of buying and selling to be performed by
merchants 3 the buyer cannot be supposed to give so
high a price as that which he expects to receive when
he distributes to the consumers, nor can the seller be
supposed to accept of a lower than that which he paid
to the manufacturer. This competition is properly
called double, because of the difficulty to determine
upon which side it stands 3 the same merchant may
have it in his favour upon certain articles, and against
him upon other 3 it is continually in vibration, and the
arrival of every post may less or more pull down the
heavy scale.
In every transaction between merchants, the profit
resulting from the sale must be exactly distinguished
from the value of the merchandise. The first may
vary, the last never can. It is this profit alone which
can be influenced by competition 3 and it is tor that
reason we find such uniformity everywhere in the prices
of goods of the same quality.
The competition between sellers does not appear
so striking as that between buyers 3 because he who
offers to sale, appears only passive in the first opera¬
tion 3 whereas the buyers present themselves one af¬
ter another 3 they make a demand when the mer-
E R C E. 319
chandise is refused to one at a certain price 3 a second Principles,
either offers more, or does not offer at all 3 but so soon y—J
as another seller finds his account in accepting the price
the first had refused, then the first enters into compe¬
tition, providing his profits will admit his lowering the
first price 3 and thus competition takes place among the
sellers, until the profits upon their trade prevent prices
from falling lower.
In all markets this competition is varying, though
insensibly, on many occasions 3 but in others the vi¬
brations are very perceptible. Sometimes it is found
strongest on the side of the buyers 3 and in proportion
as this grows, the competition between the sellers di¬
minishes. When the competition between the former
has raised prices to a certain standard, it comes to a
stop 3 then the competition changes sides, and takes
place among the sellers, eager to profit by the highest
price. This makes prices fall 3 and according as they
fall, the competition among the buyers diminishes.
They still wait for the lowest period. At last it comes,
and then perhaps some new circumstance, by giving
the balance a kick, disappoints their hopes. If there¬
fore it ever happens, that there is but one interest up¬
on one side of the contract, as in the example in the
former section, where we supposed the sellers united,
you perceive, that the rise of the price, occasioned by
the competition of the buyers, and even its coming to
a stop, could not possibly have the effect of producing
any competition on the other side 3 and therefore, if
prices come afterwards to sink, the fall must have pro¬
ceeded from the prudential considerations of adapting
the price to the faculties of those who, from the height
of it, had withdrawn their demand.
From these principles of competition, the forestalling
of markets is made a crime, because it diminishes the
competition which ought to take place between dif¬
ferent people, who have the same merchandise to of¬
fer to sale. The forestaller buys all up, with an inten¬
tion to sell with more profit, as he has by that means
taken other competitors out of his way, and appears
with a single interest on one side of the contract, in the
face of many competitors on the other. This person
is punished by the state, because he has prevented the
price of the merchandise from becoming justly propor¬
tioned to the real value 3 he has robbed the public and
enriched himself 3 and in the punishment he makes in¬
stitution. Here occur two questions to be resolved, for
the sake of illustration.
Can competition among buyers possibly take place
when the provision made is more than sufficient to
supply the quantity demanded ? On the other hand,
can competition take place among the sellers, when
the quantity demanded exceeds the total provision made
for it ?
We think it may in both cases 3 because in the one
and the other, there is a competition implied on one
side of the contract, and the very nature of this com¬
petition presupposes a possibility of its coming on the
other, provided separate interests be found upon both
sides. But to be more particular :
I. Experience shows, that however justly the pro¬
portion between the demand and the supply may be
determined in fact, it is still next to impossible to dis¬
cover it exactly, and therefore the buyers can only re¬
gulate the prices they offer, by what they may reason-
COMMERCE.
3-20
Principles, ably expect to sell for gain. The sellers, on the other
  r—^ hand, can only regulate the prices they expect, by what
the merchandise lias cost them when brought to mar¬
ket. We b ave already shown, how, under such cir¬
cumstances, the several interests of individuals affect
each other, and make the balance vibrate.
2. The proportion between the supply and the de¬
mand is seldom other than relative among merchants,
who are supposed to buy and sell, not from necessity,
but from a view to profit. What we mean by relative
is, that their demand is great or small according to
prices ; there may be a great demand for grain at 35s.
per quarter, and no demand at all for it at 40s. 5 that
is, among merchants.
It is essential to attend to the smallest circumstance
in matters of this kind. The circumstance we mean,
is the difference we find in the effect of competition,
when it takes place purely among merchants on both
sides of the contract, and when it happens, that either
the consumers mingle themselves with the merchant-
buyers, or the manufacturers, that is, the furnishers,
mingle themselves with the merchant-sellers. This
combination we shall illustrate by the solution of ano¬
ther question, and then conclude with a few reflections
upon the whole.
Can there be no case formed where the competition
upon one side may subsist, without a possibility of its
taking place on the other, although there should be se¬
parate interests upon both ?
The case is hardly supposable among merchants, who
buy and sell with a view to profit; but it is absolutely
supposable, and that is all, when the direct consumers
are the buyers j when the circumstances of one of the
parties are perfectly known j and when the competition
is so strong upon one side, as to prevent a possibility of
its becoming double, before the whole provision is sold
oft', or the demand satisfied. Let us have recourse to
examples.
Grain arriving in a small quantity, at a port where
the inhabitants are starving, producing so great a com¬
petition among the consumers who are the buyers,
that their necessity becomes evident; all the grain is
generally bought up before prices can rise so high as
to come to a stop •, because nothing but want of mo¬
ney, that is, an impossibility of complying with the
prices demanded by the merchants, can restrain them :
but if you suppose, even here, that pi-ices come natu¬
rally to a stop •, or that, after some time, they fall
lower, from prudential considerations ; then there is
a possibility of a competition taking place among the
sellers, from the principles above deduced. If, on the
contrary, the stop is not natural, but occasioned by the
interposition of the magistrate, from humanity, or the
like, there will be no competition, because then the
principles of commerce are suspended j the sellers are
restrained on one side, and they restrain the buyers on
the other. Or rather indeed, it is the magistrate, or
compassion, who in a manner fixes the price, and per¬
forms the office of both buyer and seller.
A better example still may be found, in a competi¬
tion among sellers, where it may be so strong as to
render a commodity in a manner of no value at all, as
in the case of an uncommon and unexpected draught
of fish, in a place of small consumption, when no pre¬
parations have been made for salting them. There
2
can be then no competition among the buyers, be- Prineip
cause the market cannot last, and they find themselves ——y-
entirely masters, to give what price they please, be¬
ing sure the sellers must accept of it, or lose their mer¬
chandise. In the first example, humanity commonly
stops the activity of the principle of competition ; in
the other, it is stopped by a certain degree of fair deal¬
ing, which forbids the accepting of a merchandise for
nothing.
In proportion therefore as the rising of prices can
stop demand, or the sinking of prices can increase it,
in the same proportion will competition prevent either
the rise or the fall from being carried beyond a certain
length ; and if such a case can be put, where the rising
of prices cannot stop demand, nor the lowering of
prices augment it, in such cases double competition has
no effect ; because these circumstances unite the most
separate interests of buyers and sellers in the mer¬
cantile contract ; and when upon one side there is
no separate interest, there can then be no competi¬
tion.
From what has been said, we may form a judgment
of the various degree of competition. A book not
worth a shilling, a fish of a few pounds weight, are
often sold for considerable sums. The buyers here are
not merchants. When an ambassador leaves a court in
a hurry, things are sold for less than the half of their
value } he is no merchant, and his situation is known.
When, at a public market, there are found consumers,
who make their provision, or manufacturers, who dis¬
pose of their goods for present subsistence ; the mer¬
chants, who are respectively upon the opposite side of
the contract to these, profit of their competition j and
those who are respectively upon the same side with
them, stand by with patience until they have finished
their business. Then matters come to be carried on
between merchant and merchant, and then profits may
rise and fall in the proportion of quantity to demand ;
that is to say, if the provision is less than the demand,
the competition among the demanders, or the rise of
the price, will be in the compound proportion of the
falling short of the commodity, and of the prospect of
selling again with profit. It is this combination which
regulates the competition, and keeps it within bounds.
It can affect but the profits upon the transaction ; the
intrinsic value of the commodity stands immoveable $
nothing is eveir sold below the real value ; nothing is
ever bought for more than it may probably bring.
We mean in general. Whereas, so soon as consumers
and needy manufacturers mingle in the operation, all
proportion is lost. The competition between them is
too strong for the merchants ; the balance vibrates by
jerks. In such markets merchants seldom appear 5 the
principal objects there, are the fruits and productions
of the earth, and articles of the first necessity for life,
not manufactures strictly so called. A poor fellow
often sells to purchase bread to eat *, not to pay what
he did eat while he was employed in the work he dis¬
poses of. The consumer often measures the value of
what he is about to purchase, by the weight of his purse,
and his desire to consume.
§ 6. Of what is called Expence, Profit, and Loss.
The term expence, when simply expressed, without
any particular relation, is always understood to be re¬
lative.
COMMERCE.
iuciples. lative to moftey. This kind is distinguished under the
—three heads of private, public, and national.
x. Private expence is what a private person, or pri¬
vate society, lays out, either to provide articles of con¬
sumption, or something more permanent, which may
be conducive to their ease, convenience, or advantage.
Thus we say, a large domestic expcnce, relative to one
who spends a great income. We say, a merchant has
been at great expence for magazines, for living, for
clerks, &c. but never that he has been at any in buy¬
ing goods. In the same way a manufacturer may ex¬
pend for building, machines, horses, and carriages, but
never for the matter he manufactures. When a thing
is bought in order to be sold again, the sum employed
is called money advanced; when it is bought not to be
sold, it may be said to be expended.
2. Public expence is the employment of-that money
which has been contributed by individuals for the cur¬
rent service of the state. The contribution, or the gather¬
ing it together, represents the effects of many articles
of private cxpence ; the laying it out when collected is
public expence.
3. National expence is what is expended out of the
country, this is what diminishes national wealth. The
principal distinction to be here attended to is between
public expence, or the laying out of public money, and
national expence, which is the alienating the nation’s
wealth in favour of strangers. Thus the greatest pub¬
lic expence imaginable may be no national expence ;
because the money may remain at home. On the
other hand, the smallest public, or even private ex¬
pence, may be a national expence j because the money
may go abroad.
Profit and loss is divided into positive, relative, and
compound. Positive pi'ofit implies no loss to any body $
it results from an augmentation of labour, industry, or
ingenuity, and has the effect of swelling or augmenting
the public good.
Positive loss implies no profit to any bodv ; it is what
results from the cessation of the former, or of the ef¬
fects resulting from it, and may be said to diminish the
public good.
Relative profit is what implies a loss to somebody ; it
marks a vibration of the balance of wealth between par¬
ties, but implies no addition to the general stock.
Relative loss is what, on the contrary, implies a pro¬
fit to somebody $ it also marks a vibration of the ba¬
lance, but takes nothing from the general stock.
The compound is easily understood j it is that species
of profit and loss which is partly relative and partly po¬
sitive.
§ 7. The general consequences resulting to a trading
Nation, upon the opening of an active foreign Com¬
merce.
A nation which remains passive in her commerce
is at the mercy of those who are active, and must be
greatly favoured indeed by natural advantages, or by
a constant flux of gold and silver from her mines, to
be able to support a correspondence not entirely hurtful
to the augmentation of her wealth.
When we look upon the wide field which here opens
to our view, we are perplexed with too great a variety
Vol. VI. Part I. 3
321
of objects. In one part, we see a decent and comely Principles,
beginning of industry j wealth flowing gently in to re- v—v— '
compense ingenuity j numbers both augmenting, and
every one becoming daily more useful to another j agri¬
culture proportionally extending itself j no violent re¬
volution ; no exorbitant profits $ no insolence among
the rich ; no excessive misery among the poor j multi¬
tudes employed in producing; great economy upon
consumption 5 and all the instruments of luxury, daily
produced by the hands of the diligent, going out of
the country for the service of strangers ; not remaining
at home for the gratification of sensuality. At last
the augmentations come insensibly to a stop. Then
these rivers of wealth, which were in brisk circulation
through the whole world, and which returned to this
trading nation as blood returns to the heart, only to
be thrown out again by new pulsations, begin to be
obstructed in their course ; and flowing abroad more
slowly than before, come to form stagnations at home.
These, impatient of restraint, soon burst out into do¬
mestic circulation. Upon this cities swell in magnifi¬
cence of buildings ; the face of the country is adorned
with palaces, and becomes covered with groves •, luxu¬
ry shines triumphant in every part; inequality becomes
more striking to the eye ; and want and misery appear
more deformed from the contrast; even fortune grows
more whimsical is her inconstancy ; the beggar of the
other day now rides in his coach ; and he who was
born in a bed of state, is seen to die in a gaol, or in an
alms house. Such are the effects of great domestic cir¬
culations.
The statesman looks about with amazement; he
who was wont to consider himself as the first man m
the society in every respect, perceives himself, per¬
haps, eclipsed by the lustre of private wealth, which
avoids his grasp when he attempts to seize it. This
makes his government more complex and more diffi¬
cult to be carried on *, he must now avail himself of
art and address, as well as of pow'er and force. By
the help of cajoling and intrigues he gets a little into
debt; this lays a foundation for public credit, which
growing by degrees, and in its progress assuming many
new forms, becomes, from the most tender begin¬
nings, a most formidable monster, striking terror into
those who cherished it in its infancy. Upon this, as
upon a triumphant war-horse, the statesman gets a-
stride ; he then appears formidable anew ; his head
turns giddy; he is choked with the dust he has rais¬
ed ; and at the moment he is ready to fall, to his ut¬
ter astonishment and surprise, he finds a strong mo¬
neyed interest of his own creating, which, instead of
swallowing him up, as he apprehended, flies to his
support. Through this he gets the better of all oppo¬
sition, he establishes taxes, multiplies them, mortgages
his fund of subsistence ; either becomes a bankrupt,
and rises again from his ashes; or if he be less auda¬
cious, he stands trembling and tottering for a while on
the brink ot the political precipice. From the one or the
other of these perilous situations, he begins to discover
an endless path, which after a multitude of windings
still returns into itself, and continues an equal course
through this vast labyrinth.
It is now full time to leave off rhapsody, and re¬
turn to reasoning and cool inquiry, concerning the
S s more
CO
22 COMM
•ineiples. more immediate and more general effects and revolu-
tions produced by the opening of a foreign trade in a
nation of industry.
The first and most sensible alteration will be an in¬
crease of demand for manufacturers, because by sup¬
plying the wants of strangers, the number of consu¬
mers will now be considerably augmented. What
again will follow upon this, must depend upon circum¬
stances.
If this revolution in the state of demand should
prove too violent, the consequence of it will be to raise
demand j if it should prove gradual, it will increase it.
This distinction is well understood, and the consequence
appears just; for, if the supply do not increase in pro¬
portion to the demand, a competition will ensue among
the demanders j which is the common effect of such
sudden revolutions. If, on the other hand, a gentle
increase of demand should be accompanied with a pro¬
portional supply, the whole industrious society will
grow in vigour, and in wholesome stature, without
being sensible of any great advantage or inconveniency j
the change of their circumstances will even be imper¬
ceptible.
The immediate effects of the violent revolution will,
in this example, be flattering to some and disagreeable
to others. Wealth will be found daily to augment,
from the rising of prices, in many branches of industry.
This will encourage the industrious classes, and the
idle consumers at home will complain. We have al¬
ready dwelt abundantly long upon the effect resulting
from this to the lower classes of the people, in providing
them with a certain means of subsistence. Let us now
examine in what respect even the higher classes will be
made likewise to feel the good effects of this general
change, although at first they may suffer a temporary
inconvenience from it.
Farmers, as has been observed, will have a greater
difficulty in finding servants, who, instead of labouring
the gtound, will choose to turn themselves to manufac¬
tures. This we have considered in the light of purging
the lands of superfluous mouths $ but every consequence
in this great chain of politics draws other consequences
after it j and as they follow one another, things put on
different faces, which affect classes differently. The
purging of the land is but one of the first $ here follows
another.
The desertion of the hands employed in a trifling
agriculture will at first, no doubt, embarrass the farm¬
ers j but in a little time every thing becomes balanced
in a trading nation, because here every industrious man
must advance in prosperity, in spite of all general com¬
binations of circumstances.
In the case before us, the relative profits upon farm¬
ing must soon become greater than formerly, because
of this additional expence which must affect the whole
class of farmers j consequently, this additional expence,
instead of turning out to be a loss to either landlord
or farmer, will, after some little time, turn out to the
advantage of both, because the produce of the ground,
being indispensably necessary to every body, must in
every article increase in its value. Thus, in a short
time, accounts will be nearly balanced on all hands j
that is to say, the same proportion of wealth will,
cateris paribus, continue the same among the indus¬
trious. We say among the industrious j for those
3
E R C E.
who are either idle, or even negligent, will be great Principlf
losers. —v—
A proprietor of land, inattentive to the causes of his
farmer’s additional ex pence, may very imprudently
suffer his rents to fall, instead of assisting him on a pro¬
per occasion, in order to make them afterwards rise the
higher.
Those who live upon a determined income in money,
and who are nowise employed in traffic, nor in any
scheme of industry, will, by the augmentation of prices,
be found in worse circumstances than before.
In a trading nation every man must turn his talents
to account, or he will undoubtedly be left behind in
this universal emulation, in which the most industrious,
the most ingenious, and the most frugal, will constantly
carry off the prize.
This consideration ought to be a spur to every
man. The richest men in a trading nation have no
security against poverty ; we mean proportional po¬
verty j for though they diminish nothing of their in¬
come, yet, by not increasing it in proportion to others,
they lose their rank in wealth, and from the first class
in which they stood they will slide insensibly down to
a lower.
There is one consequence of an additional beneficial
trade, which raises demand and increases wealth ; but
if we suppose no proportional augmentation of supply,
it will prove at best but an airy dream which lasts for
a moment j and when the gilded scene is passed away,
numberless are the inconveniences which are seen to
follow.
We shall now point out the natural consequences of
this augmentation of wealth drawn from foreign na¬
tions, when the statesman remains inattentive to in¬
crease the supply both of food and manufactures, in pro¬
portion to the augmentation of mouths, and of the de¬
mand for the produce of industry.
In such a situation profits w'ill daily swell, and every
scheme for reducing them within the hounds of mode¬
ration, will be looked upon as a hurtful and unpopular
measure : be it so 5 but let us examine the consequen¬
ces.
We have said, that the rise of demand for manufac¬
tures naturally increases the value of work: now we
must add, that under such circumstances, the augmen¬
tation of riches in a country, either not capable of im¬
provement as to the soil, or where precautions have not
been taken for facilitating a multiplication of inhabi¬
tants, by the importation of subsistence, will be produc¬
tive of the most calamitous consequences.
On one side, this wealth will effectually diminish
the mass of the food before produced j and on the
other, will increase the number of useless consumers.
The first of these circumstances will raise the demand
for food j and the second will diminish the number
of useful free hands, and consequently raise the price
of manufactures : here are shortly the outlines of this
progress.
The more rich and luxurious a people are, the more
delicate they become in their manner of living : if
they fed on bread formerly, they will now feed on
meat $ if they fed on meat, they will now feed on
fowl. The same ground which feeds a hundred with
bread, and a proportional quantity of animal-food,
will not maintain an equal number of delicate livers.
Food
COMMERCE.
inciples. Food must then become more scarce} demand for it
rises j the rich are always the strongest in the marketj
they consume the food, and the poor are forced to
starve. Here the wide door to modern distress opens j
to wit, a hurtful competition for subsistence. Farther,
when a people become rich, they think less of economy $
a number of useless servants are hired, to become an
additional dead weight on consumption ; and when their
starving countrymen cannot supply the extravagance
of the rich so cheaply as other nations, they either im¬
port instruments of foreign luxury, or seek to enjoy
them out of their own country, and thereby make re¬
stitution of their gains.
Is it not therefore evident, that if, before things
come to this pass, additional subsistence be not provided
by one method or other, the number of inhabitants
must diminish •, although riches may daily increase by
a balance of additional matter supposed to be brought
into the country in consequence of the hitherto bene¬
ficial foreign trade ? This is not all. We say further,
that the beneficial trade will last for a time only. For
the infallible consequences of the rise of prices at home
will be, that those nations which at first consumed your
manufactures, perceiving the gradual increase of their
price, will begin to work for themselves; or finding
out your rivals who can supply them cheaper, will
open their doors to them. These again, perceiving
the great advantages gained by your traders, will be¬
gin to supply the market j and since every thing must
be cheaper in countries where we do not suppose the
concurrence of all the circumstances mentioned above,
these nations will supplant you, and be enriched in their
turn.
Here comes a new revolution. Trade is at a stand:
what then becomes of all the hands which were for¬
merly employed in supplying the foreign demands ?
Were revolutions so sudden as we are obliged to re¬
present them, all would go to wreck ; in proportion as
they happen by quicker or slower degrees, the incon¬
veniences are greater or smaller.
Prices, we have said, are made to rise by compe¬
tition. If the competition of the strangers was what
raised them, the distress upon the manufacturers will
he in proportion to the suddenness of their deserting
the market. If the competition was divided between
the strangers and the home-consumers, the inconve¬
niences which ensue will be less j because the deser¬
tion of the strangers will be in some measure made up
by an increase of home-consumption which will follow
Upon the fall of prices. And if, in the third case, the
natives have been so imprudent, as not only to sup¬
port a competition with the strangers, and thereby
disgust them from coming any more to market, but
even to continue the competition between themselves,
the whole loss sustained by the revolution will be na¬
tional. Wealth will cease to augment j but the incon¬
veniences, in place of being felt by the manufacturers,
will only affect the state ; these will continue in afflu¬
ence, extolling the generosity of their countrymen, and
despising the poverty of the strangers who had enrich¬
ed them.
Domestic luxury will here prove an expedient for1
preserving from ruin the industrious part of a people,
who in subsisting themselves had enriched their country.
No change will follow in their condition j they will go
323
on with a painful assiduity to labour $ and if the conse- Principles,
quences of it become now hurtful to one part of the v*" "i/
state, they must at least be allowed to be essentially
necessary for the support of another.
But that luxury is no necessary concomitant of fo¬
reign trade, in a nation where the true principles of it
are understood, will appear very plain, from a contrast
we are now going to point out, in the example of a
modern state, renowned for its commerce and frugality.
The country is Holland.
A-set of industrious and frugal people were assem¬
bled in a country by nature subject to many inconve¬
niences, the removing of which necessarily employed
abundance of hands. Their situation upon the conti¬
nent, the power of their former masters, and the am¬
bition of their neighbours, obliged them to keep great
bodies of troops. These two articles added to the
numbers of the community, without either enriching
the state by their labour exported, or producing food
for themselves or countrymen.
The scheme of a commonwealth was calculated to
draw together the industrious; but it has been still
more useful in subsisting them : the republican form
of government being there greatly subdivided, vests
authority sufficient in every part of it, to make suitable
provision for their own subsistence $ and the tie which
unites them, regards only matters of public concern.
Had the whole been governed by one sovereign, or by
one council, this important matter never could have
been effected.
It would be impossible for the most able minister
that ever lived, to provide nourishment for a country
so extended as France, or even as England, supposing
these as fully peopled as Holland is ; even although
it should be admitted that a sufficient quantity of food
might be found in other countries for their subsistence.
The enterprise would be too great, abuses would mul¬
tiply ; the consequence would be, that the inhabitants
would die for want. But in Holland, the case is dif¬
ferent : every little town takes care of its own inha¬
bitants ; and this care being the object of application
and profit to so many persons, is accomplished with
success.
When once it is laid down as a maxim in a coun¬
try, that food must of necessity be got from abroad in
order to feed the inhabitants at home, the corn-trade
becomes considerable, and at the same time certain, re¬
gular, and permanent. This was the case in Holland:
as the inhabitants were industrious, the necessary con¬
sequence has been, a very extraordinary multiplica¬
tion ; and at the same time such an abundance of
grain, that, instead of being in want themselves, they
often supply their neighbours. There are many ex¬
amples of England’s being supplied with grain from
thence 5 and, which is still more extraordinary, from
the re-exportation of the very produce of its own fx-uit-
tul soil.
It is therefore evident, that the only way to sup¬
port industry, is to provide a supply of subsistence,
constantly proportional to the demand that may be
made far it. This is a precaution indispensably ne¬
cessary for preventing hurtful competition. This is
the particular care of the Dutch : so long as it can be
effectual, their state can fear no decline ; but when¬
ever they come to be distressed in the markets, upon
S s a which
324 ' COMM
Filnciples, which they depend for subsistence, they will sink into
v~—« ruin. It is by mere dint of frugality, cheap and par¬
simonious living, that the navigation of this industri¬
ous people is supported. Constant employment, and
an accumulation of almost imperceptible gains, fill
their coffers with wealth, in spite of the large outgo^
ings, to which their own proper nourishment yearly
forces them. The large profits upon industry in other
countries, which are no proof of generosity, but a fa¬
tal effect of a scanty subsistence, is far from dazzling
their eyes. They seldom are found in the list of
competitors at any foreign port j if they have their
cargo to dispose of, they wait with pleasure in their
own vessels, consuming their own provisions, and at
last accept of what others have left. It may be said,
that many other circumstances concur in favour of the
Dutch, besides the article of subsistence. Without dis¬
puting this matter, it may be observed, that if a com¬
putation be made of the hands employed in providing
subsistence, and of those who are severally taken up
in supplying every other want, their numbers will be
found nearly to balance one another in the most luxu¬
rious countries. From this we may conclude, that
the article of food, among the lower classes, must bear
E R C E.
a very high proportion to all the other articles of their pr; •
consumption ; and therefore a diminution upon the
price of subsistence, must be of infinite consequence to
manufacturers who are obliged to buy it. From this
consideration, let us judge of the consequence of such
augmentations upon the price of grain as are familiar
to us j 30 or 40 per cent, seems nothing. Now this
augmentation operates upon two-thirds, at least, of the
whole expence of a labouring man: let any one who
lives in tolerable affluence make the application of this
to himself, and examine how he would manage his
affairs, if, by accidents of rains or winds, his expences
were to rise 30 per cent, without a possibility of re¬
straining them j for this is unfortunately the case with
all the lower classes. From whence it may be con¬
cluded, that the keeping food cheap, and still more the
preserving it at all times at an equal standard, is the
fountain of the wealth of Holland j and that any hurt¬
ful competition in this article must beget a disorder
which will affect the whole of the manufacturers of a
state.
See a statement of the newest views of political eco¬
nomists on the principles of commerce in the article
Commerce, Supplement.
COM
Cotnmerey COMMERCY, a handsome town of France in the
H . department of the Meuse, with 3700 inhabitants. It
°mryina* ^as a magn'ficent castle. It is seated on the river
i  ‘ , Meuse, in E. Long. 5. 40. N. Lat. 48. 46.
COMMERSONIA. See Botany Index.
CQMMINATTON, an office in the liturgy of the
church of England, appointed to be read on Ash Wed¬
nesday, or the first day of Lent. It is substituted in
the room of that godly discipline in the primitive church,
by which (as the introduction to the office expresses it),
“ such persons as stood convicted of notorious sins,
were put to open penance, and punished in this world,
that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord ;
and that others, admonished by their example, might
be the more afraid to offend.” This discipline, in after
ages, degenerated, in the church of Rome, into a for¬
mal confession of sins upon Ash Wednesday, and the
empty ceremony of sprinkling ashes upon the heads of
the people. Our reformers wisely rejected this cere¬
mony, as mere shadow and show j and substituted this
office in its room, which is A denunciation of God's
anger and judgment against sinners, that the people
being apprised of God’s wrath and indignation against
sin, may not, through want of discipline in the church,
be encouraged to follow and pursue them ; but rather
be moved to supply that discipline to themselves, and
so as to avoid being judged and condemned at the tri¬
bunal of God..
COMMINATORY, an appellation given to what¬
ever threatens punishment, or some penalty. Thus, in
France, when an exile is enjoined not to return under
pain of death, it is deemed a comminatory penalty ;
since, if he do return, it is not strictly executed :
but a second injunction is laid on him, which is more
COM
than comminatory, and, from the day of the date there- Commin
of, imports death without remedy. tory
COMMINGES, formerly a province of France, 45 fC
miles in length, and 15 in breadth j bounded on the ° '
north by Gascony, on the south by Catalonia, on the 1—y-_
east by Cousserans, and on the west by Bigorre. Its
principal trade consists in cattle, mules, and corn. St
Bertrand is the capital town.
COMMINUTION, denotes the breaking, or rather
grinding, a body to very small particles.
COMMIRE, John, a celebrated Latin poet, born,
at Amboise in 1625, entered into the society of the
Jesuits, and taught polite literature and divinity. He
died at Paris in 1702. We have a volume of his
Latin Poems, and a collection of his posthumous
works. His odes and fables are more particularly ad¬
mired.
COMMISSARY, in the ecclesiastical lawr an offi¬
cer of the bishop, who exercises spiritual jurisdiction in
places of a diocese so far from the episcopal see, that
the chancellor cannot call the people to the bishop’s
principal consistory court, without giving them too
much inconveniency.
CoMMJssARY-Cout't, in Scotland, a court originally
constituted by the bishops for executing in their name
an usurped jurisdiction ; and was anciently called the
bishop's court, curia Chr is t ia n it a tis, or consistorial
couid. Tins court was modelled by Queen Mary at the
Reformation, and continues to this day.
Commissary, in a military sense, is of different
sorts.
CoMMissARY-General of the Musters, an officer ap¬
pointed to muster the army, as often as the general
thinks proper, in order to know the strength of each
regiment
COM
lommis- regiment ami company, to receive and inspect the nius-
sary, ter-rolls, and to keep an exact state of the strength of
Commi*- the army.
*loa‘ , Commissary of Horses, an officer in the artillery ap-
pointed to have the inspection of the artillery-horses,
to see them mustered, and to send such orders as he
receives from the commanding officer of the artillery
by some of the conductors of horses, of which he has a
certain number for his assistants.
Commissary of Provisions, an officer who has the
charge of furnishing the army with provisions.
Commissary of Stores, an officer in the artillery who
has the charge of all the stores, for which he is ac¬
countable to the office of ordnance.
COMMISSION, in common law, the warrant or
letters patent, which all persons exercising jurisdiction
have to empower them to hear or determine any cause
or suit; as the commission of the judges, &c.
Commission of Bankruptcy, is the commission that
issues from the lord chancellor on a person’s becom¬
ing a bankrupt within any of the statutes, directed
to certain commissioners appointed to examine into it,
and to secure the bankrupt’s lands and effects for the
satisfaction of his creditors. See the article Bank¬
rupt.
The proceedings on a commission of bankruptcy may
be divided, I. Into those which affect the bankrupt
himself. 2. Into those which affect his property.
mmerit I* to t*10Se ^ie former kind, there must, in
the first place, be a petition to the lord chancellor by
one creditor to the amount of look or by two to
the amount of 150I. or by three or more to the
amount of 200I. $ upon which he grants a commission
to such discreet persons as to him shall seem good, who
are then styled commissioners of bankrupt. The pe¬
titioners, to prevent malicious applications, must be
bound in a security of 200I. to make the party amends,
in case they do not prove him a bankrupt. And if,
on the other hand, they receive any money or effects
from the bankrupt, as a recompense for suing out the
commission, so as to receive more than their rateable
dividends of the bankrupt’s estate, they forfeit not on¬
ly what they shall have so received, but their whole
debt. When the commission is awarded and issued,
the commissioners are to meet at their own expence,
and to take an oath for the due execution of their com¬
mission, and to be allowed a sum not exceeding 20s.
per diem each, at every sitting. And no commission
of bankruptcy shall abate or be void on any demise on
the crown.
When the commissioners have received their com¬
mission, they are first to receive proof of the per¬
son’s being a trader, and having committed some act of
bankruptcy ; and then to declare him bankrupt, if pro¬
ved so $ and to give notice thereof in the gazette, and
at the same time to appoint three meetings. At one
of these meetings an election must be made of as¬
signees, or persons to whom the bankrupt’s estate shall
be assigned, and in whom it shall be vested for the be¬
nefit of the creditors $ which assignees are chosen by
the major part, in value, of the creditors who shall
then have proved their debts j but may be originally
appointed by the commissioners, and afterwards ap¬
proved or rejected by the creditors j but no creditors
shall be admitted to vote in the choice of assignees,
COM
whose debt on the balance of accounts, does not Cemmis-
amount to 10I. And at the third meeting at farthest, sion.
which must be on the 42d day after the advertise- '—--y—-J
ment in the gazette, the bankrupt, upon notice also
personally served upon him, or left at his usual place
of abode, must surrender himself personally to the
commissioners, and must henceforth in all respects
conform to the directions of the statutes of bankrupt¬
cy *, or, in default thereof, shall be guilty of felony
without.benefit of clergy, and shall suffer death, and
his goods and estate shall be divided among his cre¬
ditors.
In case the bankrupt absconds, or is likely to run
away between the time of the commission issued and
the last day of surrender, he may, by warrant from any
judge or justice of the peace, be apprehended and com¬
mitted to the county gaol, in order to be forthcoming
to the commissioners, who are also empowered im¬
mediately to grant a warrant for seizing his goods
and papers.
When the bankrupt appears, the commissioners are
to examine him touching all matters relating to his
trade and effects. They may also summon before them,
and examine, the bankrupt’s wife, and any other per¬
son whatsoever, as to all matters relating to the bank¬
rupt’s affairs : And in case any of them shall refuse to
answer, or shall not answer fully, to any lawful question,
or shall refuse to subscribe such their examination, the
commissioners may commit them to prison without bail,
till they make and sign a full answer ; the commission¬
ers specifying in their warrant of commitment the ques¬
tion so refused to be answered. And any gaoler, per¬
mitting such person to escape or go out of prison, shall
forfeit 500I. to the creditors.
The bankrupt, upon this examination, is bound, up¬
on pain of death, to make a full discovery of all his
estate and effects, as well in expectancy as possession,
and how he has disposed of the same j together with
all books and writings relating thereto : and is to de¬
liver up all in his power to the commissioners (ex¬
cept the necessary apparel of himself, his wife, and
his children) j or in case he conceals or embezzles
any effects to the amount of 20I. or withholds any
book or writings, with intent to defraud his cre¬
ditors, he shall be guilty of felony without benefit of
clergy.
After the time allowed the bankrupt for such disco¬
very is expired, any other person voluntarily discover¬
ing any part of his estate before unknown to the assig¬
nees, shall be entitled to five per cent, out of the,
effects so discovered, and such farther reward as the as¬
signees and commissioners shall think proper. And
any trustee wilfully concealing the estate of any bank¬
rupt, after the expiration of 42 days, shall forfeit tool,
and double the value of the estate concealed, to the
creditors.
Hitherto every thing is in favour of the creditors 5
and the law seeips to be pretty rigid and severe against
the bankrupt} but, in case he proves honest, it makes
him full amends for all this rigour and severity. For,
if the bankrupt hath made an ingenuous discovery,
hath conformed to the directions of the law, and hath
acted in all points to the satisfaction of his creditors ;
and if they, or four parts in five of them in number
and value (but none of them creditors for less than
20I.)
[ 325 ]
COM [ 326 ] COM
ConiiniK- 20I.) will sign a certificate to tliat purport; the com-
siou. missioners are then to authenticate such certificate
v ' ' under their hands and seals, and to transmit it to the
lord chancellor: and he, or two judges whom he shall
appoint, on oath made by the bankrupt that such certi¬
ficate was obtained without fraud, may allow the same $
or disallow it, upon cause shown by any of the creditors
of the bankrupt.
If no cause be shown to the contrary, the certi¬
ficate is allowed of course; and then the bankrupt is
entitled to a decent and reasonable allowance out of
bis effects for his future support and maintenance, and
to put him in a way of honest industry. This allow¬
ance is also in proportion to his former good beha¬
viour, in the early discovery of the decline of his
affairs, and thereby giving his creditors a large di¬
vidend. For if his effects will not pay one half of his
debts, or 10s in the pound, he is left to the dis¬
cretion of the commissioners and assignees, to have a
competent sum allowed him, not exceeding 3 per cent.;
but if they pay 1 os. in the pound, he is to be allowed
5 per cent.; if 12s. 6d. then 7^ per cent.; and if 15s.
in the pound, then the bankrupts shall be allowed 10
per cent.; provided that such allowance do not in the
first case exceed 200I. in the second 250I. and in the
third 300I.
Besides this allowance, he has also an indemnity
granted him, of being free and discharged for ever
from all debts owing by him at the time he became a
bankrupt; even though judgment shall have been ob¬
tained against him, and he lies in prison upon execution
for such debts ; and, for that among other purposes,
all proceedings on commission of bankrupt, are, on
petition, to be entered on record, as a perpetual bar
against actions to be commenced upon this account:
though, in general, the production of the certificate
properly allowed shall be sufficient evidence of all pre¬
vious proceedings. Thus the bankrupt becomes a
clear man again ; and by the assistance of his allow¬
ance and his own industry, may become an useful mem¬
ber of the commonwealth; which is the rather to be
expected, as he cannot be entitled to these benefits,
but by the testimony of his creditors themselves of his
honest and ingenuous disposition ; and unless his failures
have been owing to misfortunes, rather than to miscon¬
duct and extravagance.
2. As to the proceedings which affect the bankrupt’s
property.
By virtue of the statutes before mentioned, all the
personal estate and effects of the bankrupt are consi¬
dered as vested, by the act of bankruptcy, in the fu¬
ture assignees of his commissioners, whether they be
goods in actual possession, or debts, contracts, and other
choses in action; and the commissioners by their war¬
rant may cause any house or tenement of the bankrupt
to be broken open, in order to enter upon and seize the
same. And when the assignees are chosen or approved
by the creditors, the commissioners are to assign every
thing over to them ; and the property of every part of
the estate is hereby as fully vested in them as it was
in the bankrupt himself, and they have the same re¬
medies to recover it.
The property vested in the assignees is the whole
that the bankrupt Jiad in himself, at the time he com¬
mitted the first act of bankruptcy, or that has been
vested in him since, before his debts are satisfied or Comm]
agreed for. Therefore, it is usually said that once a sion.
bankrupt and always a bankrupt; by which is meant, u,^v—
that a plain direct act of bankruptcy once committed,
cannot be purged, or explained away, by any subse¬
quent conduct, as a dubious equivocal act may be; but
that, if a commission is afterward awarded, the com¬
mission and the property of the assignees shall have a
relation, or reference, back to the first and original act
of bankruptcy. Insomuch that all transactions of the
bankrupt are from that time absolutely null and void,
either with regard to the alienation of his property, or
the receipt of his debts from such as are privy to his
bankruptcy; for they are no longer his property, or
his debts, but those of the future assignees. And if an
execution be sued out, but not served and executed
on the bankrupt’s effects till after the act of bank¬
ruptcy, it is void, as against the assignees. But the
king is not bound by this fictitious relation, nor is
within the statutes of bankrupts; for if, after the act
of bankruptcy committed, and before the assignment
of his effects, an extent issues for the debt of the
crown, the goods are bound thereby. In France this
doctrine of relation is carried to a very great length ;
for there, every act of a merchant, for ten days prece¬
dent to the act of bankruptcy, is presumed to be frau¬
dulent, and is therefore void. But with us the law
stands upon a more reasonable footing; for as these
acts of bankruptcy may sometimes be secret to all but
a few, and it would be prejudicial to trade to carry
this notion to its utmost length, it is provided by stat.
19 Geo. II. c. 32. that no money paid by a bankrupt
to a bona fide, or real creditor, in a course of trade,
even after an act of bankruptcy done, shall be liable
to be refunded. Now by stat. I Jac. I. c. 15. shall any
debtor of a bankrupt that pays him his debt without
knowing of his bankruptcy, be liable to account for it
again. The intention of this relative power being
only to reach fraudulent transactions, and not to distress
the fair trader.
The assignees may pursue any legal method of re¬
covering this property so vested in them by their own
authority; but cannot commence a suit in equity, nor
compound any debts owing to the bankrupt, nor refer
any matters to arbitration, without the consent of the
creditors, or the major part of them in value, at a
meeting to he held in pursuance of notice in the ga¬
zette.
When they have got in all the effects they can rea¬
sonably hope for, and reduced them to ready money,
the assignees must, within 12 months after the com¬
mission issued, give 21 days notice to the creditors, of
a meeting for a dividend or distribution; at which
time they must produce their accounts, and verify
them upon oath, if required. And then the commis¬
sioners shall direct a dividend to be made, at so much
in the pound, to all creditors who have before proved,
or shall then prove their debts. This dividend must
be made equally, and in a rateable proportion, to all
the creditors, according to the quantity of their debts;
no regard being paid to the quality of them. Mort¬
gages, indeed, for which the creditor has a real secu¬
rity in his own hands, are entirely safe; for the com¬
mission of bankrupt reaches only the equity of re¬
demption. So are all personal debts, where the cre¬
ditor
COM [
ditor lias a chattel in his hands, or a pledge or pawn,
for the payment, or has taken the debtor’s lands or
goods in execution. And, upon the equity of the
stat. 8 An. c. 14. (which directs, that upon all execu¬
tions of goods being on any premises demised to a te¬
nant, one year’s rent and no more, shall, if due, be
paid to the landlord) it hath also been held, that under
a commission of bankrupt, which is in the nature of a
statute execution, the landlord shall be allowed his ar¬
rears of .rent to the same amount, in preference to o-
ther creditors, even though he hath neglected to dis¬
train while the goods remained on the premises j
which he is otherwise entitled to do for his entire
rent, be the quantum what it may. But otherwise
judgments and recognizes (both which are debts
of record, and therefore at other times have a pri¬
ority), and also bonds and obligations by deed or spe¬
cial instrument (which are called deeds by speciality,
and are usually the next in order), these are all put on
a level with debts by mere simple contract, and all
paid pari passu. Nay, so far is this matter carried,
that, by the express provision of the statutes, debts
not due at the time of the dividend made, as bonds
or notes of hand, payable at a future day, shall be
paid equally with the rest, allowing a discount or
drawback in proportion. And insurances, and obli¬
gations upon bottomry or respondentia, bona fide,
made by the bankrupt, though forfeited after the
commission is awarded, shall be looked upon in the
same light as debts contracted before any act of bank¬
ruptcy.
Within 18 months after the commission issued, a
second and final dividend shall be made, unless all the
effects were exhausted by the first. And if any surplus
remains, after paying every creditor his full debt, it
shall be restored to the bankrupt. This is a case
which sometimes happens to men in trade, who invo¬
luntarily, or at least unwarily, commit acts of bank¬
ruptcy, by absconding and the like, while their effects
are more than sufficient to pay their creditors. And
if any suspicious or malevolent creditor will take the
advantage of such acts, and sue out a commission, the
bankrupt has no remedy, but must quietly submit to
the effects of his own imprudence : except that upon
satisfaction made to all the creditors, the commission
may be superseded. This case may also happen when
a knave is desirous of defrauding his creditors, and is
compelled, by a commission, to do them that justice
which otherwise he wanted to evade. And there¬
fore, though the usual rule is, that all interest on debts
carrying interest shall cease from the time of issuing
the commission, yet in case of a surplus left after pay¬
ment of every debt, such interest shall again revive,
and be chargeable on the bankrupt or his representa¬
tives.
Commission of Lunacy, issues out of the court of
chancery, whether a person represented to he a luna¬
tic, be so or not. See Lunacy.
Commission of Teinds, a court at Edinburgh,
which came in place of a committee of the Scottish
parliament, for erecting new parishes, and valuing
teinds for the support of the clergy. It is vested in the
lords of session. See Law Index.
COMMission-officers. See Officers.
Commission, in Commerce. See Factorage.
327 ] COM
COMMISSIONER, a person authorized by com¬
mission, letters patent, or other lawful warrant, to
examine any matters, or execute any lawful commis¬
sion.
Commissioner in the General Assembly of the
church of Scotland. See Assembly {General.')
Commissioners of the Customs. See Customs.
Commissioners of Excise. See Excise.
Commissioners of the Navy. See Navy.
Lords Commissioners of the Treasury. See Trea¬
sury and Exchequer.
COMMISSURE, a term used by some authors
for the small metuses or interstices of bodies j or the
little clefts between the particles: especially when
those particles are broadish and flat, and lie contigu¬
ous to one another, like thin plates and lamellae. The
word literally signifies a joining or connecting of one
thing to another.
Commissure, in Architecture, &c. denotes the joint
of two stones, or the application of the surface of the
one to that of the other. See Masonry.
Among anatomists, commissure is sometimes also used
for a suture of the cranium or skull. See Suture.
COMMITMENT, in criminal law, is the sending
to prison a person who hath been guilty of any crime.
This takes place where the offence is not bailable, or
the party cannot find BAIN*; must be by proper war¬
rant, containing the cause of the commitment ; and
continues till put an end to by the course of law
(see Trial) j imprisonment being intended only for
safe custody, and not for punishment (see Arrest¬
ment and Bail). In this dubious interval between
the commitment and trial, a prisoner ought to be used
with the utmost humanity; and neither be loaded
with needless fetters, nor subjected to other hardships
than such as are absolutely requisite for the purpose of
confinement only : though what are so requisite must
too often be left to the direction of the gaolers, who
are frequently a merciless race of men, and by being
conversant in scenes of misery, steeled against any ten¬
der sensation.
COMMITTEE, one or more persons to whom the
consideration or ordering of a matter is referred, either
by some court, or by the consent of parties to whom it
belongs.
Committee of Parliament, a certain number of
members appointed by the house for the examination
of a bill, making a report of an inquiry, process of the
house, &c. See Parliament.
Sometimes the whole house is resolved into a com¬
mittee } on which occasion each person has a right to
speak and reply as much and as often as he pleases : an
expedient they usually have recourse to in extraordinary
cases, and where any thing is to be thoroughly can¬
vassed. When the house is not in a committee, each
gives his opinion regularly, and is only allowed to speak
once, unless to explain himself.
The standing committees, appointed by every new
parliament, are those of privileges and elections, of
religion, of grievances, of courts of justice, and of trade j
though only the former act.
COMMIXTION, in Scots Law, is a method of ac¬
quiring property, by mixing orblending together dif¬
ferent substances belonging to different proprietors.
See Law Index.
COMMODATE,
COM L 328 ] COM
COMMODATE, Commodatum, in the civil ju¬
risprudence, the loan or free concession of any thing
moveable or immoveable, for a certain time, on con¬
dition of restoring again the same individual after a
certain term. The commodate is a kind of loan 5
there is this difference, however, between a loan and
a commodate, that the latter is gratis, and does not
transfer the property : the thing must be returned in
essence, and without impairment 5 so that things which
consume by use or time cannot be objects of a com¬
modate, but of a loan ; in regard they may be return¬
ed in kind, though not in identity. See Law In¬
dex.
COMMODTANUS, Gazeus, a Christian author
in the 4th century, who wrote a work in Latin verse,
entitled Instructions; the moral of which is excellent,
but the verse extremely heavy. M. Davies published
a fine edition of it in 1711, at the end of Minucius
Felix.
COMMODITY, in a general sense, denotes all
sorts of wares and merchandises whatsoever that a per¬
son deals or trades in.
Staple Commodities, such wares and merchandises
as are commonly and readily sold in a market, or ex¬
ported abroad 5 being for the most part the proper pro¬
duce or manufacture of the country.
COMMODORE, a general officer in the British
marine, invested with the command of a detachment
of ships of war, destined on any particular enterprise,
during which time he bears the rank of brigadier-
general in the army, and is distinguished from the in¬
ferior ships of his squadron by a broad red pendant
tapering towards the outer end, and sometimes fork¬
ed. The word is corrupted from the Spanish comen-
dador.
Commodore is also a name given to some select ship
in a fleet of merchantmen, who leads the van in time
of war, and carries a light in his top to conduct the rest
and keep them together. He is always the oldest cap¬
tain in the fleet which he commands.
COMMODUS, L. Aurelius Antoninus, son of
•M. Antoninus, succeeded his father in the Roman
empire. He was naturally cruel and fond of indul¬
ging his licentious propensities. He wished to he call¬
ed Hercules; and, like that hero, he adorned his
shoulders with a lion’s skin, and armed his hand with
a knotted club. He publicly fought with the gladi¬
ators, and boasted of his dexterity in killing the wild
beasts in the amphitheatre. He required divine ho¬
nours from -the senate, and they were granted. He
was wont to put such an immense quantity of gold
dust in his hair, that when he appeared bareheaded in
the sunshine his head glittered as if surrounded with
sun-beams. Martia, one of his concubines, whose
death he had prepared, poisoned him : but as the poi¬
son did not quickly operate, he was strangled by a
wrestler. He died in the 31st year of his age, and
the 13th of his reign. It has been observed, that he
never trusted himself to a barber j but always burnt
his beard, in imitation of the tyrant Dionysius. A. D.
I92.
COMMON, Communis, something that belongs to
2
all alike $ is owned or allowed by all $ and not confined
to this more than that. In this sense, common stands
opposed to proper, peculiar, &c. Thus, the earth is
said to be our common mother; in the first or golden
age all things were in common, as well as the sun and
elements : the name animal is common to man and
beast; that of substance to body and spirit.
Common, Communia, (i. e. quod ad omnes pertinet),
in law, signifies that soil, the use whereof is common to
a particular town or lordship ; or it is a profit that a
man hath in the land of another person, usually in
common with others ; or a right which a person hath to
put his cattle to pasture into ground that is not his
own. And there is not only common of pasture, but
also common of piscary, common of estovers, common
of turbary, &c. And in all cases of common, the law
much respects the custom of the place ; for there
the rule is, consuetudo loci est observanda. See Com-
monty.
Common Council. Sec Council.
Common Law, that body of law received as rules
in parliament to alter the same. See Law, Part II.
N° 36.
CoMMON-Place Book, is a register of what things
occur, worthy to be noted, in the course of a man’s
thinking or study, so disposed as that among a num¬
ber of subjects any one may be easily found. The ad¬
vantages of making a common-place book are many :
it not only makes a man read with accuracy and at¬
tention, but- induces him insensibly to think for him¬
self, provided he considers it not so much as a register
of sentiments that strike him in the course of reading,
but as a register of his own thoughts upon various sub¬
jects. Many valuable thoughts occur even to men of
no extraordinary genius. These, without the assist¬
ance of a common-plac® book, are generally lost
both to himself and others. There are various me¬
thods of arranging common place books; that of Mr
Locke is as good as any that have hitherto been con¬
trived.
The first page of the book you intend to take down
their common-place in, is to serve as a kind of index
to the whole, and to contain references to every place
or matter therein : in the commodious contrivance of
which index, so as it may admit of a sufficient copia or
variety of materials, without any confusion, all the se¬
cret of the method consists.
In order to this, the first page, as already mentioned,
or, for more room, the two first pages that front each
other, are to be divided by parallel lines into 25 equal
parts ; whereof every fifth line is to be distinguished
by its colour or other circumstance. These lines are to
be cut perpendicularly by others, drawn from top to
bottom : and in the several spaces thereof the several
letters of the alphabet, both capital and minuscle, are
to be duly written.
The form of the lines and divisions, both horizontal
and perpendicular, with the manner of writing the let¬
ters therein, will be conceived from the following spe¬
cimen ; wherein, what is to be done in the book for all
the letters of the alphabet, is here shown in the first
four, A, B, C, and D.
COM [ 329 ] COM
Common,
Coinmou-
nlty.
The index to the common-place book thus formed,
matters are ready for the taking down any thing there-
in.
In order to this, consider to what head the thing
you would enter is most naturally referred ; and un¬
der which one would be led to look for such a thing j
in this head, or word, regard is had to the initial let¬
ter, and the first vowel that follows it j which are the
characteristic letters whereon all the use of the index
depends.
Suppose (e. gr.) I would enter down a passage that
refers to the head beauty. B, I consider, is the initial
letter, and e the first vowel: then looking upon the
index for the partition B, and therein the line e
(which is the place for all words whose first letter is b,
and the first vowel e; as beautyy beneficence, bread,
breeding, blemishes), and finding no numbers already
down to direct me to any page of the book where words
of this characteristic have been entered, I turn forward
to the first blank page I find (which, in a fresh book,
as this is supposed to be, will be page 2d), and here
write what I have occasion for on the head beauty;
beginning the head in the margin, and indenting all
the other subservient lines, that the head may stand
oat, and show itself; this done, I enter the page where
it is written, viz. 2. in the index in the space B e; from
which time the class be becomes wholly in possession
of the 2d and 3d pages, which are consigned to letters
of this characteristic.
Had I found any page or number already entered
in the space B e, 1 must have turned to the page, and
have written my matter in what room was left therein :
so, if after entering the passage on beauty, I should
have occasion for benevolence, or the like, finding the
number 2 already possessed of the space of this cha¬
racteristic, I begin the passage on benevolence in the
remainder of the page $ which not containing the whole,
I carry it on to page 3d, which is also for be ; and add
the number 3 in the index.
Common Pleas is one of the king’s courts now held
constantly in Westminster-hall, but in former times was
moveable.
All civil causes, as well real as personal, are, or
were formerly, tried in this court, according to the
strict law of the land. In personal and mixed actions
it has a concurrent jurisdiction with the king’s bench,
but has no cognizance of pleas of the crown. The
actions belonging to the court of common-pleas come
thither by original, as arrests and outlawries ; or by
privilege, or attachment for or against privileged per¬
sons ; or out of inferior courts, not of record, by pone,
Vol. VI. Part I. f
recordari, accedas ad curiam, writ of false judgment,
&c. The chief judge of this court is called lord chief
justice of the common pleas, who is assisted by three other
judges. The other officers of the court are the custos
brevium, who is the chief clerk; three prothonotaries,
and their secondaries ; the clerk of the warrants, clerk
of the essoins, 14 filazers, 4 exigentors, a clerk of the
juries, the chirographer, the clerk of the king’s silver,
clerk of the treasury, clerk of the seal, clerk of the
outlawries, clerk of the inrolment of fines and recove¬
ries, and clerk of the errors.
Common Prayer is the liturgy in the church of Eng¬
land : (See Liturgy.) Clergymen are to use the pub¬
lic form of prayers prescribed by the Book of Common
Prayer : and refusing to de so, or using any other pub¬
lic prayers, are punishable by stat. 1 Eliz. c. ii.
Common, in Grammar, denotes the gender of nouns
which are equally applicable to both sexes ; thus
“ a parent,” is of the common gender.
Common, in Geometry, is applied to an angle, line,
or the like, which belongs equally to two figures.
Common Divisor, a quantity or number which ex¬
actly divides two or more other quantities or numbers,
without leaving any remainder.
COMMONALTY, the lower of the two divisions of
the civil state. See Civil State.
The commonalty, like the nobility, are divided into
several degrees : and as the lords, though different in
rank, yet all of them are peers in respect of their nobi¬
lity ; so the commoners, though some are greatly su¬
perior to others, yet all are in law commonalty, in re¬
spect of their want of nobility.
1. The first name of dignity next beneath a peer was
anciently that of vidames, vice-domini, or valvasors:
who are mentioned by our ancient lawyers as viri
magnce dignitatis; and Sir Edward Coke speaks highly
of them. Yet they are now quite out of use} and our
legal antiquarians are not agreed upon even their ori¬
ginal or ancient office.
2. Now, therefore, the first personal dignity after the
nobility is a knight ot the order of St George or of the
Garter, first instituted by Edw. III. A. D. 1344.
3. Next (but not till after certain official dignities,
as privy-counsellors, the chancellors of the exchequer
and duchy of Lancaster, the chief justice of the king’s
bench, the master of the rolls, and the other English
judges), follows a knight banneret; who indeed, by
statutes j Richard II. stat. 2. c. 4. and 14 Richard II.
c. 11. is ranked next after barons ; and bis precedence
before the younger sons of viscounts was confirmed to
him by order of King James I. in the tenth year of his
T t reign.
COM [ 33° ] COM
Common¬
alty,
reign. But in order to entitle him to this rank, he
must have been created by the king in person, in the
field, under the royal banners, in time of open war j
else he ranks after,
4. Baronets; who are the next in order: which is
a dignity of inheritance, created by letters patent,
and usually descendible to the issue-male. See Baro¬
nets.
5. Next follow knights of the Bath. See Bath.
6. The last of these inferior nobility are knights ba¬
chelors ; the most ancient, though the lowest, order of
knighthood amongst us. See Bachelor.
7. The above, with those enumerated under the ar¬
ticle Nobility, Sir Edward Coke says, are all the
names of dignity in this kingdom $ esquires and gentle¬
men being only names of worship. But before these
last the heralds rank all colonels, sergeants at law, and
doctors in the three learned professions.
8. Esquires and gentlemen are confounded together
by Sir Edward Coke : who observes, that every es¬
quire is a gentleman, and a gentleman is defined to
be one qui arma gerit, “ who bears coat-armour j” the
grant of which adds gentility to a man’s family : in
like manner as civil nobility among the Romans was
founded in thejW imaginum^ or having the image of
one ancestor at least who had borne some curule of¬
fice. It is indeed a matter somewhat unsettled what
constitutes the distinction, or who is a real esquire j
for it is not an estate, however large, that confers this
rank upon its owner. Camden, who was himself a
herald, distinguishes them the most accurately ; and he
reckons up four sorts of them: 1st, The eldest sons of
knights, and their eldest sons in perpetual succession.
2dly, The eldest sons of younger sons of peers, and
iheir eldest sons, in like perpetual succession : both
which species of esquires Sir Henry Spelman entitles
armigerinatalitii. 3dly, Esquires created by the king’s
letters patent, or rather investiture ; and their eldest
sons. 4thly, Esquires by virtue of their office : as
justices of the peace and others who bear any office
of trust under the crown. To these may be added the
esquires of the knights of the Bath, each of whom con¬
stitutes three at his installation ; and all foreign, nay,
Irish peers *, for not only these, but the eldest sons of
peers of Great Britain, though frequently titular lords,
are only esquires in the law, and must be so named in
all legal proceedings.
9. As for gentlemen, says Sir Thomas Smith, they
be made good cheap in this kingdom j for whosoever
studieth the laws of the realm, who studieth in the
universities, who professeth liberal sciences, and (to be
short) who can live idly and without manual labour,
and will bear the part, charge, and countenance of a
gentleman, he shall be called master, and shall be taken
for a gentleman.
10. A yeoman is he that hath free land of 40s. by
the year j who is thereby qualified to serve on juries,
vote for knights of the shire, and do any other act
where the law requires one that is probus et legalis
homo.
II. The rest of the commonalty are tradesmen,
artificers, and labourers; who (as well as all others)
must, in pursuance of the statute I Henry V. c. 5.
be styled by the name and addition of their estate,
degree, or mystery, in all actions and other legal pro- Common,
ceedings.
COMMONER, or Gentleman-Commoner, in
the universities, a student entered, in a certain rank.
COMMONS, or House of Commons, a denomi¬
nation given to the lower house of parliament. See
Parliament.
The commons consist of all such men of any pro¬
perty in the kingdom as have not seats in the house
of lords, every one of whom has a voice in par¬
liament, either personally or by his representatives.
In a free state, every man who is supposed a free
agent, ought to be in some measure his own gover¬
nor : and therefore a branch at least of the legisla¬
tive power should reside in the whole body of the
people. And this power, when the territories of the
state are small and its citizens easily known, should be
exercised by the people in their aggregate or collec¬
tive capacity, as was wisely ordained in the petty re¬
publics of Greece, and the first rudiments of the Ro¬
man state. But this will be highly inconvenient when
the public territory is extended to any considerable
degree, and the number of citizens is increased. Thus
when, after the Social war, all the burghers of Italy
were admitted free citizens of Rome, and each had a
vote in the public assemblies, it became impossible to
distinguish the spurious from the real voter, and from
that time all elections and popular deliberations grew
tumultuous and disorderly ; which paved the way for
Marius and Sylla, Pompey and Csesar, to trample on
the liberties of their country, and at last to dissolve
the commonwealth. In so large a state as ours, there¬
fore, it is very wisely contrived, that the people should
do that by. their representatives which it is imprac¬
ticable to perform in person : representative* chosen
by a number of minute and separate districts, where¬
in all the voters are or may be easily distinguished.
The counties are therefore represented by knights,
elected by the proprietors of lands j and cities and bo¬
roughs are represented by citizens and burgesses cho¬
sen by the mercantile or supposed trading interest of
the nation; much in the same manner as the burghers
in the diet of Sweden are chosen by the corporate
towns, Stockholm sending four, as London does with
us, other cities two, and some only one. The num¬
ber of English representatives is 513, of Scots 45, of
Irish 100 j in all 658, and every member, though
chosen by one particular district, when elected and re¬
turned, serves for the whole realm j for the end of his
coming thither is not particular, but general j not
barely to advantage his constituents, but the common¬
wealth j to advise his majesty, as appears from the writ
of summons, “ de communi consilio super negotiis qui-
busdam arduis et urgentibus, regem, statum, et defen*
sionem regni Anglite et ecclesise Anglicanae concer-
nentibus.” And therefore he is not bound, like a de¬
puty in the United Provinces, to consult with, or
take the advice of, his constituents upon any particu¬
lar point, unless he himself thinks it proper or prudent
so to do.
The peculiar laws and customs of the house of com¬
mons relate principally to the raising of taxes, and the
elections of members to serve in parliament. See
Taxes and Elections.
Doctors
Common*
II
Commu¬
nion.
COM ... C 33
Doctors Commons. See College of Civilians.
Proctor of the Commons. See Proctor.
COMMONTY, in Scots Law, sometimes signifies
lands belonging to two or more common proprietors $
sometimes a heath or muir, though it should belong in
property to one, if there has been a promiscuous pos¬
session upon it by pasturage; and the act 1695 men¬
tions commonties belonging in property to the king and
to royal boroughs. See Law Index.
COMMONWEALTH. See Republic.
COMMOTE, an ancient term in Wales, denoting
half a cantred, or hundred : containing 50 villages. See
HUNDRED. Wales was anciently divided into three
provinces ; each of these subdivided into cantreds, and
every cantred into two commotes or hundreds. Sil¬
vester Girald, however, tells us in his Itinerary, that a
commote is but a quarter of a hundred.
COMMUNIS, in Botany, the name of a class in
Linnaeus’s Methodus Calycina, consisting of two plants
which, like teazel and dandelion, have a calyx or
flower-cup common to many flowers or florets. These
are the aggregate or compound flowers of other sy¬
stems.
COMMUNIBUS locis, a Latin term, in frequent •
use among philosophical, &c. writers ; implying some
medium or mean relation, between several places. Dr
Keil supposes the ocean to be one quarter of a mile
deep, communibus locis, q. d. at a medium, or taking
one place with another.
Communibus Annis, has the same import with re¬
gard to years that communibus locis has with regard to
places. Mr Derham observes that the depth of rain,
communibus annis, or one year with another, were it to
stagnate on the earth, would amount in Townley in
Lancashire, to 42^ inches ; at Upminster in Essex, to
19at Zurich, 32^ ; at Pisa, 437: and at Paris to
19 inches.
COMMUNICATING, in Theology, the act of re¬
ceiving the sacrament of the eucharist. Those of the
reformed, and of the Greek church, communicate under
both kinds ; those of the Romish, under only one. The
oriental communicants receive the species of wine by a
spoon, and anciently they sucked it through a pipe, as
has been observed by Beat. Rheanus on Tertullian.
COMMUNICATION, in a general sense, the act
of imparting something to another.
Communication, is also used for the connection of
one thing with another, or the passage from one place
to another; thus a gallery is a communication between
two apartments.
Communication of motion, the act whereby a
body at rest is put into motion by a moving body ; or,
it is the acceleration of motion in a body already
moving.
Lines of Communication, in military matters,
trenches made to continue and preserve a safe corre¬
spondence between two forts or posts ; or at a siege
between two approaches, that they may relieve one
another.
Canal of Communication. See Canal.
COMMUNION, in matters of religion, the being
united in doctrine and discipline ; in which sense of
the word, different churches are said to hold communion
with each other.
i ] COM
In the primitive Christian church, every bishop was C*mmu-
obliged, after his ordination, to send circular letters to nion.
foreign churches, to signify that he was in communion ‘ -1 '
with them. The three grand communions into which
the Christian church is at present divided, is that of
the church of Rome, the Greek church, and the Pro¬
testant church : but originally all Christians were in
communion with each other, having one common faith
and discipline.
Communion is also used for the act of communi¬
cating the sacrament of the eucharist, or the Lord’s
supper.
The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every
believer shall receive the communion, at least at Easter ;
which seems to import a tacit desire, that they should
do it oftener; as, in effect, they did it much oftener
in the primitive days. Gratian, and the master of the
sentences, prescribe it as a rule for the laity, to com¬
municate three times a-year, at Easter, Whitsuntide,
and Christmas. But in the 13th century, the practice
was adopted, never to approach the eucharist, ex¬
cept at Easter; and the council thought fit to enjoin
it then by a law, lest their coldness and remissness
should go farther still. And the council of Trent re¬
newed the same injunction, and recommended frequent
communion without enforcing it by an express decree.
In the ninth century the communion was still re¬
ceived by the laity in both kinds ; or, rather the spe¬
cies of bread was dipped in the wine, as is owned by
the Romanists themselves. (Acta SS. Benedict. Saec.
III.) M. de Marca observes, that they received it at
first in their hands, Hist, de Bearn, and believes the
communion under one kind alone to have had its rise in
the West under Pope Urban II. in 1096, at the time
of the conquest of the Holy Land. And it was more
solemnly enjoined by the council of Constance in 1414.
The twenty-eighth canon of the council of Clermont
enjoins the communion to be received under both
kinds, distinctly ; adding, however, two exceptions;
the one of necessity, the other of caution, nisi per ne-
cessitatem et cautelam ; the first in favour of the sick,
the second of the abstemious, or those who had an
aversion for wine.
It was formerly a kind of canonical punishment, for
clerks guilty of any crime, to be reduced to lay com-
munion, i. e. only to receive it as the laity did, viz.
under one kind.
They had another punishment of the same nature,
though under a different name, called foreign commu¬
nion ; to which ’the canons frequently condemned their
bishops and other clerks. This punishment was not
any excommunication, or deposition ; but a kind of
suspension from the function of the order, and a de¬
gradation from the rank they held in the church.
It had its name because the communion was only
granted to the criminal on the foot of a foreign clerk,
i. e. being reduced to the lowest of his order, he took
place after all those of his rank, as all clerks, &c. did
in the churches to which they did not belong. The
second council of Agda orders every clerk that absents
himself from the church to be reduced to foreign com¬
munion.
Communion Service, in the liturgy of the church
of England, the office for the administration of the hely
T t 2 sacrament,
COM L 332 ] COM
Communion sacrament, extracted from several ancient liturgies, as
11 th ose of St Basil, St Ambrose, &c.
,Comp-ict. t|ie jagt ,.„i,ric, part of tliis service is appointed
to be read every Sunday and holiday, after the morn¬
ing prayer, even though there be no communicants.
COMMUNITY, denotes a society of men living in
the same place, under the same laws, the same regula¬
tions, and the same customs.
COMMUTATION, in Laiv, the changes of a pe¬
nalty or punishment from a greater to a less j as when
death is commuted for banishment, &c.
COMNENA, Ann, daughter of Alexius Comne¬
nas emperor of the East *, memorable for her great
learning and virtue, and for her history of the life and
actions of her father, which is highly esteemed. She
flourished about the yearn 17. The history, which
is in 15 books, was first published very imperfectly by
Heschelius in 1610 ; and afterwards printed in the col¬
lection of the Byzantine historians, with a diffuse and
incorrect Latin version by the Jesuit Possimus, but
with excellent notes by the learned Du Fresne.
COMO, a strong and populous town of Italy, in the
duchy of Milan, and in the Comasco, with a bishop’s
see. It was taken by the Imperialists in 1706, and is
seated on a lake of the same name, in E. Long. 8. 57.
N. Lat. 45. 45.
Como, the lake so called, is the largest in Italy. It
is situated in the duchy of Milan, in the Comasco, on
the confines of Switzerland and the Grisons. It is 88
miles in circumference, yet is not above 6 miles over
in any part.
COMORA islands lie between the north end of the
island of Madagascar and the coast of Zanguebar,
from 10 to 15 degrees south latitude. Authors differ
greatly with regard to their number, some speaking
of three, others of five, and some of eight of these
islands. They all abound in horned cattle, sheep, hogs,
and a variety of fruits common in warm countries.
They are said also to produce a kind of rice which
turns of a violet colour when boiled. The most re¬
markable of them, and which the Europeans are best
acquainted with, is the island of Johanna. See that
article.
COMORIN, or Cape Comorin, the most south¬
erly promontory of the Hither India, lying north-west
of the island of Ceylon.
COMORRA, a handsome and large town of Lower
Hungary, and capital of a territory of the same
name. It is so well fortified, that the Turks could
never take it. The greatest part of the inhabitants
are Hungarians or Russians, who are very rich, and
are of the Greek religion. It is seated on the river
Danube, in the island of Silbut. E. Long. 18. 5.
N. Lat. 47. 46.
COMOStE, in Botany, from Coma; an order of
plants in the former edition of Linnsfeus’s Fragments
of a Natural Method, consisting of the spiked willow
or Spiraea frutex, dropwort, and greater meadow¬
sweet. These, though formerly distinct genera, are
by Linnaeus collected into one, under the name of spu
rcea. The flowers growing in a head resemble a bush,
or tuft of hair, which probably gave rise to the epithet
Comostg.
COMPACT, in Philosophy, is said of bodies which
are of a close, dense, and heavy texture, with few Compa
pores, and those very small. Companl
Compact, in a legal sense, signifies an agreement or
contract stipulated between several parties.
COMPANION, one with whom a man frequently
converses.
As the human mind cannot always be on the
stretch, nor the hand always employed in labour, re¬
creation becomes both agreeable and necessary. Of
all recreations, that of the company of a few chosen
companions must be allowed to be the most manly and
most improving : but as in those hours oi recreation
we are most in danger of being misled, being general¬
ly at such seasons more off our guard than usual, the
greatest care should be taken in making choice of
whom to associate with j for according to our choice
of them, both our character and disposition will re¬
ceive a tincture, as waters passing through minerals
partake of their taste and efficacy. This is a truth so
universally received, mat it is become a proverb both
in the natural and moral world, That a man is known
by his company. As by chemistry we learn, that dis¬
cordant mixtures produce nothing but broil and fer¬
mentation till one of them gets the ascendency of the
rest ; so from Scripture we learn, that two cannot walk
together except they be agreed. From which we
may see, how impossible it is for any one to be thought
a person of real goodness and integrity, whilst he
chooses for his companions the abandoned and licen¬
tious. |
By associating with such, he will not only lose his
character, but his virtue ; for whatever fallacious di¬
stinction he may be pleased to make between the men
and their vices, in the end the first generally qualifies
the last *, and by ceasing to hate them he will soon learn
both to love and practise them. In short, the society
of sensual men is peculiarly ensnaring. The malignity
of their contagion doth not appear all at once. Their
frolics first appear harmless ; then, when partaken of,
they leave a longing relish behind them ; and one ap¬
pointment makes way for another, one expence leads
on to a second ; and so time and fortune are wasted
away to very bad purpose. The one appetite craves,
and another must be gratified, till all become too im¬
portunate to be denied ; which verifies what the wisest
of men long since said, “ That the beginning of sin is
like the breaking forth of waters, which when it once
makes an entrance, carries all before it with rushing
impetuosity.” Some pangs of remorse may be felt by
the infatuated creature on the first degeneracy, and
some faint resolutions against being seduced any more ;
which will no sooner be discovered by those leaders to
destruction, than all arts will be used to allure him
back to bear them company in the broad beaten path
to ruin. Of all which methods, none is more to be
dreaded than raillery ; for this is generally exercised
with all its force, and too often proves fatal. Ano¬
ther method used to mislead the young novice not
yet hackneyed in vice, and no less dangerous than the
other, is to call evil good, and good eviL Lust and
sensuality must pass for love and gallantry ; revenge
and malice, for heroism. But steadiness should be
shown, by holding such pests of society in derision, and
looking on them with contempt j. by appearing unmo-
COM
Company, ved by thtir ill-founded banters, and uustung by their
—^ 1" impious jests.
Upon the wliole, in order to escape the danger
which attends the keeping ot evil company, let those
you associate with be persons as carefully educated
and as honestly disposed as yourselt; of a good moral
character, not given to any known vice 5 whose lives
are temperate, and whose expences are moderate : with
such company as these, you will neither get discredit,
nor degenerate into excess. You will be a mutual
check to each other j and your reputation will be so
established, that it will be the ambition of others to be
- admitted members of your society. Select those for
your companions who are men of good sense and un¬
derstanding; and, if possible, who excel in some art,
science, or accomplishment; that so, in the course of
your acquaintance, your very hours of amusement may
contribute to vour improvement; and for the most
part such are open and communicative, and take as
much pleasure in being heard as you to be informed.
By pursuing such a conduct, you will be an ornament
and useful member of society.
COMPANY, a collective term, understood of seve¬
ral persons assembled together in the same place, or
with the same design. The word is formed ot the
French compagnie, and that of companio, or companies,
which Chifflet observes, are found in the Salic law,
tit. 66. and are proper military words, understood of
soldiers, who, according to the modern phrase, are
comrades or mess-mates, i. e. lodge together, eat toge¬
ther, &c. of the Latin, cum, “with,” and penis, “bread.”
It may be added, that in some Greek authors under the
western empire, the word KHftTrccitx occurs in the sense
of society.
Company, in a familiar or fashionable sense, is used
for an assemblage of persons met for the purpose of con¬
versation, pastime, or festivity.
The love of company and of social pleasures is na¬
tural, and attended with some of the sweetest satisfac¬
tions of human life; but, like every other love, when
it proceeds beyond the bounds of moderation, it ceases
to produce its natural effect, and terminates in disgust¬
ful satiety. The foundation-stone and the pillar on
which we build the fabric of our felicity, must be laid
in our own hearts. Amusement, mirth, agreeable va¬
riety, and even improvement, may be sometimes sought
in the gaiety of mixed company, and in the usual di¬
versions of the world ; but if we found our general hap¬
piness on these, we shall do little more than raise castles
in the air, or build houses on the sand.
To derive the proper pleasure and improvement from
company, it ought to be select, and to consist of per¬
sons of character, respectable both for their morals and
their understandings. Mixed and undistinguished so¬
ciety tends only to dissipate our ideas, and induce a
laxity of principles and practice. The pleasure it af¬
fords is of a coarse, mixed, noisy, and rude kind. In¬
deed, it commonly ends in weariness and disyust, as
even they are ready to confess who yet constantly
pursue it, as if their chief good consisted in living in a
crowd.
Among these, indeed, who are exempted by their
circumstances from professional and official employ-
C O M
ments, and who professedly devote themselves to a life Company,
of pleasure, little else seems to constitute the idea of it, “ v 1
hut an unceasing succession of company, public or pri¬
vate. The dress, and other circumstances preparatory
to the enjoyment of this pleasure, scarcely leave a mo¬
ment for reflection. Day after day is spent in the same
toilsome round, till a habit is formed, which renders
dissipation necessary to existence. One week without it
would probably induce a lowness of spirits, which might
terminate in despair and suicide. When the mind has
no anchor, it will suffer a kind of shipwreck ; it will
sink in whirlpools, and be dashed on rocks. What,in¬
deed, is life or its enjoyments without settled principles,
laudable purposes, mental exertions, and internal com¬
fort ? It is merely a vapour, or, to drop the language of
figure on so serious a subject, it is a state worse than
non-entity, since it possesses a restless power of action,
productive of nothing but misery.
It is recommended, therefore, to all who wish to
enjoy their existence (and who entertains not that
wish P) that they should acquire a power not only of
bearing, hut of taking a pleasure in, temporary soli¬
tude. Every one must, indeed, sometimes be alone.
Let him not repine when he is alone, but learn to set
a value on the golden moments. It is then that he is
enabled to study himself and the world around him.
It is then that he has an opportunity of seeing things
as they are, and of removing the deceitful veil, which
almost every thing assumes in the busy scene of worldly
employments. The soul is enabled to retire into her¬
self, and to exert those energies which are always at¬
tended with sublime pleasure. She is enabled to see the
dependent, frail, and wretched state of man as the
child of nature ; and incited by her discovery, to im¬
plore grace and protection from the Lord of the uni¬
verse. They, indeed, who fly from solitude, can sel¬
dom be religious; for religion requires meditation.
They may be said to “ live without God in the world
not, it is true, from atheistical principles, but from a
carelessness of disposition ; a truly deplorable state, the
consciousness of which could not fail to cloud the gaie¬
ty of those halcyon beings who sport in the sunshine of
unremitted pleasure.
There is no doubt that man is made for action, and
that his duties and pleasures are often most numerous
and most important amidst the busy hum of men. Many
vices, and many corrupt dispositions, have been foster¬
ed in a solitary life. Monkery is not favourable to hu¬
man nature or human happiness ; but neither is unlimit¬
ed dissipation.
In short, let there be a sweet interchange of retire¬
ment and association, of repose and activity. A few
hours spent every day by the votaries of pleasure in se¬
rious meditation, would render their pleasure pure, and
more unmixed with misery. It would give them know¬
ledge, so that they would see how far they might ad¬
vance in their pursuit without danger; and resolution,
so that they might retreat when danger approached.
It would teach them how to live, a knowledge which
indeed they think they possess already ; and it would
also teach them, what they are often too little solicitous
to learn, how to die.
[ 333 ]
COMPANY,
[ 334 ]
COMPANY,
Company. YN a commercial sense, is a society of merchants,
‘“““"v*——' mechanics, or other traders, joined together in one
common interest.
When there are only two or three joined in this
manner, it is called a partnership; the term company
being restrained to societies consisting of a considerable
number of members, associated together by a charter
obtained from the prince.
The mechanics of all corporations, or towns incor¬
porated, are thus erected into companies, which have
charters of privileges and large immunities.
Company seems more particularly appropriated to
those grand associations set on foot for the commerce of
the remote parts of the world, and vested by charter
with peculiar privileges.
When companies do not trade upon a joint stock,
but are obliged to admit any person, properly qualified,
upon paying a certain fine, and agreeing to submit to
the regulations of the company, each member trading
upoft his own stock and at his own risk, they are called
Regulated Companies. When they trade upon a joint
stock, each member sharing in the common profit or
loss in proportion to his share in this stock, they are
called Joint-stock Companies. Such companies, whether
regulated or joint-stock, sometimes have, and some¬
times have not, exclusive privileges.
However injurious companies with joint-stock, and in¬
corporated with exclusive privileges, may at this time be
reckoned to the nation in general, it is yet certain that
they were the general parent of all our foreign commerce j
private traders being discouraged from hazarding their
fortunes in foreign countries, until the method of traffic
had been first settled by joint-stock companies. Rut
since the trade of this kingdom and the number of traders
have increased, and the methods of assurance of ship¬
ping and merchandise, and the navigation of all parts of
the known world have become familiar to us, these com¬
panies, in the opinion of most men, have been justly
looked upon in the light of injurious monopolies.
I. Regujlated Companies resemble, in every re¬
spect, the corporations of trades, so common in the ci¬
ties and towns of all the different countries of Europe j
and are a sort of enlarged monopolies of the same kind.
As no inhabitant of a town can exercise an incorpo¬
rated trade, without first obtaining his freedom in
the corporation ; so in most cases no subject of the
state can lawfully carry on any branch of foreign trade,
for which a regulated company is established, without
first becoming a member of that company. The mo¬
nopoly is more or less strict according as the terms of
admission are more or less difficult ; and according as
the directors of the company have more or less autho¬
rity, or have it more or less in their power to manage
in such a manner as to confine the greater part of the
trade to themselves and their particular friends. In
the most ancient regulated companies the privileges of
apprenticeship were the same as in other corporations;
and entitled the person who had served his time to a
member of the company, to become himself a member,
either without paying any fine, or upon paying a much
smaller one than what was exacted from other people.
2
The usual corporation spirit, wherever the law does Compa
not restrain it, prevails in all regulated companies.v—v-
When they have been allowed to act according to
their natural genius, they have always, in order to
confine the competition to as small a number of persons
as possible, endeavoured to subject the trade to many
burdensome regulations. When the law has restrained
them from doing this, they have become altogether
useless and insignificant.
The regulated companies for foreign commerce,
which at present subsist in Great Britain, are, The
Hamburgh Company, the Russia Company, the East-
land Company, the Turkey Company, and the African
Company.
I. The Hamburgh Company is the oldest trading es¬
tablishment in the kingdom $ though not always known
by that name, nor restrained to those narrow bounds
under which it is now confined. It was first called
the Company of Merchants trading to Calais, Holland,
Zealand, Brabant, and Flanders : then it acquired the
general title of Merchant-adventurers of England: as
being composed of all the English merchants who trad¬
ed to the Low Countries, the Baltic, and the German
ocean. Lastly, it was called the Company of Mer¬
chant-adventurers of England trading to Hamburgh.
This company was first incorporated by Edward I.
in 1296J and established again, by charter, in 1406,
under the reign of King Henry IV. It was afterwards
confirmed, and augmented with divers privileges, by
many of his successors. Before the charter of Henry
IV. all the English merchants who trafficked out of
the realm, were left to their own discretion, and ma¬
naged their affairs with foreigners as might be most for
their respective interests, without any regard to the ge¬
neral commerce of the nation. Henry, observing this
disorder, endeavoured to remedy it, by uniting all the
merchants in his dominions into one body $ wherein,
without losing the liberty of trading each for himself,
they might be governed by a company still subsisting;
and be subject to regulations, which should secure the
general interest of the national commerce, without pre¬
judice to the interest of particulars. W7ith this view,
he granted all the merchants of his states, particularly
those of Calais, then in his hands, a power of associa¬
ting themselves into a body politic, with directors and
governors, both in England and abroad $ to hold as¬
semblies, both for the direction of business and the de¬
ciding of controversies among merchants $ make laws j
punish delinquents j and impose moderate duties and
taxes on merchandises, and merchants, to be employed
in the service of the corporation. These few articles
of the charter of Henry IV. were afterwards much
augmented by Henry VII. who first gave them the
title of Merchant-adventurers to Calais, Holland, &c.
gave them a power of proclaiming and continuing free
fairs at Calais $ and ordered, that to be reputed a mem¬
ber of the society, each person pay 20 marks sterling j
and that the several members should attend the general
meetings, or courts, appointed by the directors, whether
at London, Calais, or elsewhere.
A petition being made to Queen Elizabethan 1564,
for
unpany.
COM
for an explanation of certain articles In the charter of
Henry VII. and a confirmation of the rest granted by
other kings j that princess, by a charter of the same
year declares that, to end all disputes, they shall be
incorporated anew, under the title of the Company of
Merchant-adventurei's of England; that all who were
members of the former company should, if they de¬
sired it, be admitted members of this j that they should
have a common seal j that they should admit into their
society what other persons, and on what terms, they
pleased, and expel them again on misbehaviour j that
the city of Hamburgh and neighbouring cities should
be reputed within their grant, together with those of the
Low Countries, &c. in that of the former company :
that no member should marry out of the kingdom,
nor purchase lands, &c. in any city beyond sea j and
that those who do, shall be, ipso facto, excluded for
ever. Twenty-two years after this first charter, Queen
Elizabeth granted them a second j confirming the for¬
mer, and further granting them a privilege of exclu¬
sion ; with a power of erecting in each city within their
grant a standing council.
The revolutions which happened in the Low Coun¬
tries towards the end of the sixteenth century, and
which laid the foundation of the republic of Holland,
having hindered the company from continuing their
commerce with their ancient freedom $ it was obliged
to turn it almost wholly to the side of Hamburgh, and
the cities on the German ocean } from which change,
some people took occasion to change its name to that
of the Hamburgh Company ; though the ancient title
of Merchant-adventurers is still retained in all their
writings.
About the middle of the last century, the fine for
admission was fifty, and at one time one hundred pounds,
and the conduct of the company was said to be ex¬
tremely oppressive. In 1643, *n I^45» and in 1661,
the clothiers and free traders of the west of England
complained of them to parliament, as of monopolists
who confined the trade and oppressed the manufactures
of the country. Though those complaints produced
no act of parliament, they had probably intimidated
the company so far, as to oblige them to reform their
conduct. The terms of admission are now said to be
quite easy and the directors either have it not in their
power to subject the trade to any burdensome restraint
or regulations, or at least have not of late exercised
that power.
2. The Russia Company, was first projected towards
the end of the reign of King Edward VI. executed in
the first and second years of Philip and Mary $ but had
not its perfection till its charter was confirmed by act
of parliament, under Queen Elizabeth, in 1566. It
had its rise from certain adventurers, who were sent in
three vessels on the discovery of new countries j and to
find out a north-east passage to China 5 these, fall¬
ing into the White sea, and making up to the port of
Archangel, were exceedingly well received by the
Muscovites ; and, at their return, solicited letters pa¬
tent to secure to themselves the commerce of Russia,
for which they had formed an association.
By their charter, the association was declared a body
politic, under the name of the Company of Merchant-
adventurers of England, for the discovery of lands,
territories, islands, &c. unknown or unfrequented.
P A N Y. 335
Their privileges were, to have a governor, four con- Company,
suls, and 24 assistants, for their commerce; for their '“■"“v
policy, to make laws, inflict penalties, send out ships,
to make discoveries, take possession of them in the
king’s name, set up the banner royal of England,
plant them ; and lastly, the exclusive privilege of tra¬
ding to Archangel, and other ports of Muscovy, not
yet frequented by the English.
This charter not being sufficiently guarded, was
confirmed by parliament in the 8th year of Quee-n
Elizabeth $ wherein it was enacted, that in regard the
former name was too long, they should now be called
Company of English Merchants for discovering new
trades; under which name, they should be capable of
acquiring and holding all kinds of lands, manors, rents,
&c. not exceeding 100 marks per annum, and not
held of her majesty ; that no part of the continent,
island, harbour, &c. not known or frequented before
the first enterprise of the merchants of their company,
situated to the north, or north-west, or north-east of
London •, nor any part of the continent, islands, &c.
under the obedience of the emperor of Russia, or in the
countries of Armenia, Media, Hyrcania, Persia, or
the Caspian sea, should be visited by any subjects of
England to exercise any commerce, without the con¬
sent of the said company, on pain of confiscation* The
said company shall use no ships in her new commerce
but those of the nation ; nor transport any cloths,
serges, or other woollen stuffs, till they have been dyed
and pressed. That in case the company discontinue of
itself to unload commodities in the road of the abbey
of S. Nicolas, in Russia, or some other port on the
horth coasts of Russia, for the space of three years, the
other subjects of England shall be allowed to traffic to
Narva, while the said company discontinues its com¬
merce into Russia, only using English vessels.
This company subsisted with reputation almost a
whole century, till the time of the civil wars. It is said,
the czar then reigning, hearing of the murder of King
Charles I. ordered all the English in his states to be
expelled j which the Dutch taking the advantage of, set¬
tled in their room. After the Restoration, the remains
of the company re-established part of their commerce
at Archangel, but never with the same success as be¬
fore j the Russians being now well accustomed to
the Dutch merchants and merchandise.
This company subsists still, under the direction of
a governor, four consuls, and assistants. By the 1 oth
and nth of William III. c. 6. the fine for admission
was reduced to 5I.
3 The Eastland Company was incorporated by Queen
Elizabeth. Its charter is dated in the year 1579. By
the first article the company is erected into a body po¬
litic under the title of the Company of Merchants of the
East ; to consist of Englishmen, all real merchants, who
have exercised the business thereof, and trafficked
through the Sound before the year 1568, into Nor¬
way, Sweden, Poland, Livonia, Prussia, Pomerania,
&c. as also Revel, Coningsberg, Dantzick, Copenha¬
gen, &c. excepting Narva, Muscovy, and its depen¬
dencies. Most of the following articles grant them
the usual prerogatives of such companies, as a seal, go-
venor, courts, laws, &c.
The privileges peculiar to this company are, that
none shall be admitted a member who is already a
member
336 COMP
Company, member of any other company $ nor any retail-dealer
—v—■— at all. That no merchant qualified be admitted with¬
out paying six pounds thirteen shillings and sixpence.
That a member of another company desiring to re¬
nounce the privileges thereof, and to be received into
that of the East shall be admitted gi'atis i provided he
procures the same favour for a merchant of the East
willing to fill his place. That the merchant-adventu¬
rers who never dealt in the East, in the places expres¬
sed in the charter, may be received as members of the
company on paying 40 marks ; that, notwithstanding
this union of the adventurers of England with the
company of the East, each shall retain its rights and
privileges. That they shall export no cloths but what
are dyed and pressed, except a hundred pieces per an¬
num, which are allowed them gratis. This charter
was confirmed by Charles II. in 1629, with this addi¬
tion, that no person, of what quality soever, living in
London, should be admitted a member, unless he were
free of the city. This company was complained of as
a monopoly, and first curtailed by legal authority in
1672 and since the declaration of rights in 1689, ex¬
ist only in name j but still continue to elect their an¬
nual officers, who are a governor, a deputy, and twen¬
ty-four assistants.
7. The Turkey or Levant Company, had its rise un¬
der Queen Elizabeth, in 1581. James I. confirmed its
charter in 1605, adding new privileges. During the
civil wars, there happened some innovations in the go¬
vernment of the company ; many persons having been
admitted members, not qualified by the charters of
Queen Elizabeth and King James, or that did not con¬
form to the regulations prescribed. Charles II. upon
his restoration, endeavoured to set it upon its ancient
basis j to which end, he gave them a charter, contain¬
ing not only a confirmation of their old one, but also
several new articles of reformation. By this, the com¬
pany is erected into a body politic, capable of making
laws, &c. under the title of the Company of Merchants
of England trading to the seas of the Levant. The
number of members is not limited, but is ordinarily
about three hundred. The principal qualification re¬
quired is, that the candidate be a freeman of London,
and a wholesale merchant, either by family or by ser¬
ving an apprenticeship of seven years. Those under 25
years of age pay 25I. sterling at their admission ; those
above, twice as much. The fine was reduced by act
of parliament, in 1753, to 20I. and the privilege of
admission extended to every British subject. Each
makes oath at his entrance not to send any merchan¬
dise to the Levant but on his own account $ and not
to consign them to any but the company’s agents or
factors. This restriction is likewise enlarged by the
above-mentioned statute.
\ The company has a court or board at London,
which is composed of a governor, deputy-governor,
and fifteen directors or assistants, who are all actually
to live in London or the suburbs. They have also a
deputy-governor in every city and port, where there
are any members of the company. The assembly at
London sends out the vessels, regulates the tariff for
the price at which the European merchandises sent to
the Levant are to be sold, and for the quality of those
returned. It raises taxes on merchandises, to defray
impositions, and the common expences of the compa-
3
A N Y.
ny } presents the ambassador which the king is to keep Companj
at the Porte, elects two consuls for Smyrna and Con- —v—
stantinople, &c.
One of the best regulations of the company is, not to
leave the consuls, or even ambassador, to fix the impo¬
sition on vessels for defraying the common expences
(a thing fatal to the companies of most other nations) ;
but to allow a pension to the ambassador and consuls,
and even to the chief officers, as secretary, chaplain,
interpreters, and janizaries, that there may not be any
pretence for their raising any sum at all on the mer¬
chants or merchandises.
In extraordinary cases, the consuls, and even the
ambassador, have recourse to two deputies of the com¬
pany, residing in the Levant; or, if the affair be very
important, they assemble the whole body. Here are
regulated the presents to be given, the voyages to be
made, and every thing to be deliberated j and on the
resolutions here taken, the deputies appoint the trea¬
surer to furnish the moneys, &c. required.
The ordinary commerce of this company employs
from 20 to 25 vessels, carrying from 25 to 30 pieces
of cannon. The merchandises exported thither are,
cloths of all kinds and colours, pewter, lead, pepper,
cochineal, and a great deal of silver, which they take
up at Cadiz : the returns are in raw silk, galls, camlets,
wools, cottons, Morocco leather, ashes for making
glass and soap, and several gums and medicinal drugs.
The commerce to Smyrna, Constantinople, and Scan-
deroon, is not esteemed much less considerable than
that of the East India Company j but is, doubtless,
more advantageous to Britain, because it takes off
much more of the British manufactures than the other,
which is chiefly carried on in money. The places re¬
served for the commerce of this company are, all the
states of Venice, in the gulf of Venice; the state of
Bagusa; all the states of the grand seignior, and the
ports of the Levant and Mediterranean ; excepting
Carthagena, Alicant, Barcelona, Valencia, Marseilles,
Toulon, Genoa, Leghorn, Civita Vecchia, Palermo,
Messina, Malta, Majorca, Minorca, and Corsica ; and
other places on the coasts of France, Spain, and
Italy.
5. The Company of Merchants trading to Africa,
established in 1750. Contrary to the former practice
with regard to regulated companies, who were reckon¬
ed unfit for such sort of service, this company was sub¬
jected to the obligation of maintaining forts and garri¬
sons. It was expressly charged at first with the main¬
tenance of all the British forts and garrisons that lie
between Cape Blanc and the Cape of Good Hope, and
afterwards with that of those only which lie between
Cape Rouge and the Cape of Good Hope. The act
which establishes this company (the 23d of George 11.
c. 31.) seems to have had two distinct objects in view ;
first, to restrain effectually the oppressive and mono¬
polizing spirit which is natural to the directors of a
regulated company; and secondly, to force them as
much as possible to give an attention, which is not na¬
tural to them, towards the maintenance of forts and
garrisons.
For the first of these purposes, the fine for admission
is limited to forty shillings. The company is pro¬
hibited from trading in their corporate capacity, or
upon a joint stock; from borrowing money upon com¬
mon
Jompany.
C O M P A N Y.
337
mon seal, or from laying any restraints upon the trade
which may be carried on freely from all places, and by
all persons being British subjects, and paying the fine.
The government is in a committee of nine persons, who
meet at London, but who are chosen annually by the
freemen of the company at London, Bristol, and Li¬
verpool j three from each place. No committee-man
can be continued in office lor more than three years
together. Any committee-man might be removed by
the board of trade and plantations ; now by a com¬
mittee of council, after being heard in his own defence.
The committee are forbid to export negroes from
Africa, or to import any African goods into Great
Britain. But, as they are charged with the mainte¬
nance of forts and garrisons, they may for that purpose
export from Great Britain to Africa goods and stores
of different kinds. Out of the money which they
shall receive from the company, they are allowed a sum
not exceeding eight hundred pounds, for the salaries of
their clerks and agents at London, Bristol, and Liver¬
pool ; the house-rent of their office at London j and
all other expences of management, commission, and
agency, in England. What remains of this sum, after
defraying those different expences, they may divide
among themselves, as compensation for their trouble,
in what manner they think proper. “ By this consti¬
tution, it might have been expected (Dr Smith ob¬
serves,) that the spirit of monopoly would have been
effectually restrained, and the first of these purposes
sufficiently answered. It would seem, however, that
it had not. Though by the 4th of George III. c. 20.
the fort of Senegal, with all its dependencies, had been
vested in the company of merchants trading to Africa,
yet in the year following (by the 5th of George III.
c. 24.), not only Senegal and its dependencies, but the
whole coast from the port of Sallee, in south Barbary,
to Cape Rouge, was exempted from the jurisdiction of
that company, was vested in the crown, and the trade
to it declared free to all his majesty’s subjects. The
company had been suspected of restraining the trade,
and of establishing some sort of improper monopoly.
It is not, however, very easy to conceive how, under
the regulations of the 23d George II. they could do
so. From the printed debates of the house of com¬
mons (not always the most authentic records of truth),
it appears, however, that they have been accused of
this. The members of the committee of nine being
all merchants, and the governors and factors, in their
different forts and settlements, being all dependent up¬
on them, it is not unlikely that the latter might have
given peculiar attention to the consignments and com¬
missions of the former, which would establish a real
monopoly.”
For the second purpose mentioned, the maintenance
of the forts and garrisons, an annual sum has been al¬
lotted to them by parliament, generally about 13,000k
For the proper application of this sum, the committee
is obliged to account annually to the cursitor baron of
exchequer } which account is afterwards to be laid
before parliament. But parliament (continues our
author), which gives so little attention to the applica¬
tion of millions, is not likely to give much to that of
13,Cook a-year $ and the cursitor baron of exchequer,
from his profession and education, is not likely to be
profoundly skilled in the proper expence of forts and
Vol. VI. Part I. t
garrisons. The captains of his majesty’s navy, indeed, Company,
or any other commissioned officers, appointed by the .—-1
board of admiralty, may inquire into the condition of
the forts and garrisons, and report their observations
to that board. But that board seems to have no di¬
rect jurisdiction over the committee, nor any authori¬
ty to correct those whose conduct it may thus inquire
into; and the captains of his majesty’s navy, besides,
are not supposed to be always deeply learned in the
science of fortification. Removal from an office, which
can be enjoyed only for the term of three years, and of
which the lawful emoluments, even during that term,
are so very small, seems to be the utmost punishment
to which any committee-man is liable, for any fault,
except direct malversation, or embezzlement either of
the public money or that of the company ; and the
fear of that punishment, can never be a motive of suffi¬
cient weight to force a continual and careful attention
to a business to which he has no other interest to at-
tend. The committee are accused of having sent out
bricks and stones from England for the reparation of
Cape Coast Castle on the coast of Guinea, a business
for which parliament had several times granted an ex¬
traordinary sum of money. These bricks and stones
too, which had thus been sent upon so long a voyage,
were said to have been of so bad a quality, that it was
necessary to rebuild from the foundation the walls which
bad been repaired with them. The forts and garrisons
which lie north of Cape Rouge are not only maintain¬
ed at the expence of the state, but are under the imme¬
diate government of the executive power ; and why
those which lie south of that cape, and which too are,
•in part at least, maintained at the expence of the state,
could he under a different government, it seems not
very easy even to imagine a good reason.”
The above company succeeded that called T/te Royal
African Company, which traded upon a joint stock
with an exclusive privilege. Though England began
to trade to Africa as early as the year 1536, and seve¬
ral voyages were made to Guinea in 1538, and some
following years, for the importation of gold and ele¬
phants teeth, nothing like a company was formed till
the year 1588, when Queen Elizabeth granted a patent
of exclusive privilege to certain persons for ten years.
In 1618, King James I. established a company by char¬
ter, which was soon dissolved. Another company was
erected by charter of Charles T. in 1631, W’hich met
with little success ; but the demand for negroes in the
English American plantations increasing, a third com¬
pany was established by a charter granted 1662, in
favour of the duke of York ; securing to him the com¬
merce of all the country, coasts, islands, &c. belonging
to the crown of England, or not possessed by any other
Christian prince, from Cape Blanco in 20® N. Lat. to
the Cape of Good Hope, in 34* 34' S. Lat. The char¬
ter was soon after returned into the king’s bands by
the duke, and revoked, by consent of the parties as¬
sociated with him in the enterprise ; in consequence
of which, the fourth and last exclusive company was
established and incorporated by letters patent in 1672,
under the title of the Royal African Company. A ca¬
pital was soon raised of 111,000k and this new com¬
pany improved their trade, and increased their forts ;
but after the revolution in 1689, this trade was laid
open. In 1698, all private traders to Africa were
U u obliged
333 COM
Company, obliged by stat. 9 and 10 Will, to pay ten per cent, in
1—“”v~—order to assist the company in maintaining their forts
and factories. But notwithstanding this heavy tax,
the company were still unable to maintain the com¬
petition j their stock and credit gradually declined.
In 1712, their debts had become so great, that a parti¬
cular act of parliament was thought necessary, both for
their security and for that of their creditors. It was
enacted, that the resolution of two-thirds of these cre¬
ditors in number and value should bind the rest, both
with regard to the time which should be allowed to
the company for the payment of their debts, and
with regard to any other agreement which it might be
thought proper to make with them concerning those
debts. In 1730, their affairs were in so great disor¬
der, that they were altogether incapable of maintain¬
ing their forts and garrisons5 the sole purpose and pre¬
text of their institution. From that year till their
final dissolution, the parliament judged it necessary to
allow the annual sum of ten thousand pounds for that
purpose. In 1732, after having been for many years
losers by the trade of carrying negroes to the West
Indies, they at last resolved to give it up altogether ;
to sell to the private traders to America the negroes
which they purchased upon the coast; and to employ
their servants in a trade to the inland parts of Africa
for gold dust, elephants teeth, dyeing drugs, &c. But
their success in this more confined trade was not greater
than in their former extensive one. Their affairs con¬
tinued to go gradually to decline, till at last being in
every respect a bankrupt company, they were dissolved
by act of parliament, and their forts and garrisons vest¬
ed in the present Regulated Company of Merchants
trading to Africa.
II. Joint-Stock Companies, established either by
royal charter or by act of parliament, differ in several
respects not only from regulated companies, but from
private copartneries. I. In a private copartnery, no
partner, without the consent of the company, can
transfer his share to another person, or introduce a
new member into the company. Each member, how¬
ever, may, upon proper warning, withdraw from the
copartnery, and demand payment from them of his
share of the common stock. In a joint-stock company,
on the contrary, no member can demand payment of
bis share from the company: but each member can,
without their consent, transfer his share to another
person, and thereby introduce a new member. The
value of a share in a joint-stock is always the price
which it will bring in the market j and this may be
either greater or less, in any proportion, than the sum
which its owner stands credited for in the stock of the
company. 2. In a private copartnery, each partner is
hound for the debts contracted by the company to the
whole extent of his fortune. In a joint-stock company,
on the contrary, each partner is bound only to the ex¬
tent of his share.
The trade of a joint-stock company is always ma¬
naged by a court of directors. This court indeed is
frequently subject, in many respects, to the controul
of a general court of proprietors. But the greater
part of those proprietors seldom pretend to understand
any thing of the business of the company 5 and when
the spirit of faction happens not to prevail among
them, give themselves no trouble about it, but receive
3 A N Y.
contentedly such half-yearly or yearly dividend as the Comparj
directors think proper to make to them. This total '—“"v—
exemption from trouble and from risk, beyond a limi¬
ted sum, encourages many people to become adven¬
turers in joint-stock companies, who would upon no
account hazard their fortunes in any private copart¬
nery. Such companies, therefore, commonly draw
to themselves much greater stocks than any private
copartnery can boast of. The trading stock of the
South-Sea Company, at one time, amounted to up¬
wards of thirty-three millions eight hundred thousand
pounds. The directors of such companies, however, be¬
ing the managers rather of other people’s money than of
their own, it cannot well be expected that they should
watch over it with the same anxious vigilance with
which the partners in a private copartnery frequently,
watch over their own. Like the stewards of a rich
man, they are apt to consider attention to small matters
as not for their master’s honour, and very easily give
themselves a dispensation from having it. Negligence
and profusion, therefore, must always prevail, more or
less, in the management of the affairs of such a com¬
pany. It is upon this account that joint-stock compa¬
nies for foreign trade have seldom been able to main¬
tain the competitions against private adventurers. They
have, accordingly, very seldom succeeded without an
exclusive privilege ; and frequently have not succeeded
with one. Without an exclusive privilege they have
commonly mismanaged the trade. With an exclusive
privilege they have- both mismanaged and confined it.
The principal joint-stock companies presently sub¬
sisting in Great Britain are, the South Sea and the
East India companies $ to which may be added,
though of very inferior magnitude, the Hudson'1 s Ray
Company.
1. The South-Sea Company. During the long war
with France in the reign of Queen Anne, the payment
of the sailors of the royal navy being neglected, they
received tickets instead of money, and were frequently
obliged, by their necessities, to sell these tickets to ava¬
ricious men at a discount of 40 and sometimes 50 per
cent. By this and other means, the debts of the na¬
tion unprovided for by parliament, and which amount¬
ed to 9,471,321}. fell into the hands of these usurers.
On which Mr Harley, at that time chancellor of the
exchequer, and afterwards earl of Oxford, proposed a
scheme to allow the proprietors of these debts and de¬
ficiencies 6 per cent, per annum, and to incorporate
them for the purpose of carrying on a trade to the
South Sea) and they were accordingly incorporated
under the title of “ the Governor and Company of
Merchants of Great Britain trading to the South Seas,
and other parts of America, and for encouraging the
Fishery,” &c.
Though this company seemed formed for the sake
of commerce, the ministry never thought seriously, dur¬
ing the course of the war, about making any settlement
on the coast of South America, which was what flattered
the expectations of the people ) nor was it ever carried
into execution by this company.
Some other sums were lent to the government in
the reign of Queen Anne at 6 per cent. In the third
of George I. the interest of the whole was reduced to
5 per cent, and the company advanced two millions
more to the government at the same interest. By the
statute
COMPANY.
jinpany. statute of the 6th of George I. it was declared, that
—V——' they might redeem all or any of the redeemable na¬
tional debts 5 in consideration of which, the company
were empowered to augment their capital according
to the sums they should discharge j and for enabling
them to raise such sums for purchasing annuities, ex¬
changing for ready money new exchequer bills, carry¬
ing on their trade, &c. they might, by such means as
they should think proper, raise such sums of money as
in a general court of the company should be judged
necessary. The company were also empowered to raise
money on the contracts, bonds, or obligations under
their common seal, on the credit of their capital stock.
But if the sub-governor, deputy-governor, or other
members of the company, should purchase lands or re¬
venues of the crown upon account of the corporation,
or lend money by loan or anticipation on any branch
of the revenue, other than such part only on which a
credit of loan was granted by parliament, such sub-
governor, or other member of the company, should for¬
feit treble the value of the money so lent.
The fatal South Sea scheme, transacted in the year
1720, was executed upon the last-mentioned statute.
The company had at hrst set out with good success,
and the value of their stock, for the first five years, had
risen faster than that of any other company 5 and his
majesty, after purchasing 10,0001. stock, had conde¬
scended to be their governor. Things were in this si¬
tuation, when, taking advantage of the above statute,
the South Sea bubble was projected. The pretence
was, to raise a fund for carrying on a trade to the
South Sea, and purchasing annuities, &c. paid to the
other companies : and proposals were printed and di¬
stributed, showing the advantages of this design. The
sum necessary for carrying it on, together with the
profits that were to arise from it, were divided into a
certain number of shares, or subscriptions, to be purcha¬
sed by persons disposed to adventure therein. And the
better to carry on the deception, the directors enga¬
ged to make very large dividends : and actually de¬
clared that every 100I. original stock would yield 50I.
per annum; which occasioned so great a rise of their
stock, that a share of look Was sold for upwards of
800I. This was in the month of July j but before
the end of September it fell to 150I. by which multi¬
tudes were ruined, and such a scene of distress occa¬
sioned, as is scarcely to be conceived. But the con¬
sequences of this infamous scheme are too well known ;
most of the directoi’s were sevex-ely fined, to the loss
of nearly all their property : some of them had no
hand in the deception, nor gained a farthing by it ;
but it was agreed, they ought to have opposed and
prevented it.
The South Sea Company never had any forts or
garrisons to maintain, and therefore were entirely ex¬
empted from one great expence, to which other joint-
stock companies for foreign trade ai-e subject. But
they had an immense capital divided among an im¬
mense number of proprietors. It was naturally to be
expected, therefore, that folly, negligence, and profu¬
sion, should prevail in the whole management of their
affairs.
Their stock-jobbing speculations were succeeded by
mercantile projects, which, Dr Smith observes, were
not much better conducted. The first trade which
they engaged in, was that of supplying the Spanish
West Indies with negroes, of which (in consequence
of what was called the Assiento contract granted them
by the treaty of Utrecht) they had the exclusive pri¬
vilege. But as it was not expected that much profit
could be made by this trade, both the Portuguese and
French companies, who had enjoyed it upon the same
terms before them, having been ruined by it, they
were allowed, as compensation, to send annually a ship
of a certain burden to trade directly to the Spanish
West Indies. Of the ten voyages which this annual
ship was allowed to make, they are said to have gained
considerably by one, that of the lloyal Cax-oline in
1731, and to have been loseis, more or less, by almost
all the rest. Their ill success was imputed, bv their
factors and agents, to the extortion and oppression of
the Spanish government; but was, perhaps, principally
owing to the profusion and depredations of those very
factoi’s and agents j some of whom are said to have
acquired great fortunes even in one year. In 1734,
the company petitioned the king, that they might be
allowed to dispose of the trade and tonnage of their
annual ship, on account of the little profit which they
made by it, and to accept of such equivalent as they
could obtain from the king of Spain.
In 1724, this company had undertaken the whale-
fishery. Of this, indeed, they had no monopoly ; but
as long as they carried it on, no other British subjects
appear to have engaged in it. Of the eight voyages
which their ships made to Greenland, they were gainers
by one, and losers by all the rest. After their eighth and
last voyage, when they had sold their ships, stores, and
utensils, they found that their whole loss, upon this
branch, capital and interest included, amounted to up-
wards of 237,000!.
In 1722, this company petitioned the parliament to
be allowed to divide their immense capital of more
than 33,800,000!. the whole of which had been
lent to government, into two equal parts : The one-
half, or upwards of 16,900.000!. to be put upon the
same footing with other government annuities, and
not to be subject to the debts contracted, or losses in¬
curred, by the directors of the company, in the pro¬
secution of their mercantile pi-ojects; the other half
to remain, as before, a trading stock, and to be sub¬
ject to those debts and losses. The petition was too
reasonable not to be granted. In 1733, ^iey again
petitioned the parliament that three-fourths of their
trading stock might be turned into annuity stock, and
only one-fourth remain as ti'ading stock, or exposed
to the hazards arising from the bad management of
their directors. Both their annuity and trading stocks
had by this time, been reduced more than 2,000,000k
each, by several diftei’ent payments from govex-nment j
so that this fourth amounted only to 3,662,784!. 8s. 6d.
In 1748, all the demands of the company upon the
king of Spain, in consequence of the Assiento contract,
were by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, given up for
what was supposed an equivalent. An end was put to
their trade with the Spanish West Indies, the remain¬
der of their trading stock was turned into an annuity
stock, and the company ceased in every respect to be
a trading company.
This company is under the direction of a governor, sub¬
governor, deputy-governor, and 21 directors: but no per¬
il u 2 son
Compa
= Co
340
COMPANY.
Company, son is qualified to fee governor, his majesty excepted,
w—unless such governor has in his own name and right
5000I. in the trading stock 5 the sub-governor is to have
4O00I. the deputy-governor 3000I. and a director 2000I.
in the same stock. In every general court, every mem¬
ber having in his own name and right 500I. in trading
stock, has one vote ; if 2000I. two votes j if 3000I.
three votes •, and if 5000!. four votes.
2. The East India Cornpamj. The first, or as it is
called the Old East India Company, was established
by a charter from Queen Elizabeth in 1600 j but for
some time the partners seem to have traded with se¬
parate stocks, though only in the ships belonging to
the whole company. In 1612, they joined their stocks
into one common capital : and though their charter
was not as yet confirmed by act of parliament, it was
looked upon in that early period to be sufficiently
valid, and nobody ventured to interfere with their
trade. At this time their capital amounted to about
740,000!. and the shares were as low as 50I.: their
trade was in general successful, notwithstanding some
heavy losses, chiefly sustained through the malice of
the Dutch East India Company. In process of time,
however, it came to be understood that a x-oyal char¬
ter could not by itself convey an exclusive privilege to
traders, and the company was reduced to distress by
reason of the multitude of interlopers who carried off
the most of their trade. This continued during the
latter part of the reign of Charles II. the whole of
that of James II. and part of William III. when in
1698 a pi’oposal was made to parliament for advancing
the sum of 2,ooo,oool. to government, on condition
of erecting the subscribers into a new company with ex¬
clusive privileges. The old company endeavoured to
prevent the appearance of such a formidable rival, by
offering government 700,000k nearly the amount of
their capital at that time > but such were the exigen¬
cies of the state, that the larger sum, though at eight
per cent, interest, was preferred to the smaller at one
half the expence.
Thus were two East India Companies erected in
the same kingdom, which could not but be very pre¬
judicial to each other. Through the negligence of
those who prepared the act of parliament also, the
new company were not obliged to unite in a joint-stock.
I he consequence of this was, that a few private traders,
whose subscriptions scarce exceeded 7200I. insisted on
a right of trading separately at their own risk. Thus
a kind of third company was established ; and by their
mutual contentions with one another, all the three were
brought to the brink of ruin. Upon a subsequent occa¬
sion, in 1730, a proposal was made to parliament for
putting the trade under the management of a regula¬
ted company, and thus laying it in some measure open.
This, however, was opposed by the company, who re¬
presented in strong terms the mischiefs likely to arise
Smith's from such a proceeding. “ In India (they said), it
Wealth of raised the price of goods so high, that they were not
^ WOrth tlie J and in England, by overstocking
y, 134- ^ie market> sunk tbe Price to such a degree that no
profit could be made of them.” Here Dr Smith re¬
marks, that by a more plentiful supply, to the great
advantage and conveniency of the public, it must have
reduced very much the price of Indian goods in the
English market, cannot well be doubted ; but that it Gompa
should have raised very much their price in the Indian y-
market, seems not very probable, as all the extraordi¬
nary demand which that competition could occasion,
must have been but as a drop of water in the immense
ocean of Indian commerce. The increase of demand,
adds he, though in the beginning it may sometimes
raise the price of goods, never fails to lower it in the
issue. It encourages production, and thereby in¬
creases the competition of the producers, who, in or¬
der to undersell one another, have recourse to new di¬
visions of labour and new improvements of art, which
might never otherwise have been thought of. The
miserable effects of which the company complained,
were the cheapness of consumption and the encourage¬
ment given to production, precisely the two effects
which it is the business of political economy to promote.
The competition, however’, of which they gave this
doleful account, had not been allowed to continue
long. In 1702 the two companies were, in some
measure, united by an indenture tripartite, to which
the queen was the third party; and in 1708, they
were, by act of parliament, perfectly consolidated into
one company by their present name of “ The United
Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies.”
Into this act it was thought worthy to insert a clause,
allowing the separate traders to continue their traffic
till Michaelmas 1711, but at the same time empower¬
ing the directors, upon three years notice, to redeem
their capital of 7200k and thereby convert the whole
capital of the company into a joint-stock. By the
same act, the capital of the company, in consequence
of a new loan to government, was augmented from
2,ooo,oool. to 3,200,000k In 1743, another mil¬
lion was advanced to government. But this being
raised, not by a call upon the proprietors, but by
selling annuities and contracting bond-debts, it did
not augment the stock upon which the proprietors
could claim a dividend. Thus, however, their trading
stock was augmented; it being equally liable with the
other 3,200,000k to the losses sustained, and debts
contracted, by the company in the prosecution of
their mercantile projects. From 1708, or at least
from 1711, this company being freed from all com¬
petitors, and fully established in the monopoly of the
English commerce to the East Indies, carried on a
successful trade ; and from their profits made annually
a moderate dividend to their proprietors. Unhappily,
however, in a short time, an inclination for war and
conquest began to take place among their servants ;
which, though it put them in possession of extensive
territories and vast nominal revenues, yet embarrassed
their affairs in such a manner, that they have not ta
this day been able to recover themselves. The parti¬
culars of these wars are given under the articles Bri¬
tain, and Indostan. Here it will be sufficient to
observe, that they originated during the war in 1741
through the ambition of M. Dupleix the French go¬
vernor of Pondicherry, who involved the company in
the politics and disputes of the Indian princes., Af¬
ter carrying on hostilities for some time with various
success, they at last lost Madras, at that time the prin¬
cipal settlement in the East Indies, but it was restored
by the treaty of Aix-la-Cbapell'e. During the war
COMPANY.
>»pany. of 1755, they acquired the revenues of a rich and ex-
—v—tensive territory, amounting, as was then said, to near
3,ooo,oool. per annum.
For several years they remained in quiet possession
of the revenue arising from this territory, though it
certainly never answered the expectations that had
been formed concerning it. But in 1767 the British
ministry laid claim to the territorial possessions of the
company, and the revenue arising from them, as of
right belonging to the crown 5 and the company, ra¬
ther than yield up their territories in this manner,
agreed to pay government a yearly sum of 400,000!.
They had before this gradually augmented their di¬
vidend from about six to ten per cent. $ that is, on
their capital of 3,200,000!. they had raised it from
192,000!. to 320,000!. a-year. About this time al¬
so they were attempting to raise it still farther, viz.
from 10 to 12J per cent.; but from this they were pre¬
vented by two successive acts of parliament, the design
of which vras to enable them to make a more speedy
payment of their debts, at this time estimated at more
than six or seven millions sterling. In 1769 they re¬
newed their agreement with government for five years
more, stipulating, that during the course of that pe¬
riod they should be allowed gradually to augment their
dividend to 12* per cent. ; never increasing it, however,
more than one per cent, annually. Thus their annual
payments could only be augmented by 6o8,oool. be¬
yond what they had been before their late territorial
acquisitions. By accounts from India in the year
1768, this revenue, clear of all deductions and military
charges, was stated at 2,048,747!. At the same
time they were said to possess another revenue, arising
partly from lands, but chiefly from the customs esta¬
blished at their different settlements, amounting to
about 439,000!. The profits of their trade, too, ac¬
cording to the evidence of their chairman before the
house of commons, amounted to at least 400,000! per
annum $ their account made it 500,000!. ; and the
lowest account stated it at least equal to the highest
dividend paid to their proprietors. Notwithstanding
this apparent wealth, however, the affairs of the com¬
pany from this time fell into disorder; insomuch that
in 1773 their debts were augmented by an arrear
to the treasury in the payment of the 400,000!. stipu¬
lated ; by another to the customhouse for duties un¬
paid j by a large sum borrowed from the bank ; and
by bills drawn upon them from India to the amount
of more than 1,200,000!. Thus they were not only
obliged to reduce their dividend all at once to six per
cent, but to apply to government for assistance. A
particular account of this transaction is given under the
article Britain. Here it may be mentioned in gene¬
ral, that the event proved very unfavourable to the
company, as they were now subjected to an interference
of government altogether unknown before. Several
important alterations were made in their constitution
both at home and abroad. The settlements of Madras,
Bombay, and Calcutta, which had hitherto been entire¬
ly independent of one another, were subjected to a go¬
vernor-general ; assisted by a council of four assessors.
The nomination of the first governor and council, who
were to reside at Calcutta, was assumed by parliament;
the power of the court of Calcutta, which had gradual-
341
ly extended its jurisdiction over the rest, was now re- Company.
duced and confined to the trial of mercantile causes,—y  
the purpose for which it wras originally instituted. In¬
stead of it a new supreme court of judicature was esta¬
blished, consisting of a chief justice and three judges
to be appointed by the crown. Besides these altera¬
tions, the stock necessary to entitle any proprietor to
vote at the general courts was raised from 500I. to
1000I. To vote on this qualification, too, it was
necessary that he should have possessed it, if acquired
by his own purchase and not by inheritance, for at
least one year, instead of six months, the term requi¬
site formerly. The court of 24 directors had before
been chosen annually ; but it was now enacted, that
each director should for the future be chosen for four
years; six of them, however, to go out of office by
rotation every year, and not to be capable of being re¬
chosen at the election of the six new directors for the
ensuing year. It was expected that, in consequence
of these alterations, the courts both of the proprie¬
tors and directors would be likely to act with more
dignity and steadiness than formerly. But this was
far from being the case. The company and its ser¬
vants showed the utmost indifference about the happi¬
ness or misery of the people who had the misfortune
to be subjected to their jurisdiction. This indifference,
too, was more likely to be increased than diminished
by some of the new regulations. The house of com¬
mons, for instance, had resolved, that when the
i,6oo,oool. lent to the company by government should
be paid, and their bond debts reduced to 1,500,000!.
they might then, and not till then, divide eight per
cent, upon their capital j and that whatever remained
of their revenues and nett profits at home should be
divided into four parts 5 three of them to be paid into
the exchequer for the use of the public, and the fourth
to be reserved as a fund, either for the further reduc¬
tion of their bond debts, or for the discharge of other
contingent exigencies which the company might la¬
bour under. But it could scarce be expected that, if
the company were bad stewards and bad sovereigns
when the whole of their nett revenue and profits be¬
longed to themselves, they would be better when three-
fourths of these belonged to other people. The regu¬
lations of 1773, therefore, did not put an end to the
troubles of the company. Among other institutions,
it had been at this time enacted, that the presidency
of Bengal should have a superiority over the other pre¬
sidencies in the country j the salary of the chief justice
was fixed at 8000I. per annum, and those of the other
judges at 6000I. each. In consequence of this act,
Sir Elijah Impey, who was created a baronet on the
occasion, set sail with three other judges, for India, in
the year 1774. The powers with which they were in¬
vested were very extraordinary. They had the title
of his Majesty’s Supreme Court of Judicature in In¬
dia. Civil law, common law, ecclesiastical, criminal,
and admiralty jurisdiction, belonged of right to them.
They were empowered to try Europeans on personal
actions, and to assess damages without a jury. Every
native, either directly or indirectly in the service of the
company, or in their territories, was made subject to
their jurisdiction, with a view to prevent the Euro¬
peans from eluding justice under the pretence of em¬
ploying
1A O
Company,
COMPANY.
ploying natives in the commission of their crimes ; so
1 that in fact they were absolute lords and sovereigns of
the whole country.
Such excessive and unlimited powers conferred on
any small number of men, could not but be extremely
disagreeable to the Europeans, who had been accustom¬
ed to enjoy a liberty almost equally unbounded before j
nor was it to be supposed that the judges, thus sudden¬
ly raised from the rank of subjects to the height of
despotism, would always use their power in an unexcep¬
tionable manner. The design of the establishment was
to preserve the commerce and revenues of the company
from depredation $ by subjecting its servants to the con-
troul of the court; to relieve the subject from oppres¬
sion by facilitating the means of redress $ and to fix a
regular course of justice for the security of liberty and
property. Instead of considering the circumstances of
the country, however, or the manners and customs of
the natives, the judges now precipitately introduced
the British laws in their full extent, without the least
modification to render them agreeable to the Asiatics,
who had been accustomed to others of a quite different
nature ; nor did they even pay the least regard to
the religious institutions or habits to which the Indians
are so obstinately attached, that they would sooner
part with life itself than break through an article of
them.
Besides this it was said, that, on the first arrival of the
judges, they endeavoured to extend their authority be¬
yond even what the British legislature had allowed them.
Hence they were frequently at variance with the coun¬
cil ; and complaints of their conduct were repeatedly
sent to England by the servants of the company. These
produced a letter in 1777 from the directors to Lord
Weymouth, secretary of state for the southern depart¬
ment. In this they stated, that the supreme court of
India had extended its jurisdiction to those whom it
did not appear to have been the intention of the king
or parliament to subject to its authority. It had also
taken cognizance ef matters which, they apprehended
belonged properly to other courts. That the judges
considered the criminal law of England as in force, and
binding on the natives of Bengal, though utterly re¬
pugnant to the laws and customs by which they had
hitherto been governed ; and that the jurisdiction ex¬
ercised by the supreme court was incompatible with
the powers given by parliament to the governor-gene¬
ral and council, obstructed the administration of go¬
vernment, and tended to alienate the minds of the na¬
tives j all which they feared would prevent the esta¬
blishment of the government of India upon any settled or
permanent foundation.
This letter not having produced any effect, the dis¬
contents of India, both in the Europeans and natives,
continued and increased. The decisions of the judges
were such as by no means did them honour. A num¬
ber of adventurers had also emigrated along with them,
in hopes of enriching themselves under the new con¬
stitution. Some of these were of the lowest sort of
people, who had rendered it in a manner impossible
for them to remain in England on account of their
vices or extravagance. Many such persons had en¬
rolled themselves among the domestics of the judges,
or had become their immediate dependents $ and
some of these were permitted to assume the charac¬
ters of attorneys, court-officers, under-sheriffs, and Compam
bailiffs. It may easily be supposed, that people of
such characters would find it for their interest to pro¬
mote suits in the supreme court : and in this some of
them employed themselves with great success. The
consequence of all this was, that on the 4th of De¬
cember 1780, a petition was presented against the su¬
preme court by a great number of British inhabitants
in the kingdoms of Bengal, Bahar, and Orixa. In
this, complaint was made of the indiscriminate man¬
ner in which the judges of the supreme court attempt¬
ed to exercise the English laws in that country, at the
same time that they refused the undoubted right of
every British subject, viz. that of trial by jury. They
entreated the house “ to reflect on the innumerable
hardships which must ensue, and the universal confu¬
sion which must be occasioned, by giving to the volumi¬
nous laws of England a boundless retrospective power
in the midst of Asia, and by an application of those
laws, made for the freest and most enlightened people
on earth, the principle of whose constitution was found¬
ed on virtue and liberty, to transactions with the na¬
tives of India, who had, from time immemorial, lived
under a despotic government, founded on fear and re¬
straint. What must be the terrors of individuals to
find their titles to property, and their transactions with
the natives previous to the establishment of this court
of judicature, tried by the standard of the English Jaw,
and by men educated under its forms, and unavoidably
imbibing its prejudices, when no such law could
be known to or practised by natives or Europeans
then residing in the country, and that at a time when
there were few persons of legal knowledge in the
country to advise or assist them ? No tyranny could
be more fatal in its consequences, than that a court,
invested with all the authority of one of the first courts
in England, should also possess undefined powers and
jurisdiction, of which its judges were the sole interpre¬
ters, and at such an immense distance from the mother
country. This was in truth the situation of the Bri¬
tish subjects in India at that time j for the judges of
the supreme court could at pleasure determine on the
denomination of a civil jury, the degree of guilt in¬
curred by any offence, the statute by which it should
be tried, what penalties should be inflicted, as well as
who were and who were not amenable to the jurisdic¬
tion of the court.
“ Besides their other powers also, the judges of the
supreme couTt were allowed to sit as a court of chancery,
and in that capacity to revise, correct, rescind, or con¬
firm the decisions passed by themselves as a court of
law; and by another part of their constitution they
were allowed to stop execution in criminal cases until
his majesty’s pleasure was known. The petitioners
conceived, that there must be some fundamental error
in that constitution, which required a more than ordi¬
nary degree of temper, integrity, and ability, to carry
its purposes into execution ; and they did not hesitate
to declare, that to administer the powers appertaining
to the institution of the supreme court, without com¬
mitting flagrant acts of injustice, and doing great detri¬
ment to the public, required more equity, moderation,
discernment, and enlightened abilities, than they could
hope to find in any set of men.” They conclud¬
ed with earnestly soliciting parliament, that a trial
by
COMPANY.
>mpany. by jury might be granted to the British subjects in
Bengal, in all cases where it was established by law in
England ; that the retrospective powers of the su¬
preme court might be limited to the time of its esta¬
blishment in Bengal; that it should be defined beyond
the power of discretional distinction who the persons
were that properly came under the jurisdiction of the
court, and who did not j that it should be expressly
declared what statutes should, and what should not, be
in force in Bengal ; that distinct and separate judges
for the law and equity sides of the court should be ap¬
pointed j and that a power of delaying executions in
criminal cases until his majesty’s pleasure was known,
should be lodged in the governor and council.
This petition was soon followed by another signed
by Warren Hastings, Esq. governor-general, Philip
Francis and Edward Wheeler, Esqs. counsellors for the
government and presidency of Fort-William in Ben¬
gal ; in which they represented, “ that, though the ju¬
risdiction of the supreme court of judicature at Cal¬
cutta, as wrell as the powers granted to the governor-
general and council, were clearly limited by parlia¬
ment and the king’s letters patent, yet the chief
justice and judges of that court had exercised authori¬
ty over persons not legally within their jurisdiction,
and had illegally and improperly advised and admitted
suits against the governor-general and council : that
they had attempted to execute their writs upon natives
of high rank in the kingdom of Bengal, who were not
within their jurisdiction : the governor and council
therefore had found themselves under a necessity of
opposing them, and of affording protection to the
country and people, who were placed under their own
immediate inspection, and freeing them from the terrors
of a new and usurped dominion. They had even been
obliged to make use of a military force, in order to re¬
sist the proceedings of the judges and their officers :
And they declared, that no other conduct could have
saved those provinces, and the interests of the company,
or of the British nation itself, from the ruin with which
they were threatened. They also declared themselves
to be of opinion, that the attempt to extend, to the
inhabitants of these provinces, the jurisdiction of the
supreme court of judicature, and the authority of the
English law, which were still more intolerable than
the law itself, would be such a restraint on the minds
of the people of those provinces, by the difference of
such laws and forms from their laws, that they might
at last inflame them, notwithstanding their known mild¬
ness and patience, into an open rebellion.” The pe¬
tition was concluded, by soliciting an indemnity from
the legal consequences of the resistance they had been
obliged to make to that court.
While the British were thus expressing their dis¬
pleasure against the conduct of these judges, the na¬
tives were thrown into the utmost consternation and
despair by the acts of oppression and violence com¬
mitted by them. A prosecution for forgery had been
commenced against Nundcomar, a bramin of the first
rank in Bengal. The crime was not capital by the
laws ot Indostan, and had been committed many
years before j yet with the utmost cruelty and in¬
justice was this man condemned and executed on the
British statute, by which forgery is made capital 5 a sta¬
tute which, at the commission of the crime, he had
343
never heard of, nor could ever dream that he \vould be Company,
subjected to its power. What rendered this execution
the more remarkable was, that, at the very time when
the charge of forgery was brought against him, Nund¬
comar had been employed in exhibiting an accusation
against Mr Hastings. This, together with the hurry
in which the court were to have him put to death (for
the court refused to allow him a respite till his majes¬
ty’s pleasure was known), made the natives conclude
that he was executed, not on account of the forgery,
but for having ventured to prefer an accusation against
an English governor. In other respects they were ter¬
rified to such a degree, that many of them ran into the
river on seeing a bramin put to death with such circum¬
stances of ignominy.
The alarm excited by the execution of Nundcomar
was kept up by fresh decisions of the supreme court:
Among those the Patna cause, as it is commonly
called, was one of the most remarkable. An adven¬
turer, named Shahaz Beg Cawn, had come from Ca-
bul in Persia to Bengal, where he entered himself in
the service of the company, and was preferred to the
command of a body of horse. Having gained a com¬
petent fortune, and obtained from the Mogul a grant
of lands called an Ultumghaw in the province of Ba-
har, he retired from the army, and settled in Patna.
About this time, when advanced in years, he married
a woman of low rank, named Nadara Begum, by whom
he had no children. His brother, Allum Beg, came
likewise to Patna j and on his leaving the place some
time after, committed the care of one of his sons,
named Behader Beg, to his brother Shahaz Beg Cawn.
On the death of the latter in 1776, a dispute ensued
concerning the inheritance betwixt the widow and
Behader Beg. The widow having taken possession
of the whole property of Shahaz, the nephew, as
adopted son and heir, give in a petition to the provincial
council at Patna, on the 2d of January 1777, setting
forth his claim. In this petition he stated, that the
widow was removing and secreting the effects of the
deceased; and concluded with a prayer, that orders
should be given to prevent their removal j to recover
such as had already been carried away J and that the
cadi or Indian judge should be directed to ascertain
his right. As the parties were Mahometans, the
council of course referred the cause to the cadi and
two mufties, the proper officers for determining it ac¬
cording to the established laws of the country. These
having inquired into the matter, reported, that the
title-deeds, on which the widow pretended to found
her right, appeared to be forged ; and that, even if
they had appeared in the life-time of Shahaz, they
were still informal, on account of a point of the Ma¬
hometan law, which requires, that to make deeds of t
gift valid, possession should be entered into at the time
of executing or delivering them over $ but that, as no
possession of this kind had been given, the estate ought
to be divided according to the Mahometan law j viz.
one-fourth to the wife, and three-fourths to the ne¬
phew, as the representative of his father Allum Beg,
who was considered as the more immediate heir of the
deceased. This decision was confirmed by the coun¬
cil of Patna, with the following exception in favour of
the widow, that the heir-at-law should pay her one-
fourth of the rents of the ultumghaw, or royal grant,
344
vompany.
COMP
for her support during life. The widow, however,
refused to submit to the decision, or to deliver up the
effects of her husband $ in consequence of which com-
pulsatory methods were used } when bv the advice of
some English lawyers, an action of trespass was brought,
according to the law of England, against the cadi and
two mufties for their proceedings against her, laying
the damages at about 66,oool. sterling. This process
being brought before the supreme court, was by them
conducted in such a manner as must entail everlasting
infamy on the actors. They began with obliging the
cadi and mufties to find bail in no less than 40,000
pounds for their appearance, which was immediately
given by the council at Patna. The supreme court
then having entered into the merits of the cause, and
decided the matter in the most rigorous manner, ac¬
cording to all the forms of English law, assessed the
cadi and mufties in damages no less than 30,000!.
sterling. Their houses and effects were seired by the
sheriff’s officers, and publicly put up to sale 5 the cadi,
who was upwards of 60 years of age, and had been in
office for many years with great applause, died on his
way to the common gaol at Calcutta, to which the
nephew and two mufties were conveyed, being a di¬
stance of no less than 400 miles from their former re¬
sidence at Patna. A suit, however, was commenced
against the widow, on account of having forged the
title-deeds by which she claimed her husband’s estate ;
but it was suppressed on account of some informality.
Another decision, by which the supreme court like¬
wise incurred much censure, was that against Jugger¬
naut, the principal public officer of a Mahometan
court at Dacca. The action was brought at the instiga¬
tion of an English attorney, in behalf of one Khyne, a
servant or messenger, who had been fined and imprisoned
for a misdemeanor, in which Juggernaut had concur¬
red in virtue of his office as judge of the Nizarnut
(the name of the Mahometan court just mentioned).
The sheriff-officers attempted to arrest the judge as
he sat on the tribunal j which could not fail to produce
much disturbance. Jaggernaut, with his officers, de¬
nied the authority of the supreme court over the Niza-
inut, and refused to comply with the writ. The Eng¬
lish sheriff-officers proceeded to force j and a violent
scuffle ensuing, Jaggernaut’s father was wounded in
the head with a sword by one of the under-sheriff’s at¬
tendants, while his brother-in-law was very danger¬
ously wounded with a pistol bullet by the under-sheriff
himself. The immediate consequence of this was an
absolute refusal of the judge to take cognizance of any
criminal matter j and this was intimated in a letter
from the conncil at Dacca to the English governor
and council of India *, wherein they declared that all
criminal justice was at a stand.
The supreme court, having proceeded in this arbi¬
trary and oppressive manner for some time, at length
attempted to extend their jurisdiction over the heredi¬
tary zemindars of Bengal. These are a kind of tri¬
butary lords, or great landholders, who are answerable
to the company for the revenues or rents of the di¬
stricts ; and excepting the circumstances of remitting
their revenues to the company, have not the least con¬
nection with the English in any respect. At the time
we speak of, however, a writ upon an action of debt
was issued out to arrest one of these zemindars in his
ANY.
palace. Timely notice, however, was given, by one
of the company’s collectors, of this attempt to the
governor and council, and application made to protect
a man of such quality from the disgrace of an arrest.
They being unanimously of opinion that the zemin¬
dar was not within the jurisdiction of the court of
Calcutta, desired him to pay no regard to the writ.
The court, however, determined to enforce their pro¬
cess by a writ of sequestration ; upon which the na¬
tives, who are superstitiously attached to their zemin¬
dars, rose in his defence, and insulted the sheriff’s of¬
ficers. The latter having obtained a reinforcement,
the zemindar’s palace was entered by 86 men armed
with bludgeons, cutlasses, and muskets; the apartment
of his women, always held inviolably sacred by the
Asiatics, was broken open ; his temple profaned j and
the image which was the object of his worship, put
into a basket, and carried off with some common lum¬
ber. This roused the attention of the governor and
council ; who, from a full conviction of the ruinous
tendency of these proceedings, determined at last to
oppose it force by force. They accordingly sent a par¬
ty of military to apprehend the sheriff’s people, and
they were all conducted prisoners to Calcutta. The
judges ordered attachments against the officers who
commanded the troops, and against two other servants
of the company, while the governor and council en¬
deavoured to justify their proceedings, by writing to
England as already mentioned.
Besides all this, the natives themselves testified their
disapprobation of the conduct of the supreme court in
very strong terms. A petition to his Britannic ma¬
jesty was sent by the natives of Patna ; in which are
the following remarkable passages : “ When the ordi¬
nances of this court of judicature were issued, as they
W’ere all contrary to the customs, modes, usages, and
institutions, of this country, they occasioned terror in
us; and day by day, as the powers of this court have
become more established, our ruin, uneasiness, disho¬
nour, and discredit, have accumulated ; till at last we
are reduced to such a situation, that we consider death
to us as infinitely preferable to the dread we entertain
of the court: for from this court no credit, no charac¬
ter is left to us, and we are now driven to the last ex¬
tremity. Several who possessed means and ability,
deeming flight as their only security, have banished
themselves from the country ; hut bound as we are by
poverty and inability, and fettered by the dearest ties
of consanguinity, we do not all of us possess the means
of flight, nor have we power to abide the oppression of
this court.”—“ If, which God forbid ! it should so
happen, that this our petition should not he accepted,
and should be rejected at the chamber of audience,
those amongst us who have power and ability, discard¬
ing all affection for our families, will fly to any quar¬
ter we can j whilst the remainder, who have no means
or ability, giving themselves up with pious resignation
to their fate, will sit down in expectation of death.”
These repeated complaints could not but be taken
notice of in parliament. On the 12th of February
1781, General Smith made a motion in the house of
commons, that the petition from the British inhabi¬
tants of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, should be taken
into consideration by a select committee, consisting of
15 persons, chosen by ballot. In the introduction to
Compan;
COMPANY.
iompany,
his motion, he stated briefly the had conduct of the
supreme court in the particulars already related j and
concluded, that the affairs of Bengal required the im¬
mediate attention and consideration of parliament. The
matter was accordingly debated ; when, after various
proposals, a motion was at length made by General
Smith, for leave to bring in a bill “ to explain and
amend so much of an act passed in the 13th year of
his present majesty, for the better regulation of the
East India Company, as related to the administration
of justice in Bengal : and also to indemnify the go¬
vernor and council of Bengal for having resisted by
force of arms the execution of an order of the supreme
court of judicature in that kingdom.” Leave was ac¬
cordingly given to bring in the bill. The house hav¬
ing resolved itself into a committee, Lord North ob¬
served, “ that it had been much his wish that an agree¬
ment for the renewal of the company’s charter had been
made in an amicable manner; and that voluntary pro¬
positions should have come from themselves, offering
terms for the benefit of the exclusive trade and the ter-
rito-rial acquisitions. No such terms, however, had been
proposed, nor any agreement made. A negotiation had
indeed taken place between him and the chairman and
deputy-chairman ; but the propositions made by them
were neither such as the public might expect, nor had
the company any right to them. With regard to the
territorial possessions, he was clearly of opinion, that
they of right belonged to the public; though how far
it might be proper to allow the revenue of them to re¬
main in the possession of the company was quite ano¬
ther matter. In his opinion it would be proper to
allow it to remain in their hands as long as they pos¬
sessed an exclusive trade, but he never would consent
to forego the claim of the public. He made a mo¬
tion, therefore, “ that it was the opinion of the com¬
mittee, that three-fourths of the surplus of the nett
profits of the East India Company, ever since the com¬
pany’s bond debt was reduced to 1,500,000!. and the
company’s dividends had been eight per cent, per an¬
num, belong to the public; and that 6oo,oocl. in lieu
thereof, and in discharge of all claims on that part of
the public, be paid into his majesty’s exchequer by in¬
stalments, in such manner, and at such times, as shall be
agreed on.” This proposal was vehemently opposed by
the minority. Mr Burke called it the daring effort of
a minister determined on rapine and plunder, without
regard to truth, honour, or justice. Mr Hussey repro¬
bated the idea of taking 6oo,OOol. from the company
in their circumstances at that time. He produced
a paper full of arithmetical calculations, which he
read to the house ; asserting that they contained an
exact state of the amount of the company’s exports and
imports, the expences of their trade at home, and the
balance of profit of each year, for many years past, di¬
stinguishing the territorial from the commercial income
and expences. From these he showed, that the com¬
mercial and territorial revenues of the company had,
upon an average for 16 years, constituted a sum equi¬
valent to a proportion of 16 per cent. ; that 9 per cent,
of this had arisen from the commercial profits accruing
to the company ; and therefore, that there had not
been 8 per cent, divided upon that part of the profits to
which the public had any claim or pretension. The
accession of territorial possessions, he observed, had
VOL. VI. Part I. f
brought along with it additional expences ; and the
public had already received a very large share of the
company’s profits. He declared it to be his opinion,
that the company should always make it a rule to give
as ample and full relief to the public burdens as their
situation would allow ; and if they did this, he saw no
reason why the minister should exact any more. Mr
Dempster reminded the house of the consequences of
violating the American charters; and added, that to
tear from the company by force what was not stipula¬
ted in any act of parliament, would be a breach of
public faith disgraceful to the nation, and such as
would damp the spirit of enterprise and adventure,
which had been productive of such happy effects.—
Notwithstanding these remonstrances, however, the bill
was at last passed into a law; only with this mitigation,
that the company should pay only 400,000!. instead
of 6oo,oool. demanded originally by the minister.—
Another bill was also passed the same year, in conse¬
quence of the motion made by General Smith. This
act declared, that the governor-general and council of
Bengal were not subject to the jurisdiction of the su¬
preme court, and indemnified the former for the re¬
sistance they had made to the orders of that court. It
enacted also, that no person should be subject to the
jurisdiction of that court on account of his being a
landholder or farmer of land in the provinces of Ben¬
gal, Bahar, or Orissa; that no judicial officers in the
country courts should be liable to actions in the su¬
preme court for their decisions ; and the two mufties,
with Bebader Beg, who were then in prison, in con¬
sequence of the decision of that court in the Patna
cause, were ordered to be set at liberty.
The debates on this subject were attended with the
most violent charges against the minister, and assertions
the most humiliating and disgraceful to the British na¬
tion. Mr Townshend affirmed, that it was from the
minister’s screening the delinquents who came from
India that all the evils in that quarter had originated;
and if matters were suffered to go on in that country
as they had done for some time past, the conduct of
the British in the East Indies must be viewed in alight
still more detestable than that of the Spaniards in A-
merica* It rvas reported, that the nabob of Arcot had
several members in the house of commons ! If it were
true, that by sending over a sum of money to Eng¬
land he could seat eight or ten members in that house,
then Mr Townshend declared, that in his opinion they
were the most abject and contemptible beings in the
world.—The bill for regulating the powers of the su¬
preme court, also, though so evidently founded in rea¬
son and justice, did not pass without opposition, par¬
ticularly from Mr Dunning; who was thought on
this occasion to have allowed his regard for his friend
Sir Elijah Impey, the chief justice, to bias him too
much.
The regulations just mentioned did not yet put an end
to the troubles of the East India Company, nor al¬
lay the ferment which had been so effectually excited.
Their affairs were still a subject of parliamentary dis¬
cussion ; and in the moPth of April I7^2> a m°tion was
made by Mr Dundas, then lord advocate of Scotland,
for taking into consideration the several reports concern¬
ing affairs, which had been made by the secret commit¬
tee appointed to inquire into them during the last a'd
X x present
COMPANY.
346
Company, present session of parliament. In his speech on this
i—V——' occasion, he x*emarketl, that the opinion of Lord Clive
had been against keeping too extensive a territory
in that country. Instead of this he had restored Sujah
Dowlah to the possession of his country j considering
the British territories in Hindustan, with those on the
coast of Coi’omandel and Bombay, as sufficient for all
the purposes by which this country could be benefited $
but instead of adhering to the maxims of sound policy
laid down by his lordship, they had become so ambi¬
tious of extending their territories, that they had in¬
volved themselves in a war with almost all India. He
then considered the finances of the company. The re¬
venue of Bombay, be said, fell short of the necessary
civil and military establishment by 200,000!. a year,
which was annually drawn from Bengal. With regard
to that of Madras, it appeared on an average of 12
years, from 1767 to 1779, that there had been eight
years of war and only four of peace ; and that, during
the whole time of war, the revenue had not been able
to support the civil and militai’y establishments $ though
in time of peace, it was able to do nearly one-half
more. Bengal, however, was the most lucrative of all
the East India settlements $ but such had been the ex-
pences of the Mahratta war, that the governor-general
had been obliged to contract a very large debt, inso¬
much, that it was doubtful whether the investments for
England should be wholly or partially suspended. Mr
Hastings, he said, had in many instances proved him¬
self a very meritorious servant: but he wished that
every one of their servants would consider himself as
bound in the first place to prove a faithful steward to
the company ; not to fancy that he was an Alexander
or Aurengzebe, and prefer frantic military exploits to
the improvement of the trade and commerce of his
country.—General Smith observed, that by the evi¬
dence produced to the committee, it appeared that
there had been a vai’iety of great abuses in India. Sir
Elijah Impey, his majesty’s chief justice in that coun-
ti’y, had so far derogated from the character of a judge,
as to accept of a place from the company ; by which
means he was brought under their controul, and con¬
sequently allowed himself to be deprived of that inde¬
pendence which he ought to possess as a judge. Ju¬
stice had been so partially administered, that several
worthy and respectable persons had been imprisoned,
some had been ruined, and others died in jail. From
all which considerations he moved, that the affairs of
the company ought to be taken into consideration by
a committee of the whole house. Some hints were
thrown out by Mr Dundas, that the territorial pos¬
sessions in the East ought to be taken from the com¬
pany entirely, and put under the direction of the
crown ; but this was opposed by Mr Fox, as furnish¬
ing ministers with such ample means of corruption and
undue influence, as might overthrow the constitution
entirely. For this reason, he thought it would be
more prudent to leave the appointment of its own ser¬
vants to the company *, but at the same time to keep
a watchful eye over them, in order to be able to pu¬
nish and remove those who should be found delin¬
quent.
The house having resolved itself into a committee,
a motion was made by General Smith, “ That Warren
Hastings, Esq. governor-general of Bengal, and Sir
3
Elijah Impey, the chief justice, appear to have been Compaxiy
concerned, the one in giving, the other in receiving, -y—.
an office not agreeable to the late act for regulating
the company’s affairs $ which unjustifiable transaction
was attended with circumstances of evil tendency and
example.” Resolutions were also passed for ascertain¬
ing more distinctly the powers of the governor-general
and council of Bengal ; and votes of censure against
Laurence Sullivan, Esq. chairman of the East India
Company, for having neglected to transmit to India
an act for explaining and amending the act for regulat¬
ing the affairs of the company, and for the relief of
certain persons imprisoned at Calcutta. Among the
number of this gentleman’s transgressions, also, w’as his
imposing an oath of secrecy on Mr Wilkes, one of the
company’s clerks ; and especially his restraining him
from giving information to a select committee of the
house of commons.
Mr Dundas having made several motions tending
to criminate Sir Thomas Rumbold, formerly gover¬
nor of Bengal, a bill %vas brought in and passed into
a law, for restraining him and Peter Perring, Esq.
from going out of the kingdom for the space of one
year, for discovering their estates, &.c. An address
was also presented to the king, requesting him to re-
cal Sir Elijah Impey from India, in order to answer
for high crimes and misdemeanours. A number of
other resolutions were now passed by the house, in
consequence of motions by Mr Dundas, and wlxich
were founded on the reports of the secret committee. I
Among these it was resolved, “ That the orders of
the court of directors of the East India Company,
which have conveyed to their servants abroad a prohi¬
bitory condemnation of all schemes of conquest and
enlargement of dominion, by prescribing certain rules
and boundaries for the operation of their military
force, were founded no less in wisdom and policy than
in justice and moderation. That every transgression
of these orders, without evident necessity, by any of
the several governments in India, has been highly
reprehensible, and tended in a great degree to weaken
the force and influence, and to diminish the influence
of the company in those parts. That every inteiffe-
rence of the company as a party in the domestic or
national quarrels of the country powers, and all new
engagements with them in offensive alliance, have
been wisely and providentially forbidden by the com¬
pany in their commands to their administrations in
India. That every unnecessary deviation from these
rules should be severely reproved and punished. That
the maintenance of an inviolable character for mode¬
ration, good faith, and scrupulous regard to treaty,
ought to have been the simple grounds on which the
British government should have endeavoured to esta¬
blish an extensive influence, superior to that of other
Europeans $ and that the danger and discredit arising
from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence, could not be
compensated by the temporary success of any plan of
violence and injustice. That should any relaxation take
place, without sufficient cause, in those principles of
good government on the part of the directors themselves,
it would bring upon them, in a heavier degree, the
resentment of the legislative power of their country.
That the conduct of the company, and their servants
in India, in various instances specified, was contrary
to
COMPANY.
mpany. to policy and good faith ; the company’s servants, in
their presidency of Bombay, had been guilty of notori¬
ous instances of disobedience to the orders of their em¬
ployers, particularly in forming an alliance Avith B.a>-
gobah, or Ragonaut Row : that they had undertaken,
without any adequate military force, or certainty of a
sufficient revenue, and without proper communication
with the superior government upon which they were
to depend for sanction and support, to reinstate the
usurper above mentioned, and thereby to involve them¬
selves in a war with the ruling ministers of the Mahrat-
ta state, while Ragobah himself was not in the mean
time able to give the company any secure possession of
the grants he had made to them for the purchase of
their assistance. That it was the opinion of the house,
that all the disasters in which the British empire in the
East was involved had proceeded from the unjustifi¬
able manner in which the Mahrattas had been treated,
and the conduct of the Madras presidency in other re¬
spects specified. That it is the opinion of this house,
that it must be reckoned among the additional mis¬
chiefs arising chiefly from the improvident war with
the Mahrattas, that the military force of the Carnatic
had been weakened by reinforcements sent to the Ma¬
labar coast: that the Bengal government had been
under a necessity of supporting, on their confines, the
army of a power confederated against them (a) : that
they had been under the necessity of suing for the me¬
diation of the same power : and submitted to a refu¬
sal, and purchased at last an uncertain, because appa¬
rently an unauthorized, treaty, on most extravagant
and dishonourable conditions, with Chimnagee the rajah
of Berar’s son : and finally, that being burdened with
the expences of a variety of distant expeditions, while
their allies were in distress, and their tributaries under
oppression, there was also an alarming deficiency in the
resources of revenue and commerce, by the accumula¬
tion of their debt, and the reduction of their infeft-
tnent. That it was the opinion of the house, that an
attempt made by the govexmor-general, in the begin¬
ning of January 1781, to form an engagement of alli¬
ance, offensive and defensive, with the Dutch East India
Company, in the manner stated by the proceedings of
their council, was unwarranted, impolitic, extravagant,
and unjust.”
These severe censures extended even to the directors
themselves, whose conduct on some occasions was de¬
clared to be indefensible, as well as that of their ser¬
vants and agents. It was also resolved, “ That War¬
ren Hastings, Esq. governor-general of Bengal, and
William Hornsby, Esq. president of the council of
Bombay, having, in sundry instances, acted in a man¬
ner repugnant to the honour and policy of this nation,
and thereby brought great calamities on India, and
enormous expences on the India company, it was the
duty of the directors to pursue all legal and effectual
means for the removal of the said governor-general
and president from their offices, and to recal them to
Britain.”
The commons having thus seriously entered into a
consideration of East India affairs, soon found still
347
more abundant reason for censure. It was discover- Company,
ed, that corruption, fraud, and injustice had pervaded v—
every department. It had become an object with the
servants of the company to oppress the natives by every
possible method. They monopolized every article of
trade, and seemed to have no other principle of com¬
merce but lawless violence : the court of directors
sent out instructions 5 but for the most part without
any effect. Though the delegated administration of
India ought to have preserved the strictest obedience to
that of Britain $ yet, being at so great a distance from
the seat of supreme authority, and being possessed of
endless means of abuse, it had become corrupt in an
extreme degree. Instead of being subservient to go-,
vernment at home, the administration of India affec¬
ted independence. The maxims of Mr Hastings were
arbitrary ; and he seemed to have no inclination to
obey. He treated with sovereign contempt the au¬
thority of the court of directors : and the confusion
produced by the disputes between them were foster¬
ed by the body of India proprietors, who were dis¬
posed to act as a check upon the directors. The
necessity of new regulations in the government of In¬
dia was universally admitted j and a bill for this
purpose was accordingly brought in by Mr Dun-
das. His propositions were, that the governor and
council of Bengal should have a controuling power
and jurisdiction over the inferior presidencies of In¬
dia ; and he was of opinion that the governor-general
should be invested with a power to act even against
the will and opinion of the council, whenever he
should imagine that, by so doing, he could contribute
to the public good ; though, in these cases, he alone
should b« responsible for the event. With regard to
the inferior governors, though he did not think it pro¬
per that they should be authorized to act contrary to
the advice of the council, he was of opinion, that they
ought to have a right of negativing every proposition,
until application was made to the governor-general and
council of Bengal. With regard to the zemindaries
and other tenures of land, he observed, that when Hin¬
dustan had been conquered by the Moguls, a tribute
was imposed upon the zemindars ; and while they
continued to pay this tribute, they accounted them¬
selves to be the real proprietors and masters of the
lands they possessed. The people called n/ots, to whom
these zemindaries were lent out, considered themselves
likewise as secure in their possessions while they per¬
formed the articles of their respective contracts. Of
late, however, these rights had been infringed j and
the Mogul came to consider himself as the absolute
master of all the soil of Indostan $ which maxim he
was inclined to destroy, and erect upon it another, that
might secure the landholders in their property. He
proposed to secure the nabob of Arcot and rajah of
Tanjore in their territories, by making an act of
parliament in favour of the latter; but was of opi¬
nion, that the debts of these princes ought not to be
too nicely inquired into, as the greatest part of them
originated in corruption. He was clearly of opinion,
however, that Governor Hastings ought to be recall-
X x a ed j
(a) The power here alluded to was Movedajee Boosla, rajah of Berar. See Indostan.
348
COMPANY.
Company.
etl j and that steps ought to he taken to prevent the
court of proprietors from presuming to act in contra¬
distinction to parliament. Lord Cornwallis appeared
to be the most proper successor to Mr Hastings. His
personal honour, and that of his ancestors, were pled¬
ges for his good behaviour j and being independent in
his fortune, he could have no view of repairing his
estate out of the spoils of India j and from his profes¬
sion, he could add to the character of governor that of
commander in chief; he would not, however, insist on
his name being filled op in the hill, as that would rest
more properly with government.
Mr Hastings was defended by Governor Johnstone,
who endeavoured to ridicule the arguments and pro¬
posals of Mr Dundas. He observed, to the honour
of the former, that he had been able to conclude a
peace with the Mahrattas ; and while he enlarged on
his talents for negotiation, he admired the resources
with which he had supplied the expences of the war.
It ought to be considered that Mr Hastings was in a
situation the most difficult, and that no man could have
sustained it with more fortitude and ability. His ene¬
mies had dealt in insinuation and invective ; but when
the hour of trial came, they would find that their charges
would be refuted with equal ease. He was defended also
by Mr Dempster, who advised the house seriously to
think before they passed a vote for the removal of Mr
Hastings. His exertions had been extraordinary j and
it would then he as ridiculous to supersede him, as it
would have been to recal General Elliot, when the
Spanish batteries were playing against Gibraltar. He
was not, however, an advocate for all the measures of
Mr Hastings ; his errors might be numerous ; but no
censure of him should he established before they were
pointed out and explained.
Mr Dundas having now obtained leave to bring
in his hill, another was moved for by Sir Henry Uet-
cher, “ That leave be given to bring in a bill to dis¬
charge and indemnify the united company of mer¬
chants trading to the East Indies, from all damages,
interests, and losses, in respect to their not making re¬
gular payment of certain sums due to the public, and
to allow farther time to such payment; to enable the
company also to borrow a certain sum of money, and
to make a dividend for the proprietors of four per cent,
at midsummer 1783.” He endeavoured to show,
that the public had derived very considerable advan¬
tages from the company j that their dividend had
been 81. 4s. annually during the time of peace, and
7I. 15s. per cent, during war j they were by no means
in a state of insolvency, as some members had en¬
deavoured to prove, their present application pro¬
ceeding only from a temporary embarrassment. A
new dispute took place concerning Mr Hastings, who
was warmly attacked by Mr Burke, and defended by
Governor Johnstone. The former enlarged on the
bloodshed, ravages, and rapacity, which had taken
place in India, The established system of the servants
of the company, he said, was rapine and robbery. The
Mahratta war was occasioned by their refusal to be
robbed j the famine at Madras was occasioned by the
misconduct of the English government in India $ and
he set forth in strong colours the manner in which the
Indian princes and princesses had been plundered. He
instanced, that Mr Hastings had raised 8oo,oool. in
Bengal by private loan ; and used it as an argument
that the company had ceased to exist, and that their 1 
commerce was nothing more than an instrument for
procuring immense fortunes to individuals, totally de¬
stitute of conscience or principle.
All this was excused by Governor Johnstone. He
regarded the sum of 8oo,oool. as merely trifling,
when the number of civil and military servants on the
Bengal government was considered. The famine at
Madras was owing to the modes of war which pre¬
vailed in the East j as the enemy there marked their
course by desolation. He concluded with censuring
the manner in which Mr Hastings had been spoken of}
and insisted that his high reputation ought to have
guarded him from such insults. Mr Burke replied by
an intimation of his design to impeach Mr Hastings on
his return ; whom he called the greatest delinquent
that had ever violated in India the rights of humanity
and justice.
It was observed by Lord John Cavendish, that the
territorial acquisitions of the company were a fruitful
source of grievance j and it would have been more for
their advantage to have confined themselves to their
original character of merchants. However, as the ter¬
ritorial acquisitions had been obtained, it was proper to
take means for their preservation j as otherwise they
would not revert to the natives, but fall into the hands
of our natural enemies the French.
In the house of peers the cause of the company was
ably defended by Earl Fitzwiliiam. He maintained,
that their situation was desperate, and bankruptcy ine¬
vitable, unless relief was instantly afforded. A report
of their being in an insolvent state had gone abroad,
and nothing was better calculated to preserve and sup¬
port their credit than a large dividend sanctioned by
act of parliament. The expenditure on their settle¬
ments had far exceeded their revenue } of consequence
their servants bad drawn bills, which they were unable
to answer without a temporary supply. Thus the ex¬
istence of the company might be said to depend on the
bill} and he hoped no objections could be raised strong
enough to destroy it.
On the 18th of November 1783, Mr Fox proposed
his celebrated East India bill, which for some time
attracted the attention of the nation at large in a very
considerable degree. By this it was intended to take
from the India proprietors and directors the entire ad¬
ministration of their territorial and commercial affairs.
It took from them also their house in Leadenhall-
street, together with all books, papers, and documents y
vesting the entire management, the appointment of all
officers and servants, the rights of peace and war, and
the disposal of the whole revenue, in the hands of cer¬
tain commissioners. These were, in the first instance,
to he appointed by the whole legislature, but after¬
wards by the crown 5 and were to hold their offices by
the same tenure as the judges in England, via. during
their good behaviour ; and could be removed only by
an address from one of the houses of parliament. They
were required to come to a decision upon every que¬
stion within a limited time, or to assign a specific rea¬
son for their delay. They were never to vote by bal¬
lot 5 and, almost in every case, were to outer the rea¬
son of their vote in their journals. They were also to
submit, once every six months, an exact state of their
accounts
COMPANY,
,any accounts to the court of proprietors j and at the be-
^ - ginning of every session, a state of their accounts and
establishments to both houses of parliament. Their
number was limited to seven 5 but they were to be as¬
sisted by a board of nine persons, each of them posses¬
sed of 2000I. company’s stock j who, as well as the
commissioners, were to be appointed in the first in¬
stance by parliament, and ever afterwards by the court
of proprietors. They were also to be removeable at the
pleasure of any five commissioners, and were disquali¬
fied from sitting in the house of commons. The whole
system of government thus proposed, was to continue
for the space of three or five years.
This was accompanied with another bill, the pro¬
fessed design of which was to preclude all arbitrary and
despotic proceedings from the administration of the
company’s territorial possessions. By this the powers
of the governor-general and supreme council were as¬
certained more exactly than had hitherto been done :
it deprived the governor-general of all power of act¬
ing independent of his council} proscribed the dele¬
gation of any trust 5 and declared every British power
in the East incompetent to the acquisition or exchange
of any territory in behalf of the company, to the ac¬
ceding to any treaty of partition, the hiring out of
the company’s troops, the appointing to office any
person removed for misdemeanour, or to the hiring
out any property to a civil servant of the company.
By this also monopolies were entirely abolished •, and
illegal presents recoverable by any person for his sole
benefit. The principal part of the bill, however, re¬
lated to the zemindars, or native landholders, who
were now to be secured by every possible means in the
possession of their respective inheritances, and defend¬
ed in all cases from oppression. Lastly, a mode was
presented for terminating the disputes between the
nabob of Arcot and the rajah of Tanjore $ disqualify¬
ing every person in the service of the company from
sitting in the house of commons during his continuance
in their service, and for a certain specified time after
his demission.
During the course of the debates on this bill, Mr
Fox set forth the affairs of the company as in the most
desperate situation. They had asked leave, he said,
the year before, to borrow 500,000!. upon bonds j
had petitioned for 300,000k in exchequer bills j and
for the suspension of a demand of 700,000k due to
government for customs. He took notice also, that,
according to an act of parliament still in force, the
directors could not, by their own authority, accept
bills to the amount of more than 300,000k 5 under
which circumstances it would no doubt surprise the
house to be informed, that bills were now coming
over for acceptance to the amount of 2,000,000k It
was evidently, therefore, and indispensably necessary,
that government should interfere in the affairs of the
company to save them from certain bankruptcy. He
stated their actual debt at no less than 11,200,000k
while their stock in hand did not exceed 3,200,000k
There was therefore a deficiency of 8,000,000k 5 a
most alarming sum when compared with the compa¬
ny’s capital. Unless speedily assisted, therefore, they
must inevitably be ruined ; and the ruin of a company
of merchants so extensive in their concerns, and of
such importance in the eyes of all Europe, could not
349
but give a very severe blow to the national credit. Company.
On the other hand, the requisite assistance was a mat- <v >
ter of very extensive consideration. It would be ab¬
solutely necessary to permit the acceptance of the bills
to the above-mentioned amount ; and to do this without
regulating their affairs, and reforming the abuses of
their government, would only be to throw away the
public money.
The conduct of the company’s servants, and of the
company itself, was now arraigned by Mr Fox in the
most severe terms ; and their misconducts were pointed
out under their following heads :
1. With regard to Mr Hastings.—The chairman
of the committee had moved in the house of com¬
mons, that it was the duty of the company to recal
that gentleman ; to which motion the house had a-
greed. In obedience to this resolution, the directors
had agreed that Mr Hastings should be recalled j but
supposing this to be a matter rather beyond their ju¬
risdiction, they had submitted their determination to a
court of proprietors, who rescinded the resolution of
the directors : and after this the whole affair came to
be laid before the house of commons. In the mean
time every thing was anarchy and confusion in the
East, owing to this unsettled conduct with regard to
the governor ; as the whole continent had been made
acquainted with the resolution of the house for recal¬
ling him, while that of the proprietors for continuing
him in his office was kept a secret. The proprietors
had also been guilty of another contradiction in this
respect, as they had voted their thanks to Mr Hast¬
ings for his conduct in India. Hence Mr Fox was
led to comment on the nature of the company’s con¬
nexions with their servants abroad, as well as on the
character of the company themselves. Among the
former, he said, there were a few, who, being pro¬
prietors themselves, endeavoured to promote the trade
of the company, and increase its revenues. The views
of the rest were otherwise directed ; and from the dif¬
ference in speculation between the two parties, the
former were inclined to support that governor who
enabled them to make large dividends •, and who, for
that reason, after having peculated for his own advan¬
tage, was obliged to do the same for the benefit of the
proprietors. The latter, therefore, could not better
gratify their wishes, than by supporting a governor who
had in his power so many opportunities of providing for
his friends.
2. The next charge was against the servants of the
company, whom he accused of a regular and systema¬
tic disobedience to the orders of the proprietors.—
The supreme council of Bengal, he said, had resolved,
in opposition to Mr Hastings, to send two gentlemen,
Mr Fowke and Mr Bristow, the one to reside with
the nabob of Oude, the other at Benares. Mr Hast¬
ings, however, refused to send them j the directors
transmitted the most positive orders to carry the vote
of the supreme council into execution ; but still Mr
Hastings disobeyed *, alleging in his defence, that he
could not employ persons in whom he had no confi¬
dence. Afterwards, however, Mr Hastings seemed to
contradict himself in a very curious manner. He
granted Mr Fowke a contract, with a commission of
5 per cent.; which, he observed, was a great sum,
and might operate as a temptation to prolong the war.
“ But
350
COMPANY.
Company, “ But (added he) the entire confidence I have in the
 v~—■-1 integrity and honour of Mr Fowke, amounts to a full
and perfect security on that head.’1
To this Mr Fox added some other instances of a
similar kind ; but though he supported these and the
projected bill with all the argument and eloquence for
which he was so remarkable, he found it impossible to
make his scheme agreeable to the majority of the
house. The strongest opponent was Mr William Pitt,
who insisted chiefly on the two following topics. I. Its
infringment, or rather annihilation of the company’s
charter ; and, 2. The new and unconstitutional in¬
fluence it tended to create. He owned, indeed, that
India stood in need of a reform, but not such a one
as broke through every principle of justice and reason.
The charter of the company was a fair purchase from
the public, and an equal compact for reciprocal advan¬
tages between the proprietors and the nation at large ;
but if it was infringed in the manner proposed by the
bill, what security could other trading companies have
that they should not be treated in the same manner ?
nay, what security could there be for Magna Charta
itself? The bill, he said, amounted to a confiscation
of property. It had been suggested, indeed, that it
was not a bill of disfranchisement, because it did not
take from the proprietors their right to an exclusive
trade $ but this was not the only franchise of the pro¬
prietors. A freehold might have a franchise annexed
to it, the latter of which might be taken away, and
yet the property of the former remain j in which case
it could not be denied that the freeholders would have
great cause to complain. The case was exactly pa¬
rallel with the India stock. Persons possessed of this
to a certain amount, were entitled to a vote upon every
important question of the company’s affairs j and on
this account the purchase-money was more consider¬
able. But, by the bill in question, this privilege was
to be taken away j which plainly amounted to a dis¬
franchisement.
The great objection to this bill, however, seemed to
be a suspicion that it was a scheme of Mr Fox to gra¬
tify his own personal ambition as a minister, he being
at that time secretary of state. On this account he
was deserted even by the patriotic members, who, up¬
on former occasions, had so strenuously supported his
cause.—Mr Dundas accused him of attempting to
create a fourth estate in the kingdom, the power and
influence of which might overturn the crown and sub¬
vert the constitution of Britain. A petition was pre¬
sented from the proprietors, and another fx*om the di¬
rectors of the company, representing the bill as sub¬
versive of their charter, and confiscating their pro¬
perty, without either charge of delinquency, trial, or
conviction. They prayed, therefore, that the acts of
delinquency presumed against them might be stated in
writing, and a reasonable time allowed them to deliver
in their answer $ and that they might be heard by
counsel against the bill. About the same time the
directors gave in a state of the company’s afifairs, dif¬
fering in the most extraordinary manner from that
given by Mr Fox. In this they represented the credi¬
tor side of the account as amounting to 14,311,173!.
and they brought themselves in debtors to the amount
of 10,342,692k j so that of consequence there was a
balance in their favour of 3,968,481k This was
vehemently contested by the secretary, who said he
could bring objections to the statement of the direc¬
tors to the amount of more than 12,000,000k ster¬
ling. He then entered into a particular discussion of
the articles stated in the directors account, and made
good his assertion. Objections to this method of cal¬
culation, however, were made on the part of the com¬
pany j so that nothing could certainly appear to the
public but that the company were at that time much
distressed, and would fail entirely unless powerfully sup¬
ported by government,
Mr Fox now proceeded to a particular refutation
of the arguments brought against the bill ; in which
indeed he displayed an astonishing force of argument
and acuteness of reasoning. The objection drawn
from the validity of the company’s charter, he set
aside, by showing that the company had abused their
power, and that it was therefore necessary to take it
from them. This he said always had been the case,
and must be the case in a free nation j and he brought
the example of James II. who, on account of the
abuse of his power, had been deprived of it by the na¬
tion at large. The case was the same with the com¬
pany. They had made a bad use of their power, and
therefore the nation at large ought to deprive them
of it. It had been objected by the country gentle¬
men, that the bill augmented the influence of the crown
too much j and by Mr .Dundas, that it reduced it to
nothing. Both these objections, he said, were overturn¬
ed by the circumstance of making the commissioners
hold their office only during good behaviour. Thus,
when conscious that they were liable to punishment if
guilty, but secure in case they faithfully discharged
their trust, they would be liable to no seduction, but
would execute their functions with glory to them¬
selves, and for the common good of their country and
of mankind. He then drew a comparison betwixt
his own bill and that of Mr Dundas’s already men¬
tioned. The bill of the latter, he said, had created
a despotic authority in one man over some millions of
his fellow-creatures j not indeed in England, where the
remedy against oppression was always at hand $ but in
the East Indies, where violence, fraud, and mischief,
everywhere prevailed. Thus the bill proposed by Mr
Dundas afforded the most extensive latitude for mal¬
versation, while his own guarded against it with every
possible care j as was instanced in its confiding in no
integrity ■, trusting in no character ; and annexing re¬
sponsibility not only to every action, but even to the
inaction of the powers it created.
After having expatiated for a considerable time, the
secretary was seconded by Mr Burke, whose force of
oratory was chiefly directed, as indeed it usually
was when speaking of India affairs, on the mon¬
strous abuse of the company’s power in that quarter.
He affirmed that there was not in India a single prince,
state, or potentate, with whom the company had come
into contact, whom they had not sold ; and there was
not a single treaty they had ever made which they had
not broken j and that there was not a single prince or
state that had ever put any confidence in the company
who had not been ruined. With regard to the first
article, Mr Burke instanced the sale of the Great Mo¬
gul himself j of the Rohillas j the nabob of Bengal;
the polygars of the Mahratta empire; Ragobah, the pre¬
tender
Company.
COMPANY.
unpany. tender to that empire ; and the subah of Decan.—The
—V-"—' second article was proved by a review of the transac¬
tions from the beginning to the end of the Mahratta
war. With regard to the third, viz. the ruin of such
princes as put any confidence in the company or their
servants, he desired them to look into the history and
situation of the nabob of Oude. In the year 1779, this
country had been visited by a famine ; a calamity which
bad been known to relax the severity even of the most
rigorous government; yet in this situation the presi¬
dent of Bengal had put an absolute negative upon the
representation of the prince j adding, that perhaps ex¬
pedients might be found for affording him a gradual
relief j but their effects must be distant. This distant
relief, however, never arrived, and the country was
ruined.
Our limits will not allow a particular detail of the
charges against the company on the one hand, or the
defences on the other. In general, it must appear, that
such severe and heavy charges could not be advanced
without some foundation, though perhaps they may
have been considerably exaggerated by the orators who
brought them. The picture drawn by Mr Burke on
this occasion indeed was shocking. “ The Arabs,
Tartars, and Persians, had conquered Indostan with
vast effusion of blood ; while the conquests of the Eng¬
lish had been acquired by artifice and fraud, rather than
by open force. The Asiatic conquerors, however, had
soon abated of their ferocity ; and the short life of man
had been sufficient to repair the waste they had occa¬
sioned. But with the English the case had been en¬
tirely different. Their conquests were still in the same
state they had been 20 years ago. They had no more
society with the people than if they still resided in Eng¬
land ; but, with the view of making fortunes, roll¬
ed in one after another, wave after wave $ so that
there was nothing before the eyes of the natives but
an^endless prospect of new flights of birds of prey and
passage, with appetites continually renewing for a food
that was continually wasting. Every rupee gained by
an Englishman in India was for ever lost to that coun¬
try. With us there were no retributory superstitions,
by which a foundation of charity compensated, for
ages, to the poor, for the injustice and rapine of a day.
With us no pride erected stately monuments, which
repaired the mischiefs pride had occasioned, and adorn¬
ed a country out of its own spoils. England had erect¬
ed no churches, no hospitals, no palaces, no schools
(the trifling foundation at Calcutta excepted) ; Eng¬
land had built no bridges, made no high-roads, cut no
navigations, dug no reservoirs. Every other conque¬
ror of every other description had left some monument
either of state or beneficence behind him j but were
we to be driven out of India this day, nothing would
remain to tell that it had been possessed, during the in¬
glorious period of our dominion, by any thing better
than the oran-outang or the tiger !”
All this eloquence, however, was at present entire¬
ly ineffectual, and the bill was finally rejected : much
confusion and altercation ensued, which terminated in
a change of ministry and dissolution of parliament. On
the 26th of May 1784 a petition from the company
was presented to the house of commons, praying for
such relief as the nature of their affairs might seem to
demand. This was followed on the 24th of June by
351
a bill for allowing the company to divide four per cent. Company.
for the half year concluding with midsummer 1784.' v——'
This having passed, after some debate, a new bill was
proposed by Mr Pitt for relieving the company in the
mean time, and regulating their affairs in time to
come. A bill to this purpose had been brought in
during the last session of the former parliament by
the same gentleman, which, he wished to bring to a
comparison with that of Mr Fox, of which an ac¬
count lias already been given. In this bill he began
with laving it down as a principle, that “ the civil
and military government of India, or, in other words,
the imperial dominion of our territories in the East,
ought to be placed under other controul than that of
the merchants in Leadenball-street j and this controul
could be no other than the executive branch of the
constitution. The commerce of the company, how¬
ever, ought to be left as free from restrictions as pos¬
sible; and, lastly, capricious effects from the govern¬
ment of India upon the constitution of Britain were
to be carefully avoided. A controul in the executive
branch of the legislature over the government of India
had indeed been established by the regulatioi? bill
of 1773: but the former interference of ministers
had not been beneficial, because it had not been
active and vigilant. He now proposed, therefore,
that a board should be instituted expressly for the
purpose. This board was to be appointed by the
king, and to consist of the secretary of state for the
home department, the chancellor of the exchequer,
and a certain number of the privy council. To this
board the dispatches of the company were to be sub¬
mitted, and were not to be sent to India until they
were countersigned by them. To prevent questions
concerning the commercial and political concerns of
the company, it was proposed, that the dispatches up¬
on the former subject should be submitted to the board;
and that, in case of any difference, an appeal should
be made to the king in council. Though he (Mr Pitt)
had not thought proper to accept of the proposal of
the company to yield the appointment of foreign
councils to the crown, he was nevertheless clearly of
opinion, that the commander in chief ought to be ap¬
pointed by the king. He proposed also that this
commander should have a vote in council next to the
president; that the king should he empowered to be¬
stow the reversion of bis office; that the king might
recal the governor-general, the presidents, and any
members of their councils. He yielded the appoint¬
ment of all officers, with the single exception he had
stated, to the court of directors, subject, however, to
the approbation of the king; and that, in case of a
negative, the directors should proceed to a second
choice, and so on. He deprived the court of proprie¬
tors of the privilege of rescinding or altering the
proceedings of the court of directors: and with re¬
spect to the foreign government, he was of opinion,
that their authority should comprise in it a consider¬
able discretion, accompanied with the restraint of re¬
sponsibility. He proposed, that there should be a re¬
vision of the establishment in India with a view to re¬
trenchments ; that appointments should take place
by gradation ; and that a new and summary tribunal
should be erected for the trial of offences committed
in that country. With regard to the zemindaries,
thougli
COMPANY.
Company, though he could not help paying a compliment to Mr
* y~.n,' Fox, on his intention of restoring them to their proper
owners, he yet thought that a general and indiscrimi¬
nate restitution was as bad as an indiscriminate confis¬
cation. He therefore proposed that an inquiry should
he instituted for the purpose of restoring such as
had been irregularly and unjustly deprived, and that
they should in time to come be secured against vio¬
lence.
In the bill of 1784 few alterations were made ; and
these uniformly tended to enlarge the powers of the
board of controul. They were permitted, in cases of
emergency, to concert original measures, as well as to
revise, correct, and alter those of the directors. In
matters relative to peace or war, where secrecy was a
principal object, they were allowed to send their orders
directly to India, without any communication with the
directors ; to the commander in chief without any com¬
munication with the presidencies ; and the number of
persons constituting the different councils of Bengal,
Fort St George, and Bombay, was determined.—-The
governor-general and council of Bengal were to have an
absolute power to issue orders to the inferior presiden¬
cies, in such cases as did not interfere with the direc¬
tions already received from Britain ; adding a power of
suspension in case of disobedience. The supreme coun¬
cil were forbidden, unless any of the Indian princes
should have first commenced or meditated hostilities, to
enter upon war, or form an offensive treaty, without
orders from home. The inferior councils were forbid¬
den in all cases to form alliances j and in cases of ur¬
gency, were commanded to insert a provisional clause,
rendering the permanency of the alliance dependent on
the confirmation of the governor-general.
Various salutary regulations were proposed concern¬
ing the behaviour of the company’s servants, against
whom so great complaints had been made. Inquiry
was ordered to be made by the different presidencies in¬
to the expulsions that might have been made of any
of the hereditary farmers, and of the oppressive rents
and contributions that might have been extorted from
them ; and measures were directed to be taken for their
relief and future tranquillity. A similar examination
was ordered into the different establishments in the
Indian settlements j a report of which was to be laid
annually before parliament. The company were pro¬
hibited from sending out a greater number of cadets or
writers than what were absolutely necessary ; and it was
likewise provided, that the age of such as were sent
out, should not be less than 15, nor more than 22 years.
It was likewise provided, that promotions should be
made in the order of seniority, unless in extraordinary
cases j for which the presidencies should make them¬
selves specifically responsible. Crimes committed by
English subjects in any part of India, were made amen¬
able to every British court of justice, in the same man¬
ner as if they had been committed in Britain. Pre¬
sents, unless such as were absolutely ceremonial, or given
to a counsellor at law, a physician, a surgeon, or a
chaplain, were absolutely prohibited, under the penalty
of confiscation of the present, and an additional fine at
the discretion of the court. Disobedience of orders,
unless absolutely necessary, and pecuniary transactions
prejudicial to the interests of the company, were de¬
clared to be high crimes and misdemeanors. The com¬
pany were forbidden to interfere in favour of any per¬
son legally convicted of any of the above crimes, or to
employ him in their service for ever. The governors
of the different presidencies were also permitted to im¬
prison any person suspected of illicit correspondence,
and were ordered to send them to England with all
convenient speed. Every person serving, or who should
hereafter serve in India, was also required, on his return
to England, to give an exact account, upon oath, to
the court of exchequer, of his property, within two
months after his arrival; one copy of which was to be
kept in the court of exchequer, and the other at the
India-house. The board of controul, the court of di¬
rectors, or any three of the proprietors whose stock
should amount together to 1000I. were allowed to
move the court of exchequer to examine the validity
of the account. In case of an apparently well-founded
accusation, the court of exchequer were allowed to ex¬
amine the party upon oath, and even to imprison him
until the interrogatories proposed to him should be an¬
swered. The whole property of a person who should
neglect to give in such an account within the time li¬
mited, or who should have been guilty of a misrepre¬
sentation in that account to the amount of 2000I. ster¬
ling, was ordered to be confiscated ; ten per cent, to
be paid to the accuser, and the remainder to be equal¬
ly divided between the public and the company. Every
person who had once been employed in India, but had
afterwards resided in Europe for five years, unless such
residence had been expressly on account of his health,
was declared incapable of ever being sent out to India
again.
As a farther curb on the company’s servants, the
attorney-general or court of directors was authorized
to file an information in the court of king’s bench a-
gainst any person for crimes committed in India. That
court was empowered also to imprison or admit the
accused to bail immediately. It was then ordered,
that within 30 days a certain number of peers should
be chosen by the house of lords, and of the members
of the house of commons by that house, to constitute a
court for the trial of the accused. The court was fi¬
nally to consist of three judges appointed by the crown,
four peers, and six members of the house of commons ;
and the accused had a right to a peremptory chal¬
lenge. From this court there was no appeal j and it
was empowered to adjudge the party incapable of ever
serving the company ; to punish by fine or imprison¬
ment } and in order to proportion the fine to the pro¬
perty of the convict, the court of exchequer might,
at the requisition of the attorney-general, or of the
company, examine him upon oath concerning the sum
he was worth. A refusal to answer was to be punished
with confiscation of property, and imprisonment during
pleasure.
With regard to the treatment ^of delinquents in In¬
dia, Mr Pitt observed, that at that time we had it not
in our power to punish them. Either a new process
must therefore be instituted, or offences, equally shock¬
ing to humanity, and contrary to every principle of
religion and justice, must be permitted to continue un¬
checked. Every person therefore who went hereafter,
would know the predicament in which he stood ; and
would understand, that by so doing he agreed to give
up some of the most valuable privileges of an English-
• man:
COMPANY.
,rip&ny. man : yet in this he would do no more than a very
-v——'numerous and honourable body of men, the military,
did daily, without the least hesitation, or the smallest
impeachment of their character.
This bill, so tremendous in its appearance to the
company’s servants, was vehemently opposed by the
minority. Mr Francis observed, that it went upon
two principles, viz. the abuse of power abroad, and
the want of it at home. To remedy these, Mr Pitt
had proposed to augment the power abroad, and to
diminish that at home. He condemned the unlimited
power of the commissioners, and even pretended to
suppose that there must have been some mistake in the
structure of the clause ; it being impossible to think
that it was intended to set aside the directors at home
and the government abroad, in order to throw the
whole power into the hands of a military commander.
Though he approved of the clause by which schemes
of conquest and extension of territory were condemned,
he remarked, that it was essentially defective in other
respects ; as alluding to facts and offences which were
not described, and to criminals whom, so far from pu¬
nishing, it did not venture to describe. With respect
to the affair of presents, he confessed that his opinion
Was rather singular. He was for an unlimited pro¬
hibition to men in high stations j but in the ordinary
transactions of business, he was of opinion that they
were useful, without giving room for any just appre¬
hensions. The government of India, as it was now
constituted, was a government of favour, and not of
justice •, and nothing would be done for the natives
unless the persons who forward their affairs were
gratified. In the mean time, however, the exception
in favour of presents of ceremony was founded upon
ideas which he knew to be fallacious, and was even
calculated to render the prohibition itself useless and
ineffectual. For the purpose of receiving presents of
ceremony, all occasions would be sufficiently solemn.
He warmly censured also the power of imprisonment
given to the respective presidencies, and he condemned
the institution of the new court of judicature as unne¬
cessary, arbiti’ary, and dangerous.
By Mr Fox the bill was so highly disapproved of,
that he objected to the house going into a committee
upon it. He endeavoured to show, that instead of
diminishing, it wras calculated to increase the calamities
of the East $ and instead of reforming, to perpetuate
the abuses so much complained of. The board of
controul, he said, provided for a weak government at
home by a division of power j and if there were a re¬
ceipt or a nostrum for making a weak government, it
was by giving the power of contriving measures to one,
and the nomination of the persons who were to execute
them to another. Tl»e negative given to the com¬
missioners operated as a complete annihilation of the
company, and the chartered rights so much vaunted of.
The bill was a schem# of dark and delusive art, and
took away the rights of the company by slow and gra¬
dual sap. The first step was originally to contrive
measures without the knowledge of the company $ and
the next, to convey orders secretly to India, at the
very time perhaps that the commissioners were openly
giving countenance to orders of a quite different ten¬
dency sent from the directors. With regard to the
new tribunal, he considered it as in truth a screen for
Vol. VI. Part I. +
delinquents ; since no man was to he tried but on the
accusation of the company or of the attorney-general ;
in which case he had only to conciliate government in
order to remain in perfect security.
I he opposition of Mr Fox’s party against this bill
proved as fruitless as their efforts had been in favour
of the other. The house divided on the speaker’s
leaving the chair; when the motion was carried by a
majority of 215. Still, however, all parts of the bill
ivere warmly debated. In the course of conversation
upon this subject, Mr Dempster expressed a wish that
the king could be requested tq send over one of his
sons to become sovereign of that country. We might
then enter into a federal union, and enjoy all the bene¬
fits that could be derived from the inhabitants of the
East by Europeans, viz. those of commerce. The
clauses relative to the native princes and hereditary
farmers were all withdrawn at the motion of Mr Dun-
das ; and under the head of presents, the exception in
favour of those of ceremony was withdrawn. That
clause, which insisted on all persons returning from
India to give an account of the value of their estates
upon oath, was severely censured by Mr Dempster
and Mr Eden 5 and after some debate was entirely
withdrawn, as was also the idea of making the per¬
son take the oath when required by the board of con¬
troul. Mr Pitt then proposed, that persons who had
passed five years in Ind 1a, and accumulated no more
than 50Q0I. for that time, or double that sum for the
next five years, should be exempted from all prosecu¬
tions on the score of their fortunes. But on a sug¬
gestion by Mr Atkinson, that, in case of sickness, it
might not be practicable for a person arriving from
India to give in an account upon oath in the space of
two months 5 on which suggestion a power was grant¬
ed to the court of exchequer for extending the term
from time to time as they should think proper. It
had been the original idea of the chancellor, that this
jurisdiction should take place in twelve months ; and
it had been objected, that thus persons would be de¬
prived of the trial by jury, without time being granted
them to choose whether they would submit to the con¬
dition. Mr Pitt now moved, that no account upon
oath should he required of any person who should ar¬
rive from India before the first of January 1787. This
amendment was likewise censured by opposition, as
holding out an indemnity to peculators, and a warning
for them to return within the assigned period. It
was remarked by Mr Sheridan, that by the bill before
the house, a person who took the oath would be liable
all his lifetime to a prosecution for perjury. He could
therefore make no settlement of his fortune ; he could
not sell or mortgage his estate, as nobody would have
any thing to do with a property which was still liable
to contest and forfeiture. This representation produ¬
ced another amendment, limiting the commencement
of a prosecution to the period of three years. The
clause prohibiting the return of any person to India
under certain conditions, wras also mitigated by two a-
mendments from the chancellor j one of them exempt¬
ing the officers of the king from its operation ; and the
other permitting the, restoration of any person with
the consent of the directors, and three-fourths of the
court of proprietors.
With these amendments, the bill finally passed the
Y y house
353
Company.
354
Company.
COMPANY.
house of commons on the 28th of July. On being
carried up to the house of lords, it met with a very vi¬
gorous opposition $ the principal speakers against it
being Lord Stormont and the Earl of Carlisle. The
former animadverted upon the principle of seniority
established by it j which he said was particularly ill-
suited to the critical posture of afl'airs and our present
situation in India ; and he asserted, that had such a
clause been in effect at the time that Lord Clive first
entered into the company’s service, there would not
have been an inch of the territorial possessions at
present belonging to this country. It would damp
the ardour of emulation, check the rising spirit of
the youth now in Asia, and that at a time when the
most extraordinary talents were necessary to raise us
from our inauspicious and ruined condition. He ob¬
jected also to the power of recal in the board of con-
troul; which, he said, was by no means a sufficient
check upon the company’s servants in India. The
distance of time and place, he said, were so great,
that a recal from India could not have the least effect.
But these remonstrances had very little weight with
the house : the bill being finally passed on the 9th of
August.
Some years after this, however, a declaratory law was
found necessary, in consequence of a controversy which
had arisen between the board of controul and the com¬
pany. It had been resolved, in the month of October
1787, when his majesty had reason to be alarmed,
and to look with more than common anxiety to the
safety and preservation of every part of the British
dominions, to send out four additional regiments for
the better protection of our Indian possessions ; nor
was the design taken up as a temporary, but with a
view to a permanent, establishment of his majesty’s
troops in India. At that time, no unwillingness to
receive the regiments on board the company’s ships,
and provide for their support in India, had been inti¬
mated by the court of directors j but, on the con¬
trary, the measure had been considered as a wise one,
and the suggestion of it had given universal satisfac¬
tion. Since, however, the threatening storm had been
dispersed, far different sentiments prevailed. Some of
the directors, at least, were of opinion, that unless
they made a requisition to government for further mi¬
litary assistance, they had it in their option to bear, or
to refuse to bear, the expence of any additional regi¬
ments of his majesty’s army which might be sent to
India ; and this opinion seemed to be, in a great mea¬
sure, grounded on the act of 1781, by which the East
India Company were bound to pay for such of his ma¬
jesty’s troops, as had, by their requisition, been sent to
India. This idea had been much agitated without
doors, and the directors had thought proper to consult
different counsel of eminence on the subject.
In this business two questions naturally arose:—First,
Whether the king had a right to send his troops to
any part of his dominions P and, secondly, If he sent
them to India, who ought to defray the expence ?
That his majesty had an undoubted right, by his royal
prerogative, to direct the distribution of his army, no
one could, with any colour of reason, dispute. The on¬
ly point, therefore, which offered itself for discussion
was, whether, if his majesty, by virtue of his preroga¬
tive, thought proper to send four additional regiments
to India, the expence of sending them, and their sup- Compai
port, ought to be provided for out of the revenues of '-“"v""*
India, which they protected ? It was certainly the
opinion of ministers, that by the act of 1784, the autho¬
rity and power of the court of directors, touching the
military and political concerns of India, and also the
collection, management, and application of the revenues
of the territorial possessions, was transferred to the
board of controul, which might direct the appropria¬
tion of these revenues in the manner that to them
should appear to be most for the public advantage;
but as doubts had been entertained by others, and the
opinions of counsel, confirming those doubts, had been
taken, all of which had gone abroad into the world,
it was considered as a necessary measure to call upon
the different branches of the legislature to remove those
doubts in the most effectual way by a bill. It was
certainly very evident, that, on the present occasion,
the four regiments might, on board the company’s
ships, be sent out to India at a very inconsiderable ex¬
pence ; whereas, if transports had been specially pro¬
vided for that purpose, the expence must have been
enormous. To oblige the company, therefore, to pay
the expence out of their Indian revenues, as had al¬
ready been intimated to them by the commissioners of
controul, the chancellor of the exchequer moved,
on the 5th of February 1788, “ That leave be gi¬
ven to bring in a bill for removing any doubts re¬
specting the power of the commissioners for the affairs
of India.”
In explanation of this bill, and in answer to the re¬
marks of opposition, Mr Pitt desired to remind the
house that he had provoked the discussion of the bill,
and had earnestly solicited them to bring it to the test
of the most severe and scrupulous investigation. He
found that it would be disputed, whether by the act
of 1784, the board of controul had any right of su¬
perintendence over the revenue. Would it be contend¬
ed that parliament meant to leave the finances in the
hands of the company, who had been declared unfit
to be trusted with them ? Was it likely, that, when
they provided for the better management of the poli¬
tical and military concerns, they had paid no atten¬
tion to the circumstance upon which these concerns in¬
separably depended ? The board of controul had al¬
ready proceeded to reduce the enormous establishments
in India ; their right of interference in that respect
had never been questioned ; and what indeed would be
the consequence of denying this right P The court of
directors, if they had it in their power, as the expi¬
ration of their charter drew near, and it was doubt¬
ful whether their monopoly would be renewed, would
certainly make it their first object to swell the amount
of their imports, and would neglect the care of the
territorial and political state of India. The duty of
administration was to look, first, to the prosperity and
happiness of the natives ; secondly, to the security of
the territorial possessions ; thirdly, to the discharge of
the debts due to the persons who had advanced their
money, and enabled the company to struggle with their
late difficulties ; and, in the last place, to the com¬
mercial benefit of the proprietors. Was it probable
that the court of directors would act upon that scale ?
Could it have been intended to confide in their discre¬
tion ? It had been said, that the powers attributed to
impany.
COM
the board of controul were the same in substance as
1 had before been given to the secretaries of state and
the lords of the treasury. But the fact was other¬
wise. The court of directors had been obliged to
communicate their dispatches previous to their going
to India; but there was no obligation upon the secre¬
tary of state to give any directions concerning them.
The responsibility had ordinarily rested, under the for¬
mer government, with the court of directors j under
the present it was wholly vested with the board of con¬
troul.
An objection had been stated, that the declaratory
bill conveyed to the king the power of maintaining
an army without the consent of parliament. No pro¬
position (Mr Pitt observed) could be more adverse to
his intentions than that which was thus imputed to
him. But in reality the troops in question had already
been recognised by parliament when they voted the
estimate for raising them ; and the number of king’s
regiments serving in India would always be to be
ascertained by the company belonging to each, which
remained in England for the purpose of recruiting, and
the expence of which would be to be provided for by
parliament.
Mr Pitt acknowledged that it had been the object
of the act of 1784 to assume the power of superinten¬
dence and controul, without assuming the power of
patronage. In the present bill he declared that every
thing had been done which his understanding bad sug¬
gested for the diminution of patronage. The regi¬
ments in question belonged to the crown ; and of course
it could not be supposed that the sovereign could en¬
tirely depart from his prerogative of naming his own
officers. But the king had acted with the most gra¬
cious attention to the company, and to the merits of
the officers who had grown gray in their service ; ha¬
ving relinquished nearly half the patronage of the re¬
giments, and leaving the disposal of these commissions
to the court of directors. The company indeed al¬
leged that they had 600 officers unemployed j but the
king could not forget that he had 2800 officers upon
half-pay, not perhaps more meritorious, but certainly
not less so, than those in the company’s service, and
many of whom had actually served with distinction in
India. Such had been the forbearance he had thought
it proper to exercise upon the subject of patronage.
But if, by the objection that had been stated, it was
intended to refer to the great political patronage, this
he did not deny that he had at all times intended to
assume. Men who were responsible for the govern¬
ment of a country, ought undoubtedly to have the
appointment of those whom they were to entrust with
the execution of their orders. But it would be ad¬
mitted that the patronage left to the company was
very considerable, when the great extent of their mi¬
litary establishment was properly recollected. Mr Pitt
added, that the objections that were stated on this
head would possibly throw difficulties in the way of the
consolidation of the two armies in India j an object
on many accounts desirable, and which in some way
or other must be attempted. If it should be thought
advisable to make the whole army royal, then undoubt¬
edly the patronage of the crown would be greatly in¬
creased. He believed, however, that the measure was
necessary j and there was scarcely any thing to which
he would not assent, to remove the apprehensions of
P A N Y. 355
the nation respecting the undue use of this patronage. Company.
For the bill now before the house, Mr Pitt professed —v—
himself ready to propose clauses that should annihilate
every suspicion of danger.
The speech of Mr Pitt produced a favourable effect
upon the country gentlemen 5 and the clauses which he
had alluded to being moved, were received without any
debate. These provided, That no king’s troops, be¬
yond the number which was now proposed, should be
sent to India under the authority of any existing law:
That no increase of salary should be given to any of
the servants of the company, without the dispatches
for that purpose being laid before both houses of par¬
liament thirty days previous to their being sent; and
that no gratuity should be given, the proposal for
which did not originate with the court of directors.
A further clause was added to these by the minister,
which had not precisely the same object: it direct¬
ed, that an account of the revenues and disburse¬
ments of the company should be laid before parlia¬
ment at a certain assigned period in the course of every
year.
The bill was carried up to the house of lords on
the 14th of March, read a first time on the following
day, which was Saturday, and proposed for a second
reading on the ensuing Monday. This precipitation
was made the subject of a petition, offered by certain
proprietors, and presented to the house by the duke
of Norfolk, in which they requested a delay of three
days, till a general meeting could be held of the pro¬
prietors of the East India Company. To this sugges¬
tion it was objected by Lord Thurlow and Lord
Hawkesbury, that the ships of the East India Com¬
pany were now detained in port, at the enormous ex¬
pence of three or four hundred pounds per diem. By
Lord Stormont and Lord Loughborough it was re¬
plied, that no expence, however great, ought to weigh
in consideration of the present question. The bill
decided upon a matter of private right, and parlia¬
ment could not justly refuse to hear the petitioners.
The house divided upon the question, contents 32,
not-contents 75. A motion of Lord Porchester was
rejected by a similar majority, for referring a question
to the twelve judges respecting the true meaning and
intent of the act of 1784.
The duke of Richmond said, that he was peculiar¬
ly circumstanced on the present occasion, since he had
never been pleased with any of the bills for the go¬
vernment of India that had yet been brought into
parliament. He had ever been of opinion, that the
concerns of the East were trusted in the best hands
when they were vested in the company itself. He had
opposed the bill of 1783, because it flagrantly violated
the charter of the company, and placed an immense
power in the hands of a commission, that was not re¬
sponsible, so far as he could find, either to the king
or the parliament. He had opposed the act of 1784,
because it gave to tbe crown an enormous addition of
power. But he could not admit that the act was in
any degree so violent and despotical as the bill which
preceded it. The declaratory measure now under con¬
sideration must necessarily have his complete approba¬
tion. It consisted of two distinct parts ; its exposi¬
tion of the act of 1784, and certain enacting clauses
containing checks and restraints upon the extensive
patronage that the government of the East naturally
Y y 2 gave.
356 COM]
Company, gave. To the former part he must inevitably agree.
v~—v ’ That the act of 1784 gave to the board of controul
complete authority, had always been bis opinion. For
that reason he bad opposed it; but entertaining that
opinion, he must justify the present bill, which in his
mind was a true declaration of the fact. He could not
but equally approve of the restraints that were pro¬
posed upon the exercise of patronage. Patronage was
inseparable from power. But when be saw the in¬
dustry with which it was limited, and ministers w7ere
tied down from the abuse of it, he could not view the
present measure with the same jealousy with which he
was accustomed to regard propositions for extending the
power of the crown. The bill at length passed.
From this period no material change took place in
the constitution of the company till 1813. Their char¬
ter being then nearly expired, a bill was brought into
parliament by Lord Castlereagh, 22il March, renewing
the charter for 20 years. By this hill the company
was continued in the possession of all its old territories
and new acquisitions, and of the exclusive trade to
China. But the trade to the ports within the com¬
pany’s limits, China excepted, was thrown open on cer¬
tain specified conditions. The directors were hound to
grant a license, on application, to ships trading to the
sottlements of Fort William, Fort St George, Bombay,
and Prince of Wales island ; those trading to other
places require a special license, which the directors
might grant or refuse, hut under appeal to the board of
controul. The act farther provided a church establish¬
ment for India, specified the purposes to which the
company’s revenue was to be applied, and limited the
annual dividends to 10 per cent, till a certain fund was
exhausted. The change made by this act has not dis¬
appointed the expectations formed. The price of Indian
commodities has fallen, and the amount of the trade has
nearly doubled.
3. Hudson's Bay Company, The vast countries whieli
surround Hudson’s Bay abound with animals whose
furs and skins are excellent, being far superior in qua¬
lity to those found in less northerly regions. In 1670,
a charter was granted to a company, which does not
consist of above nine or ten persons, for the exclusive
trade to this hay ; and they have acted under it ever
since with great benefit to themselves. The company
employ four ships and 130 seamen. They have seve¬
ral forts, viz. Prince of Wales’s fort, Churchill river.
Nelson, New Severn, and Albany, which stand on the
west side of the hay, and are garrisoned by 186 men.
The French, in May 1782, took and destroyed these
forts, and the settlements, &c. valued at 500,000!.
They export commodities to the value of l6,oool.
and bring home returns to the value of 29,340!.
which yield to the revenue 3734I. This includes the
fishery in Hudson’s Bay. This commerce, small as it
/ is, affords immense profits to the company, and even
some advantages to Great Britain in general ; for the
commodities we exchange with the Indians for their
skins and furs, are all manufactured in Britain ; and as
the Indians are not very nice in their choice, such
things are sent of which we have the greatest plenty,
and which, in the mercantile phrase, are drugs with
us. Though the workmanship, too happens to be in.
many respects so deficient that no civilized people
would take it off our hands, it may be admired among
‘ A N Y.
the Indians; On the other hand, the skins and furs Compar
we bring from Hudson’s Bay, enter largely into our y—
manufactures, and afford us materials for trading with
many nations of Europe to great advantage. These
circumstances tend to prove incontestably the immense
benefit that would redound to Great Britain, by throw¬
ing open the trade to Hudson’s. Bay, since even in its
present restrained state it is so advantageous. This
company, it is probable, do not find their trade so ad¬
vantageous now as it was before we got possession of
Canada. The only attempt made to trade with La¬
brador has been directed towards the fishery, the annual
produce of which exceeds 49,000!.
The above are tire principal trading companies pre¬
sently subsisting in Great Britain ; hut to the number
might have been added one of vast importance, the
Scotch Darien Company, had it not been for the crook¬
ed and pusillanimous policy of the English ministry at
the time. For an account of which, see, the article
Darien.
Greenland Company. See Greenland.
Banking Companies. See Bank. ,
Of establishments similar to the above in other
countries, the following belonging to the Dutch and.
French, may be mentioned as the most important.
I. Dutch Companies. 1. Their East India com¬
pany had its rise in the midst of the struggle which
that people had for their liberty : for the Spaniards
having forbidden all commerce with them, and shut
up all their ports, necessity inspired some Zealanders to
seek a north-east passage to China.
This enterprise proving unsuccessful to three se¬
veral armaments in 1594, I595> and 1596, a second
company was formed, under the name of the Company
of Bemote Carts; which, in 1597, took the ordinary
route of the Portuguese to the Indies, arid returned in
two years and a half’s time with little gain but good
hopes.
This company, and a new one just established at Am¬
sterdam, being united, equipped other fleets; and these
occasioned other companies at Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
in Zealand, &c. insomuch that the states soon began
to apprehend they might be prejudicial to each other.
Under this concern, they called all the directors of the
several companies togetlier, who all consented to an
union, the treaty whereof was confirmed by the states
in 1602; a very remarkable epocha, as being that of
the most solid and celebrated establishment of commerce
that ever was in the world.
Its first capital was six million six hundred thousand
guilders. It had sixty directors, divided into several
chambers; twenty in that of Amsterdam, twelve in
that of Zealand, fourteen in that of Delft and Rot¬
terdam, and a like number in those at Sluys and Horn.
As each grant expires, the company is obliged to pro¬
cure a new one, which it has already done five times
since the first, paying a considerable sum each time.
The last application was in 1773, when the company,
after stating that its trade had declined, solicited the
states-general to grant a diminution of the sum for¬
merly paid for the renewal of the charter. Upon this
representation their high mightinesses, in order to
have time to inquire into the matter, prolonged the
charter.
smpany.
C O M P A
charter for three years, upon the old establishment;
and finding, upon examination, that the company had
really sustained great losses, and its trade considerably
declined, they acted with the spirit of a wise commer¬
cial commonwealth, by complying with the company’s
request. They, therefore, in 1776, granted them a
new charter for 30 years, on the same terms as the
former, on the immediate payment of 2,000,000 of
florins, instead of 3,000,000 which they paid before,
and the sum of 360,000 florins yearly 5 which annual
payment they were allowed to make either in money
or merchandise. In consequence of this indulgence,
the stock of the company rose in a short time no less
than 19 per cent.
Their factories, residencies, &c. in the East Indies,
are very numerous; reaching from the Persian gulf to
the coast of China : the principal is that of Batavia, the
centre of their commerce; here resides their general,
with the state and splendour of a sovereign prince ;
making war and peace with the eastern kings and em¬
perors at pleasure.
The other more considerable factories are, Taiouam,
on the coast of China, Nangisac in Japan, Malacca,
Surat, Amboyna, Banda, Siam, Moluccas, &c. several
on the coast of Coromandel, and at Ispahan, Cape of
Good Hope, &c. : in all, they number 40 factories and
25 fortresses. But the whole are now in the hands of
the British.
2. Their TFest India Company was established in
1621, with an exclusive privilege to trade 24 yeara
along the coasts of Africa, between the tropic of Can¬
cer and the Cape of Good Hope ; and in America from
the south point of Newfoundland, through the straits of
Magellan, that of Le Maire, or others, to the straits
of Anian, both in the North and South sea. The di¬
rectors are divided into five chambers (as in the East
India Company), out of which 19 are chosen for the
general direction of affairs. In 1647, ^,e company re¬
newed its grant for 25 years ; but it was scarce able to
hold out the term, on account of its great losses and
expences in taking the bay of Todos los Santos, Fer-
nambuc, and the greatest part of Brasil, from the Por¬
tuguese. The weakness of this company, which had
several times in vain attempted to be joined to that of
the East Indies, occasioned its dissolution at the expira¬
tion of its grant.
In 1674, a new company, composed of the ancient
proprietors and their creditors, was settled in the
same rights and establishment with the former ; and
still subsists, though considerably decayed. Their first
capital was about six millions of florins. Its principal
establishments are, one at Cape Verd, another on the
Gold Coast of Africa, at Tobago, Curassao, &c. in
America.
II. French Companies. 1. Their Hast India Com¬
pany was established in 1664, with an exclusive privi¬
lege to trade for 50 years in all the seas of the East
Indies and South sea. No adventurer to be ad¬
mitted without IOOO livres in stock ; and foreigners
who have 20,000 livres in stock to be reputed regni-
coles.
The patent grants them the island of Madagascar;
and the king to be a£ one-fifth of the expence of the
three first armaments, without interest ; the principal
to be refunded in ten years ; or, if the company find
N Y.
it loses on the whole, the loss to fall on the king’s
side.
The capital fund of the company, which was mostly
furnished by the king, was seven or eight millions of
livres, but was to have been fifteen millions.
In eftect, though no means were wanting to support
the company, yet it still drooped and still struggled ;
till having subsisted ten years without any change in
its form, and being no longer able to discharge its en¬
gagements, there were new regulations concerted, but
to little purpose. At length, things not being dispo¬
sed for a new East India Company, nor much good to
be expected from the old one, in 1708 the minister
allowed the directors to treat with the rich traders of
St Malo, and resign to them their privileges under
certain conditions. In the hands of these last, the
company began to flourish. See India Company, be¬
low.
Its chief factory was at Pondicherry, on the coast of
Coromandel. This was the residence of the director-
general. The other factories were inconsiderable. The
merchandises which the company brought into France
were, silks, cottons, spices, coffee, rice, saltpetre ; seve¬
ral kinds of gums and drugs, woods, wax, printed cali¬
coes, muslins, &c.
2. Their TFest India Company was established in
1664. Their charter gave them the property and
seignory of Canada, Acadia, the Antilles islands, isle
of Cayenne, and the Terra Firma of America, from
tire river of the Amazons to that of Oroonoko ; with
an exclusive privilege for the commerce of those places,’
as also of Senegal and the coasts of Guinea, for 40
years, only paying half the duties. The stock of the
company was so considerable, that in less than six
months 45 vessels were equipped ; with which they took
possession of all the places in their grant, and settled a
commerce: yet this only subsisted nine years. In
1674, the grant was revoked, and the countries above
reunited to the king’s dominions as before : the king
reimbursing the actions of the adventurers. This re¬
vocation wras owing partly to the poverty of the com¬
pany, occasioned by its losses in the wars with Eng¬
land, which had necessitated it to borrow above a mil¬
lion, and even to alienate its exclusive privilege for the
coasts of Guinea: and partly to its having in good mea¬
sure answered its end: which was to recover the com¬
merce of the West Indies from the Dutch, who had
torn it from them: for the French merchants, being
now accustomed to traffic to the Antilles, by permission
of the company, were so attached to it, that it was not
doubted they would support the commerce after the
dissolution of the company.
3. Their Mississippi Company was first established in-
1684 in favour of the Chevalier de la Salle; who ha¬
ving projected it in 1660, and being appointed gover¬
nor of the fort of Frontignac at the mouth of that ri¬
ver, travelled over the country in the year 1683, and-
returned to France to solicit the establishment. This
obtained, he set sail for his new colony with four ves¬
sels laden with inhabitants, &c. but entering the
gulf of Mexico, he did not, it seems, know the river
that had cost him so much fatigue, but settled on ano¬
ther river unknown, where his colony perished by de¬
grees; so that in 1685 there were not 100 persons re¬
maining, Making several expeditions to find the Mis¬
sissippi^
357
Company.
358
COMPANY.
Company, sissipi, he was killed in one of them by a party who
' —v'— ■' mutinied against him ; whereupon the colony was dis¬
persed and lost. M. Hiberville afterwards succeeded
better. He found the Mississippi, built a fort, and
settled a French colony there j but he being poisoned,
it is said, by the intrigues of the Spaniards, who feared
such a neighbour, in 1712 M. Crozat had the whole
property of trading to the French territories called
Louisiana granted him for 15 years.
4. Company of the JFest. In 1717, the Sieur Crozat
surrendered this grant $ and in the same year a new
company was erected under the title of Company of the
West: to which, besides every thing granted to the
former company, was added the commerce of beaver,
enjoyed by the Canada company from the year 1706,
but expiring in 1717. In this establishment, an equal
view was had to the finances and the commerce of the
nation ; and, accordingly, part of the conditions of its
establishment regarded the settling a colony, a trade,
&c. 5 the other the vending part of the bills, called
bills of state, which could no longer subsist on their pre¬
sent footing. The former are no more than are usual
in such establishments : for the latter, the actions are
fixed at 500 livres, each payable in bills of state $ the
actions to be esteemed as merchandise, and in that
quality to be bought, sold, and trafficked. The bills of
state, which make the fund of the actions, to be con¬
verted into yearly revenue. To put the finishing hand
to the company, iu I7I7> its fund was fixed at an hun¬
dred millions of livres j which being filled, the cash was
shut up.
5. India Company. The junction of the former com¬
pany with that of Canada was immediately followed by
its union with that of Senegal, both in the year 1718,
by an arret of council : which at the same time grant¬
ed the new company the commerce of beavers, and
made it mistress of the negro or Guinea trade to the
French colonies in America.
Nothing was now wanting to its perfection but an
union with the East India company, and with those
of China and St Domingo; which was effected, with
the two first in 1719, and with the third in 1720.
This union ol the East India and China company with
the company of the West, occasioned an alteration of
the name $ and it was henceforth called the India Com¬
pany.
The reasons of the union were, the inability of the
two former to carry on their commerce $ the immense
debts they had contracted in the Indies, especially the
East Company, complaints whereof had been sent to
court by the Indians, which discredited the company
so that they durst not appear any longer at Surat j
the little care they took to discharge their en¬
gagements ; and their having transferred their privi¬
lege to the private traders of St Malo, in considera¬
tion of a tenth iu the profits of the returns of their
ships.
The ancient actions of the company of the West,
which were not at par when this engraftment was pro¬
jected, before it was completed, were risen to 300 per
cent.; which unexpected success gave occasion to con¬
clude the new actions of the united companies would
not bear less credit. The concourse of subscribers was
so great, that in a month’s time there were above fifty
millions subscribed for j the first twenty-five million
3
actions which were granted to the India company, he- Compat,
yond the hundred millions of stock allowed the com-v—
pany of the West, being filled as soon as the books
were opened j to satisfy the earnestness of the subscri¬
bers, the stock was increased by several arrets to three
hundred millions. Credit still increasing, the new ac¬
tions rose to 1200 per cent, and those of the ancient
company of the West to 1900 per cent.; an exorbitant
price, to which no other company ever rose. Its con¬
dition was now so flourishing, that in 17x9 it offered
the king to take a lease of all his farms for nine years
at the rate of three millions five hundred thousand livres
per annum more than had been given before ; and also
to lend his majesty twelve hundred millions of livres to
pay the debts of the state. These offers were accept¬
ed j and the king, in consideration hereof, granted
them all the privileges of the several grants of the com¬
panies united to that company to the year 17705 051
condition, however, of discharging all the debts of the
Old East India Company, without any deduction at all.
The loan of twelve hundred millions not being suffi¬
cient for the occasion of the state, was augmented,
three months afterwards, with three hundred millions
more ; which, with the former loan, and another of
one hundred millions before, made sixteen hundred mil¬
lions, for which the king was to pay interest at the rate
of three per cent.
The duke of Orleans, in February 1720, did the
company the honour to preside in their assembly, where
he made several proposals to them on the part of the
king: the principal of these was, that they should take
on them the charge and administration of the royal
bank. This was accepted of: and Mr Law, comptrol¬
ler-general of the finances, was named by the king
inspector-general of the India Company and bank
united.
This union, which, it was proposed, should have been
a mutual help to both those famous establishments,
proved the fatal point from whence the fall of both
commenced : from this time, both the bank bills and
the actions of the company began to fall. In effect,
the first perished absolutely, and the other had been
drawn along with it but for the prudent precautions
taken for its support.
The first precaution was the revoking the office of
inspector-general, and the obliging Mr Law to quit
the kingdom 5 the ancient directors were discarded,
and new ones substituted 5 and to find the bottom of
the company’s affairs, it was ordered they should give
an account of what they had received and disbursed,
both on the account of the company and of the bank,
which they had had the management of near a vear.
Another precaution to come at the state of the "com¬
pany was, hy endeavouring to distinguish the lawful ac-
tionaries from the Mississippi extortioners j whose im¬
mense riches, as well as their criminal address in rea¬
lizing their actions either into specie or merchandise,
were become so fatal to the state, in order, if possible,
to secure the honest adventurers in their stock. To
this end, an inquisition was made into their books, &c.
by persons appointed by the king ; and the new direc¬
tors, or as they were called, regisseurs, began serious¬
ly to look about for their commerce abroad. Their
affairs, however, declined, and at length sunk into a
ruined and bankrupt state about the year 1769. The
king
COMP
umpaay. immediately suspended their exclusive privileges,
and laid the trade to the East open to all his subjects 5
consigning, at the same time, the alFairs of the compa¬
ny to the care of the ministry to adjust and settle. But
the various schemes which were then formed for the
restoration of the old company, and the establishment
of a new one, were accompanied with such insur¬
mountable difficulties, as to prove wholly ineffectual.
Nor was the laying open of the trade attended imme¬
diately with the success that was expected ; the mer¬
chants being very slow in engaging in it, though the
king, by way of encouragement, lent them some of his
own ships to convey their commodities to the East;
and the garrison and civil establishments continued to
be supported in their existing form by the crown. The
measure, however, proved in time successful ; so that
for a course of years previous to 1785, the annual im¬
portation from India was considerably greater than du¬
ring any former period. But whether it was that
they regarded this prosperity as precarious ; or aim¬
ed at a more extensive success ; or that they wished,
in imitation of Britain, for territorial acquisitions in
that climate, and believed an incorporated society
the best instrument of obtaining them ; the French
court was induced to listen to proposals for establishing
a new East India Company. Their privilege was for
seven years, with the special proviso, that years of war
which might occur in the interim should be excluded
from the computation.
In the preamble of the act of the 14th April 1785,
by which the scheme was adopted, it was alleged,
“ that the commodities of Europe not having of late
years been regulated by any common standard, or pro¬
portioned to the demands of India, had on the one hand
sold at a low price ; while, on the other, the compe¬
tition of the subjects of France had raised the price of
the objects of importation : that, upon their return
home, a want of system and assortment had been univer¬
sally complained of, the market being overstocked with
one species of goods, and totally destitute of another ;
that these defects must necessarily continue as long as
the trade remained in private hands ; and that, on their
account, as well as that of the capital required, the
establishment of a new company was absolutely neces¬
sary.
These reasonings did not appear altogether satisfac¬
tory to the persons principally interested. France has
been so far enlightened by the discussions of the excel¬
lent writers she has produced upon questions of poli¬
tics and commerce, as not to be prepared to behold
the introduction of monopolies with a very favourable
eye. By many persons it was remarked, that the ar¬
guments of the preamble did not apply more to the
trade of India than to any other trade ; and that, if
they were admitted in their entire force, they were
calculated to give a finishing blow to the freedom of
commerce. The capital of the new company, which
amounted to 830,000!. was ridiculed as altogether
inadequate to the magnitude of the undertaking. The
privileges with which it was indulged were treated as
enormous. The monopoly of East India goods im¬
ported into France from any part of Europe, was
granted to them for two years, as well as the mono¬
poly of East India goods imported from the place of
their growth. It was said, that during that period
ANY. 359
they would fit out no adventures for India; that they Company,
hoped to obtain a prolongation of this injurious indul- v
gence ; and that, of consequence, their incorporation
was in reality a conspiracy to prevent all future com¬
munication between France and the sources of com¬
merce in Asia. A provision in the act, directing that
the prices of East India goods in the islands of Mauri¬
tius and Bourbon should be regulated by a tariff to be
fixed by the court of Versailles, excited still louder
exclamations. In this instance, it was said, the first
principles of commerce were trampled upon in a man¬
ner the most wanton and absurd. Instead of suffering
it to find its own level by the mutual collision of the
wants of one party and the labour of another, it was
arbitrarily to be fashioned by a power whose extreme
distance must necessarily render its decisions ill-timed
and inapplicable. The very mode in which the mono¬
poly was introduced was a subject of complaint. It
was determined by a resolution of the king in council ;
a proceeding totally inadequate to the importance of
the subject, and which was to be regarded as clandes¬
tine and surreptitious. In all former instances such
measures assumed the form of edicts, and were register¬
ed in the parliaments. It was the prerogative of these
courts to verify them ; that is, to inquire into the facts
which had led to their adoption. The injured parties
had an opportunity of being heard before the privilege
assumed the form of a law ; not privately by the mini¬
sters of the sovereign, but publicly by the most consi¬
derable bodies in the kingdom, and in the face of the
nation.
The act of council establishing a new East India
Company, was followed on the tenth of June by ano¬
ther declaration, intended still farther to promote their
interest ; by which it was expressly forbidden to im¬
port cottons, printed linens, and muslins, except through
the medium of the company. The arret proceeds up¬
on the same principles of monopoly as in the former
instance. It sets out indeed with a declaration, “ that
nothing can appear more desirable to the king, or bet¬
ter accord with the sentiments of his heart, than a ge¬
neral liberty, that freeing at once the circulation of
commodities from every species of restraint, should
seem to make of all the people of the world but one
nation with respect to commerce.” But it adds, “ that
the period of this liberty is not yet arrived ; that it
must either be, with respect to the nations of Eu¬
rope, unlimited and reciprocal, or that it cannot be
admitted: that the revocation of the former indul¬
gence respecting cottons and linens was become neces¬
sary on account of the opportunities it created for con¬
traband trade; and because the competition of the East
India Company and private traders would occasion a
surplus in the market, and the admission of foreign
manufactures would decrease and annihilate the national
industry.”
The provisions that were made for carrying this law
into effect were considered as unjust and severe. The
merchants possessing any of the prohibited commodi¬
ties were allowed twelve months to dispose of them ; ,
but upon the express condition, that the commodities
rvere to bear a stamp, importing that they were ven¬
dible only to a certain period ; a circumstance that must
necessarily depreciate their value. It was also enacted, .
that the house of any trader might be entered by day
or -
360
COMPANY-
Company, or by night, at the solicitation of the directors, to
1 search for prohibited goods which were to be confis¬
cated to the use of the company. These kinds of vi¬
sits of the officers of revenue, hitherto unauthorized in
I ranee, were represented as peculiarly obnoxious, when
they were made for the sole benefit of a privileged mo¬
nopoly.
Compan
C O M
Company COMPANY, in military affairs, a small body of foot,
Com lari commantlecl by a captain, who has under him a lieute-
3l - nant and ensign.
1  v—The number of sentinels or private soldiers in a com¬
pany is from 50 to 100 ; and a battalion or regiment
consists of 9, 10, or ri, such companies, one of
■which is always grenadiers, and posted on the right;
next them stands the colonel’s company, and on the
left the light infantry company. Companies not incor¬
porated into regiments are called irregulars^ or inde¬
pendent companies.
Artillery Company. See Artillery.
Company of Ships, a fleet of merchantmen, who
make a charter-party among themselves ; the principal
conditions whereof usually are, that certain vessels shall
he acknowledged admiral, vice-admiral, and rear-ad¬
miral j that such and such signals shall be observed j
that those which bear no guns shall pay so much per
cent, of their cargo; and in case they be attacked, that
what damages are sustained shall be reimbursed by the
company in general. In the Mediterranean such com¬
panies are called conserves.
COMPAEATIVE anatomy, is that branch of
pnatomy which considers the secondary objects, or the
bodies of other animals ; serving for the more accurate
distinctions of several parts, and supplying the defect of
human subjects. *
It is otherwise called the anatomy of beasts,a.ni\same-
times %ootomy; and stands in contradistinction to hu¬
man anatomy, or that branch of the art which consi¬
ders the human body the primary object of anatomy.
See Anatomy.
Comparative Degree, among grammarians, that be¬
tween the positive and superlative degrees, expressive
of any particular quality above or below the level of an¬
other.
COMPAEISON, in a general sense, the considera¬
tion of the relation between two persons or things,
when opposed to each other, by which we judge of their
agreement or difference.
Comparison of Ideas, an act of the mind, whereby
it compares its ideas one with another, in respect of ex¬
tent, degree, time, place, or any other circumstances.
See Idea.
Comparison, in Grammar, the inflection of the
comparative degree. See Grammar.
Comparison, in Rhetoric, is a figure whereby two
things are considered with regard to some third, which
is common to them both.
Instruction is the principal, but not the only end of
comparison. It may be employed with success in put¬
ting a subject in a strong point of view. A lively idea
is formed of a man’s courage by likening it to that of
a lion ; and eloquence is exalted in our imagination by
comparing it to a river overflowing its banks, and in¬
volving all in its impetuous course. The same effect
COM
is produced by contrast: a man in prosperity becomes Compaq
more sensible of his happiness, by comparing his con-, stm'
dition with that of a person in want of bread. Thus
comparison is subservient to poetry as well as to philo¬
sophy.
Comparisons serve two purposes : when addressed to
the understanding, their purpose is to instruct j when
to the heart, their purpose is to please. Various means
contribute to the latter: 1st, The suggesting some un¬
usual resemblance or contrast*; 2d, The setting an*Seethi
object in the strongest light ; 3d, The associating an*rtlcle
object with others that are agreeable ; 4th,, The ele-j^^
vating an object; and, 5th, The depressing it. AndaMcZDisst
that comparisons may give pleasure by these various^^M^
means, will be made evident by examples which shall
he given, after premising some general observations.
Objects of different senses cannot be compared to¬
gether ; for such objects are totally separated from
each other, and have no circumstance in common to
admit either resemblance or contrast. Objects of hear¬
ing may be compared together, as also of taste, of
smell, and of touch ; hut the chief fund of comparison
are objects of sight; because in writing or speaking,
things can only he compared in idea, and the ideas of
sight are more distinct and lively than those of any
other sense.
When a nation emerging out of barbarity begins to
think of the fine arts, the beauties of language cannot
long lie concealed; and when discovered, they are
generally, by the force of novelty, carried beyond all
bounds of moderation. Thus, in the earliest poems
of every nation, we find metaphors and similes found¬
ed on the slightest and most distant resemblances,
which, losing their grace with their novelty, wear
gradually out of repute ; and now, by the improve¬
ment of taste, no metaphor nor simile is admitted into
any polite composition but of the most striking kind.
To illustrate this observation, a specimen shall he given
afterward of such metaphors as we have been describ¬
ing : with respect to similes take the following specimen:
“ Behold, thou art fair, my love : thy hair is as
“ a flock of goats that appear from Mount Gilead :
“ thy teeth are like a flock of sheep from the wash-
“ ing, every one bearing twins : thy lips are like
“ a thread of scarlet: thy neck like the tower of
“ David built for an armoury, whereon hang a
“ thousand shields of mighty men : thy two breasts
“ like two young roes that are twins, which feed
“ among the lilies : thy eyes like the fish-pools in
“ Hesbon, by the gate of Bath-rabbim : thy nose
“ like the tower of Lebanon, looking toward Da-
“ mascus.” Song of Solomon.
“ Thou art like snow on the heath ; thy hair like
“ the mist of Cromla, when it curls on the rocks
“ and shines to the beam of the west: thy breasts
“ are
COM [361
mparU “ are like swo smooth rocks seen from Branno of the
ton. “ streams : thy arms like, two white pillars in the
“ hall of the mighty Fingal.” FmgaL
It has no good effect to compare things by way of
simile that are of the same kind ; nor to contrast things
of different kinds. The reason is given in the article
above cited on the margin, and shall be here illustra¬
ted by examples. The first is a comparison built upon
a resemblance so obvious as to make little or no im¬
pression. Speaking of the fallen angels searching for
mines of gold :
A numerous brigade hasten’d: as when bands
Of pioneers with spade and pickaxe arm’d,
Forerun the royal camp to trench a field
Or cast a rampart. Milton.
The next is of things contrasted that are of difi'erent
kinds.
Queen. What, is my Richard both in shape and
mind
Transform’d and weak ? Hath Bolingbroke depos’d
Thine intellect ? Hath he been in thy heart ?
The lion, dying, thrusteth forth his paw,
Asd wounds the earth, if nothing else, with rage
To be o’erpower’d : and wilt thou, pupil like,
Take thy correction mildly, kiss the rod,
And fawn on rage with base humility ?
Richard II. Act v. sc. 1.
This comparison has scarce any force: a man and a
lion are of different species, and therefore are proper
subjects for a simile ; but there is no such resemblance
between them in general, as to produce any strong
effect by contrasting particular attributes or circum¬
stances.
A third general observation is, That abstract terms
can never be the subject of comparison, otherwise than
by being personified. Shakespeare compares adversity
to a toad, and slander to the bite of a crocodile $ but
in such comparisons these abstract terms must be ima¬
gined sensible beings.
To have a just notion of comparisons, they must be
distinguished into two kinds j one common and fami¬
liar, as where a man is compared ts a lion in courage,
or to a horse in speed ; the other more distant and re¬
fined, where two things that have in themselves no
resemblance or opposition, are compared with respect
to their effects. There is no resemblance between a
flower-pot and a cheerful song; and yet they may be
compared with respect to their effects, the emotions
they produce in the mind being extremely similar.
There is as little resemblance between fraternal con¬
cord and precious ointment} and yet observe how suc¬
cessfully they are compared with respect to the impres¬
sions they make.
“ Behold, how good and how pleasant it is for
w brethren to dwell together in unity. It is like the
“ precious ointment upon the head, that ran down
“ upon Aaron’s beard, and descended to the skirts
“ of his garment.” Realm 133.
For illustrating this sort of comparison, we shall add
some more examples:
Vol. VL Part I. f
] COM
“ Delightful is thy presence, O Fingal ! it is like Compari-
“ the sun on Cromla, when the hunter mourns his son.
“ absence for a season, and sees him between the v 1 ~
“ clouds.
“ Did not Ossian hear a voice ? or is it the sound
“ of days that are no more? Often, like the evening
“ sun, comes the memory of former times on my
“ soul.
“His countenance is settled from war 5 and is
“ calm as the evening-beam, that from the cloud of
“ the west looks on Cona’s silent vale.” Fingal.
We now proceed to illustrate, by particular instances,
the different means by which comparisons, whether of
the one sort or the other, can afford pleasure ; and, in
the order above established, we shall begin with such
instances as are agreeable, by suggesting some unusual
resemblance or contrast.
Sweet are the uses of Adversity,
Which, like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in her head.
As you like it, Act ii. sc. 1.
See, how the morning opes her golden gates,
And takes her farewel of the glorious sun ;
How well resembles it the prime of youth,
Trimm’d like a yonker prancing to his love.
Second Part Henry VI. Act ii. sc. I.
Thus they their doubtful consultations dark
Ended, rejoicing in their matchless chief:
As when from mountain tops, the dusky clouds
Ascending, while the North-wind sleeps, o’erspread
Heav’n’s cheerful face, the lowering element
Scowls o’er the darken’d landscape, snow, and
shower ;
If chance the radiant sun with farewel sweet
Extends his ev’ning-beam, the fields revive,
The birds their notes renew, and bleating herds
Attest their joy, that hill and valley rings.
Paradise Lost, Book ii.
None of the foregoing similes tend to illustrate the
principal subject, and therefore the chief pleasure they
afford must arise from suggesting resemblances that are
not obvious j for undoubtedly a beautiful subject intro¬
duced to form the simile affords a separate pleasure,
which is felt in the similes mentioned, particularly in
that cited from Milton.
The next effect of a comparison in the order men¬
tioned, is to place an object in a strong point of view ;
which effect is remarkable in the following similes.
As when two scales are charg’d with doubtful loads,
From side to side the trembling balance nods,
(While some laborious matron, just and poor,
With nice exactness weighs her woolly store),
Till pois’d aloft, the resting beam suspends
Each equal weight; nor this nor that descends ;
So stood the war, till Hector’s matchless might,
With fates prevailing, turn’d the scale of fight.
Fierce as a whirlwind up the wall he flies,
And fires his host with loud repeated cries.
Iliad, Book xii. 521.
' —. ' She never told her love ;
But let concealment, like a worm i* th’ bud,
Z z
✓
Feed
COM [362
Feed on her damask cheek : she pin’d in thought $
And with a green and yellow melancholy,
She sat like Patience on a monument,
Smiling at grief. Twelfth Night, Act. ii. sc. 6.
“ There is a joy in grief when peace dwells with
“ the sorrowful. But they are wasted with mourn-
“ ing, O daughter of Toscar, and their days are
“ few. They fall away like the flower on which
“ the sun looks in his strength, after the mildew has
“ passed over it, and its head is heavy with the drops
“ of night.” Fingal.
— Out, out, brief candle !
Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player,
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage,
And then is heard no more.
Macbeth, Act. v. sc. 5.
O thou goodness,
Thou divine nature! how thyself thou blazon’st
In these two princely boys ! they are as gentle
As zephyrs blowing below the violet,
Not wagging his sweet head j and yet as rough
(Their royal blood inchaf’d) as the rudest wind,
That by the top doth take the mountain-pine,
And make him stoop to the vale.
Cymbeline, Act iv. sc. 4.
“ Why did not I pass away in secret, like the
“ flower of the rock that lifts its fair head unseen,
“ and strows its withered leaves on the blast ?”
Fingal.
As words convey but a faint and obscure notion of
great numbers, a poet, to give a lively notion of the
object he describes, with regard to number, does well
to compare it to what is familiar and commonly known.
Thus Homer compares the Grecian army in point of
number to a swarm of bees j in another passage he
compares it to that profusion of leaves and flowers
which appear in the spring, or of insects in a summer’s
evening : And Milton,
"■ ■ '■ ■■ As when the potent rod
Of Amram’s son in Egypt’s evil day
Wav’d round the coast, up call’d a pitchy cloud
Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind,
That o’er the realm of impious Pharaoh hung
Like night, and darken’d all the land of Nile 5
So numberless were those bad angels seen,
Hov’ring on wing under the cope of hell,
’Twixt upper, nether, and surrounding fires.
Paradise Lost, Book i.
Such comparisons have, by some writers, been con¬
demned for the lowness of the images introduced, but
surely without reason ; for with regard to numbers,
they put the principal subject in a strong light.
The foregoing comparisons operate by resemblance y
others have the same effect by contrast.
York. I am the last of noble Edward’s sons,
Of whom thy father, prince of Wales, was first y
In war, was never lion rag’d more fierce j
In peace, was never gentle lamb more mild,
Than was that young and princely gentleman.
His face thou hast, for even so look’d he,
Accomplish’d with the number of thy hours,
] COM
But when he frown’d, it was against the French,
And not against his friends. His noble hand
Hid win what he did spend 5 and spent not that
Which his triumphant father’s hand had won.
His hands were guilty of no kindred’s blood,
But bloody w'ith the enemies of his kin.
Oh Richard, York is too far gone with grief,
Or else he never would compare between.
Richard II. Act ii. sc. 3,
Milton has a peculiar talent in embellishing the prin¬
cipal subject, by associating it with others that are
agreeable; which is the third end of a comparison.
Similes of this kind have, beside, a separate effect :
they diversify the narration by new images that are
not strictly necessary to the comparison j they are
§hort episodes, which, without drawing us from the
principal subject, afford great delight by their beauty
and variety.
He scarce had ceas’d, when the superior fiend
Was moving toward the shore ; his pond’rous shield,
Ethereal temper, massy, large, and round,
Behind him cast: the broad circumference
Hung on his shoulders like the moon, whose orb
Through optic glass the Tuscan artist views
At evening from the top of Fesole.
Or in Valdarno, to descry new lands,
Rivers, or mountains, in her spotty globe.
Milton, Book i,
■ ' Thus far these beyond
Compare of mortal prowess, yet observ’d
Their dread commander. He, above the rest,
In shape and stature proudly eminent,
Stood like a tow’r 5 his form had not yet lost
All her original brightness, nor appear’d
Less than archangel ruin’d, and th’ excess
Of glory obscur’d : as when the sun new-risen
Looks through the horizontal misty air
Shorn of his beams $ or, from behind the moon,
In dim eclipse, disastrous twilight sheds
On half the nations, and with fear of change
Perplexes monarchs. Milton, Book i.
As when a vulture on Imaus bred,
WHiose snowy ridge the roving Tartar bounds,
Dislodging from a region scarce of prey
To gorge the flesh of lambs, or yeanling kids,
On hills where flocks are fed, flies toward the springs
Of Ganges or Hydaspes, Indian streams,
But in his way lights on the barren plains
Of Sericana, where Chineses drive
W7ith sails and wind their cany waggons light:
So on this windy sea of land, the fiend
Walk’d up and down alone, bent on his prey.
Milton, Book iii.
Next of comparisons that aggrandise or elevate.
These affect us more than any other sort $ the reason
of which will be evident from the following instances:
As when a flame the winding valley fills,
And runs on crackling shrubs between the hills,
Then o’er the stubble up the mountain flies,
Fires the high woods, and blazes to the skies,
Tins
COM [
This way and that, the spreading torrent roars 5
So sweeps the hero through the wasted shores.
Around him wide, immense destruction pours,
And earth is delug’d with the sanguine show’rs.
Iliad, xx. 569.
Methinks, King Richard and myself should meet
With no less terror than the elements
Of fire and water, when their thund’ring shock,
At meeting, tears the cloudy cheeks of heaven.
Richard II. Act. iii. sc. 5.
“ As rusheth a foamy stream from the dark shady
“ steep of Cromla, when thunder is rolling above, and
“ dark brown night rests on the hill; so fierce, so vast,
“ so terrible, rush forward the sons of Erin. The
“ chief, like a whale of ocean followed by all its bil-
“ lows, pours valour forth as a stream, rolling its might
“ along the shore.” Fingal, Book i.
“ As roll a thousand waves to a rock, so Swaran’s
“ host came on ; as meets a rock a thousand waves, so
“ Inisfail met Swaran.” Ibid.
The last article mentioned, is that of lessening or
depressing a hated or disagreeable object; which is ef¬
fectually done by resembling it to any thing low or des¬
picable.
Thus Milton, in his description of the rout of the
rebel-angels, happily expresses their terror and dismay
in the following simile :
■■ 1 ... As a herd
Of goats or timorous flock together throng’d,
Drove them before him thunder-struck, pursu’d
With terrors and with furies to the bounds
And crystal wall of heav’n, which op’ning wide,
Roll’d inward, and a spacious gap disclos’d
Into the wasteful deep; the monstrous sight
Struck them with horror backward, but far worse
Urg’d them behind ; headlong themselves they threw
Down from the verge of heav’n. Milton, Book vi.
By this time the different purposes of comparison,
and the various impressions it makes on the mind, are
sufficiently illustrated by proper examples. This was
an easy work. It is more difficult to lay down rules
about the propriety or impropriety of comparisons ;
in what circumstances they may be introduced, and
in what circumstances they are out of place. It is evi¬
dent, that a comparison is not proper upon every occa¬
sion : a man in his cool and sedate moments is not
disposed to poetical flights, nor to sacrifice truth and
reality to the delusive operations of the imagination;
far less is he so disposed when oppressed with care, or
interested in some important transaction that occu¬
pies him totally. On the other hand it is observed,
that a man, when elevated or animated by any pas¬
sion, is disposed to elevate or animate all his subjects ;
he avoids familiar names, exalts objects by circumlo¬
cution and metaphor, and gives even life and voluntary
action to inanimate beings. In this warmth of mind,
the highest poetical flights are indulged, and the
boldest similes and metaphors relished. But without
soaring so high, the mind is frequently in a tone to
relish chaste and moderate ornament; such as com¬
parisons that set the principal object in a strong point
of view, or that embellish and diversify the narration.
363 ] COM
In general, when by any animating passion, whether Compari-
pleasant or painful, an impulse is given to the imagi- son.
nation ; we are in that condition disposed to every >r—
sort of figurative expression, and in particular to com¬
parisons. This in a great measure is evident from
the comparisons already mentioned ; and shall be fur¬
ther illustrated by other instances. Love, for example,
in its infancy, rousing the imagination, prompts the
heart to display itself in figurative language, and in
similes :
Troilus. Tell me, Apollo, for thy Daphne’s love,
What Cressida is, what Pandar, and what we ?
Her bed is India, there she lies a pearl :
Between our Ilium and where she resides,
Let it be call’d the wild and wand’ring flood ;
Ourself the merchant, and this sailing Pandar
Our doubtful hope, our convoy, and our bark.
Troilus and Cressida, Act i. sc. i»
Again :
Come, gentle night; come, loving black-brow’d
night!
Give me my Romeo : and when he shall die,
Take him and cut him out in little stars,
And he will make the face of heav’n so fine,
That all the world shall be in love with night,
And pay no worship to the garish sun.
Romeo and Juliet, Act iii. sc. 4.
But it will be a better illustration of the present
head, to give examples where comparisons are impro¬
perly introduced. Similes are not the language of a
man in his ordinary state of mind, dispatching his
daily and usual work : for that reason the following
speech of a gardener to his servant is extremely im¬
proper :
Go, bind thou up yon dangling apricots,
Which, like unruly children make their sire
Stoop with oppression of their prodigal weight:
Give some supportances to the bending twigs.
Go thou, and, like an executioner,
Cut off the heads of two fast growing sprays,
That look too lofty in our commonwealth:
All must be even in our government.
Richard II. Act iii. sc. 7.
The fertility of Shakespeare’s vein betrays him fre¬
quently into this error.
Rooted grief, deep anguish, terror, remorse, despair,
and all the severe dispiriting passions, are declared ene¬
mies, perhaps not to figurative language in general,
but undoubtedly to the pomp and solemnity of compari¬
son. Upon this account, the simile pronounced by
young Rutland, under terror of death from an invete¬
rate enemy, and praying mercy, is unnatural:
So looks the pent-up lion o’er the wretch
That trembles under his devouring paws;
And so he walks insulting o’er his prey,
And so he comes to rend his limbs asunder.
Ah, gentle Clifford, kill me with thy sword,
And not with such a cruel threat’ning looki
Third Part Henry VI. Act i. sc. 5.
A man spent and dispirited after losing a battle is
not disposed to heighten or illustrate his discourse by
similes.
Z z 2 York.
Z Z 2
COM [ 3<H 1 COM
Com pari- York. With this we charg’d again : but out! alas,
son. We bodg’d again j as I have seen a swan
With bootless labour swim against the tide,
And spend her strength with over-matching waves.
Ah ! hark, the fatal followers do pursue,
And I am faint and cannot fly their fury.
The sands are number’d that make up my life}
Here must I stay, and here my life must end.
Third Part Henry VI. Act. i. sc. 6.
Similes thus unseasonably introduced are finely ridi¬
culed in the Rehearsal.
“ Bayes. Now here she must make a simile.
“ Smith. Where’s the necessity of that, Mr Bayes ?
“ Bayes. Because she’s surprised } that’s a general
“ rule 5 you must ever make a simile when you are sur-
“ prised j ’tis a new way of writing.”
A comparison is not always faultless, even where it
is properly introduced. A comparison, like other hu¬
man productions, may fall short of its end } of which
defect instances are not rare even among good writers :
and to complete the present subject, it will be neces¬
sary to make some observations upon such faulty com¬
parisons. Nothing can be more erroneous than to in¬
stitute a comparison too faint : a distant resemblance or
contrast fatigues the mind with its obscurity, instead of
amusing it } and tends not to fulfil any one end of a
comparison. The’following similes seem to labour un¬
der this defect.
K. Bach. Give me the crown.—Here, cousin,
seize the crown,
Here on this side, my hand } on that side, thine.
Now7 is this golden crown like a deep well,
That owes two buckets, filling one another }
The emptier ever dancing in the air,
The other down, unseen, and full of water }
That bucket down, and full of tears, am I,
Drinking my griefs, whilst you mount up on high.
Bichard II. Act iv. sc. 3.
K. lohn. Oh ! cousin, thou art come to set mine
eye }
The tackle of my heart is crack’d and burnt}
And all the shrouds wherewith my life should sail,
Are turned to one thread, one little hair:
My heart hath one poor string to stay it by,
Which holds but till thy news be uttered.
K. lohn, Act iv. sc. 10.
York. My uncles both are slain in rescuing me :
And all my followers to the eager foe
Turn back, and fly like ships before the wind,
Or lambs pursu’d by hunger-starved wolves.
Third Part Henry VI. Act i. sc. 6.
The latter of the two similes is good : the former,
because of the faintness of the resemblance, produces
no good efleet, and crowds the narration with an useless
image.
In an epic poem, or in any elevated subject, a wri¬
ter ought to avoid raising a simile upon a low image,
which never fails to bring down the principal subject.
In general, it is a rule, that a grand object ought ne¬
ver to be resembled to one that is diminutive, how¬
ever delicate the resemblance may be : for it is the pe¬
culiar character of a grand object to fix the attention, g
and swell the mind ; in which state, it is disagreeable so„
to contract the mind to a minute object, however ele- v—
gant. The resembling an object to one that is greater,
has, on the contrary, a good effect, by raising or swell¬
ing the mind } for one passes with satisfaction from a
small to a great object} but cannot be drawn down,
without reluctance, from great to small. Hence the
following similes are faulty.
Meanwhile the troops beneath Patroclus’ care,
Invade the Trojans, and commence the war.
As wasps, provok’d by children in their play,
Pour from their mansions by the broad highway,
In swarms the guiltless traveller engage,
Whet all their stings, and call forth all their rage }
All rise in arms, and with a general cry
Assert their waxen domes and buzzing progeny :
Thus from their tents the fervent legion swarms,
So loud their clamours, and so keen their arms.
Iliad, xvi. 312.
So burns the vengeful hornet (soul all o’er)
Repuls’d in vain, and thirsty still of gore }
(Bold son of air and heat) on angry wings
Untam’d, untir’d, he turns, attacks, and stings.
Fir’d with like ardour, fierce Atrides flew,
And sent his soul with every lance he threw.
Iliad, xvii. 642.
An error opposite to the former, is the introducing
a resembling image, so elevated or great as to bear
no proportion to the principal subject. Their re¬
markable disparity, being the most striking circum¬
stance, seizes the mind, and never fails to depress the
principal subject by contrast, instead of raising it by
resemblance: and if the disparity be exceeding great,
the simile takes on an air of burlesque : nothing being
more ridiculous than to force an object out of its pro¬
per rank in nature, by equalling it with one greatly
superior or greatly inferior. This will be evident from
the following comparison.
Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring,
So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the spring.
Odyssey, xxi. 51.
Such a simile upon the simplest of all actions, that of
opening a lock, is pure burlesque.
A writer of delicacy will avoid drawing his compa¬
risons from any image that is nauseous, ugly, or re¬
markably disagreeable } for however strong the resem¬
blance may be, more will be lost than gained by such
comparison. Therefore we cannot help condemning,
though with some reluctancy, the following simile, o?
rather metaphor.
O thou fond many ! with what loud applause
Didst thou beat heaven with blessing Bolingbroke
Before he was what thou would’st have him be ?
And now being trimm’d up in thine own desires,
Thou, beastly feeder, are so full of him,
That thou provok’st thyself to cast him up.
And so, thou common dog, didst thou disgorge
Thy glutton bosom of the royal Richard,
And now thou wouldst eat thy dead vomit up,
And howl’st to find it.
Second Part Henry IV. Act. I. sc. 6.
The
COM [ 305 ] COM
jmpaii- strongest objection that can lie against a corn-
son. parison is, that it consists in words only, not in sense.
“"V""—■' Such false coin, or bastard-wit, does extremely well in
burlesque j but it is far below the dignity of the epic,
or of any serious composition.
The noble sister of Poplicola,
The moon of Rome 5 chaste as the icicle
That’s curdl’d by the frost from purest swon,
And hangs on Dian’s temple.
CoriolanuSy Act v. sc. 3.
There is evidently no resemblance between an icicle
and a woman, chaste or unchaste : but chastity is cold
in a metaphorical sense ; and an icicle is cold in a pro¬
per sense ; and this verbal resemblance, in the hurry
and glow of composing, has been thought a sufficient
foundation for the simile. Such phantom similes are
mere witticisms, which ought to have no quarter, ex¬
cept where purposely introduced to provoke laughter.
Lucian, in his dissertation upon history, talking of a
certain author, makes the following comparison, which
is verbal merely.
“ This author’s descriptions are so cold, that they
“ surpass the Caspian snow, and all the ice of the
“ north.”
■ But for their spirits and souls
This word rebellion had froze them up
As fish are in a pond.
Second Part Henry IV. Act i. sc. 3.
Pope has several similes of the same stamp.
And hence one master passion in the breast,
Like Aaron’s serpent, swallows up the rest.
Epist. ii. 131.
And again talking of this same ruling or master pas¬
sion ;
Nature its mother, habit is its nurse :
Wit, spirit, faculties, but make it worse $
Reason itself but gives it edge and pow’r;
As heaven’s blest beam turns vinegar more sour.
Ibid. 145.
Where the subject is burlesque or ludicrous, such
similes are far from being improper. Horace says
pleasantly,
Quanquani tn levior cortice. Lib. iii. od. 9.
And Shakespeare.
In breaking oaths he’s stronger than Hercules.
And this leads to observe, that besides the forego¬
ing comparisons, which are all serious, there is a spe¬
cies, the end and purpose of which is to excite gaiety
or mirth. Take the following examples.
Falstaff speaking to his page :
“ I do here walk before thee, like a sow that hath
“ overwhelmed all her litter but one.”
Second Part Henry IV. Act i. sc. 10.
“ I think he is not a pick-purse, nor a horse-
“ stealer j but for his verity in love, I do think him
“ as concave as a covered goblet, or a worm-eaten
“ nut.” As you like itt Act iii. sc. 10.
This sword a dagger had his page, Com par k
That was but little for his age j son
And therefore waited on him so, II
As dwarfs upon knight-errants do. Compass.
Hudibras, canto 1.
“ Books, like men, their authors, have but one way
“ of coming into the world j but there are ten thou-
“ sand to go out of it, and return no more.”
Tale of a Tub.
“ The most accomplished way of using books at pre-
“ sent is, to serve them as some do lords, learn their
“ titles, and then brag of their acquaintance.”
Ibid.
“ He does not consider, that sincerity in love is as
“ much out of fashion as sweet snuff; nobody takes it
“ now.” Careless Husband.
COMPARTITION, in Architecture, denotes the
useful and graceful disposition of the whole ground-
plot of an edifice, into rooms of office, and of reception
or entertainment.
COMPARTMENT, in general, is a design com¬
posed of several different figures, disposed with symme¬
try, to adorn a parterre, a ceiling, &c.
A compartment of tiles or bricks, is an arrangement
of them, of different colours, and varnished, for the de¬
coration of a building. Compartments in gardening,
are an assemblage of beds, plots, borders, walks, &c.
disposed in the most advantageous manner that the
ground will admit of. Compartments in heraldry, are
otherwise called partitions.
COMPASS, or Mariners Steering Compass, is an
instrument used at sea by pilots to direct and ascertain
the course of their ships. It consists of a circular brass
box, which contains a paper card with the 32 points of
the compass, fixed on a magnetic needle that always
turns to the north, excepting a small declination vari¬
able at different places. See Variation.
The needle with the card turns on an upright pin
fixed in the centre of the box. In the centre of the
needle is fixed a brass conical socket or cap, whereby
the card hanging on the pin turns freely round the
centre.
The top of the box is covered with a glass that the
card’s motion may not be disturbed by the wind. The
whole is enclosed in another box of wood, where it is
suspended by brass hoops or gimbals, to preserve the
card horizontal. The compass-box is to be so placed
in the ship, that the middle section of the box, parallel
to its sides, may be parallel to the middle section of
the ship along its keel.
The compass being of the utmost consequence to
navigation, it is reasonable to expect that the greatest
attention should be paid to its construction, and every
attempt to improve it carefully examined, and if pro¬
per, adopted. But so careless are the generality of
commanders of this most useful instrument, that almost
all the compasses used on board merchant ships have
their needles formed of two pieces of steel wire, each
of which is bent in the middle, so as to form an ob¬
tuse angle ; and their ends being applied together,
make an acute one; so that the whole represents the
form of a lozenge ; in the centre of which, and of
the cards, is placed the brass cap. Now, if we exar
mine
COM [ 366 ] COM
Compass, mine a nnmlier of these cards, we shall rarely, if ever,
“~--v"—' find them all in the same direction, but they will all
vary more or less, not only with regard to the true di¬
rection, but from one another.
These irregularities are owing to the structure of
the needle ; for the wires of which it is composed are
only hardened at the ends ; now if these ends are not
equally hard, or if one end be hardened up higher
than the other, when they come to be put together,
in fixing them to the card, that end which is hardest
will destroy much of the virtue of the other j by which
means the hardest end will have the most power in
directing the card, and consequently make it vary to¬
wards its own direction : and, as the wires are dispo¬
sed in the form of a lozenge, these cards can have but
little force, so that they will often, when drawn aside,
stand at the distance of several degrees on either side
the point from whence they are drawn : for all mag-
netical bodies receive an additional strength by being
placed in the direction of the earth’s magnetism, and
act proportionally less vigorously when turned out of
it 5 wherefore, when these kind of needles are drawn
aside from their true point, two of the parallel sides
of the lozenge will conspire, more directly than be¬
fore, with the earth’s magnetism $ and the other two
will he less in that direction ; by which means the
two sides will very much impede its return j and
the two latter will have that impediment to over¬
come, as well as the friction, by their own force
alone.
To remove these inconveniences, some needles are
made of one piece of steel of a spring temper, and
broad towards the ends, but tapering towards the
middle, where a hole is made to receive the cap. At
the ends they terminate in an angle, greater or less
according to the skill or fancy of the workman. These
needles, though infinitely preferable to the other, are,
however, far from being perfect $ for every needle of
this form hath six poles instead of two, one at each
end, two where it becomes tapering, and two at the
hole in the middle : this is owing to their shape: for
the middle part being very slender, it has not sub¬
stance enough to conduct the magnetic stream quite
through from one end to the other : all these poles
appear^ very distinctly, when examined with a glass
that is sprinkled over with magnetic sand. This cir-
cumstance, however, does not hinder the needle from
pointing true j but as it has less force to move the
card than when the magnetic stream moves in large
curves from one end to the other, it is certainly an im¬
perfection.
^ These inconyeniencies induced the ingenious Dr
Ivnight to contrive a new sea-compas, which came in¬
to use on board all the ships of war. The needle in
this instrument is quite straight, and square at the
ends ; and consequently has only two poles, though
about the hole in the middle the curves are a little
confused. Needles of this construction, after vibra¬
ting a long time, will always point exactly in the
same direction $ and if drawn ever so little on one
side, will return to it again, without any sensible dif¬
ference. We may therefore conclude, that a regular
parallelepiped is the best form for a needle, as well as
the simplest, the holes for the cap being as small as
possible.
And as the weight should be removed to the great- Comn < J
est distance from the centre of motion, a circle of1- t
brass, of the same diameter of the card, may he ad¬
ded, which will serve also to support the card, which
may then be made of thin paper, without any thing
to stiffen it. This ring being fixed below the card,
and the needle above it, the centre of gravity is placed
low enough to admit of the cap being put under the
needle, whereby the hole in the needle becomes unne¬
cessary.
The above observations will be easily understood
from viewing the several parts of the instrument as re¬
presented on Plate CL. where fig. 6. is the card with
the needle KL, and its cap M, fixed upon it, being
one-third of the diameter of the real card. Fig. 8. is
a perspective view of the backside of the card, where
AB represents the turning down of the brass edge, C
the under part of the cap, D and E two sliding weights
to balance the card, and F, G, two screws that fix
the brass edge, &c. to the needle. Fig. J. is the pe¬
destal that supports the card, containing a screwing
needle, fixed in two small grooves to receive it, by
means of the collet C, in the manner of a port-crayon.
D, the stem, is filed into an octagon, that it may be
the more easily unscrewed. For its further illustration
and application to use, see Navigation.
The invention of the compass is usually ascribed to
Flavio da Melfi, or tlavio Gioia, a Neapolitan, about
the year 1302 ; and hence it is, that the territory of
Principato, which makes part of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, where he was born, has a compass for its arms.
Others say that Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, making
a journey to China, brought hack the invention with
him in 1260. What confirms this conjecture is, that
at first they used the compass in the same manner as
the Chinese still do j i. e. they let it float on a little
piece of cork, instead of suspending it on a pivot. It
is added, that their emperor Chiningus, a celebrated
astrologer, had a knowledge of it 1120 years before
Christ. The Chinese only divide their compass into 24
points. Fauchette relates some verses of Guoyot de Pro¬
vence, who lived in France about the year 1200, which
seem to make mention of the compass under the name
of marinette or mariner"1 s stone ; which shew it to have
been used in France near 100 years before either the
Melfite or\enetian. The French even lay claim to
the invention, from the jleur de lys wherewith all na-
tions still distinguish the north point of the card. With
as much reason Dr Wallis ascribes it to the English,
from its name compass, by which name most nations
call it, and which he observes is used in many parts of
England to signify a circle.
Though the mariner’s compass has been long in use,
the best construction of it was attended with many
inconveniences, till the improvements which it re¬
ceived from the invention and experiments of Dr
Knight, and the farther emendation of Mr Smea-
ton.
The compass is sometimes observed to be disturb¬
ed by the electricity of its glass cover 5 and this
from so slight an application of the finger as was
barely necessary to wipe off a little dust. The same
glass, rubbed a little more with the finger, a bit of
muslin, or paper, would attract either end of the needle
so as to hold it to the glass for several minutes, far out
of
COM [ 367 ] COM
>iiipass,
Plate
CLI.
lig- 1
, of the clue direction, according to that part of the
^ glass which was most excited. And when the needle,
after adhering to the glass, has dropped loose, and
made vibrations, those would not be bisected as usual
by that point where the needle should rest, but would
either be made all on one side, or be very unequally
divided, by means of some remains of electrical virtue
in that part of the glass which had attracted the needle,
until at length, after 15 minutes or more, all the elec¬
tricity being discharged, the magnetical power took
place. The remedy for this inconvenience is to moi¬
sten the surface of the glass 5 a wet finger will do it
immediately and effectually. The mariner’s compass
with a chart is much less dangerously moved than the
common compass with a bare needle 5 and the deeper,
or farther distant, the needle hangs below the glass, the
less disturbance it is likely to receive.
Improved sea-compasses have lately been construc¬
ted by Mr M‘Culloch of London, for which he ob¬
tained a patent. The particulars are as follows.
Fig. 1. is a section of the steering compass, a aa aa.
The common wooden box, with its lid. b b. The brass
compass-box. c c, The glass cover to ditto, d d, The
hollow conical bottom, e, The prop upon which the
compass is supported instead of gimbals 5 the spherical
top of which is finely polished, and the apex of the hol¬
low cone is fitted in a peculiar manner to receive it.
f f, A quantity of lead run round the bottom and cone
of the compass-box, to balance and keep it steadily
horizontal, g g. The card and the magnetical needle,
bent in such a manner that the point of the conical
pivot on which it moves and is supported, may be
brought very near to the centre of gravity, as well as
to the centre of motion. 7i A, Two guards, which by
means of two pins t i, affixed to the compass-box, pre¬
vent it from turning round and deceiving the steers¬
man.
Fig. 2. a perspective view of the steering compass,
with the lid off and the front laid open, h h. The
guards. 5, The compass-box. e, The prop, &c. as
in fig. 1.
Fig. 3. a view of the azimuth compass. &, The
compass-box. h. One of the guards, e, The prop,
as in fig. I. and 2, with this difference, that in an azi¬
muth compass, instead of being screwed to the bottom
of the wood-box, it stands in a brass socket, and may
be turned round at pleasure. 1. A brass bar upon which
the sight-vanes are fixed. 2. A dark glass, which moves
up and down on 3, the sight-vane. 4. A magnifying
glass, which is also moveable on the other vane. 5.
The nonius or vernier. 6. A slide for moving the
vernier so as to stop the card in taking the azimuth.
7. A double convex-glass, by which the division on
the vexmier may be read with accuracy.
Fig. 4. is a section representing another application
of the magnetic needle and card, constructed by Mr
McCulloch, a a a a, The common wood-box. b b,
The brass compass-box. c c, The brass support for the
circle and pendulum, d, The pendulum, e, The agate.
ff The magnetic needle and card, g g, The brass
circle, h h, The glass cover and brass ring, z, The
lead weight. N. B. All the centres of motion are in
the same plane.
“ In one particular this patent compass is considered
as an improvement on the common compasses, in as far
as the needle is both longer and broader j hence its Compass,
magnetism must be stronger, and of course the line of—y——•
its magnetic direction correspondent with the card. In
another particular, in order to prevent the motions of
the vessel from affecting the needle, which is the most
desirable object, the patent compass-box, instead of
swinging in gimbals at right angles to each other, i»
supported in its very centre upon a prop 5 and what¬
ever motion the other parts of the box may have, this
centre being in the vertex of the hollow cone, may be
considered as relatively at rest; and therefore gives
little or no disturbance to the needle. Again, the pi¬
vot or centre upon which the needle turns, is so con¬
trived as to stand always perpendicular over the centre
of the compass-box, or apex of the hollow cone, as
upon a fixed point j and is therefore still less affected
by the motions of the vessel. Thus the centres of
motion, gravity, and of magnetism, are brought almost
all to the same point j the advantages of which will be
readily perceived by any person acquainted wdth me¬
chanical principles.” M'CuIIqcJi's Account.
The following is a description of Dr Knight’s azi¬
muth compass, with the improvements of Mr Smeaton.
Plate CLI. fig. 6. is a perspective view of the com¬
pass, when in order for observation; the point of
view being the centre of the card, and the distance
of the eye two feet. AB is the wooden box. C and
D are two milled nuts ; by means whereof the axes of
the inner box and ring are taken from their edges on
which they move, and the friction increased, when
necessary. EF is the ring that supports the inner box.
GH is the inner box ; and I is one of its axes, by
which it is suspended on the ring EF. The magnet
or needle appears passing through the centre together
with a small brace of ivory, that confines the cap to its
place. The card is a single varnished paper, reaching
as far as the outer circle of figures, which is a circle of
thin brass; the edge whereof is turned down at right
angles to the plane of the card, to make it grow stiff.
O is a catgut line, drawn down the inside of the box,
for determining the degree upon a brass edge. FQRS
is the index bar, with its two stiles and catgut threads \
which being taken off from the top of the box, is
placed in two pieces, T and V, notched properly to
receive it. W is a place cut out in the wood, serving
as a handle.
The use of the azimuth compass is for finding the
sun’s magnetical azimuth, or amplitude j and thence the
variation of the compass. If the observation be for an
amplitude at sun-rising, or for an azimuth before noon,
apply the centre of the index on the west point of the
card, within the box j so that the four lines on the
edge of the card, and those on the inside of the box,
may meet. If the observation be for the sun’s am¬
plitude setting, or an azimuth in the afternoon, turn .
the centre of the index right against the east point of
the card, and make the lines within the box concur
with those on the card: the instrument thus fitted
for observation, turn the index b c towards the sun, till
the shadow of the thi’ead a e fall directly on the slit of
the sight, and on the line that is along the middle ol
the index : then will the inner edge ot the index cut
the degree and minute of the sun’s magnetical azimuth
from the north or south. But note, that if, when the
compass is thus placed, the azimuth is less than 540
from
COM
[ 368 ] COM
Compass, from the sooth, ami the index turned towards the sun,
it will pass oft the divisions of the limb : the instrument
therefore in this case must be turned just a quarter of
the compass, i. e. the centre of the index must be
placed on the north or south point of the card, accord¬
ing as the sun is from you ; and then the edge will cut
the degree of the magnetic azimuth, or the sun’s azi¬
muth, from the north as before.
The sun’s magnetical amplitude thus found, the va*
riation of the needle is thus determined. Being out
at sea the 15th of May, 1717 in 450 north latitude,
the tables gave me the sun’s latitude 190 north, and
his east amplitude 270 25' north $ by the azimuth com¬
pass, I find the sun’s magnetical amplitude at his rising
and setting j and find he rises, e. gr. between the 62d
and 63d degree, reckoning from the north towards the
east point of the compass, i. e. between the 27th and
28th degree, reckoning from the east. The magneti¬
cal amplitude, therefore, being here equal to the true
one, the needle has no variation j but if the sun at his
rising should have appeared between the 52d and 53d
degree from the north towards the east, his magnetical
amplitude would then have been between 37 and 38
degrees, i. e. about ten degrees greater than the true
amplitude : therefore the needle would vary about 10
degrees north-easterly. If the magnetical east ampli¬
tude found by the instrument should be less than the
true amplitude, their difference would show the varia¬
tion of the needle easterly. If the true east amplitude
be southward, as also the magnetical amplitude, and
this last be the greater j the variation of the needle
will be north-west j and vice versa.
What has been said of north-east amplitudes holds
also of south-west; and what of south-east amplitudes
holds of north-west. Lastly, if amplitudes be found
of different denominations, e. gr. if the true amplitude
be six degrees north, and the magnetical amplitude be
six degrees south ; the variation, which in this case is
north-west, will be equal to the sum of the magnetical
and true amplitudes j understand the same for west am¬
plitudes.
The variation may likewise be found from the azi¬
muth : but in that case the sun’s declination, latitude
of the place, and bis altitude, must be given, that his
true azimuth may be found.
This instrument is also useful for settling the ship’s
wake, in order to find the leeway j and also to find the
bearings of headlands and other objects.
Experience evinces, that the needle of a compass,
like every other magnet, whether natural or artificial,
continually loses something of its magnetic powers,
which frequently produces a difference of more than a
point; and we may venture to assert, that the great
errors in ships reckonings more commonly originate
from the incorrectness of the compass than from any
other cause.
Steel cannot be too highly tempered for the needle
of a sea-compass, as the more it is hardened, the more
permanent is the magnetism it receives $ but to pre¬
serve the magnetism, and of course the polarity of the
needle, it should be cased with thin, well-polished, soft
iron. It has been found by repeated experiments, that
the cased needle preserves its magnetism in a more
perfect degree than a needle not cased j and perhaps
the magnetic power of the cased needle may increase,
while that of the uncased needle loses of its polarity.
This is not an opinion hastily adopted, but the result
of a fair and judicious trial, as the gentleman from
whom the above observations were in substance taken,
placed a cased and uncased needle in a room for three
months, having at first exactly the same direction, and
about the same degree of force. At the end of this
period it was found that the cased needle had not in
the least changed its direction, while the uncased had
varied two degrees, and its magnetic power was consi¬
derably diminished.
These remarks have the air of novelty, and may per¬
haps contribute to tbe improvement of the compass.
But the defects of this instrument are not confined to
the needle. The heaviest brass compasses are not to
he implicitly trusted in a hollow or high sea, as they
have the box banging in two brass rings, thus allow¬
ing it to have only two motions, both vertical and at
right angles with each other j by which confinement
of the box, upon any succussion, particularly sudden
ones, the card is always too much agitated, and before
it can recover itself, another jerk prevents it from
pointing to tbe pole. It is even not uncommon to see
the card unshipped by the violence of the ship’s pitch-
ing.
All these defects are abundantly supplied by giving
the box a vertical motion at every degree and minute
of tbe circle, and combining these motions with a ho¬
rizontal one of the box as well as of the card. By this
disposition of the box, the effects of the jerks on the
card are avoided, and it will always with steadiness
point to the pole. Mr Bernard Homans found by ex¬
perience, that the card not only is not in the smallest
degree affected by the hollow sea, but that, in all the
violent shocks and whirlings which it is possible for the
box to receive, the card lies as still as in a room unaf¬
fected by the least motion.
A compass was recently invented and made in Hol¬
land having all these motions. It is about the size of
the brass compass commonly used. The bottom of the
brass box, instead of being shaped like a bowl, must
be a bollow cone resembling the bottom of a common
glass bottle j the vertex of it must be raised so high as
to leave only one inch between the card and the glass j
the box must be of the usual depth, and a quantity of
lead must be poured in tbe bottom of the box, round
the base of the cone, which secures it on the stile where¬
on it traverses.
This stile is firmly fixed in the centre of a square
wooden box, like the common compass, but with a
thicker bottom. The stile is made of brass about six
inches long, round, and one-third of an inch thick,
having its head blunt like that of a sewing thimble,
and of a fine polish, and placed perpendicular. The
inner vertex of the cone must likewise be well polish¬
ed. The vertical part of the cone ought to be suffi¬
ciently thick to allow a well-polished cavity for hold¬
ing a short stile, proceeding from the centre of the
card on which it traverses. “ The compass I saw.
Compaq,
(says Mr Romans), was so constructed j but I see no
reason why the style might not proceed from the centre
of the vertex of the cone, and so be received by the
card the common way. The needle must be a mag¬
netic
COM [ 369 ] COM
rpas*. netic £>ar> blunt at each end ; the glass and cover are
-v——' put on in the common way.”
The above gentleman informs us, that a similar com¬
pass was submitted to his inspection by the captain of
a sloop of war, who declared, that during a hard gale
of some days continuance, he had no other compass
that was of the smallest use. In the opinion of Mr
Romans the account was not exaggerated j in which
conclusion we are disposed to join issue with him.
Yet Mr Nicholson in his interesting journal is of an
opposite sentiment, who believes that the compass is
very little disturbed by tilting the box on one side, but
very much by sudden changes of place in a horizontal
direction j that provision made against the latter in a
scientific manner is the chief requisite in a well con¬
structed instrument of this nature 5 and that no other
provision is necessary than good workmanship agree¬
ably to the common construction, and properly adjust¬
ing the weight respecting the centres and axes of sus¬
pension. He conceives it will improve the compass
very much to make the needle flat and thin, and to
suspend it, not in the common way, with its flat side,
but with its edge uppermost; for, as it is known that
hard steel retains its magnetism longer than soft, it
follows that, except both sides of a needle be equally
hard, the magnetic virtue will incline towards the hard¬
er side in process of time.
The Chinese compass has some advantages over the Eu¬
ropean, from which it differs in the length of the needle,
and the manner of its suspension. The needle of the
Chinese seldom exceeds an inch in length, and is scarce¬
ly a line in thickness. It is poised with great nicety,
and is remarkably sensible. This is effected by the fol¬
lowing contrivance.
A piece of thin copper is strapped round the centre
of the needle. This copper is rivetted by its edges to
the upper part of a small hemispherical cup of the same
metal, turned downwards. The cup thus inverted
serves as a socket to receive a steel pivot rising from a
cavity made in a round piece of light wood or cork,
which forms the compass-box. The surfaces of the
socket and pivot, intended to coincide, are highly po¬
lished, to prevent friction as much as possible. The
cup has a proportionably broad margin, which not
only adds to its weight, but from its horizontal posi¬
tion tends to keep the centre of gravity, in every situa¬
tion of the compass, nearly coinciding with the centre
of suspension. The cavity in which the needle is sus¬
pended, is circular, and little more than capable to
remove the needle, cup and pivot. A thin piece of
transparent talc is placed over the cavity, which hin¬
ders the needle from being affected by the motion of
the external air j but allows the apparent motion of
the former to be easily observed. The small short
needle of the Chinese has a singular advantage over
those commonly used in Europe, in respect of the dip
towards the horizon j which, in the latter, requires
that one extremity of the needle should be made so
much heavier than the other as will sufficiently counter¬
act the magnetic attraction. This being different in
different parts of the world, the needle can only he
accurately true at the place for which it has been con¬
structed. But in short and light needles, suspended
after the Chinese manner, the weight below the point
of suspension is more than sufficient to overcome the
VOL. VI. Part I. +
magnetic dip in all situations of the globe $ and conse- Compas*.
quently such needles will never deviate from their ho- v"™1—>
rizontal position.
Compass is also an instrument of considerable use in
surveying land, dialing, &c.
Its structure, in the main, is the same with that of
the mariner’s compass ; consisting like that of a box and
needle : the principal difference consists in this, that
instead ot the needle’s being fitted into the card, and
playing with it on a pivot, it here plays alone 5 the card
being drawn on the bottom of the box, and a circle di¬
vided into 360 degrees on the limb. See fig. 5. This Plate CL.
instrument is of obvious use to travellers, to direct them % 5-
in their road j and to miners, to show them what way
to dig, with other considerable uses.
1. To take the declination of a wall by the Compass.
Apply that side of the compass whereon the north is
marked along the side of the rvall j the number of de¬
grees over which the north end of the needle fixes
will be the declination of the wall, and on that side ;
e. gr. if the north point of the needle tends towards the
north, that wall may be shone on by the sun at noon $
if it fix over fifty degrees, counting from the north to¬
wards the east, the declination is so many degrees from
north towards east.
But since the needle itself declines from the north
towards the west, with us, 130 ; it must be noted, that
to retrieve the irregularity, 130 are alw'ays to be added
to the degrees shown by the needle, when the declina¬
tion of the wall is towards the east ; on the contrary,
when the declination is towards the west, the declina¬
tion of the needle is to be subtracted.
2. To take an angle with the Compass. Suppose the
angle required he 1)AE, fig. 4. apply that side of thejrjg. 4.
compass whereon the north is marked to one of the
lines AD : when the needle rests, observe the degrees
at which its north point stands, which suppose 80 : so
many degrees does the line decline from the meridian.
In the same manner take the declination of the line
AE, which suppose 2150; subtract 8o° from 2150,
the remainder ^135°; which subtracted from 180°,
there will remain 450 ; the quantity of the angle re¬
quired. But if the difi’erence between the declination
of the two lines exceed 180* j in that case, 1800 must
be subtracted from that difference ; the remainder then
is the angle required.
In measuring angles by the compass, there needs
not any regard be had to the variation j that being sup¬
posed the same in all the lines of the angles.
3. To take a plot of a field by the Compass. Suppose
the field A, B, C, D, E, fig. 10. 5 for the greater ac- pig. 10.
curacy let there be two sights fitted to the meridian line
of the compass; place it horizontally, and through
the sights look along the side AB, or a line parallel to
it; applying the eye to the sight at the south point of
the compass. Draw a rough sketch of the field by the
eye, and on the corresponding line enter down the de¬
gree to which the needle points, which suppose 90° ;
measure the length of the side, and enter that too,
which suppose 10 chains.
In this manner proceed with all the rest of the sides
and angles of the field ; the sides, which suppose 70,
65, 70, 44, 50 fathom ; and the angles, which sup¬
pose 30, 100, 130, 240, 300 degrees. To protract
the field, set down the several angles observed, one
3 A after
COM [ 3?o ] COM
Compass, after another, and subtract the lesser from the next
Compasses, greater : thus will you have the quantity of the several
angles, and the length of the lines that include them.
For the rest, see Geometry.
Note. All the angles of the figure taken together,
must make twice as many right angles j abating two if
no mistake has been committed.
Azimuth Compass. See Azimuth.
CoMPASs-Dials, are small horizontal dials, fitted in
brass or silver boxes, for the pocket, to show the hour
of the day, by the direction of a needle that indicates
how to place them right, by turning the dial about till
the cock or style stands directly over the needle ; but
these can never be very exact, because of the variation
of the needle itself. See Compass and Dialing.
COMPASSES, or Pair of Compasses, a mathe¬
matical instrument for describing circles, measuring
figures, &c.
The common compasses consist of two sharp-pointed
branches or legs of iron, steel, brass, or other metal,
joined together at the top by a rivet, whereon they
move as on a centre. Those compasses are of the best
sort in which the pin or axle on which the joint turns,
and also half the joint itself, is made of steel, as the
opposite metals wear more equably. The perfection of
them may be known by the easy and uniform opening
and shutting of their legs ; one of which is sometimes,
made to take in and out, in order to make room for
two other points to describe with ink, black-lead or
other materials.
There are now used compasses of various kinds and
contrivances, accommodated to the various uses they
are intended for •, as,
Compasses of three legs, or Triangular Compasses,
are, setting aside the excess of a leg, of the same
structure with the common ones j their use being to
take three points at once, and so to form triangles j
to lay down three positions of a map, to be copied at
once, &c.
Beam-CoMPAssES consist of a long branch, or beam,
made of brass or wood, carrying two brass cursors, the
one fixed at one end, the other sliding along the beam,
with a screw to fasten it occasionally. To the cursors
may be screwed points of any kind, whether steel for
pencils, or the like. It is used to draw large circles,
to take great extents, &c. To the fixed cursor is
sometimes applied an adjusting or micrometer screw,
by which an extent is obtained to extreme nicety. Mr
Jones of Hoi born has made beam-compasses to adjust
to the °f an inch.
Calibre-Compasses. See Caliber.
Clockmaker's Compasses are joined like the com¬
mon compasses, with a quadrant, or bow, like the spring
compasses 5 only of different use, serving here to keep
the instrument firm at any opening. They are made
very strong, with the points of their legs of well tem¬
pered steel, as being used to draw lines on pasteboard
or copper.
Cylindrical and Spherical Compasses, consist of four
branches, joined in a centre, two of which are circular,
and two flat, a little bent on the ends : their use is to
take the diameter, thickness, or caliber of round or
cylindric bodies ; such as cannons, pipes, &c.
plate CL. Elliptic Compasses. Their use is to draw ellipses,
% 9. or ovals of any kind : they consist of a beam AB
3
about a foot long, bearing three cursors j to one of Compaq
which may be screwed points of any kind : to the hot--y«~«
tom of the other two are rivetted two sliding dove-tails,
adjusted in grooves made .in the cross branches of the
beam. The dove-tails having a motion every way by
turning about the long branch, go backwards and for¬
wards along the cross ; so that when the beam has gone
half-way about, one of these will have moved the whole
length of one of the branches 5 and when the beam has
got quite round, the same dove-tail has got back the
whole length of the branch. Understand the same of
the other dove-tail.
Note. The distance between the two sliding dove¬
tails is the distance between the two foci of the ellipsis j
so that by changing that distance, the ellipsis w'ill be
rounder or slenderer. Under the ends of the branches
of the cross are placed four steel points to keep it fast.
The use of this compass is easy j by turning round
the long branch, the ink, pencil, or other point, will
draw the ellipsis required. Its figure shows both its
use and construction.
German Compasses have their legs a little bent out¬
wards, towards the top; so that when shut, the points
only meet.
Hair Compasses are so contrived within side, by a
small adjusting screw to one of the legs, as to take an
extent to a hair’s breadth.
Lapidary's Compasses are a piece of wood, in form
of the shaft of a plane, cleft at top, as far as half its
length j with this they measure the angles, &c. of
jewels and precious stones, as they cut them. There
is in the cleft a little brass rule, fastened there at one
end by a pin •, but so that it may be moved in the man¬
ner of a brass level : with this kind of square they take
the angles of the stones, laying them on the shaft as
they cut them.
Proportional Compasses sre those whose joint lies
between the points terminating each leg: they are
either simple or compound. In the former sort the
centre is fixed, so that one pair of these serves only for
one proportion.
Compound propoj'tional Compasses consist of two piate ci
parts or sides of brass, which lie upon each other so fig. 6.
nicely as to appear but one when they are shut. These
sides easily open, and move about a centre, which is
itself moveable in a hollow canal cut through the great¬
est part of their length. To this centre on each side
is affixed a sliding piece A of a small length, with a fine
line drawn on it serving as an index, to be set against
other lines or divisions placed upon the compasses on
both sides. These lines are, I. A line of lines. 2. A
line of superfices, areas, or planes. 3. A line of solids.
4. A line of circles, or rather of polygons to be in¬
scribed in circles. These lines are all unequally di¬
vided ; the three first from 1 to 20, the last from 6 to
20. Their uses are as follow :
By the line of lines you divide a given line into any
number of equal parts ; for by placing the index A
against 1, and screwing it fast, if you open the com¬
passes, then the distance between the points at each end
will be equal. If you place the index against 2, and
open the compasses, the distance between the points of
the longer legs BB, will be twice the distance be¬
tween the shorter ones CC; and thus a line is bisected,
or divided into two equal parts. If the index be placed
against
C O i X l N (i.
CY
F!. j_ Vfi fc// <
C O M P A S S
/V^yyrivz/.
COM- . C 37
against 3, and the compasses opened ; the distance be¬
tween the points will be as 3 to 1, and §0 a line is di¬
vided into 3 equal parts j and so you proceed for any
other number of parts under 10.
The numbers of the line of planes answer to the
squares of those in the line of lines ; for because super-
fices or planes are to each other as the squares of their
like sides 5 therefore, if the index be placed against
2 in the line of planes, the distance between the
small point will be the side of a plane whose area is
one ; but the distance of the larger points will be the
like side of a plane whose area is two *, or twice as
large. If the index be placed at 3, and the compasses
opened, the distances between the points at each end
will be the like side of planes whose areas are as I to
3 ; and so of others.
The numbers of the line of solids answer to the
cubes of those of the line of lines ; because all solids
are to each other as the cubes of their sides or diame¬
ters ; therefore, if the index be placed to number 2, 3, 4,
Sec. in the line of solids, the distance between the les¬
ser and larger points will be the like sides of solids,
which are to each other as 1 to 2, I to 3, 1 to 4, &c.
For example j If the index be placed at 10, and the
compasses be opened so that the small points may take
the diameter of a bullet whose weight is one ounce,
the distance between the large points will be the dia¬
meter of a bullet or globe of 10 ounces, or which is 10
times as large.
Lastly, The numbers in the line of circles are the
sides of polygons to be inscribed in a given circle, or
by which a circle may be divided into the equal parts,
from 6 to 20. Thus, if the index be placed at 6,
the points of the compasses at either end, when opened
to the radius of a given circle, will contain the side
of a hexagon, or divide the circle into six equal
parts. If the index be placed against 7, and the com¬
passes opened so that the larger points may take in the
radius of the circle, then the shorter points will divide
the circle into seven equal parts for inscribing a hep¬
tagon. Again, placing the index to 8, and opening
the compasses, the larger points will contain the radius,
and the lesser points divide the circle into eight equal
parts for inscribing an octagon or square. And thus
you may proceed for others.
Proportional Compasses with the sector lines. The
structure of these is so like that of the common propor¬
tional compasses, only a little nicer, that it needs no
particular description. The lines on the first face are
the line of lines, marked lines; it is divided into ICO
equal parts, every tenth numbered ; and the line of
chords, which goes to 6o°, is marked chords. On- the
other face are a line of sines to 900, and a line of
tangents to 450. On one side are the tangents from
450 to 710 34'$ on the other, secants from 0° to
7o# 30'.
For the use of these compasses: 1. To divide a line
into any number of equal parts less than ico: divide
ICO by the number of parts required j slip the cursor till
the line on the sliding dove-tail be against the quotient
on the line of lines : then, the whole line being taken
between the points of the compasses most remote from
the centre, the aperture of the other will show the di¬
vision required. 2. A right line given, supposed to he
divided into 100 parts, to take any number of those
1 i COM
parts j slip the line on the sliding dove-tail to the num* Compasses,
ber of parts required : the whole line being taken be- --y— ■■■*
tween the points farthest from the centre, the aperture
of the other two will include the number of divisions
required. 3. The radius being given, to find the
chord of any other under 6o0j slip the line on the slid¬
ing dove-tail to the degrees required on the line of
chords: the radius being taken between the points far¬
thest from the centre of the cursor 5 the aperture of
the other line will be the chord required, provided the
number of degrees be greater than 29 : if it be less,
the aperture taken from the radius will leave the chord
required. 4. If the chord of an arch under 6o° be
given, and the radius required ; slip the line on the
dove-tail to the degrees given on the line of chords :
the given chord being taken between the two points
next the cursor, the aperture of the other will be the
radius required. 5. The radius being given, to find
the sine of any number of degrees j slip the line on
the dove-tail to the degree on the line of sines whose
sine is required : the radius taken between the points
furthest from the cursor, the aperture of the other will
give the sine of the angle required. But if the sine
sought be less than 30°, the difference of the apertures
of the opposite points will be the sine required. 6. The
radius being given, to find the tangent of any number
of degrees under 71 $ if the tangent required be under
26° 30', then slip the line on the dove-tail to the de¬
gree proposed on the tangent line $ the radius taken
between the points farthest from the cursor, the aper¬
ture of the others will be the tangent of the degrees
required 5 if the tangent required be above 26° 30',
but under 450, the line on the cursor must be slipped
to the degrees given on the tangent line ; then the ra¬
dius being taken between the points furthest from the
cursor, the aperture of the others will be the tangent;
If the tangent required be greater than 45*, but less
than 56° 20', slip the notch on the tangent-side of the
turned-cheek to the degree o in the tangent line on
the side of the compass $ the radius taken between the
points furthest from the cursor j the difference between
the aperture of the other and these, added together,
will be the tangent required. Thus, for the tangents
of the degrees under 71. After the like manner
may the secant of any number of degrees under 71 be
found.
Mr Heath, a mathematical instrument-maker in
London, constructed a pair of proportional compasses,
in 1746, with a curious and useful contrivance for pre¬
venting the shorter legs from changing their position,
when these compasses were used. It consisted of a
•mall beam soldered to a screw, and running parallel to
the leg of the compasses nearly of the length of the
groove } in this beam a slit was made, which admitted
of a sliding-nut, the other end of which fell into a hole
in the bottom of the screw, belonging to the great nut
of the compasses. The screw-pin of the beam passed
through an adjuster, by means of which the mark on
the slider might be brought exactly to any division.
But the proportional compasses have been much out of
use since the invention of the sector.
Spring Compasses, or dividers; those with an
arched head, which by its spring opens the legs j the
opening being directed by a circular screw fastened to
one of the legs and let through the other, worked
3 A 2 ivith
COM L 372 ] COM
Compasses a nu^ These compasses are made of hardened
|| steel. \
Competi- Trisecting Compasses consist of two central rules,
, tl0i1, and an arch of circles of 120 degrees, immoveable,
with its radius, which is fastened with one of the
central rules like the two legs of a sector that the cen¬
tral rule may be carried through all the points of the
circumference or the arch. The radius and rule should
be as thin as possible : and the rule fastened to the ra¬
dius should be hammered cold, to attain the greater
elasticity ; and the breadth of the central rule should
be triple that of the radius ; there must also be a groove
in this rule, with a dove-tail fastened on it for its mo¬
tion, and a hole in the centre of each rule. The use
of this instrument is to facilitate the trisection of angles
geometrically ; and it is said to have been invented by
M. Targen lor that purpose.
Turn-vp-CoMPASSES. The body of this instrument
is like the common compasses ; but towards the bottom
of the legs, without-side, are added two other points
besides the usual ones •, the one whereof carries a
drawing pen point, and the other a port-crayon, both
- adjusted so as to turn round, and be in the way of use,
or out of it, as occasion requires. These compasses
have been contrived to save the trouble of changing
the points.
COMPASSION, or Commiseration, in Ethics, a
mixed passion compounded of love and sorrow, and
excited by the sight or recital of distress. Hobbes
makes this a merely selfish passion, and defines it as be¬
ing fear for ourselves ; Hutcheson resolves it into in¬
stinct 5 but Hr Butler, much more properly, considers
, compassion as an original, distinct, particular affection
in human nature.
COMPATIBLE, something that may suit or con¬
sist with another. See INCOMPATIBLE.
COMPEIGNE, a handsome town of France, in
the department of Oise, with a palace or castle,
where the king often resided. The maid of Orleans
was taken prisoner here in 1430. It is seated on the
river Oise, near a large forest. E. Long. 2. 5 C. N.
Lat. 49. 2j. It stands about 45 miles north-east of
Paris.
COMPENDIUM, in matters of literature, denotes
much the same as epitome or abridgement. See A-
BR ID CEMENT.
COMPENSATION, in a general sense, an action
whereby any thing is admitted as an equivalent to
another.
Compensation, in Law. When the same person is
debtor and creditor to another, the mutual obligations,
if they are for equal sums, are extinguished by com¬
pensation ; it lor unequal, the lesser obligation is ex¬
tinguished, and the greater diminished, as far as the
concourse of debt and credit goes.
COMPETENCE, or Competency, in a general
sense, such a quantity of any thing as is sufficient.
Competency, in Law, the right or authority of a
judge, whereby he takes cognizance of any thing.
COMPETENTES, an order of catechumens, in
the primitive Christian church, being the immediate
candidates for baptism. See Catechumen.
COMPETITION, in a general sense, is the same
with rivalship, or when two or more persons contend for
the same thing.
Competition, in Scots Law. In escheats, see Law v
Part III. N° clxvi. 17, &c. In confirmations by the ^oif "
superior, in resignations, and in personal rights of t|
lands, ibid, clxviii. 5—9. In inhibitions, in adjudica- c°ll|pkx.
tion, amongst assignees, arresters, and poinders, ibid. ’ ”
clxxi. 6. clxxii. 3. clxxvii. 2. clxxviii. 8, 9, 10. A-
mongst creditors of a defunct, clxxxi. 19.
COMPETALIA, or Competalita, feasts held
among the ancients in honour of the lares. The word
conies from the Latin, compitum, a cross-way j because
the feast was held in the meeting of several roads.
The competalia are more ancient than the building
of Rome. Dionysius Halicarnasseus, and Pliny, in¬
deed say, they were instituted by Servius Tullius 5 but
this only signifies that they were then introduced into
Rome. The feast being moveable, the day whereon
it was to be observed was proclaimed every year. It
was ordinarily held on the 4th of the nones of Fe¬
bruary, i. e. cn the second of that month. Macrobius
observes, that they were held not only in honour
of the lares, but also of mania, madness. The priests
who officiated at them were slaves and liberti, and
the sacrifice a sow. They were re-established, after
a long neglect, by Tarquin the Proud, on occasion
of an answer of the oracle, that they should sacrifice
heads for heads; i. e. that for the health and prospe¬
rity of each family, children W’ere to be sacrificed :
but Brutus, after expelling the kings, in lieu of those
barbarous victims substituted the heads of garlic and
poppy \ thus satisfying the oracle which had enjoined
capita, heads. During the celebration of this feast,
each family placed at the door of their house the
statue of the goddess Mania : they also hung up at
their doors figures of wool, representing men and wo¬
men ; accompanying them with supplications that the
lares and mania would be contented with those figures,
and spare the people of the house.
COMPLEMENT, in Geometry, is what remains
of the quadrant of a circle, or 90°, after any certain
arch has been taken away from it. Thus, if the arch
taken away be 40°, its complement is 50 j because
50-f-40=90. The sine of the complement of an arch
is called the cosine, and that of the tangent the co¬
tangent, &c.
COMPLETES FLOS, in Botany. A flower is said
to be complete, which is provided with both the co¬
vers, viz. the calyx or flower-cup, and the petals. The
term was invented by Vailiant, and is synonymous with
calycidatus jlos in Linnseus. Berkenhout erroneously
confounds it with the auctus and calyculatus calyx of
the same author.
COMPLEX, in a more general sense, a ternq syno¬
nymous with compound ; though in strictness of speech
there is some difference.
Complex is properly applied where a thing contains
many others, or consists of different parts not really di¬
stinct from each other, but only imaginarily, or in
our conceptions. In this sense the soul may be said to
be complex, in respect of the understanding and will,
which are two things that our reason alone distinguishes
in it.
Complex Term, or Idea, is a term compounded of
several simple or incomplex ones. Thus, in the proposi¬
tion, a just God cannot leave crimes unpunished; the
subject of this proposition, viz, a just God, is a com¬
plex
2
COM [ 373 ] COM
implex, p^x term, or stands for a complex idea composed of
implex- two simple or incomplex ones, viz. God nn&just.
ion. COMPLEXION, among physicians, the tempera-
”v"~; ment, habitude, and natural disposition, of the body $
but more often the colour of the face and skin.
Few questions in philosophy have engaged the at¬
tention of naturalists more than the diversities among
the human species, among which that of colour is the
most remarkable. The great differences in this respect
have given occasion to several authors to assert, that
the whole human race have not sprung from one origi¬
nal j but that as many different species of men were at
first created as there are now different colours to be
found among them. Under the article America, N° 8i
-—IOO, we have shown that all the arguments which
can be brought for specific differences among man¬
kind, whether drawn from a difference of colour, sta¬
ture, or disposition, must necessarily be inconclusive.
It remains, however, a matter of no small difficulty to
account for the remarkable variations of colour that
are to be found among different nations. On this sub¬
ject Dr Hunter has published a thesis, in which he
considers the matter more accurately than has com¬
monly been done, and determines absolutely against
any specific difference among mankind. He introduces
his subject by observing, that when the question has
been agitated, whether all the human race constituted
only one species or not, much confusion has arisen from
the sense in which the term species has been adopted.
He therefore thinks it necessary to set out with a defi¬
nition of the term. He includes under the same spe¬
cies all those animals which produce issue capable of
propagating others resembling the original stock from
whence they sprung. This definition he illustrates by
having recourse to the human species as an example.
And in this sense of the term he concludes, that all of
them are to be considered as belonging to the same
species. And as, in the case of plants, one species
comprehends several varieties depending upon climate,
soil, culture, and similar accidents j so he considers the
diversities of the human race to be merely varieties of
the same species, produced by natural causes. Of the
different colours observable among mankind, he gives
the following view :
Black. Africans under the line.
Inhabitants of New Guinea.
Inhabitants of New Holland.
Swarthy. The Moors in the northern parts of
Africa.
The Hottentots in the southern parts
of it.
Copper coloured. The East Indians.
Red coloured. The Americans.
Brown coloured. Tartars.
Persians.
Arabs.
Africans on the coast of the
Mediterranean.
Chinese.
Brownish. The inhabitants of the southern parts
of Europe ; as Sicilians, and Spa¬
niards ; as well as the Abyssinians
in Africa.
Brownish. Turks, and likewise the Samoiedes and Complex-
Laplanders. i°u*
White. Most of the European nations 5 as v
Swedes,
Danes,
English,
Germans,
Poles, &c.
Kabardinski,
Georgians,
Inhabitants of the islands in the Pacific
ocean.
In attempting to investigate the causes of these dif¬
ferences, our author observes, that there can be no
dispute of the seat of colour being placed in the skin j
that it is not even extended over the whole of this,
but confined to that part named the cuticle, consisting
of the epidermis and reticulum $ and that it chiefly
occupies the latter of these. The cuticle is much
thicker and harder in black people than in white ones 5
the reticulum in the latter being a thin mucus, in the
former a thick membrane. He concludes that this
seat of colour in whites is transparent, and either to¬
tally deprived of vessels, or only furnished with very
few j as the yellow colour appearing in jaundice va¬
nishes on the cause of the disease being removed j
which is not the case with stains in the cuticle from
gunpowder, or similar causes. He next points out
three causes destroying the pellucidity of the cuticle,
giving it a brown colour, and rendering it thicker.
These are, access of air, nastiness, and the heat of the
sun. The influence of each of these he proves by
many examples 5 and from them he is inclined to con¬
sider the last as by much the most powerful. If, how¬
ever, it be admitted that these causes have this effect,
he thinks that all the diversity of colour which is to
be observed among mankind, may be thus accounted
for. He remarks, that all the inhabitants of the tor¬
rid zone incline more or less to a black colour. W hen -
we observe the differences which occur among them,
we must at the same time remember that a black co¬
lour is not referred to heat alone, but to the other
causes also : and when we attend to the diversity of
temperature that occurs even in the torrid zone, the
existence of a white nation there would by no means
destroy the argument. He is farther of opinion, that
the existence of a brown colour, and of considerable
varieties from white, in the northern and coldest parts
of Europe, may very easily be explained. 'Ibis h'e ac¬
counts for from the manner of life of the inhabitants,
by which they are either exposed to the inclemency of
the air, or to constant nastiness from smoky houses.
Having thus attempted to account, from natural
causes, for the varieties which occur among mankind
with respect to colour, our author observes, that, to all
this reasoning, an objection will naturally be made,
from considering that infants bring these marks into
the world along with them, before they can. be expo¬
sed to any such causes. Dr Hunter imagines, how¬
ever, that this may readily be explained upon the
supposition that many peculiarities acquired by parents
are transmitted to their posterity j and of this, he
thinks, no one can entertain the least doubt who at¬
tends.
COM t 374 1 COM
Complex- tends to hereditary diseases. Thus, gout, scrofula,
ion. mania, and many other alfections, although at first in-
   ' duced by particular accidents, will continue to afl’ect
families for many generations. In the same manner
a parent exposed to causes destroying the natural
whiteness of his complexion, will beget swarthy chil¬
dren $ and the same causes continuing to operate upon
the son, the blackness will be increased. Thus all the
different shades may have been at first induced, and af¬
terwards continued.
The objection here obviated, however, might have
been shortly answered by denying the fact j for it is
now generally known, that the children of the blackest
negroes are absolutely born white, as will be after¬
wards noticed.
This subject of complexion has been very well illus¬
trated by Mr Clarkson, in a dissertation introduced in
his Essay on the commerce and slavery of the human
species. The first point that occurs to be ascertained,
is “ What part of the skin is the seat of colour The
old anatomists usually divide the skin into two parts or
laminae j the exterior and thinnest, called by the Greeks
epidermis, by the Romans cuticula, and hence by us
cuticle ; and the interior, called by the former derma,
and by the latter cutis, or true skin. Hence they must
necessarily have supposed, that, as the true skin was
in every respect the same in all human subjects, how¬
ever various their external hue, so the seat of colour
must have existed in the cuticle or upper surface.
Malpighi, an eminent Italian physician of the last
century, was the first person who discovered that the
skin was divided into three laminae or parts j the cu¬
ticle, the true skin, and a certain coagulated substance
situated between both, which he distinguished by the
title of rete mucosum ; which coagulated substance ad¬
hered so firmly to the cuticle, as, in all former anato¬
mical preparations, to have come off with it ; and,
from this circumstance, to have led the ancient ana¬
tomists to believe, that there were but two laminge, or
divisible portions in the human skin. See Anatomy
Index. ■
This discovery was sufficient to ascertain the point
in question ; for it appeared afterwards that the cu¬
ticle, when divided according to this discovery from
the other lamina, was semitransparent $ that the cu¬
ticle of the blackest negro was of the same transpa¬
rency and colour as that of the purest white ; and
hence the true skins of both being invariably the same,
that the rete mucosum was the seat of colour.
This has been farther confirmed by all subsequent
anatomical experiments ; by which it appears, that
whatever is the colour of this intermediate coagulated
substance, nearly the same is the apparent colour of
the upper surface of the skin. Neither can it be
otherwise ; for the cuticle, from its transparency, must
necessarily transmit the colour of the substance be¬
neath it, in the same manner, though not in the same
degree, as the cornea transmits the colour of the iris
of the eye. This transparency is a matter of ocular
demonstration in white people. It is conspicuous in
every blush ; for no one can imagine that the cuticle
becomes red as often as this happens : nor is it less dis¬
coverable in the veins, which are so easy to be dis¬
cerned j for no one can suppose that the blue streaks,
which he constantly sees in the fairest complexions, are
painted, as it were, on the surface of the upper skin. Qm ,
From these, and a variety of other observations, no ion,U
maxim is more true in physiology, than that on the u—v—-
rete mucosum depends the colour of the human bo¬
dy j or, in other words, that the rete mucosum beino-
of a different colour in different inhabitants of the
globe, and appearing through the cuticle or upper
surface of the skin, gives them that various appearance
which strikes us so forcibly in contemplating the hu¬
man race.
As this can be incontrovertibly ascertained, it is evi¬
dent, that whatever causes co-operate in producing this
difterent appearance, they produce it by acting upon the
rete mucosum ; which, from the almost incredible man¬
ner in which the cuticle is perforated, is-as accessible
as the cuticle itself. These causes are probably those
various qualities of things, which, combined with the
influence of the sun, contribute to form what we call
climate. For when any person considers, that the mu¬
cous substance before mentioned is found to vary in its
colour, as the climates vary from the equator to the
poles, his mind must be instantly struck with the hypo¬
thesis, and he must adopt it without any hesitation, as
the genuine cause of the phenomenon.
This fact, of the variation of the mucous substance,
according to the situation of the place, has been clear¬
ly ascertained in the numerous anatomical experiments
that have been made ; in which subjects of all nations
have come under consideration. The natives of manv
of the kingdoms and isles of Asia are found to have
their rete mucosum black : those of Africa, situated
near the line, of the same colour 5 those of the mari¬
time parts of the same continent, of a dusky brown,
nearly approaching to it; and the colour becomes
lighter or darker in proportion as the distance from
the equator is either greater or less. The Europeans
are the fairest inhabitants of the world. Those situa¬
ted in the most southern regions of Europe, have in
their rete mucosum a tinge of the dark hue of their
African neighbours : hence the epidemic complexion
prevalent among them, is nearly of the colour of the
pickled Spanish olive j while in this country, and those
situated nearer the north pole, it appears to be nearly,
if not absolutely, white.
These are facts which anatomy has established; and
we acknowledge them to be such, that we cannot di¬
vest ourselves of the idea, that climate has a consider¬
able share in producing a difference of colour.
The only objection of any consequence that has ever
been made to the hypothesis of climate, is this, that
people under the same parallels are not exactly of the
same colour. But this is no objection in fact j for it
does not follow that those countries which are at an
equal distance from the equator, should have their
climates the same. Indeed nothing is more contrary
to experience than this. Climate depends upon a va¬
riety of accidents. High mountains in the neighbour¬
hood of a place make it cooler, by chilling the air that
is carried over them by the winds. Earge spreading
succulent plants, if among the productions of the soli,
have the same effect j they afford agreeable cooling
shades, and a moist atmosphere, from their continual
exhalations, by which the ardour of the sun is consi¬
derably abated. While the soil, on the other hand,
if of a sandy nature, retains the heat in an uncommon
degree,
COM [ 375 ] COM
degree, and makes the summers considerably hotter
than those which are found to exist in the same lati¬
tude where the soil is different. To this proximity of
what may be termed burning sa?ids, and to the sulphu¬
reous and metallic particles which are continually ex¬
haling from the bowels of the earth, is ascribed the
different degrees of blackness by which some African
nations are distinguished from each other, though
under the same parallels. To these observations we
may add, that though the inhabitants of the same pa¬
rallel are not exactly of the same hue, yet they differ
only by shades of the same colour ; or, to speak with
more precision, that there are no two people, in such
a situation, one of whom is white and the other black.
To sum up the whole Suppose we were to take a
common globe ; to begin at the equator j to paint
every country along the meridian line in succession from
thence to the poles j and to paint them with the same
colour which prevails in the respective inhabitants of
each, we should see the black, with which we had
been obliged to begin, insensibly changing to an olive,
and the olive, through as many intermediate colours,
to a white ; and if, on the other hand, we should
complete any one of the parallels according to the
same plan, we should see a difference perhaps in the
appearance of some of the countries through which it
ran, though the difference would consist wholly in
shades of the same colour.
The argument, therefore, which is brought against
the hypothesis, is so far from being an objection, that
it may be considered as one of the first arguments in its
favour 5 for if the climate has really an influence on the
mucous substance of the body, it is evident that we
must not only expect to see a gradation of colour in
the inhabitants from the equator to the poles, but also
different shades of the same colour in the inhabitants
of the same parallel.
To this argument may be added one that is incon¬
trovertible, which is, that when the black inhabitants
of Africa are transplanted to colder, or the white in¬
habitants of Europe to hotter climates, their children,
born there, are of a different colour from themselves ;
that is, lighter in the first, and darker in the second
instance.
As a proof of the first, we shall give the words of
the Abbe Raynal, in his admired publication. “ The
children,” says he, “ which they (the Africans) pro¬
create in America, are not so black as their parents
were. After each generation the difference becomes
more palpable. It is possible, that after a numerous
succession of generations, the men come from Africa
would not be distinguished from those of the country
into which they may have been transplanted.”
This-circumstance we have had the pleasure of hear¬
ing confirmed by a variety of persons who have been
witnesses of the fact $ but particularly by many intel¬
ligent Africans, who have been parents themselves in
America, and who have declared, that the difference
is so palpable in the northern provinces, that not only
they themselves have constantly observed it, but that
they have heard it observed by others.
Neither is this variation in the children from the
colour of the parents improbable. The children of
the blackest Africans are born white. In this state
they continue for about a month, when they change Complex-
to a pale yellow. In process of time they become ion.
brown. Their skin still continues to increase in dark-
ness with their age, till it becomes of a dirty sallow
black ; and at length, after a certain period of years,
glossy and shining. Now, if climate has any influence
on the mucous substance of the body, this variation in
the children from the colour of their parents is an
event which must be reasonably expected j for being
born white, and not having equally powerful causes
to act upon them in colder, as their parents had in
the hotter climes which they left, it must neces¬
sarily follow, that the same effect cannot possibly be
produced.
Hence also, if the hypothesis be admitted, may be
deduced the reason why even those children who have
been brought from their country at an early age into
colder regions, have been observed to be of a lighter
colour than those who have remained at home till they
arrived at a state of manhood. For having undergone
some of the changes which we mentioned to have at¬
tended their countrymen from infancy to a certain
age, and have been ta'ken away before the rest could
be completed, these farther changes, which would have
taken place had they remained at home, seem either
to have been checked in their progress, or weakened in
their degree, by a colder climate.
We come now to the second and opposite case ; for
a proof of which we shall appeal to the words of Dr
Mitchell in the Philosophical Transactions, N° 476.
sect. 4. “ The Spaniards who have inhabited Ameri¬
ca under the torrid zone for any time, are become as
dark coloured as our native Indians of V irginia, of
which 1 myself have been a witness ; and were they
not to intermarry with the Europeans, but lead the
same rude and barbarous lives with the Indians, it is
very probable, that, in a succession of many generations,
they would become as dark in complexion.”
To this instance we shall add one, which is mention¬
ed by a late writer, who, describing the African coast
and the European settlements there, has the following
passage. “ There are several other small Portuguese
settlements, and one of some note at Mitomba, a river
in Sierra Leone. The people here called Portuguese
are principally persons bred from a mixture of the first
Portuguese discoverers with the natives, and now be¬
come, in their complexion and woolly quality of their
hair, perfect negroes, retaining, however, a smattering
of the Portuguese language.”
These facts with respect to the colonists of the Eu¬
ropeans are of the highest importance in the present
case, and deserve a serious attention. For when we
know to a certainty from whom they are descended j
when we know that they were, at the time of their
transplantation, of the same colour as those from whom
they severally sprung j and when, on the other hand,
we are credibly informed that they changed it for
the native colour of the place which they now inhabit :
the evidence in support of these facts is as great as if a
person, on the removal of two or three families into
another climate, had determined to ascertain the cir¬
cumstance 5 as if he had gone with them and watched
their children j as if he had communicated his observa¬
tions at his death to a successor j as if his successor had
prosecuted
COM [ 376 ] COM
Complex, prosecuted the plan 5 and thus an uninterrupted chain
ion. of evidence had been kept up from their first removal
——^ j.o a)1y determined period of succeeding time.
But though these facts seem suflicient of themselves
to confirm our opinion, they are not the only facts
which can be adduced in its support. It can be shown,
that the members of the very same family, when divi¬
ded from each other, and removed into different coun¬
tries, have not only changed their family complexion,
but that they have changed it to as many different co¬
lours as they have gone into different regions of the
world. We cannot have, perhaps, a more striking in¬
stance of this than in the Jews. These people are scat¬
tered over the face of the whole earth. They have
preserved themselves distinct from the rest of the world
by their religion j and as they never intermarry with
any but those of their own sect, so they have no mix¬
ture of blood in their veins that they should differ from
each other j and yet nothing is more true, than that
the English Jew is white, the Portuguese swarthy, the
Armenian olive, and the Arabian copper; in short,
that there appear to be as many different species of
Jews as there are countries in which they reside.
To these facts we shall add the following observa¬
tion, that if we can give credit to the ancient histori¬
ans in general, a change from the darkest black to the
purest white must have actually been accomplished. One
instance, perhaps, may be thought sufficient. Herodo¬
tus relates, that the Colchi were black, and that they
bad crisped hair. These people were a detachment of
the ^Ethiopian army under Sesostris, who followed him
in his expedition, and settled in that part of the world
where Colchis is usually represented to have been situa¬
ted. Had not the same author informed us of this
circumstance, we should have thought it strange that
a people of this description should have been found in
such a latitude. Now, as they were undoubtedly settled
there, and as they were neither so totally destroyed,
nor made any such rapid conquests, as that history
should notice the event, there is great reason to pre¬
sume that their descendants continued in the same, or
settled in the adjacent country $ from whence it will
follow, that they must have changed their complexion
to that which is observed in the inhabitants of this par¬
ticular region at the present day; or, in other words,
that the black inhabitants of Colchis must have been
changed into the fair Circassian. Suppose, without
the knowledge of any historian, they had made such
considerable conquests as to have settled themselves at
the distance of 1000 miles in any one direction from
Colchis, still they must have changed their colour: For
had they gone in an eastern or western direction, they
must have been of the same colour as the Circassians j
if to the north whiter j if to the south, of a copper-
colour. There are no people within that distance of
Colchis who are black.
From the whole of the preceding observations
on the subject, we may conclude, that as all the
inhabitants of the earth cannot be otherwise than
the children of the same parents, and as the difference
of their appearance must have of course proceeded from
incidental causes, these causes are a combination of
those qualities which we call climate; that the blackness
of the Africans is so far engrafted in their constitu¬
tion, in the course of many generations, that their chil¬
dren wholly inherit it, if brought up in the same spot; Compic
but that it is not so wholly interwoven in their nature, ion.
that it cannot be removed if they are born and settled '-■“■“v—
in another.
The same principles with the above we find adopted
and further illustrated by Professor Zimmerman of
Brunswick, in his celebrated work, The Geographical
History of Man, &c. He there proves in the most sa¬
tisfactory manner, That the complexion of the human
species is uniformly correspondent with the degree of
heat or cold to which they are habitually exposed. In
maintaining this position, he makes a very proper di¬
stinction with regard to climate. By climates we are
to understand, not simply or solely those distinguished
by the geographical divisions of the globe, to the ex¬
clusion of what he terms physical climate, or that which
depends on the changes produced in any given lati¬
tude by such adventitious circumstances as the lower
or more elevated situations of a country, its being en¬
compassed by water or large tracts of land, overspread
or surrounded with forests, placed in an extensive plain,
or environed by lofty mountains. Peculiarities of the
like kind, as has been already noticed, frequently pre¬
vent ihe physical climate from corresponding entirely
with the geographical, as a country influenced by them
is often much warmer or colder than other regions pla¬
ced under the same degree of latitude. The influence
of these secondary or modifying circumstances has been
already adverted to, and need not he further enlarged
upon : we shall here only observe, that the erroneous
reasoning of Lord Kames on this subject seems to have
been owing to this inattention to the difference above
mentioned.' At Senegal, and in the adjacent lands,
the thermometer is often at 112 or 117 degrees in the
shade j and here we find the inhabitants jet black, with
woolly hair. The heat is equally great in Congo and
Loango, and these countries are inhabited by negroes
only j whereas in Morocco, to the north of these re¬
gions, and at the Cape of Good Hope, to the south,
the heat is not so intense, nor are the inhabitants of so
deep a hue. Lord Kames asks, Wherefore are not the
Abyssinians and the inhabitants of Zaara of as dark a
complexion as the Moors on the coast of Guinea ?
M. Zimmerman answers, that “ these countries are
much cooler. The desert is not only farther from the
equator, hut the winds blowing over the Atlas moun¬
tains, which like the Alps are covered with snow, and
the westerly wind coming from the sea, must consider¬
ably mitigate the heat. Nor is Abyssinia so warm as
either Monomotapa or Guinea. The north-east winds
from the side of Persia and Arabia are cooled by their
passage over the Red sea : the northern winds from
Egypt lose much of their heat on the chain of moun¬
tains that is extended between the countries; the
winds from the south and the west are sea winds. Thus,
the only quarter from which they can derive excessive
heat is from the east, as the air on this side must pass
over tracts of heated lands.” For a similar reason it
is that negroes are not found either in Asia or South
America under the equator. The situations of these
countries, our author observes, expose them to sea-
breezes and cooling winds from the continent. He
confirms this hypothesis by observing, that the moun¬
taineers of warm climates, as in Barbary and Ceylon,
are much fairer than the inhabitants of the valleys :
that
COM [ 377 ] COM
, that the Saracens and Moors who conquered the north-
ion east Part A^'ica in 1700, from being brown, are
|{ become like the negroes near the equator: that the
sipline. Portuguese, who settled at Senegal in 1400, became
blacks ; and Tudela the Jew asserts, that his country¬
men in Abyssinia acquired the dark complexion of the
original natives.
Upon the whole, colour and figure may be styled
habits of the body. Like other habits, they are cre¬
ated, not by great and sudden impressions, but by con¬
tinual and almost imperceptible touches. Of habits
both of mind and body, nations are susceptible as well
as individuals. They are transmitted to offspring, and
augmented by inheritance. Long in growing to ma¬
turity, national features, like national manners, become
fixed only after a succession of ages. They become,
however, fixed at last j and if we can ascertain any ef¬
fect produced by a given state of weather or of cli¬
mate, it requires only repetition during a sufficient
length of time to augment and impress it with a per¬
manent character. The sanguine countenance will,
for this reason, be perpetual in the highest latitudes of
the temperate zone } and we shall for ever find the
swarthy, the olive, the tawny, and the black, as we de¬
scend to the south.
The uniformity of the effect in the same climate,
and on men in a similar state of society, proves the
power and certainty of the cause. If the advocates of
different human species suppose that the beneficent
Deity hath created the inhabitants of the earth of dif¬
ferent colours, because these colours are best adapted
to their respective zones; it surely places his benevo¬
lence in a more advantageous light to say, he has given
to human nature the power of accommodating itself to
every zone. This pliancy of nature is favourable to
the union of the most distant nations, and facilitates the
acquisition and the extension of science, which would
otherwise be confined to few objects and to a very limi¬
ted range. It opens the way particularly to the know¬
ledge of the globe which we inhabit; a subject so im¬
portant and interesting to man. It is verified by ex¬
perience. Mankind are for ever changing their habi¬
tations by conquests or by commerce; and vve find them
in all climates, not only able to endure the change, but
so assimilated by time, that we cannot say with certain¬
ty whose ancestor was the native of the clime, and
whose the intruding foreigner.
All the foregoing observations have been well reca¬
pitulated, illustrated by new facts, and enforced by ad¬
ditional reasoning founded on experience, by the Re¬
verend Dr S. S. Smith, professor of moral philosophy
in the college of New Jersey, in his Essay on the Causes
of the variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human
species; to which the reader who wishes for further sa¬
tisfaction on the subject is referred.
COMPLEXUS; and Complexus Minor, or Tra-
helo-mastoidceus; two muscles in the posterior part of
the trunk. See Anatomy, Table of the Muscles.
COMPLICATION, in general, denotes the blend¬
ing, or rather interweaving, of several different things
together: thus, a person afflicted with several disorders
at the same time, is said to labour under a complication
of disorders.
COMPLINE, the last division of the Romish bre¬
viary. It was instituted to implore God’s protection
VOL. VI. Part L f
during the night, as the prime is for the day. It is Compline
recited after sunset; and is so called, because it com- |j
pletes the office for the day. Composi-
COMPLUTENSIAN Bible. See Bible (Gm?&.) , tion-
COMPONE, or Componed, or Gobony, in He- v~'""
raldry. A bordure compone is that formed or com¬
posed of a row of angular parts, or chequers of two
colours.
COMPONED, or Composed, is also used in ge¬
neral for a bordure, a pale, or a fess, composed of two
different colours or metals disposed alternately, sepa¬
rated and divided by fillets, excepting at the corners ;
where the junctures are made in form of a goat’s
foot.
COMPOSITE, in general, denotes something com¬
pounded, or made up of several others united together:
thus,
Composite Numbers, are such as can be measured
exactly by a number exceeding unity; as 6 by 2 or 3,
or 10 by 5, &c. so that 4 is the lowest composite num¬
ber. Composite numbers, between themselves, are
those which have some common measure besides unity;
as 12 and 13, as being both measured by 3.
Composite Order, in Architecture, the last of the
five orders of columns ; so called because its capital is
composed out of those of the other columns, borrow¬
ing a quarter round from the Tuscan and Doric, a row
of leaves from the Corinthian, and volutes, from the
Ionic. Its corniche has simple modillions, or dentils.
It is also called the Homan or Italic order, as having
been invented by the Romans. By most authors it is
ranked after the Corinthian, either as being the next
richest, or the last invented. See Architecture,
N° 48.
COMPOSITION, in a general sense, the uniting
or putting together several things, so as to form one
whole, called a compound.
Composition of Ideas, an act of the mind, whereby
it unites several simple ideas into one conception or
complex idea.
When we are provided with a sufficient stock of sim¬
ple ideas, and have by habit and use rendered them fa¬
miliar to our minds, they become the component parts
of other ideas still more complicated, and form what
we may call a second order of compound notions. This
process may be continued to any degree of composition
we please, mounting from one stage to another, and en¬
larging the number of combinations.
Composition, in Grammar, the joining of two words
together; or prefixing a particle to another word, to
augment, diminish, or change its signification.
Composition, in Logic, a method of reasoning,
whereby we proceed from some general self-evident
truth to other particular and singular ones.
In disposing and putting together our thoughts, there
are two ways of proceeding equally within our choice ;
for we may so suppose the truths, relating to any part
of knowledge, as they presented themselves to the mind
in the manner of investigation : carrying on the series
of proofs in a reverse order, till they at last terminate
in first principles : or beginning with these principles,
we may take the contrary way ; and from them deduce,
by a direct train of reasoning, all the several proposi¬
tions we want to establish.
This diversity in the manner of arranging our
3 B thoughts
COM [ 378 1 COM
Composi- thoughts gives rise to the twofold division of method
tion. established among logicians ; the one called analytic
  ' method, or the method of resolution, inasmuch as it
traces things back to their source, and resolves know¬
ledge into its first and original principles. This me¬
thod stands in contradistinction to the method of com¬
position *, or, as it is otherwise called, the synthetic
method j for here we proceed by gathering together
the several scattered parts of knowledge, and combin¬
ing them into one system, in such a manner as that the
understanding is enabled distinctly to follow truth
through all the different stages of gradation.
Composition, in Music, is the art of inventing and
writing airs $ of accompanying them with a suitable
harmony •, in short, of forming a complete piece of mu¬
sic in all its parts.
The knowledge of melody, harmony, and its rules,
is the foundation of composition. Without doubt,
it is necessary to know in what manner chords should
be filled, how to prepare and resolve dissonances, how
to find the fundamental bass, and how to put in prac¬
tice all the other minutiae of elementary knowledge :
but with the mechanical rules of harmony alone, one
. is by no means better qualified to understand the art,
and operate in the practice of composition, than to form
himself for eloquence upon all the rhetorical precepts
exhibited in grammar. We need not say, that besides
this, it is necessary to understand the genius and com¬
pass of voices and instruments ; to judge what airs may
be of easy, and what of difficult, execution ; to ob¬
serve what will, and what will not, be productive of
any effect ; to feel the character of different move¬
ments, as well as that of different modulations, that
both may be always suitably applied 5 to know the dif¬
ferent rules established by convention, by taste, by ca¬
price, or by pedantry, as fugues, imitations, or in pie¬
ces where the subject is confined to uniform laws in its
harmony, melody, rhythmus, &c. All these acquisi¬
tions are still no more than preparatives for composi¬
tion •, but the composer must find in his own genius
the sources of beautiful melody, of sublime harmony,
the picturesque, and the expressive in music } he must,
in short, be capable of perceiving, and of forming, the
order of the whole piece ; to follow the relations and
aptitudes of which it is susceptible in every kind ; to
inflame his soul with the spirit and enthusiasm of the
poet, rather than childishly amuse himself with pun¬
ning in harmony, or adapting the music to each parti¬
cular word. It is with reason that our musicians have
given the name of words to the poems which they set
to music. It appears evident from their manner of ex¬
pressing them, that, in their apprehension, they seem¬
ed words, and words alone. One would be tempted
to imagine, particularly during some of these last years,
that the rules for the formation and succession of chords
have caused all the rest to be neglected or forgotten 5
and that harmony has made no acquisitions but at the
expence of what is general and essential in the musical
art. All our artists know how to fill a chord with its
constituent sounds, or a piece of harmony with its con¬
stituent parts; but not a soul amongst them feels a ray
of composition. As to what remains, though the fun¬
damental rules of counterpoint, or music in parts, con¬
tinues still the same, they are more or less rigorous and
inflexible in proportion as the parts increase in num*
3
ber*, for according as the parts are multiplied, the Composi.
difficulty of composition is heightened, and the rules don.
are less severe. Compositions in two parts are called
duettos when the two performers sing equally-, that is
to say, when the subject is no further extended j but
divided between them : but if the subject is in one
part alone, and the subordinate harmony no more than
an accompanyment, the first part is then either called
a recitative or a solo; and the other an accompanyment,
or continued bass, if it is a bass. It is the same case
with the trio, with compositions in three, in four, or in
five parts.
The name of composition is likewise given to such
pieces of music themselves as are formed according to.
the rules of the art. For this reason the duets, trios,
quartettos, which have just been mentioned, are called
compositions.
Compositions are either formed for the voice alone,
or for instruments, or for voices and instruments join¬
ed. Full choruses and songs are the only compositions
principally intended for the voice, though sometimes
instruments are joined with it to support it. Compo¬
sitions for instruments are intended to he executed by
a band in the orchestra, and then they are called
symphonies, concertos; or for some particular species
of instruments, and then they are called pieces or so¬
natas.
Such compositions as are destined both for voices
and instruments, have been generally divided into
two capital species, viz. the sacred and the secular.
The compositions destined for the church, whether
psalms, hymns, anthems, or responsives, are in gene¬
ral distinguished by the name of church-music, and
characterised by their intention to be sung with words.
Secular music in general may likewise be divided into
two kinds ; theatrical and chamber music. Of the first
kind is that used in the operas the subdivisions of the
second are endless. Solos, concertos, cantatas, songs,
and airs, almost of every kind, which are not adapted
to the church or the stage, may be included in the idea
of chamber-music.
In general, it is thought, that sacred music requires
deeper science, and a more accurate observation of
rule j the secular species gives more indulgence to ge¬
nius, and subsists in greater variety.
But we must here observe, that the ecclesiastical
music now used, or rather profaned and murdered,
amongst us, though regular in its harmony, is simple
in its composition, and demands not that profound
knowledge in the art, either to form or comprehend
it, which Rousseau, whom till now we have followed
in this article, seems to imagine. His assertion can
only be applicable to the church-music of Italy. That
which is now established amongst us seems not to be
indigenous, but transferred with the Calvinistieal li¬
turgy from Geneva ; and as it is intended for popular
use, it can by no means be esteemed a high exertion
of the musical art j yet, however simple, it is pleasing*,
and, when properly performed, might elevate the soul
to a degree of devotioa, and even of rapture, which
at present we are so far from feeling, that we rather
seem to sleep or to howl, than to sing the praise ot
God. Perhaps our clergy may find more advantage in
cultivating their farms but they would surely feel a
higher and diviner pleasure in cultivating the tastes and
voices
COM [ 379 ] COM
s; voices of their people. The one, however, is not in-
T' compatible with the other. An hour of relaxation in
u y—* a winter evening might serve for the accomplishment
of this pious purpose j and one should imagine that,
independent of religious considerations, the spirit ot
the craft might dictate such a measure, as calculated to
produce popular entertainment and gain popular affec¬
tion.
In composition, the author either confines himself,
as a subject, to the mere mechanical modulations and
arrangements of sound, and, as his end, to the plea¬
sure of the ear alone •, or otherwise he soars a nobler
height; he aspires to imitative music ; he endeavours
to render the hearts and souls of his auditors ductile by
his art, and thus to produce the noblest emotions and
most salutary effects. In the first view, it is only ne¬
cessary that he should look for beautiful sounds and
agreeable chords ; but in the second he ought to con¬
sider music in its conformity with the accents of the
human voice, and in the expressive powers of notes
harmonically combined to signify or paint such objects
as are susceptible of imitation. In Rousseau’s article
opera, some ideas may be found by which the art may
be ennobled and elevated, by forming music into a
language more powerful and pathetic than eloquence it¬
self. See Opera.
Composition, in literature, the art of forming and
arranging sentiments, and clothing them with lan¬
guage suitable to the nature of the subject or discourse.
See" the articles Language, Oratory, Poetry,
Dialogue, Epistle, and History.
Composition, in Chemistry, is the union and com¬
bination of two more substances of different natures,
from which a compound body results. From this union
of bodies of different natures, a body is formed, of a
different nature, which Becker and Stahl have called a
mixture, and which may be called a combination, or
mical composition, to avoid the equivocal sense of the
word mixture. By this last, we understand only a
mere apposition of parts $ and which wmuld therefore
give a very false idea of chemical composition, in
which a mutual adhesion takes place between the com¬
bined substances. See Affinity under Chemistry.
Composition, in Painting,, includes the invention
as well as disposition of the figures, the choice of atti¬
tudes, &c.
Composition, therefore, consists of two parts •, one
of which finds out, by means of history, proper objects
for a picture ; and the other disposes them to advan¬
tage. See Painting.
Composition, in Pharmacy, the art or act of mix¬
ing divers ingredients together into a medicine, so as
they may assist each other’s virtues, supply each other’s
defects, or correct any ill qualities thereof. See Phar¬
macy.
Composition, in Commerce, a contract between
an insolvent debtor and his creditors, whereby the
latter accept of a part of the debt in composition for
the whole, and give a general acquittance according-
ly.
Composition, in Printing, commonly termed com¬
posing, the arranging of several types or letters in the
composing-stick, in order to form a line ; and of se¬
veral lines arranged in order, in the galley, to make a
page ; and of several pages to make a form. See Composi-
Printing. tiou
COMPOSITJE, in Botany, the name of a class in CoJ‘)0s!
Hermannus and Royen 5 as likewise of an order in ■ " ‘ J "
Linnaeus’s fragments of a natural method, consisting
in general of the plants which have the characters
enumerated in the following article. A particular
description of this order is given under the article
Syngenesia, which includes all the compound
flowers.
COMPOSITUS FLOS, in Botany, an aggregate
flower, composed of m&ny jlosculisessiles, on a common
entire receptaculum, with a common perianthium, and
whose antherae being five in number unite in the form
of a cylinder j the flosculi are monopetalous, and under
each of them is a monospermous germen. Compound
flowers are either ligulati, tubulosi, or radiati.
COMPOST, in Agriculture, denotes a certain kind
of mixture designed to assist the soil in the way of ve¬
getation, instead of dung. The requisites for a com¬
post are, 1. That it ought to be cheaper than the
quantity of dung required for an equal extent of soil.
2. It ought to be less bulky j and, 3. It ought to pro¬
duce equal effects.
Under the article Agriculture we have endea¬
voured to show, that the true vegetable food consists
in reality of the putrid effluvia proceeding from de¬
cayed animal and vegetable substances. If this theory
is admitted, the hope of making composts as a succe-
daneum for dung is but very small, unless they are
made of putrified animal and vegetable substances ; in
which case, unless in very singular circumstances, they
will prove much dearer than dung itself. Several at¬
tempts, however, have been made by those who had
other views concerning the nature of the true vege¬
table food. An oil compost is recommended in the
Georgical Essays, upon a supposition that the food of
vegetables is of an oily nature. It is made as follow7* :
“ Take of North American potash 12 lb. Break the
salt into small pieces, and put it into a convenient ves¬
sel with four gallons of water. Let the mixture stand
48 hours : then add coarse train oil 14 gallons. In a
few days the salt will be dissolved, and the mixture,
upon stirring, will become nearly uniform. Take 14
bushels of sand, or 20 of dry mould: upon these pour
the above liquid ingredients. Turn this composition
frequently over, and in six months it will be fit for use.
When the liquid ingredients are put to one or two
hogsheads of water, a liquid compost will be formed,
which must be used with a water-cart.’'
This compost, however, the inventor himself owns
to be inferior to rotten dung, as indeed may very na¬
turally be supposed j yet in some cases it seems capable
of doing service, as will appear from some of the fol¬
lowing experiments which we extract from the essays
above mentioned.
Bxp. I. By the author of the essays. “ I took four
pots, N° I, 2, 3, 4. N° I. contained I2lb. of barren
sand, with 1 oz. of the sand oil-compost. N* 2. con¬
tained 12 lb. of sand without any mixture. N° 3. had
12 lb. of sand with half an ounce of slaked lime. N°4.
had 12 lb. of sand with 4 oz. 01 the sand oil-compost.
In the month of March I put six grains of wheat in¬
to each pot, and during the summer I occasionally
3 B 2 watered
COM [ 380 ] COM
Compost, watered the plants with filtrated water. All the time
““""'V-—' the plants were consuming the farina, I could observe
very little difi'erence in their appearance. But after
one month’s growth, 1 remarked that N° 1. was the
best j N° 2. the next 5 N° 3. the next; and N° 4.
much the worst.” The same differences were observed
in August, when N° 1. the best, had five small ears,
which contained a few poor grains of wheat.”
Exp. II. By the same. “ In the month of June,
I selected four lands of equal goodness in a field in¬
tended for turnips. The soil was a light sand with a
tolerable quantity of vegetable earth amongst it. It
was ploughed out of sward in November, and had not
borne a crop for many years. I shall distinguish my
experimental lands by N° 1, 2, 3. 4. N° 1. was ma¬
nured with rotten dung; N° 2. with oil compost; N° 3.
with lime ; N° 4. was left without any dressing. On
the 20th of June they were all sown with turnip-seed
broadcast, and during the course of the season were
twice hoed. In November I viewed the field, and made
the following remarks. N° 1. the best; N° 2. the next;
N° 3. the worst; N° 4. better than N° 3.” Here the
oil -compost appears in a favourable light ; but other
trials, made with equal accuracy, seem rather to prove,
that it is not proper for turnips, barley, or quick-
growing vegetables. It requires being meliorated by
the atmosphere, and therefore is better adapted for
tvinter crops.”
Exp. III. By the same. “ In the month of May,
I planted 12 alleys that lay between my asparagus beds
with cauliflower plants. Each alley took up about
3c plants. One of the alleys I set apart for an experi¬
ment with the oil-compost, prepared according to the
directions already given. About a handful of the
compost was put to the root of each cauliflower plant.
In all other respects the alley was managed like the
rest. The plants in general flowered very well ; but
those to which I applied the compost sprung up hastily
with small stalks, and produced very poor flowers. I
imputed this unfavourable appearance to the fresh¬
ness of the compost, which was only a few weeks old.
In the September following this unsuccessful experi¬
ment, I planted the same alleys with early cab¬
bages. The necessity of meliorating the compost was
in this trial fully confirmed : For the cabbages that
grew upon the alley, which in May bad received the
compost, were larger and in all respects finer than the
others.”
Exp. IV. by James Stovin, Esq. of Doncaster.
“ In the year 1769, I made the following trial with
the oil-compost, prepared as above directed. One acre
sown with bailey, and manured with oil-compost at
18s. produced five quarters five bushels. An acre
adjoining sown with barley, and manured with 12
loads of rotten dung at 3}. produced four quarters
three bushels and two pecks. The compost barley
was bolder and better corn than the other. In the
year 1770, the dunged acre produced of rye, three
quarters. The compost acre of ditto, two quarters
six bushels. In the year 1771, the same lands were
sown with oats, and the produce was greatly in fa¬
vour of the dunged acre. These experimental lands
were in a common field that had been long under the
plough.”
Exp. V. by Richard Townley, Esq. of Belfield.
“ In the spring 177°) I prepared a piece of ground
for onions. It was laid out into six beds of the same
size, and which were all sown at the same time. Over
two of them, the oil-compost was scattered in a very
moderate quantity. Over other two, pigeon’s dung :
and over the remaining two, some of my weed-compost
(formed of putrified vegetables), which I esteem one
of the best manures, for most vegetables, that can be
made. The onions came up very well in all the beds ;
but in about six weeks, those that were fed with the
oil compost, plainly discovered the advantage they had
over the rest by their luxuriancy and colour, and at
the end of the summer perfected the finest crop I had
ever seen, being greatly superior to the others both in
quantity and size. The same spring I made an expe¬
riment upon four rows of cabbages, set at the distance
of four feet every way. Two were manured with oil-
compost, and two with my own. All the plants were
unluckily damaged, just before they began to form, by
some turkeys getting into the field and plucking off
the greatest part of the leaves. However, they so far
recovered, in the, September following, as to weigh from
22 to 281b. a-piece. The rows proved so equal in good¬
ness, thatjl could not determine which had the advantage.
The same year, one part of a field of wheat exposed to
the north-east winds, which that spring continued to
blow for a month or five weeks, appeared very poor
and languid at the time of tillering. Over it I order¬
ed some of the oil-compost to be sown with the hand ;
which not only recovered, but also pushed forwards
the wheat plants in that part of the field, so as to
make them little inferior, if any, to the rest. The same
spring, I made a comparative experiment, upon four
contiguous lands of oats, between the oil-compost
and my own weed-compost. The latter had manifest¬
ly the advantage, though the other produced a very
large and fine crop. I also tried the oil-compost up¬
on carrots, and it answered exceedingly well. I
did the same this year (1771) both upon them and
my onions, and have the finest crops of these vege¬
tables I ever saw anywhere upon the same compass of
ground.”
Exp. VI. by Mr J. Broadbent of Berwick, in El-
met near Feeds “ On the first of October 1771,
I sowed two acres of a light channelly soil with wheat,
and harrowed in the compost with the grain. Being
at a considerable distance from a large town, we find
it very difficult and expensive to procure rotten dung
in sufficient quantity for our tillage lands, for which
reason we have recourse to land dressings both for our
winter and spring corn. Rape dust and soot are prin¬
cipally used ; but the present price of both these ar¬
ticles is a heavy tax upon the farmer. To obviate that
inconvenience, I resolved to make trial of the oil-
compost ; and from what I have observed in this one
experiment, I am encouraged to make a more exten¬
sive use of it the next year. Being well acquainted
with the nature and efficacy of soot, I am satisfied,
that the above two acres produced as good a crop of
wheat as if they had been dressed with that excellent
manure.”
On the supposition that vegetables are supported by
matters of a saline nature, composts formed of diffe¬
rent sorts of salts have been contrived, but with less
success than the one above treated of. A famous com¬
position
COM [ 381 ] COM
■ ost position of this kind was lately sold by patent, under
the name of Baron Van Hook's Compost. The follow¬
ing experiment is mentioned in the Georgical Essays,
as made with a view to determine the virtues of it
compared with the oil-compost and soot mixed with
ashes.—“ In the beginning of April 1773, an acre of
land was sown with early oats. I pitched upon one
land in the middle of the piece, which I esteemed bet¬
ter than any of the rest, and upon this I scattered Ba¬
ron Van Haak’s compost, in the quantity directed in
his instructions. On one side I manured a land with
the oil-compost, but rather with a less quantity than
directed ; and, on the other side, I manured two lands
with dry coal-ashes sifted line, and an equal quantity
of soot. The lands upon which this experiment was
made, were much worn out with a long succession of
crops. The lands which had the benefit of the ashes
and soot produced an exceeding fine crop j the oil-
compost produced a tolerable good one ; hut that
which had only the assistance of the baron’s compost,
produced a very poor one. It could not have been
worse had it been left destitute of every assistance.”
Composts, made with putrified animal substances
will no doubt answer much better, in most cases, than
any other kind of manure, but they are difficult to be
procured. The following is recommended by Dr Hun¬
ter of York.—“ Take a sufficient quantity of saw¬
dust, incorporate it with the blood and offal of a
slaughter-house, putting a layer of one and a layer of
the other till the whole becomes a moist and fetid com¬
position. Two loads of this compost, mixed with
three loads of earth, will be sufficient for an acre of
wheat or spring-corn. Being a kind of top-dressing,
it should be put on at the time of sowing, and har¬
rowed in with the grain. The present year I have a
field of wheat manured in this manner, and have the
pleasure to say, that it is extremely clean, and has all
the appearance of turning out an excellent crop. As
this kind of compost lies in a small compass, it seems
well adapted for the use of such farmers as are obliged
to bring their manures from a distance. It is besides
extremely rich, and will probably continue in the land
much longer than fold-yard or stable-dung. I appre¬
hend that it is capable of restoring worn-out land to
its original freshness ; and I am induced to be of that
opinion, from the appearance of the above crop, which
is now growing upon land much impoverished by bad
management.”
Another compost, prepared from whales flesh, is
recommended by Mr Charles Chaloner.—“ I have a
particular pleasure (says he) in describing and ma¬
king public the best method of forming a compost
from whales flesh, as recommended to me by Dr Hun¬
ter. Having marked out the length and breadth of
your intended dung-hill, make the first layer of earth
about a foot in thickness. Moor-earth, or such as is
taken from ant-hills, is the best for this purpose. O-
ver the earth lay one layer of long litter, from the
fold-yard or stable, above 12 inches in thickness,
then a layer of whale-flesh, and over that another layer
of dung. Repeat the operations till the head be rai¬
sed about six feet, then give it a thick covering of
earth, and coat the heap with sods. In this manner
each layer of flesh will be placed between two layers of
dung. In about a month turn the whole in the usual
manner, which will occasion a strong degree of heat Compost,
and fermentation. When turned, coat with earth as fl
before, with a view to confine the putrid steam which ( onipomui.
would otherwise escape. In a month or two the heap
will be found to be considerably fallen, when it should
have a second turning as before. The operation of
turning must be repeated at proper intervals, till the
whole becomes an uniformly putrid mass. The whale-
flesh is of different degrees of firmness, some of it be¬
ing almost liquid j and, in proportion to its firmness,
the heap will become sooner or later fit for use. In
general, the compost should not be used till 12 months
old > but that depends upon circumstances. Guard the
heap from dogs, pigs, badgers, and vermin, as these
animals are remarkably fond of whale-flesh. This ani¬
mal compost may with great advantage be applied to
all purposes where good rotten dung is required. I
have used it with great success for cabbages, and find
it an excellent dressing for meadow-ground. Accord¬
ing to the best computation, one hogshead of whale
refuse, will make eight loads of dung; which when we
consider the great facility with which this basis of our
dung-hill may be carried, is a momentous concern to
such farmers as lie remote from a large town.” See
Manure, under Agriculture, where the method of
preparing it from peat earth, is particularly detailed.
We may here recommend a most ingenious thermome¬
ter, invented by Mrs Lovi of Edinburgh, for regula¬
ting the temperature of compost dunghills, which the
farmer will find of great use in managing the process.
Compost, in Gardening, is a mixture of several
earthy substances and dungs, either for the improve¬
ment of the general soil of a garden, or for that of par¬
ticular plants. Almost every plant delights in some
peculiar mixture of soils or compost, in which it will
thrive better than in others.
COMPOSTELLA, a celebrated town of Spain,
and capital of Galicia, with an archbishop’s see, and
an university. The public squares, and the churches,
particularly the metropolitan church, are very magni¬
ficent. It has a great number of monasteries, for both
sexes, and about 12,000 inhabitants. It is pretended
that the body of St James was buried here, which
draws a great number of pilgrims from most parts of
Christendom. They walk in procession to the church,
and visit his wooden image, which stands on the great
altar, and is illuminated with 40 or 50 wax candles.
They kiss it three times with a very respectful devo¬
tion, and then put their hats on its head. In the church
there are 30 silver lamps always lighted, and six chan¬
deliers of silver five feet high. The poor pilgrims are
received into an hospital, built for that purpose, which
stands near the church ; and round it are galleries of
free-stone, supported bv large pillars. I he archbishop
is one of the richest prelates in Spain, having jo,ooo
crowns a-year. From this town the military order ol
St Jago, or St James, had its origin. It is seated in a
peninsula, formed by the rivers Tambra and Ulla, in a
pleasant plain, 265 miles north-west ol Madrid. AY.
Long. 8. 17. N. Lat. 42. 52.
New Compostella, a town of North America, in
New Spain, and province of Xalisco, built in iJS1,
It is situated near the South sea. AY. Long. 104. 42.
N. Lat. 21. 20.
COMPOUND, in a general sense, an appellation
given:.
COM [ 382 ] COM
Compound given to whatever is composed or made up of differ-
i! ent things; thus we say, a compound word, compound
Compres- sounf|} compound taste, &c.—Compound differs from
>  d , complex, and stands opposed to simple. See Complex
and Simple.
Compound Flower. See Compositus Flos.
Compound Interest, called also interest upon interest,
is that which is reckoned not only upon the principal,
but upon the interest itself forborne ; which hereby
becomes a sort of secondary principal. See Inte¬
rest.
Compound Motion, that motion which is effected
by several conspiring powers. Powers are said to con¬
spire if the direction of the one be not quite opposite to
that of the other, as when the radius of a circle is con¬
ceived to revolve about a centre, and at the same time
a point to move straight along it.
Compound Numbers, those which may be divided
by some other number besides unity, without leaving
any remainder; such as 18, 20, &e. the first being
measured by the numbers 2, 6, 9 ; and the second by
-the numbers 2, 4, 5, 10.
Compound Quantities. See Algebra.
Compound Ratio, is that which the product of the
antecedents of two or more ratios has to the product of
their consequents. Thus, 6 to 72 is in a ratio com¬
pounded of 2 to 6, and of 3 to 12.
Compound (substantive), the result or effect of a
composition of different things ; or a mass formed by
the union of many ingredients.
COMPREHENSION, in English church-history,
denotes a scheme proposed by Sir Orlando Bridgman
in 1667-8, for relaxing the terms of conformity in be¬
half of Protestant dissenters, and admitting them into
the communion of the church. A bill for this pur¬
pose was drawn up by Lord Chief-Baron Hale, but
disallowed. The attempt was renewed by Tillotson
and Stillingfleet in 1674, and the terms were settled
to the satisfaction of the nonconformists ; but the bi¬
shops refused their assent. This scheme was likewise
revived again immediately after the Revolution ; the
king and queen expressing their desire of an union :
however, the design failed after two attempts ; and the
act of toleration was obtained.
Comprehension, in Metaphysics, is that act of the
mind whereby it apprehends or knows any object that
is presented to it, on all the sides whereon it is capable
of being apprehended or known. To comprehend a
thing is defined by the schoolmen, rem alicpuam totam
et totaliter cognoscere.
Comprehension, in Rhetoric, a trope or figure
whereby the name of a whole is put for a part ; or
that of a part for a whole ; or a definite number of
any thing for an indefinite.
COMPRESS, in Surgery, a bolster of soft linen
cloth, folded in several doubles, frequently applied to
cover a plaster, in order not only to preserve the part
from the external air, but also the better to retain the
dressings or medicines.
COMPRESSION, the act of pressing or squeezing
some matter together, so as to set its parts nearer to
each other, and make it possess less space. Compres¬
sion properly differs from condensation, in that the lat¬
ter is performed by the action of cold, the former by
some external violence.
COMPROMISE, a treaty or contract, wh.ereby two c0iiipi0
contending parties establish one or more arbitrators to nmc
judge of and terminate their difference in an amicable 11
manner. Computa.l
COMPTON, Henry, bishop of London, was the < t^D‘ J
youngest son of Spencer earl of Northampton, and
born in 1632. After the restoration of Charles H.
he became cornet of a regiment of horse ; but soon af¬
ter quitting the army for the church, he was made bi¬
shop of Oxford in 1674 5 an^ about a year after trans¬
lated to the see of London. He was entrusted with
the education of the two princesses Mary and Anne,
whom he also afterwards married to the princes of
Orange and Denmark ; and their firmness in the Pro¬
testant religion was in a great measure owing to their
tutor, to whom, when Popery began to prevail at court,
it was imputed as an unpardonable crime. He was
suspended from his ecclesiastical function by James II.
but was restored by him again on the prince of Orange’s
invasion. He and the bishop of Bristol made the ma¬
jority for filling the vacant throne with a king : he
performed the ceremony of the coronation ; was ap¬
pointed one of the commissioners for revising the litur¬
gy ; and laboured with much zeal to reconcile dissen¬
ters to the church. His spirit of moderation made him
unpopular with the clergy, and in all probability
checked his further promotion. He died in 1713 ;
but living in busy times, did not leave many writings
behind him.
COMPTROLLER. Sec Controller.
COMPULSOR, an officer under the Roman em¬
perors, dispatched from court into the provinces, to
compel the payment of taxes, &c. not paid with¬
in the time prescribed. The word is formed of the
verb compellere, “ to oblige, constrain.” These were
charged with so many exactions, under colour of
their office, that Honorius cashiered them by a law in
412.
The laws of the Visigoths mention military com-
pulsors ; which were officers among the Goths, whose
business was to oblige the tardy soldiers to go into the
fight, or to run to an attack, &c.
Cassian mentions a kind of monastic compulsors,
whose business was to declare the hours of canonical
office, and to take care the monks went to church at
these hours.
COMPUNCTION, in Theology, an inward grief
in the mind for having offended God. The word comes
from compungere, of pungere, “ to prick.”—The Ro¬
manists own their confession insignificant unless attend¬
ed with compunction or pricking of heart.
Among spiritualists, compunction bears a more ex¬
tensive signification ; and implies not only a grief for
having offended God, but also a pious sensation of grief,
sorrow, and displeasure, on other motives.—Thus, the
miseries of life, the danger of being lost in the wmrld,
the blindness of the wicked, &c. are to pious people
motives of compunction.
COMPURGATOR, one that, by oath, justifies an¬
other person’s innocence. Compurgators were intro¬
duced as evidences in the jurisprudence of the middle
ages. Their number varied according to the import¬
ance of the subject in dispute, or the nature of the
crime with which a person was charged.
COMPUTATION, in a- general sense, the man¬
ner
CON [ 3?3 ] CON
omputa- ner estimating time, weights, measure, moneys, or
tion quantities of any kind.—-The word is sometimes also
II used among mathematicians in the like sense as cal-
C°1Ka' ' eolation.
COMUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Orobii, of an ancient standing, and formerly powerful,
daring to dispute with the Romans : Comenses, the peo¬
ple ; Comensis Ager, the epithet. It became afterwards
no inconsiderable municipium, to which Julius Ceesar
added 50CO new colonists (Strabo) •, whence it was ge¬
nerally called Novocomvm, and the peopie LSovocomenscs.
But in time it recovered its ancient name, Comum ; Pli¬
ny the younger, a native of that place, calling it by
no other name. Now Como, in the duchy of Milan,
at the south end of the lake of that name. E. Long.
9. 37. N. Lat. 46. It is about 80 miles N. E. of
Turin.
COMUS, in Mythology, the god of jollity or festi¬
vity. There is great reason to believe he was the
Chamos of the Moabites ■, Beel-Phegor, Baal-Peor,
Priapus, and Bacchus. He is represented under the
appearance of a young man, with an inflamed red
countenance, his head inclined, and crowned with
flowers j his air drowsy ; leaning on a huntsman’s
spear in his left hand, and holding an inverted torch
in his right. His statue was placed at the chamber
doors of new married persons j his pedestal crowned
with flowers.
CON, or CoND. See CoND.
CONANT, Hr John, a learned English divine,
born in 1608. He took his degrees at Exeter college
Oxford ; was, by the parliament, constituted one of
the assembly of divines, though he seldom, if ever, sat
with them ; and in 1657 was admitted vice-chancellor
of the university. On the restoration he was one of
the commissioners, and assisted at the conferences in
the Savoy j but was deprived by the act of uniformi¬
ty j after eight years he was confirmed, and was made
archdeacon of Norwich, and prebendary of Worcester.
In 1686 he lost his sight; and died in 1693 ; leaving
a number of admired sermons, afterwards published in
six volumes.
CONARION, or Conoides, a name for the pineal
gland. See Anatomy Index.
CONATUS, a term frequently used in philosophy
and mathematics, defined by some to be a quantity of
motion, not capable of being expressed by any time
or length ; as the conatus recedendi ab axe niotus, is
the endeavour which a body, moved circularly, makes
to recede, or fly off, from the centre or axis of its mo-
• tion.
CONCA, Sebastian, called Cavalier, a celebrated
history and portrait painter, was born at Gaeta in
1679, and placed as a disciple with Francesco Solime-
na, an incomparable master. Uuder his direction
Conca exerted his utmost industry to obtain a proper
knowledge of the true principles of the art of paint¬
ing , nor did he permit any kind of amusement to
withdraw his attention from his studies. Solimena
soon perceived in his disciple such talents, and such a
disposition, as would qualify him to make a very great
progress ; and on that account he conceived so strong
an affection for him, that he not only afforded him the
best instructions, but often employed him to sketch
after his own designs ; took him along with him to
Monte Cassino, where he was to paint a chapel in fres- Conca.
co ; and there made Conca acquainted with every thing y—
relative to that manner of painting. At his return to
Naples with Solimena, he was, if possible, still more
assiduous to improve himself to the utmost ; and en¬
tered on a project that might at once advance his in¬
come, and add to his expertness in his profession. That
project was, to paint portraits in a small size and at a
low rate; by which scheme all ranks of persons crowd¬
ed to him ; and beside the pecuniary advantages re¬
sulting from it, he acquired an extraordinary freedom
of hand in penciling and colouring ; a good habit of
imitating nature with an elegant choice ; and likewise
great diversity of airs of heads, which were of extra¬
ordinary use to him in his future beautiful compositions.
As he had a great desire to see Rome, he obtained
permission from Solimena to indulge his inclination ;
and although he was near thirty years of age when he
visited that city, yet he spent eight years in constant
study after the antiques, after Buonaroti, Raphael,
and the Carracci, and perfected himself in every part
of h is profession. The fame of his wmrks soon spread
th roughout Rome, and procured him the patronage of
Cardinal Ottobuoni, who was a princely encourager
of artists ; and Conca having shown an elegant proof
of his abilities in a composition representing Herod
inquiring of the wise men the place of the birth of
the Messiah, the figures being as large as life, the Car¬
dinal thought it so excellent a performance, that he
rewarded him in a munificent manner, entertained him
in his own palace, and introduced him to Pope Cle¬
ment XI. who appointed Conca to paint the picture of
the prophet Jeremiah in the church of St John Late¬
ral! ; which he executed with universal applause. On
that occasion the pope was desirous of giving him some
particular mark of his esteem ; and therefore, in a ge¬
neral assembly of the academicians of St Luke, he
conferred on him the order of knighthood, and the
cardinal presented him with a rich diamond cross,
which Conca, out of respect to his patron, always
wore at his bosom. From that time he was incessant¬
ly employed, and his works were solicited by most of
the princes of Europe. The churches and chapels of
every part of Italy are enriched with some of his com¬
positions ; of which he painted an incredible number,
as he lived to a very advanced age, and never discon¬
tinued his labours. He was earnestly invited by Phi¬
lip V. of Spain to visit his court, but he could not be
prevailed on to leave Rome. He painted two admi¬
rable pieces for the king of Poland, with figures as
large as life ; in one was represented Alexander pre¬
senting Bucephalus to Philip, after he had managed
him ; a grand composition, with a multitude of fi¬
gures, correctly designed, and charmingly grouped
and disposed ; the whole being adorned with most ele¬
gant architecture, in true and beautiful perspective..
The other was the marriage of Alexander with Rox¬
ana, the daughter of Harius, which was in every re¬
spect equal to the former. He was at last so strong¬
ly pressed to go to Naples, that he undertook the
journey ; and was received in that kingdom with all
the respect and honour due to his merit; and there he
finished several noble designs, as also at Gaeta his na¬
tive city. While he continued at Naples, he received
in the royal presence a snuff-box of very great value,
presented
CON
[ 384 1
CON
presented to him in the king’s name by tne maiquis of
Tanucci, at that time prime minister; and in the year
lyijy, the king was pleased to ennoble him and all his
descendants. At that time he was 78, and it is confi¬
dently said, that he died in 1761, aged 82, which is
very probable, though not positively certain. He un¬
derstood perspective and architecture thoroughly, and
added to it a fine understanding of the chiaro scuro.
His style of composition is grand and elegant *, his de¬
sign very correct; his disposition ingenious ; his atti¬
tudes and expression full of truth, nature, and variety ;
and his colouring is excellent. The history ot Diana
and Actseon, by Conca, is in the possession of the earl
of Pembroke at Wilton.
CONCALE BAY, is on the coast of France in Brit¬
tany, where the British forces landed in June 1758,
in order to go to St Maloes ; which they did, and
burnt all the ships in that harbour, which were above
100, of all sorts. Concale is the town which gives
name to the bay, and is famous for oysters. It is 18
miles east of St Maloes, and 197 west of Paris. W.
Long. 1. 47. N. Lat. 48. 41.
CONCARNEAU, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Finisterre, with a harbour and a castle,
and 2200 inhabitants. E. Long. 4. 2. N. Lat. 47. 46.
CONCATENATION, a term chiefly used in
speaking of the mutual dependence of second causes
upon each other.
CONCAVE, an appellation used in speaking of the
inner surface of hollow bodies, but more especially of
spherical ones.
Concave Glasses, such as are ground hollow, and
are usually of a spherical figure, though they may be
of any other, as parabolical, &c. All objects seen
through concave glasses appear erect and diminished.
CONCENTRATION, in general, signifies the
bringing things nearer a centre. Hence the particles
of salt, in sea-water, are said to be concentrated ; that
is, brought nearer each other, by evaporating the wa¬
tery part.
CONCENTRIC, in Mathematics, something that
has the same common centre with another : it stands in
opposition to excentric.
CONCEPTION, in Logic, the simple apprehension
or perception which we have of any thing, without
proceeding to affirm or deny any thing about it. Some
writers, as Lord Karnes, distinguish between concep¬
tion and perception ; making the latter to denote the
consciousness of an object when present, or to include
the reality of its object; whereas conception expresses
the forming an idea of an object whether present or
absent, or without any conviction of its reality.
Conception, in Medicine, denotes the first forma¬
tion of the embryo, or foetus in the womb.
Conception is no other than such a concourse and
commixture of the prolific seed of the male with that
of the female, in the cavity of the uterus, as immedi¬
ately produces an embryo.
The symptoms of conception or pregnancy are
when, in a few days after the conjugal act, a small
pain is perceived about the navel, and is attended with
some gentle commotions in the bottom of the abdo¬
men ; and within one, two, three, or even four
months, the menses cease to flow, or prove in less
quantity than usual. Upon the first failure of this
kind, the woman begins to count the series of her
weeks, without taking any notice of the time before
elapsed ; after this, or between the second or third '
months, but generally about the third, the motions of
the embryo become perceivable to the mother ; who
hereupon becomes troubled with a nausea, vomiting,
loathing, longing, &c. About this time the breasts
begin to swell, grow hard and painful, and contain a
little milk ; the nipples also become larger, firmer, and
darker coloured, a livid circle appearing round them ;
the eyes seem sunk and hollow. During the two first
months of pregnancy, the woman grows thinner and
slenderer ; the abdomen being also depressed ; though
it afterwards distends, and grows gradually larger.
The manner wherein conception is effected is thus
laid down by the modern writers: In the superfices of
the ovaries of women, there are found little pellucid
spherules, consisting of two concentric membranes fill¬
ed with a lymphatic humour, and connected to the sur¬
face of the ovaria underneath the tegument, by a thick
calyx, contiguous to the extremities of the minute ra¬
mifications of the Fallopian tubes.
These spherules, by the use of venery, grow, swell,
raise and dilate the membrane of the ovary into the
form of papillae ; till, the head propending from the
stalk, it is at length separated from it; leaving behind
it a hollow cicatrix in the broken membrane of the
ovary ; which, however, soon grows up again;
Now, in these spherules, while still adhering to the
ovarv, fetuses have been frequently found ; whence it
appears, that these are a kind of ova, or eggs, deriving
their structure from-the vessels of the ovary, and their
liquor from the humour’s prepared therein.
Hence also it appears, that the Fallopian tubes be¬
ing swelled and stiffened by the act of venery, with
their muscular fimbriae, like fingers, may embrace the
ovaries, compress them, and by that compression ex¬
pand their own mouths : and thus the eggs, now ma¬
ture, and detached as before, may be forced into their
cavities, and thence conveyed into the cavity of the
uterus ; where they may either he cherished and retain¬
ed, as when they meet with the male seed ; or, if they
want that, again expelled.
Hence the phenomena of false conceptions, abor¬
tions, fetuses found in the cavity of the abdomen, the
Fallopian tubes, &c. For in coition, the male seed,
abounding with living animalcules, agitated with a
great force, a brisk heat, and probably with a great
quantity of animal spirits, is violently impelled through
the mouth of the uterus, which on this occasion is
opener, and through the valves of the neck of the ute¬
rus, which on this occasion are laxer than ordinary,
into the uterus itself; which now, in like manner, be¬
comes more active, turgid, hot, inflamed, and moisten¬
ed with the flux of its lymph and spirits, by means of
the titillation excited in the nei’vous papillae by the at¬
trition against the rugse of the vagina.
The semen thus disposed in the uterus, is retained,
heated, and agitated, by the convulsive constriction of
the uterus itself; till meeting with the ova, the finest
and most animated part enters through the dilated
pores of the membranula of the ovum, now become
glandulous ; is there retained, nourished, and dilated ;
grows to its umbilicus, or navel; stifles the other less
lively animalcules j and thus is conception effected.
Hence
Conce
tioa
CON [ 385 ] CON
onoe'i- Hence it appears, that conception may happen in
tion.1 any part where the semen meets with an ovum: thus
whether it be carried through the Fallopian tube to
the ovary, and there cast upon the ovum ; or whether
it meet with it in some recess of the tube itself $ or,
lastly, whether it join it in the cavity of the uterus, it
may still have the same effect, as it appears from obser¬
vation actually to have had. But it is probable, that
conception is then most perfect when the two, viz. the
semen and .ovum, are carried at the same time into the
uterus, and there mixed, &c.
According to other physiologists the male seed is
taken up, before it arrives in the uterus, by the veins
which open into the vagina, &c. and thus mixed with
the blood ; by which, in the course of circulation, it is
carried, duly prepared, into the ovary, to impregnate the
eggs.
It has been advanced by several writers, that women
may possibly conceive in their sleep, and be with child
without anv knowledge of the occasion of it. As ridi¬
culous and absurd as this doctrine may appear to the ge¬
nerality of the world, no less an author than Gensili has
thought it worthy a particular dissertation.
Conception, Immaculate, of the Holy Virgin, is a
feast established in honour of the holy virgin, particu¬
larly with regard to her having been conceived and
born immaculate, i. e. without original sin, held in the
Romish church on the 8th of December. The imma¬
culate conception is the great head of controversy be¬
tween the Scotists and Thomists $ the former main¬
taining, and the latter impugning it. In the three
Spanish military orders, of St James of the sword, Ca-
latrava, and Alcantara, the knights take a vow at
their admission to defend the immaculate conception.
This resolution was first taken in 1652. Peter d’Alva
has published 48 huge volumes in folio on the myste¬
ries of the conception.
Conception, an episcopal town of Chili in South
America. It is situated in W. Long. 73. 50. S. Lat.
36. 40 $ and is the oldest European settlement in Chi¬
li, and the second in point of dignity. On their first
settlement here, the Spaniards were repeatedly driven
off by the Indians, so that they were obliged to take
up their residence at St Jago. Since that time both
the cities of Conception and St Jago have been fre¬
quently destroyed by earthquakes. In the year 1751
both of them were laid in ruins by a dreadful shock,
the first concussions of which were attended with an un¬
usual swelling of the sea, that overturned the few houses
which had escaped the ravages of the earthquake.
The harbour is good, and pretty much frequented j on
which account the city is regarded as a place of con¬
sequence, The king allowed annually 350,000 pieces
of eight for the support of a garrison of 3500 men j a
CONCH
t
^uc* ]S that department of natural history which treats of
f testaceous animals. In the Linnaean arrangement
it constitutes the third order of the class of Vermes.
This is the order testacea, of which we propose to lay
Vol. VI. Part I. f
corps that was seldom complete. None of the fortifica- Concep¬
tions are considerable j bnt those towards the land are tion
wretched. The Spaniards now live in tolerable secu- I)
rity with respect to the Indians, and have no notion Coni>!0 (^
of any attack on that side. This town, with the rest
of the province, fell into the hands of the Independents
in 1817.
Conception, a town of North America, in New
Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala. It is seated
near the sea coast, 100 miles west of Porto-bello, and
a small river that runs into the sea. W. Long. 81. 45.
N. Lat 10. 0.
Conception del Pao, a town of South America, in
the province of Caraccas, containing 2300 inhabitants,
who live chiefly by their cattle. It is 84 miles south¬
east of Caraccas. W. Long. 65. 10. N. Lat. 8. 42.
CONCERT, or Concerto, in Music, a number or
company of musicians, playing or singing the same
piece of music or song at the same time.
CONCERTATO intimates the piece of music to be
composed in such a manner, as that all the parts may
have their recitatives, be it for two, three, four, or
more voices or instruments.
CONCERTO grossi, the grand chorus of a con¬
cert, or those places where all the several parts per¬
form or play together.
CONCESSION, in general, signifies either the act
of granting or yielding any thing, or the thing itself
which is so granted or yielded.
Concession, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby some¬
thing is freely allowed, that yet might bear dispute,
to obtain something that one would have granted to
him, and which he thinks cannot fairly be denied, as
in the following concession of Dido, in Virgil;
“ The nuptials he disclaims, I urge no more j
“ Let him pursue the promis’d Latian shore.
M A short delay is all I ask him now j
“ A pause of grief, an interval from wo.”
CONCHA, in TLoology, a synonyme of the Myti-
Lus, Solen, and other shell-fish.
CONCHES, a town of Normandy, in the depart¬
ment of Eure, which carries on a considerable trade.
It is seated on the top of a mountain, in the territory
of Ouche, 45 miles north-west of Paris. E. Long.
O. 51. N. Lat. 48. 58.
CONCHITES marmor, a name given by the an¬
cients to a species of marble dug near Megara, and
remarkable for containing a great number of sea-shells,
and other marine bodies immersed in it.
CONCHOID, in Geometry, the name of a curve,
given to it by its inventor Nicomedes. See
Fluxions.
O L O G Y,
before our readers a pretty full view in the present
treatise. The peculiarity and extent of this order of
animals have induced us to consider it in a separate
treatise, by which means we shall avoid swelling out to
3 C art
2
Importance
of concho-
logy.
.CONCHOLOGY.
C hap. ]
an inconvenient magnitude, the class of Vermes, which
will be treated of in its proper place in the course of
the work.
The fine polish, splendid colours, and elegant form
of shells, have been long admired, and have procured
for them a conspicuous place in the cabinets ol the curi¬
ous. Indeed in this respect, mankind have discovered
no small degree of folly and extravagance, in the high
price which has been given for rare and beautiful shells,
and often only on account of their rarity. But the study
of conchology acquires a higher degree of importance
and utility in another view. In many parts of the
world, different kinds of testaceous animals are em¬
ployed as an excellent and nutritious food ; and some
tribes supply the table with a delicate luxury. Dif¬
ferent shells furnish employment to ingenuity and art,
in the manufacture of mother-of-pearl for various pur¬
poses $ and the pearl itself, so much sought after as an
ornament of dress, and often the rival of the richest
gems, in the estimation of mankind, is the production
of testaceous animals. Its nature and mode of formation,
therefore, cannot fail to he objects of curious investi¬
gation. But testaceous animals and their productions,
are not only beneficial and ornamental; some are found
to be highly pernicious. The snail ravages the garden
and the field, and marks its progress with the destruction
of some of the fairest of the vegetable tribes ; while
the ship-worm is justly the dread of the mariner ; se¬
cure, as it were, in its insignificance, it humbles the
glory and pride of man ; and labouring in secret, de¬
molishes the noblest efforts of ingenuity. In these
views, then, the economy and habits of testaceous ani¬
mals, which at first sight might appear a barren and
useless pursuit, become an important and beneficial
subject of investigation. The following chapters, there¬
fore, shall he occupied in the classification and natural
history of this tribe of animals.
Histor
CHAP. I. HISTORY OF CONCHOLOGY.
Cultivated THE few scattered fragments concerning the natu-
by the an- ral history of shells, or testaceous animals, which are
cients. j0 fou,ul ;n the writings of the ancients, when com¬
pared with the more extended and systematic labours
of the moderns, are so unimportant and inaccurate,
that it would be altogether superfluous to trouble our
readers with an account of the information which they
contain. It appears, however, from the works of A-
ristotle and Pliny, the great naturalists of Greece and
Home, that the study of conchology was not entirely
neglected in their time. It appears too, that admirers
and collectors of shells were not then wanting. Scipio
and Lselius, we are informed, found a relaxation from
the toils and cares of war and government, by indul-
^ ging in this elegant amusement (a).
By the mo- Nor will it be attended with much advantage to
derns. give a particular account of the works of the earlier
writers on this subject, among the moderns. These
are Gesner, Johnston, Rondeletius, Aldrovandus, Bel-
lonius, Wormius, and some other authors, who culti¬
vated this department of natural history, and accompa¬
nied their descriptions with figures, illustrative of the
objects which they described.
The first author who attempted a systematic division
of shells, according to their external form and charac¬
ter, was John Daniel Major, professor of medicine in
the university of Kiel in Holstein. His method is pub¬
lished at the end ol his curious and interesting remarks
on the treatise concerning the 'purpura of Fabius Co-
lumna, printed at Kiel in 1675. The system of the
German naturalist was followed by that of our coun¬
tryman Dr Lister, on a more extended and improved
plan, which was published ten years after. Succeeding
naturalists turned their attention to the study of concho-
logy, and to the improvement of the classification of
the numerous objects of this department of natural hi¬
story. Such were Buonanni, Rumfius, Langius, Brey-
nius, Tournefort, Gualtieri, D’Argenville, Klein, Lin¬
naeus, Adanson, Geoffroy, and Muller.
We shall here exhibit some of the most celebrated
systems of conchology which have been proposed by
writers on this subject. This, we trust, will not be
unacceptable to our readers, and particularly as the
works of these authors are in few hands, and there¬
fore become less accessible.
S
I. The first general arrangement of shells is thatSyitem
published by Dr Lister in a work with the followingI'*ster•
title. Martini Lister, M. D. Histories sive Synopsis
methodicee Conchyliorum libri quatuor, continentes
10SI figures cere nitidissime insculptas, a Susanna et
Anna Lister depictas. Londini, 1685—1688, folio.
A second edition of the same work was published at
Oxford in I77°> with additional figures.
SYSTEM of LISTER.
Lib. I. He Cochleis Terrestribus.
Pars I. De Buccinis et Turbinibus terrestribus.
Sect. 1. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum
tortilibus, laevibus, edentulis.
Sect. 2. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum
tortilibus, edentuiis, striatis.
Sect. 3. De Buccinis terrestribus a sinistra dextrorsum
tortilibus, apertura dentata.
Sect. 4. De Buccinis terrestribus a dextra sinistrorsum
tortilibus, apertura plana.
Sect. 5. De Buccinis terrestribus a dextra sinistrorsum
tortilibus, apertura dentata.
id est compactiore figura.
et ,Sfpionem,COncl‘,aS et "mbUicos ad Cajetam et ad Laurentum legere consuesse, et ad omo.
amon remissionem ludumque descendere. Cic. de Oral. lib. ii. °
[. CONCH
Sect. 7. Trochilus.
Sect. 8. De Tarbinibus terrestribus, compressis eden-
tulis, ipso ambitu acuto.
Sect. 9. De Turbinibus compressis, ambitu obtusiore,
apertura edentula.
Sect. 10. De Turbinibus terrestribus compressis, a si¬
nistra dextrorsum tortilibus, apertura dentata.
Sect. 11. De Turbinibus terrestribus compressis, aper¬
tura dentata, a dextra sinistrorsum tortilibus, apice
inverse ex ipsa aperturse parte.
Pars II. Cochleae nudae terrestres, limaces quibusdam
dictae.
Lib. II. De Turbinibus et Bivalvibus aquee dulcis.
Pars I. De Turbinibus.
Sect. I. De Buccinis fluviatilibus.
Sect. 2. De Cochleis fluviatilibus.
Sect. 3. De Cochleis fluviatilibus compressis.
O L O G Y.
Cap. 8. De Pectunculis striatis, ex latere muko ma-
gis diffusis, latioribus. Cap. 9. De Pectunculis stri¬
atis, ex latere diffusis angustioribus. Cap. 10. De
Pectunculis striatis imbricatis.
Sect. 6. Cap. I, De Musculis marinis, cardine laeyi
minimeque dentato. Cap. 2. De Musculis marinis
polyleptoginglymis.
Sect. 7. Cap. 1. De Pinnis, margine velut praecisa ob-
tusave. Cap. 2. De Pinnis, margine producta et
auctiore.
Sect. 8. Cap. 1. De Tellinis, id est conchis fere cunei-
formibus, ambitu serrata. Cap. 2. De lellinis qui-
bus ambitus ex interna parte laevis est.
Sect. 9. De Solenis, id est conchis tenuibus longissi-
misque ab utraque parte naturaliter hiantibus.
Sect. 10. Cap. I. De Chamis, ab altero tantum latere
fere naturaliter hiantibus. Cap. 2. De Chamis pho*
ladibus.
Pars II. De Testaceis multivalvibus.
Pars II. De Testaceis bivalvibus fluviatilibus.
Sect. 1. De Musculis fluviatilibus, cardine dentato.
Sect. 2. De Musculis fluviatilibus, cardine laevi.
Sect. 3. De Pectunculis fluviatilibus.
Lib. III. De Testaceis bivalvibus marinis.
Pars I. De Testaceis bivalvibus, imparibus testis.
Sect. I. Cap. I. De Pectinibus ex ntraque parte aequa-
liter auritis, striatis. Cap. 2. De Pectinibus aequa-
liter auritis, laevibus. Cap. 3. De Pectinibus io®-
qualiter auritis, non dentatis. Cap. 4* De Pectini¬
bus inaequaliter auritis dentatis.
Sect. 2. Cap. 1. De Ostreis apophysi plana longa re-
curva, angulo acuto desinente. Cap. 2.] De Ostreis
apophysi brevi, subter et quasi in occulto posita.
Sect. 3. De Spondylis.
Pars II. De Testaceis bivalvibus, paribus testis.
Sect. I. Cap. 1. De Pectinibus margaritiferis. Cap. 2.
De Pectinibus, binis apophysibus longis conjunctis.
Cap. 3. De Pectinibus margaritiferis polyginglymis.
Sect. 2. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis polyleptoginglymis,
margine ex altera parte productiore. Cap. 2. De
Pectunculis polyleptoginglymis, margine rotunda,
striatis. Cap. 3. De Pectunculis polyleptogingly¬
mis, margine rotunda, laevibus.
Sect. 3. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis laevibus, triquetris
fere, cervice angustiore. Cap. 2. De I ectunculis
laevibus, triquetris, cervice latiore. Cap. 3. De
Pectunculis laevibus, rostro recurvo.
Sect. 4. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis fasciatis, lunula nota-
tis, margine striata. Cap. 2. De Pectunculis fascia¬
tis, lunula quadam notatis, margine laevi. . Cap. 3.
De Pectunculis fasciatis, ad rostrum integris.
Sect. 5. Cap. 1. De Pectunculis striatis producti-
oribus, striis a rostro ad medium usque dorsum
concurrentibus. Cap. 2. De Pectunculis striatis di-
vei’simode exaratus, sive dissimilibus. Cap. 3. De
Pectunculis striatis, striis similibus, dorso ad alte-
rum latus paululum eminente. Cap. 4. De Pectun¬
culis striatis, dorso in aciem compresso. Cap. 5. De
Pectunculis striatis, muricatis asperisve. Cap. 6.
De Pectunculis striatis, striis a rostro tantum deduc-
tis Levibus. Cap. 7. De Pectunculis cancellatis.
Sect. 1. Cap. I. De Pholadibus triumve testarum con¬
chis, cardinibus loculis quibusdam quasi perforatis.
Cap. I. De Pholadibus, cardine integro.
Sect. 2. De Conchis quinque testarum anatiferis pie-
risque dictis.
Sect. 3. De Balanis, id est, duodecim testarum con¬
chis praeter operculum mitratum.
Sect. 4. Sive appendix ad librum tertium de conchitis
iisve lapidibus, qui quandum similitudinem cum con¬
chis marinis habeant.
Lib. IV. De Buccinis marinis, quibus etiani vermiculi
dentalia et patella;, numerantur.
Sect. I. Cap. I. DePatellis, vertice perforate. Cap. 2.
De Patellis, vertice integro, laevibus. Cap. 3. De
Patellis, vertice integro, striatis, margine quasi ra-
diata. Cap. 4. De Patellis, vertice adunco mar¬
gine aequali. Cap. 5. De Patellis, vertice adunco,
margine obliqua. Cap. 6. De Patellis, vertice a-
dunco, quibus ex interna parte cavitas qusedam quasi
arcuata, longis compressis. Cap. 7. De Patellis,
vertice acuto, stilo quodam interno donatis.
Sect. 2. De Dentalibus.
Sect. 3. De Vermiculis.
Sect. 4. Cap. De Nautilis caudatis, sive e plurimis
tabulatis confectis. Cap. 2. De Nautilis vacuis, sive
non tabulatis.
Sect. 5. Cap. I. De Cochleis marinis, apice brevi,
umbilicatis, sinu aurito. Cap. 2. De Cochleis ma¬
rinis, apice brevi, umbilico simplici. Cap. 3. De
Cochleis marinis, apice brevi, centro minime sinua-
to. Cap. 4. De Cochleis marinis, basi brevi, apice
ad oris initium parum elato. Cap. 5. De Cochleis
marinis, apice mediocriter producto, ore dentato.
Cap. 6. De Cochleis marinis, apice medioeriter pro¬
ducto, ore edentulo, Isevibus. Cap. 7. De Coch¬
leis marinis, apice mediocriter producto, striatis.
Cap. 8. De Cochleis marinis, clavicula tenui et
longissima, striatis. Cap. 9. De Cochleis marinis,
clavicula tenui et longissima, laevibus.
Sect. 6. Cap. 1. De. Neritis dentatis, clavicula paulu¬
lum prominente. Cap. 2. De Neritis dentatis, cla¬
vicula compressa, striatis. Cap. 3* De Neritis den¬
tatis, clavicula compressa, laevibus. Cap. 4* De
Neritis ad columellam dentatis, labio productiore
3 C 2 edentulo.
388
History edentulo. Cap. 5. De Neritis edentulis Itevibus.
Cap. 6. De Neritls edentulis muricatis.
Sect. 7. De Auribus marinis.
Sect. 8. Cap. 1. De Trochis pyramidalibus, apertura
five basi leviter tumida. Cap. 2. De Trochis pyra¬
midalibus, basi paululum cava sive sinuata. Cap. 3.
De Trochis, apertura sive basi plana. Cap. 4. De
Trochis brevioribus, umbilicatis, dentatis. Cap. 5.
De Trochis cochleseformibus, umbilicatis, edentu¬
lis. Cap. 6. De Trochis clavicula breviore, colu¬
mella paulo erectiore Integra. Cap. 7. De Trochis,
basi media leviter tumida, quasi altera clavicula.
Cap. 8. De Trochis, unico dente ad columellam
acuto.
Sect. 9. Cap. r. De Conchis venereis unicoloribus.
Cap. 2. De Conchis venereis, lineis nigris secundum
longitudinem depictis. Cap. 3. De Conchis unda-
tim depictis. Cap. 4. De Conchis venereis fascia-
tis, immaculatis j et de conchis venereis fasciatis et
maculatis, aut alias cum fasciis variegatis. Cap. 5.
De Conchis venereis, punctis nigris distinctis. Cap. 6.
De Conchis venereis, maculis albis nigrisve inter-
spersis insignitis $ et de conchis venereis maculis al¬
bis quasi reticulatim depictis. Cap. 7. De Conchis
venereis, striis eminentibus conspicuis. Cap. 8. De
Conchis venereis, punctis elatis exasperatis, nodisve
insequalibus. Cap. 9. De Conchis venereis, aper¬
tura non dentata, basi integra. Cap. 10. De Con¬
chis venereis, basi umbilicata cochleata.
Sect. 10. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindraceis columella
dentata, crassis, unius coloris. Cap. 2. De Rhom¬
bis cylindraceis dentatis, maculosis. Cap. 3. De
Rhombis cylindxaceis dentatis, fasciatis. Cap. 4. De
Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, undatis. Cap. 5.
De Rhombis cylindraceis dentatis, dorso gibboso.
Cap. 6. De Rhombis cylindraceis edentulis, ore
strictiore. Cap. 7. De Rhombis edentulis tenuibus,
ore patulo, clavicula paululum exserta. Cap. 8. De
Rhombis edentulis, ore patulo, clavicula compressa.
Pars IT. Cap. 1. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidali-
bus, unius coloris. Cap. 2. De Rhombis cylindri-
co-pyramidalibus, quibus linete maculatse circum in-
jiciuntur. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cylindrico-pyrami-
dalibus, striatis. Cap. 4. De Rhombis cylindrico-
pyramidalibus, undatis. Cap. 3. De Rhombis cy-
lindrico-pyramidalibus, fasciatis. Cap. 6. De Rhom¬
bis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, reticulatis. Cap. 7. De
Rhombis cylindrico-pyramidalibus, dentetis.
Sect. II. Cap. 1. De Buccinis persicis dictis. Cap. 2.
De Buccinis musicis dictis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis
columella dentata, clavicula longissima et tenuis-
si ma.
Sect. 12. Cap. 1. De Buccinis bilinguibus, Igevibus.
Cap. 2. De Buccinis bilinguibus, striatis. Cap. 3.
De Buccinis bilinguibns, aspersis et muricatis. Cap. 4.
De Buccinis bilinguibus, digitatis.
Sect. 13. Cap. 1. De Buccinis ampullaceis Igevibus,
aut certe minus asperis. Cap. 2. De Buccinis am¬
pullaceis, muricatis. Cap. 3. De Buccinis ampul¬
laceis, ad sinistram convolutis.
Sect. 14. Cap. 1. De Buccinis utrinque productioribus,
Igevibus. Cap. 2. De Buccinis utrinque productiori-
bus, striis densis et tenuioribus exasperatis. Cap 3
De Buccinis utrinque productioribus, striis pauciori-
Chap.
bus donatis, labro simplici. Cap. 4. De Buccinis Hiutor
utrinque productioribus, striis paucioribus, labro do- y-
plicato donatis. Cap. 5. De Buccinis utrinque pro¬
ductioribus, muricatis.
Sect. 15. Cap. 1. De Buccinis brevirostris, nodosis.
Cap. 2. De Buccinis brevirostris, striatis. Cap. 3.
De Buccinis brevirostris, Igevibus, fere clavicula
productiore. Cap. 4. De Buccinis brevirostris, labro
repando, tenuibus. Cap. 5. De Buccinis brevirostiis,
labro repando, crassis. Cap. 6. De Buccinis brevi¬
rostris, compressis. Cap. 7. De Buccinis auritis,
sive rostro recurvo donatis, ventriculosis. Cap. 8.
De Buccinis brevirostris, sinu reflexo, laevibus. Cap. 9.
De Buccinis brevirostris, rostro reflexo, clavicula
productiore.
Sect. 16. Seu appendix de buccinitis, iisve lapidibus
que buccina omnigena valde referant.
II. In 1722, Langius presented to the world the fol-Oflang
lowing work on conchology. Caroli Nicolai Lavgii
Lucernen. Helvet. Phil, et Med. &fc. Methodas nova
et facilis, testacea marina plceraque, quce hue usque no¬
bis nota sint, in suas debitas et distinctas classes, ge¬
nera, et species, distribuendi, nominibusque suis pro-
priis, structurce potissimum accommodatis mincupandi,
Sfc. Lucernce, 1722, 410, p. 102.
SYSTEM of LANGIUS.
Pars Prima. Testacea marina univalvia non tutbi-
nata.
Classis Prima. Tesfacea marina univalvia non tur-
binata, et in se non contorta.
Sect I. Testacea marina univalvia non turbinata, et
in se non contorta nullo modo, vel solummodo in
summo apice tantiliura iucurvata. Gen. 1. Patella?.
Gen. 2. Balani.
Sect. 2. Tubuli marini, seu testacea marina univalvia,
non turbinata, et in se non contorta, elongata tubuli
instar concava. Gen. 1. Penicilla. Gen. 2. Den-
tales. Gen. 3. Tnbuli radiciformes. Gen. 4. Tu¬
buli vermiculares.
Classis Secunda. Testacea marina univalvia, non
turbinata, sed ita in se contorta, ut eorum spirae non
promineant.
Sect. I. Testacea marina univalvia ita in se transversim,
vel oblique secundum longitudinem contorta, ut eo¬
rum circumvolutiones vix appareant. Gen. 1. Nau¬
tili. Gen. 2. Nuces marinse.
Sect. 2. Porcellanas, seu testacea marina univalvia non
turbinata. Gen. 1. Porcellanae vulgares. Gen. 2.
Porcellanse fimbriatse. Gen. 3. Porcellanse spirales.
Gen. 4. Porcellanae thoracicae. Gen. 5. Porcellanoe
minores integrse.
Sect. 3. Divis. 1. Cornua ammonis, quge sunt testacea
marina univalvia non turbinata, et serpentum in
modum in se contorta, ut eorum circumvolutiones
nulla ex parte promineant, et tamen ex utroque la¬
tere omnes appareant. Gen. 1. Cornua ammonis
unita. Gen. 2. Cornua ammonis anomala. Divis. 2.
Gen. I. Cornua ammonis simpliciter divisa.. Gen. 2.
Coruua ammqnis integra divisa,
CONCHOLOGY.
Pars
bap. !•
[i«tory.
Pars SeCUNDA. Cochlea marina, sen testacea marina
tinivulvia turbinata, qua unica tanhnn constant vulva
et Jigura sun cochlearum in modum intorta sunt, ita
vt intimo eorum spira aliquo saltern modo promineat
et producatur.
Classis Prima. Cochleae marinae longae, seu coch¬
leae marinoe ore admodum elengato et superius a-
CONCHOLOGY.
canaliculati acuminatl. Gen. 2. Strombi canalicu-
latl rostrati, ore simplicl. Gen. 3. Strombi canali¬
culati rostrati, ore anguloso. Gen. 4. Strombi cana¬
liculati rostrati, ore labioso. Gen. 5. Strombi sulcati
vulgares. Gen. 6. Strombi sulcati, ore labioso.
Sect. 2. Strombi integri, ore superius clauso, seu inte-
gro. Gen. 1. Strombi integri vulgares, ore simplici.
Gen. 2. Strombi integri, ore labioso. Gen. 3. Strombi
integri, ore fimbriato et dentato.
perto.
Sect. I. Cochleae marinae longse ore labiis rectis.
Gen. 1. Cochleae pyramidales. Gen. 3. Cochleae
cylindroideae.
Sect. 2, Cochleae longae pyriformes, seu cochleae ma¬
rinae longae ore labiis leviter incurvatis, ideoque
etiam leviter ventricosis. Divis. 1. Cochleae longae
pyriformes minores. Gen. 1. Cochleae long* pyri¬
formes minores, vulgares. Gen. 2. Cochleae longae
pyriformes minores intortas integrae. Gen. 3. Coch¬
leae longae pyriformes minores intortae et insulcatae.
D ivis. 2. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores. Gen. I.
Cochleae longae pyriformes majores vulgares. Gen. 2.
Cochleae longae pyriforaies majores, intortae integrae.
Gen. 3. Cochleae longae pyriformes majores intortae
cylindroideae.
Classis Secunda. Cochleae canaliculatae, seu coch¬
leae marinae ore elongato et superius in canaliculum
abeunte.
Sect. 1. Cochleae marinae canalicula recta. Gen. I,
Cochleae canaliculatae rectae tenuiores. Gen. 2.
Cochleae canaliculatae rectae crassiores. Gen. 3. Pur-
purae rectirostrae.
Sect. 2. Cochleae marinae canaliculatae incurvatae. Gen.
1. Cochleae canaliculatae introrsum incurvatae. Gen.
2. Cochleae canaliculatae extrorsum incurvatae. Gen.
3. Murices. Gen. 4. Cochleae muriciformes in-
signiter incrispatae. Gen. 5. Purpurse curvirostrae.
Gen. 6. Cochleae cassidiformes umbilicatfe. Gen. 7.
Cassidae.
Classis Tertia. Buccina sunt cochleae marinae ore
et mucrone simul elongatis, primaque spira notabi-
liter ventricosa.
Sect. 2. Buccina parva mucrone mediocriter elongato
et tenuiter acuminato. Gen. 1. Buccina parva pruni-
formia acuminata. Gen. 2. Buccina parva pruni-
formia canaliculata. Gen. 3. Buccina parva curvi-
rostra. Gen. 4. Buccina parva sulcata. Gen. 5.
Buccina parva sulcata et canaliculata. Gen. 6. Buc¬
cina parva Integra ore perpendicular!. Gen. *]. Buc¬
cina parva Integra ore obliquo.
Sect. 2. Buccina majora, quse sunt Buccina mucrone
admodum elongato et acuminato. Gen, I. Buccina
majora canaliculata rostrata ore simplici. Gen. 2.
Buccina majora canaliculata, ore labioso. Gen. 3.
Buccina majora canaliculata rostrata, ore labioso,
fimbriata. Gen. 4. Buccina majora canaliculata et
sulcata.
Classis Quarta. Strombi, qui sunt cochle* ma-
rin* ore et mucrone simul insigniter elongatis, et
prima spira notabiliter angustiore quam in Bucciuis.
Sect. 1. Strombi ore superius aperto. Gen. X. Strombi
Classis Quinta. Cochleae marinae, ore admodum
brevi seu parvo, mucrone vero insigniter elongato.
Sect. 1. Turbines aperti, seu cochleae marinae, ore ad-
modum brevi seu parvo superius aperto, mucrone
longissimo. Gen. I. Turbines aperti lati. Gen, 2.
Turbines aperti acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines aper¬
ti canaliculati recte rostri. Gen. 4. Turbines aperti
canaliculati oblique incurvati. Gen. 5. Turbines
aperti sulcati.
Sect. 2. Turbines integri, ore superius clauso seu inte-
gro. Gen. 1. Turbines integri vulgares. Gen. 2.
Turbines integri acuminati. Gen. 3. Turbines in¬
tegri fimbriati.
Sect. 3. Trochi seu cochleae marinae ore admodum
brevi, seu parvo e basi lata et quasi plana in mucro-
nem quasi rectilineam conoideum insigniter elonga-
tum abeuntes. Gen. I. Trochi ore angusto et hori-
sontaliter compresso. Gen. 2. Trochi ore ampliore
et subrotundo.
Classis Sexta. Cochleae marinae breviores, seu
cochleae marinae ore et mucrone breviores, magisque
contracto.
Sect. 1. Cochleae breviores proportionatae. Gen. 1.
Cochleae trochiformes breviores proportionatae et
mucronatae. Gen. 2. Cochleae marinae terrestri-
formes breviore proportionatae. Gen. 3. Cochleae
depress*.
Sect. 2. Cochle* marin* breviores perpendiculariter
anomal*. Gen. 1. Nerit*. Gen. 2. Cochle* um¬
bilical* foramine spirarum semicircular!. Gen. 3.
Cochle* umbilicat* foramine spirarum rotundo.
Sect. 3. Cochle* marin* breviores horisontaliter ano¬
mal*. Gen. I. Cochle* plan*. Gen. 2. Aures
marin*.
Sect. 4. Varia hucusque enarratarum cochlearum oper-
cula qu* aut propter usum aut propter singularem
structuram, magis nota sunt. Gen. 1. Opercula
cochlearum marinarum subrotunda. Gen. 2. Un¬
gues marini, seu opercula cochlearum marinarum
oblonga.
Pars Tertia. Concha marina, id est testacea mari¬
na bivalvia qua duabus constant valvis in car dine,
articulatione quadam inter se conjunctis, ut commode
claudi et aperiri queant.
Sect. 1. Conch* marin* notabiliter. umbonat* et rec-
t* incurvat*. Gen. 1. Conch* marin* valvis *-
qualibus *quilater*. Gen. 2. Conch* cordiformes
umbone cardinum deducto. Gen. 3. Conch* mari-
n* cordiformes *quilater*, umbone cardinum^unito.
Sect. 2. Conch* marin* valvis *qualibus *quilater*
leviter. umbonat*. Gen. 1. Conch*crass*. Gen. 2.
Pec tines
! C ' i,
;Q0 CONCH
Hist' ry. Pectlnes tenues. Gen. 3. Pectunculi. Gen. 4. Con-
elite pectiniformes gequilaterse subrotundae. Gen. 5*
Conchae pectiniformes aequilaterae.
Sect. 3. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus aequilaterae,
notabiliter unibonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. I.
Conchae marinae incurvatae subrotundae vulgares.
Gen. 2. Chamae aequilaterae.
Sect. 4. Conchae marinae, valvis aequalibus aequilaterae,
Jevitur umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus subrotundae. Gen.
2. Tellinae aequilaterae.
Sect. 5. Pinnae, seu conchae marinae valvis aequalibus
aequilaterae, cardine umbone destituta. Gen. 1. Pin¬
nae rectae. Gen. 2. Pinnae incurvatae.
Classis Secunda. Conchae inaequilaterae, seu conchae
marinae valvis aequalibus ex utroque cardinis latere
inaequaliter effusae.
Sect. 1. Conchae nparinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae
notabiliter umbonatae, et rectae incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae sub¬
rotundae. Gen. 2. Conchae marinae cordiformes in¬
aequilaterae, umbone cardine deducto. Gen. 3. Con¬
chae marinae cordiformes inaequilaterae, umbone car-
dinum unito.
Sect. 2. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilate¬
rae, leviter umbonatae et rectae incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae marinae leviter umbonatae et rectae incurva¬
tae subrotundae.
Sect. 3. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inequilate-
rae, notabiliter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae, sub¬
rotundae vulgares. Gen. 1. Chamae inaequilaterae.
Gen. 2. Conchae rhomboidales.
Sect. 4. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae,
Jeviter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae. Gen. 1.
Conchae max-inae, &c. subrotundae. Gen. 2. Conchae
pectiniformes inaequilaterae triangulares. Gen. 3.
Tellinae inaequilaterae. Gen. 4. Conchae tellinaefor-
mes. Gen. 5. Musculi. Gen. 6. Conchae longae-
rugosae. Gen. 7. Conchae soleniformes. Gen. 8.
Mytili.
Sect. 5. Conchae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae,
leviter umbonatae et oblique incurvatae, structura et
striis peculiaribus. Gen. 1. Conchae imbricatae. Gen.
2. Pholades. Gen. 3. Dactyli. Gen. 4. Hystero-
conchae. Gen. 5. Conchae alaeformes. Gen. 6. Con¬
chae quadratae.
Sect. 6. Conchae inaequilaterae non umbonatae, seu con¬
chae marinae valvis aequalibus inaequilaterae, cardine
umbone destitute. Gen. 1. Solenes. Gen. 2. Concbae
marinae, &c. structura peculiar]*.
Chassis Tertia. Conchae anomalae, seu conchae ma¬
rinae valvis inaequalibus.
Sect. 1. Conchae marinae anomalae umbonatee et auritse.
Gen. 2. Pectines anomali. Gen. 1. Spondyli.
Sect. 2. Ostreae, seu conchae marinae anomalae omni-
no, non vel irregulariter tantum umbonatae rugosae.
Gen. 1. Ostrea vulgaris. Gen. 2. Ostrea denticu-
lata. Gen. 3. Ostrea rostrata. Gen. 4. Ostrea pe-
culiaris.
Of Btey- different system was proposed for the classi-
ai*g. fication of testaceous animals by Breynius, in the fol¬
lowing work, which was published in the year 1732.
O L O G Y. Chap.
Joannis Philippi Breynii dissertatio physica de poly- History
thalamiis, nova testaceorum classe, cui queedam preemit- l—— y—,
tuntur de methodo testacea in classes et genera distt'i-
buendi: huic adjicitur commentatiuncula de belemnilis
prussicis, tandemque schediasma de Echinis methodice
disponendis ; Gedani, 173 2, 4to.
SYSTEM of BREYNIUS.
In this system the author has divided shells into the
eight following classes, viz. I. Tubulus. 2. Cochlidium.
3. Polythalamium. 4. Lepas. 5. Concha. 6. Con-
choides. 7. Balanus. 8. Echinus.
1. Tubulus, est testa tubulosa monothalamia, vel in
lineam rectam extensa, vel incurva, vel contorta, vel
aliquando ad spii'am, sed iri’egulariter, accedens. Huic
pertinent dentalia, entalia, solenes univalvi, &c.
2. Cochlidium, est testa tubulosa, monothalamia, co-
nica, inspirans constanter regularem, convoluta ali¬
quando opercula prsedita, sepius vero eo destituta. Ad
hanc classem spectant nautili tenues sive vacui vulgo
dicti; aures marinse, neritse, cochleae, buccina, muri-
ces, cassides, cylindri, volutae, porcellanae, et omnes
testae turbinatae, exceptis nautilo et anomra, ad classem
tertiam referendis.
3. Polythalamium, est testa tubulosa polythalamia,
conica, recta, vel in spiram regularem convoluta, cum
syphunculo thalamos transeunte : huic reducendi nau¬
tili anomia, litui, et orthocerata.
4. Lepas, est testa vasculosa simplex, referens vas-
culum magis minusve cavum, orificio multum patenta,
ut patellae similesque.
5. Concha, est testa vasculosa conyposita bivalvis, id
est quae ex duabus componitur valvis, sive vasculis ma¬
gis minusve concavis in cardine articulatione quadam
inter se junctis ut aperiri et claudi queant j ut chamae,
mytili, tellinae, pinnae, ostreae, pectines anomiae.
6. Comhoides, est testa vasculosa composita bivalvis,
sed quae prseterea et aliquot minoribus portiunculis tes-
taceis componitur, ut pholades anatiferae.
7. Balanus, est testa vasculosa composita, que prae-
ter unicam testam majorem alias portiones minores ha-
bet ex quibus componitur, ut balanus vulgo dictus.
8. Echinus, est testa vasculosa composita, undique
clausa; magis minusve concava, duobus tantum fora-
minibus seu aperturis pro ore et ano perforata, externe
aculeis vel claviculis mobilibus testaceis armata.
S
IV. The system of Tournefort appeared for the first Of Tout ■
time, and was published from the author’s manuscript,fort'
in the treatise on conchology by Gualtieri. In this
system shells are divided into three classes, viz. Mono-
toma, Ditoma, and Polytoma.
SYSTEM of TOURNEFORT.
Testacea dicuntur quorundam animalium integumen-
ta, quse testae seu lateris duritiem habent, et in quibus
tantum, in testa animalia vivant.
Testacea autem omnia quae hucusque in musaeis cu-
riosorum adversari et congeri solent, ad tres classes fa¬
cile revocari possunt. Haec enim vel monotoma sunt,
vel ditoma, vel polytoma.
Monotoma testacea appellantur ea quorum testa in¬
divisa est $ ditoma quae geminis constant testis ad car-
dinem
I iap<
dinem conriixis j polytoma vero quse ex pluribus simul
i j adnexis compinguntur.
Classis Prima. Quse testacea monotoma com-
plectitur. Testacea monotoma quorum testa indi¬
visa est, in tres familias abeant: alia enim univalvia
sunt, alia spiralia, alia fistulosa.
Familia I. Testaceorum univalvium. Monotoma u-
nivalvia dicimus quorum testa simplex est, in os amplius
effusa. Gen. I. Lepas. Gen. 2. Eruca.
391
the engravings, which are 80 in number, and are exe- History,
cuted with great accuracy and elegance. But the de- 1 —
scriptions of the genera and species only reach the 19th
plate j so that the work which was published in 1780
is still unfinished.
SYSTEM of D’ARGENVILLE.
In this system shells are divided into four parts. I.
Sea-shells. II. Fresh-water shells. III. Land-shells.
IV. Fossil-shells.
C O N C H O L O G Y.
Familia II. Testaceorum spiralium. Monotoma spi¬
ralia dicimus testacea quorum pars inferior in spiram
contorquetur : horum autem spiras seu helices exterius
patent, et simpliciter spiralia dicuntur, vel eorum spira
intus reconditur, et convoluta dicuntur.
Divis. 1. Testacea monotoma simpliciter spiralia, seu
quorum spira exterior est. Gen. 1. Murex. Gen. 2.
Murex alatus. Gen. 3. Murex aporrhais. Gen. 4.
Murex venereus. Gen. 5. Murex pyramidalis. Gen. 6.
Buccinum. Gen. 7. Buccino-murex. Gen. 8. Purpu¬
ra. Gen. 9. Buccino-purpura. Gen. 10. Peribolus.
Gen. 11. Turbo. Gen. 12. Verticiilus. Gen. 13.
Cochlea. Gen. 14. Cochlea terrestris. Gen. 15. Ce-
ratites. Gen. 16. Cochlea marina. Gen. 17. Nerita.
Gen. 18. Auris marina.
Divis. 2. Testacea monotoma spiralia convoluta, quae
cochleam interiorem habent vix foris conspicuam.
Gen. 1. Concha venerea. Gen. 2. Concha persica.
Gen. 3. Nautilus. Gen. 4. Conchilium.
Part I. Sea-shells are divided into 3 Classes. 1. Uni¬
valves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves.
Class I. contains 15 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Oreil-
les de mer. 3. Tuyaux et Vermisseaux de mer. 4.
Nautiles. 5. Limagons a bouche ronde. 6. Lima-
£ons h bouche demi-ronde. 7. Lima^ons & bouche a-
platie. 8. Cornets ou Volutes. 9. Olives ou Cylin-
dres. 10. Rochers ou Murex. 11. Tonnes. 12.
Porcelaines. 13. Buccins. 14. Pourpres. 15.
Vis.
Class II. contains 7 families, viz. 1. Huitres. 2. Ca¬
rnes. 3. Tellines. 4. Monies. 5. Cceurs. 6. Peignes.
7. Manches de couteaux.
Class III. consists of 7 families, viz. I. Oscahrions,
ou lepas & huit pieces. 2. Oursins. 3. Glands de
mer. 4. Pousse-pieds. 5. Conques anatiferes. 6.
Pholades. 7. Tuyaux de mer multivalves.
Familia III. Testaceorum jistulosorum. Testacea
monotoma fistulosa seu tubulosa, ut ex nomine patet,
fistulae in modum tenuantur. Gen. 1. Dentale. Gen.
2. Entale. Gen. 3. Tubuli marini.
Classis Secunda, quae testacea ditoma continet.
Testacea ditoma semper ex duabus testis ad cardinem
articulatis compinguntur, et vel arete undique claudun-
tur, vel utrinque hiant; unde in duas familias dividi
possunt.
Familia I. Testaceorum ditomorum quae arete clau-
duntur. Gen. 1. Concha. Gen. 2. Conchula. Gen. 3.
Ostreum. Gen. 4. Mytilus. Gen. 5. Pinna. Gen. 6.
Perna. Gen. 7. Pholas. Gen. 8. Pecten. Gen. 9.
Pectunculus.
Familia II. Testaceorum ditomorum quae semper
hiant. Gen. 1. Chamae. Gen. 2. Solen.
Part II. Fresh-water shells are divided into 2 Classes.
1. Univalves. 2. Bivales.
Class I. contains 8 families, viz. 1. Lepas. 2. Nauti¬
les ou cornes d’ammon. 3. Lima^ons a bouche
ronde. 4. Lima^ons a bouche demi-ronde. 5. Li-
ma^ons a bouche triangulaire. 6. Tonnes. 7. Buc¬
cins. 8. Vis.
Class II. is composed of two families. 1. Carnes. 2.
Tellines.
Part III. Land shells, constituting a single class, viz.
Univalves, which contains 6 families $ viz. I. Lepas.
2. Lima^ons & bouche ronde. 3. Lima^ons a bouche
demi-ronde. 4. Lima^ons a bouche aplatie. 5.
Buccins. 6. Vis.
Classis Tertia, quae testacea polytoma continet.
Polytoma testacea dicuntur quorum testae ex pluribus
partibus vel articulatis, vel per cartilaginem connexis
compinguntur $ unde in duas familias abeunt.
Familia I. Eorum quorum partes articulantur.
Gen. 1. Echinus.
Familia II. Eorum quorum partes per cartilaginem
connectuntur. Gen. 1. Balanus.
f D’Ar- V. M. D’Argenville, in 1742, published at Paris a
wille. treatise on Conchology with 33 plates. A second edi¬
tion of the same work appeared at Paris in 1757*
this edition the number of the plates was increased to 41.
A more splendid edition was published after the death
of the author, by M. M. de Favanne de Montcerville
father and son. This edition is extended to 3 volumes,
two of which consist of letter press, and the 3d contains
Part IV. Fossil shells, which consist of 3 classes. 1.
Univalves. 2. Bivalves. 3. Multivalves.
Class I. is composed of 15 families having the same
names as the first class of sea-shells.
Class II. contains 7 families similar to the 2d class of
sea-shells.
Class III. consists of 5 families, viz. 1. Oursins. 2.
Glands de mer. 3. Pousse-pieds. 4. Pholades. 5.
Tuyaux multivalves.
10
VI. A system of Conchology was published by Klein Of Klein,
in 1753, and illustrated with engravings. In the same
work the author enters into an investigation concern¬
ing the formation, increase, and colours of shells. The
following is an abridged view of this arrangement.
SYSTEM
It
Of Adan-
soa.
CONCH
SYSTEM of KLEIN.
In this system, shells are divided Into 6 parts.
Part I. which Is entitled Cochlis, Is divided Into 2
sections, viz. Cochlis simplex, and Cochlis cora-
posita.
Sect. I. consists of 8 classes, viz. I. Cochlis plana, con¬
taining 4 genera. 2. Cochlis convexa, 6 genera.
3. Cochlis fornicata, 5 genera. 4. Cochlis elliptica,
6 genera. 5. Cona-cochlis, 16 genera. 6. Cochlea,
8 genera. 7. Buccinum, 5 genera. 8. Turbo, 14
genera.
Sect. II. Consists of five classes, viz. 1. Cochlis rostra-
ta, 7 genera. 2. Voluta longa, 15 genera. 3. Vo-
luta ovata, 8 genera. 4. Alata, 6 genera. 5. Mu-
rex, 2 genera.
Part II. Concha, Is also divided into 2 sections, viz.
Monoconchse and Diconchae aequales.
Sect. I. contains 2 classes, viz. I. Patella, 2 genera.
2. Ansata, 4 genera.
Sect. II. consists of three subdivisions, viz. I. Diconchge
conniventes. 2. Diconchse interrupt*. 3. Diconchae
inaequales.
Subdiv. 1. is composed of 6 classes, viz. I. Diconchae
figuratae, 4 genera. 2. Ostreum, 6 genera. 3.
Musculus, 3 genera. 4. Cyclas. 5. Diconcha au-
rita, 9 genera. 6. Dicouchae cordiformes, 3 ge¬
nera.
Subdiv. 2. consists of 5 classes, viz. I. Diconcha sulca¬
ta. 2. Diconchae umbilicatae, 3 genera. 3. Diconchae
sinu profundo, seu chamae, 3 genera. 4. Diconchae
sinu prominulo, seu tellinae, 6 genera. 5. Pyloris,
9 genera.
Subdiv. 3. Diconchae inaequales, 7 genera.
Part III. Polyconchae, consists only of one genus.
Part IV. Niduli Testacei, comprehends one class, viz.
Balanus, which includes 4 genera.
Part V. Echinus marinus, seu echinodermata, is di¬
vided into 3 sections, viz. I. Anocysti. 2. Catocy-
sti. 3. Pleurocysti.
Sect. I. contains 2 classes, viz. I. Cidaris, 9 genera. 2.
Clipeus, 1 genus.
Sect. II. is composed of four classes, viz. I. Fibula, 2
genera. 2. Classis, 2 genera. 3. Scutum, 2 genera.
4. Placenta, 3 genera.
Sect. III. consists of 3 classes, viz. 1. Arachnoides, 1
genus. 2. Cor marinum, 2 genera. 3. Ovum ma-
rinum, 2 genera.
Part VI. Tubulus marinus is composed of 11 genera.
In the systems of Conchology which we have now
exhibited, the characters are taken from the shells. In
the three following, the marks of discrimination are
derived from the animal as well as from the shell. The
first by M. Adanson was published in 1757.
SYSTEM of ADANSON.
This system consists of 3 classes, viz. 1. Lima^ons. 2.
Les conques. 3. Les conques multivalves.
Class I. Lima^ons. Sect. I. Lima^ons univalves.
Sect. II. Lima^ons opercules.
3
O L O G Y. Chap.
Sect. I. Famille 1. Les lima^ons univalves qui n’ont fjigtorTi
ni yeux ni cornes. Gen. 1. La gondole, v—y—
Famille 2. Les lima^ons univalves qui ont deux
cornes, et les yeux places a leur racine et sur leur
c6te interne. Gen. 2. Le bulin, bulinus. Gen. 3Y
Le coret, coretus. Gen. 4. Le pietin, pedipes.
Famille 3. Les lima^ons univalves qui ont quatres
cornes, dont les deux exterieures portent les yeux
sur leur sommet. Gen. 5. Le lima^on, cochlea.
Gen. 6. L’ormier, haliotis. Famille 4. Les li-
magons univalves qui ont deux cornes, et les yeux
places h leurs racines, et sur le cote externe, ou par
derriere. Gen. 7* Le lepas, lepas. Gen. 8. L’yet,
yetus. Gen. 9. La vis, lerebra. Famille 5. Les
limagons univalves qui ont deux cornes et les yeux
poses un peu au-dessus de leur racine, et sur leur
cote externe. Gen. 10. La porcellaine, porcellana.
Gen. 11. Le pucelage, cyprceu. Gen. I2> Le man¬
telet, peribolus.
Sect. II. Famille 1. Limagons opercules qui ont deux
cornes, avec un renflement, et qui portent les yeux
ordinairement au-dessus de leur racise, et h leur cote
externe. Gen. 1. Le rouleau, strombus. Gen. 2.
La pourpre, purpura. Gen. 3. Le buccin, buc¬
cinum. Gen. 4. Le cerite, cerithium. Famille 2.
Limagons opercules, qui ont deux cornes sans ren¬
flement, et les yenx places h leur racine, et sur leur
c6te externe. Gen. 5. Le vermet, vermetus. Gen.
6. La toupie, trochus. Gen. 7. La natice, natica.
Famille 3. Les limagons opercules, qui ont quatre
cornes, dont les deux exterieures portent les yeux
sur leur sommet. Gen. 8. Le sabot, turbo. Gen. 9.
La nerite, nerita.
Class II. Les conques. Sect. I. Les conques bi¬
valves. Famille I. Les conques bivalves, qui ont
les deux lobes du manteau separds, dans tout leur
contour. Gen. 1. L’huitre, ostreum. Famille 2.
Les conques bivalves dont les deux lobes du manteau
forment trois ouvertures sans aucun tuyau. Gen. 2.
Le jataron, jataronus. Gen. 3. Le jambonneau,
perna. Famille 3. Les conques bivalves dont les
deux lobes du manteau forment trois qpvertures dont
deux prennent la figure d’un tuyau asstz long. Gen.
4. La came, chama. Gen. 5. La telline, tellina.
Gen. 6. Le pectoncle, pectuncidus. Gen. 7. Le so¬
le n, solen.
Class III. Les conques multivalves. Famille 1. Les
conques multivalves, dont aucune des pieces de la
coquille ne pr nd la forme d’un tuyau. Gen. I.
La pholade, pholas. Famille 2. Les conques multi¬
valves, dont une des pidces de la coquille prend la
forme d’un tuyau qui enveloppe entierement toutes
les autres. Gen. 2. Le taret, teredo.
VIII. The method of Geoffroy, formed on similar Of Ge0*
principles with the last, was published at Paris in 1767,
in a work entitled “ A Summary Treatise on the Testa¬
ceous Animals found in the vicinity of Paris.” The
following is a view of this method.
SYSTEM of GEOFFROY.
Sect. I. Coquilles univalves.
Gen.. I. Le limax, cochlea. Quatre tentacules, dont
deux plus grands portent des yeux h leur extremite.
Coquille univalve en spirale.
Gen.
lap. L
istory. Gen. 2. Le buccin, buccinum. Benx tentacules plats
-y—< en formes d’ovellles. Les yeux places & la base ties
tentacules du cAte interieur. Coquille univalve en
spirale et conique.
Gen. 3. Planorbe, planorbis. Deux tentacules fili-
formes. Les yeux places & la base des tentacules du
cAtfc interieur. Coquille univalve en spirale, et or-
dinairement applatie.
Gen. 4. La nerite, nerita. Deux tentacules. Les
yeux places & la base des tentacules du cot6 exte-
rieur. Opercule & la coquille. Coquille univalve en
spirale et presque conique.
Gen. 5. Ancile, ancylus. Deux tentacules. Les yeux
places ^ la base des tentacules du c6t£ inferieur.
Coquille univalve concave et unie.
Sect. II. Coquilles univalves.
Gen. I. La dime, chama. Deux siphons simples et
alongees. Charniere de la coquille dentelle. Coquille
arrondle.
Gen. 2. La moule, tnytilus. Deux siphons courts et
franges. Charniere de la coquille membraneuse et
sans dents. Coquille along£e.
13
Muller. IX. The system of Muller first published in I773>
and afterwards extended in a different work which ap¬
peared in 1776, arranges testaceous animals into three
families. The following is a view of this arrangement
taken from the latter work on the zoology of Denmark
and Norway.
SYSTEM of MULLER.
Familia I. Testacea Univalvia.
Sect. I. Testacea univalvia, testa pervia.
Gen. 1. Echinus. Testa Crustacea, ano vertical!, ten-
taculis simplicibus.
Gen. 2. Spatagus. Testa Crustacea, ano infero, tenta-
culis penicillatis.
Gen. 3. Dentalium. Testa calcarea, testa rudi, ten-
taculis nulli.
Sect. II. Testacea univalvia, testa patula.
Gen. 4. Ahcra. Apertura effusa, tentaculis nullis.
Gen. 5. Argonauta. Apertura profunda, tentaculis
binis.
Gen. 6. Bulla. Apertura repanda, tentaculis hinis se-
taceis, colliculo extrinsecus oculatis.
Gen. 7. Buccinum. Apertura ovata, tentaculis hinis
triangularibus, angulo intrinseco oculatis.
Gen. 8. Carychium. Apertura ovata, tentaculis binis
truncatis conspicuis, angulo intrinseco oculatis.
Gen. 9. Vertigo. Apertura subquadrata, tentaculis bi¬
nis sublinearibus, apice oculatis.
Gen. 10. Turbo. Apertura orbicular!, tentaculis biuis
setaceis, conspicuis, angulo extrinseco oculatis.
Gen. 11. Helix. Apertura lunari, tentaculis quatuor
linearibus, apice oculatis.
Gen. 12. Planorbis. Apertura semilunari, tentaculis
binis setaceis, angulo intrinseco oculatis.
Gen. 13. Ancylus. Apertura totali tentaculis binis
truncatis, occultis, angulo extrinseco oculatis.
Gen. 14. Patella. Apertura totali, tentaculis binis se¬
taceis, occulto angulo, extrinseco oculatis.
VOL. VI. Part I.
393
Gen. 15. Haliotis. Apertura repanda, poris pertusa. History.
> 11^
Sect. III. Testacea univalvia, testa operculata.
Gen. 16. Tt'itonium. Libera, apertura canaliculata,
tentaculis duobus linearibus, angulo extrinseco ocu¬
latis.
Gen. 17. Trochus. Libera, apertura sub-tetragona, ten¬
taculis duobus setaceis, colliculo extrinseco oculatis.
Gen. 18. Herita. Libera, apertura lunari, tentaculis
duobus setaceis, angulo extrinseco oculatis.
Gen. 19. Valvata. Libera, apertura circinnata, ten¬
taculis duobus setaceis, angulo postico oculatis.
Gen. 20. Serpula. Adnata, apertura orbiculari, ten¬
taculis pinnatis.
Familia II. Testacea Bivalvia.
Sect. I. Testacea bivalvia cardine dentata.
Gen. 1. Mya. Testa altera extremitate hiante 3 car¬
dine dente crasso solitario.
Gen. 2. Solen. Testa utraque extremitate hiante 3 car¬
dine dente reflexo, stepe gemino.
Gen. 3. Tellina. Siphone duplici, murico 3 cardine
dentibus utrinque tribus alternis.
Gen. 4. Cardium. Siphone duplici, cirratq, pedeque
falciform! 3 cardine dentibus mediis alternis, remotis
penetralibus.
Gen. 5. Venus. Siphone duplici, cirrata, pedeque la-
minaeformi 3 cardine dentibus tribus approximatis,
lateralibus divergentibus.
Gen. 6. Mactra. Cardine dente medio complicato,
adjacente foveola.
Gen. 7. Dona*. Cardine dentibus duobus, lateralique
solitario.
Gen. 8. Area. Cardine dentibus numerosis, alternis,
penetrantibus,
Gen. 9. Terebratula. Branchiis circinnatis 3 cardine
dentibus alterius uncinatis, valvula superiore deor-
sum perforata.
Sect. H. Testacea bivalvia, cardine edentulo.
Gen. 10. Anomia. Branchiis simplicibus 3 valvula in-
feriore perforata.
Gen. 11. Ostrea. Branchiis simplicibus, pede nullo 3
cardines fossula cava.
Gen. 12. Pecten. Branchiis cirratis, pede juxta auri-
culam cardine fossula ovata, byssum emittens.
Gen. 13. Mytilus. Siphone duplici brevi 3 fossula li¬
near!, byssum efmittens.
Familia III. Testacea Multivalvia.
Gen. I. Chiton. Valvulae dorsales, tentacula nulla.
Gen. 2. Lepas. Valvulae erectae, tentacula bipartita.
Geo. 3. Pholas. Valvulae ad cardinem minores.
14
X. To this account of the different methods of ar-Da Costa,
ranging shells, we shall only add the system proposed
by Da Costa in his Elements of Conchology. In this
system the author adopts the usual general division into
Univalves, Bivalves, and Multivalves.
I. Univalves are distributed into i<5 families, which
are divided into four orders.
Order I. Simple 3 consists of four families. 1. Pa¬
tella. 2. Haliotis. 3. Vermiculi. 4. Dentalia. Order II.
includes only one family. 5. Polythalamia. Order III.
Revolved. Fam. 6. Turbinata involuta. Order IV. Tur-
3 D binated
CONCHOLOGY.
394
CONCH
Animals binated. Fam. 7. Cymbium. Fam. 8. Anris cochlea,
which inha-p. Cylindri. Fam. 10. Voluta. Fam. 11. Globosa. Fam.
bit Shells. I2, Cassides. Fam. 13. Trochi. Fam. 14. Cochleae.
1 ' v Fam. 15. Buccina. Fam. 16. Murex.
II. Bivalves composed of 3 orders.
Order I. With unequal valves, and shut close.
Fam. 1. Pecten. Fam. 2. Spondylus. Fam. 3. Ostre-
um. Fam. 4. Anomia. Ord. II. With equal valves,
O L O G Y. Chap. I
and shut close, is divided into three sections. Sect. 1. Animal!
Multarticulate. Fam. 5. Pectinoides. Fam. 6. Pec-whrchinli
tunculi. Fam. 7. Area. Sect. 2. Articulate. Fam. 8. bit Shell
Pectunculus. Fam. 9. Teilina. Fam. 10. Placenta. * —
Sect. 3. Inarticulate. Fam. II. Margaritifera. Fam.
12. Musculus. Ord. III. With valves that never shut
close. Fam. 13. Chama, Gapers.
III. Multivalves contain one order. Fam. 14.
Pholas. Fam. 15. Anatiferae. Fam. 16. Balani.
CHAP. II. OF THE ANIMALS WHICH INHABIT SHELLS.
15
Generic BEFORE we proceed to the classification of shells,
of testace* we s^ia^ ^ere a s^ort description of the animals
ousanimals, which inhabit them. Of these, however, a minute and
accurate anatomical description is not to be expected ;
for little more is known of the structure of these ani¬
mals than what has been given by naturalists concern¬
ing their external characters.
Some of the animals, which inhabit shells, are also
found in the mollusca state ; that is, without any testa¬
ceous covering. Such, for instance, is the Umax, or
snail.
The animals which have been found inhabiting
shells are the following ; viz. Doris, Triton, Ascidia,
Tethys, Limax, Spio, Amphitrite, Terebella, Ne¬
reis.
Doris.—The body is creeping, oblong, and flat be¬
neath ; the mouth is placed below on the forepart;
vent behind on the back, and surrounded by a fringe.
Feelers two or four, situated on the upper part of the
body in front, and retractile within the proper re¬
ceptacles.
The animal which inhabits the chiton belongs to
this genus.
Triton.—The body is oblong, and the mouth is fur¬
nished with an involute spiral proboscis \ tentacula or
arms 11, six on each side, divided nearly to the base.
The hind ones cheliforous.
The triton inhabits different species of lepas.
Ascidia.—The body is fixed, roundish, and apparent¬
ly issuing from a sheath $ apertures two, generally
placed near the upper end, one beneath the other. The
animals are found in the sea, and adhere by their base
to rocks, shells, and other submarine substances : they
are more or less gelatinous. The only powers of
motion which they possess seem to be that of contract-
. ing and dilating themselves alternately $ by which
means they are enabled to throw out the water which
they take in with considerable force.
This animal inhabits the pholas, solen, some species
of the mya, mactra, and other bivalves.
Tethys.—The body is detached, rather oblong,
fleshy, without peduncles: the mouth is furnished
with a terminal cylindrical proboscis, under an ex¬
panded membrane or lip : apertures two, on the left
side of the neck.
The tethys inhabits a great proportion of bivalve
shells, as many species of teilina, cardium, mactra, Ve¬
nus, ostrea, and others
Limax.—The body is oblong, creeping, with a fleshy
kind of shield above, and a longitudinal flat disc be¬
neath : aperture placed on the right side within the
shield : feelers 4, situated above the mouth, with an
eye at the tip of each of the larger ones.
The animals belonging to this genus inhabit the
turbinated univalve shells 5 but it appears that all the
animals which inhabit these shells do not exactly cor¬
respond with the above generic characters.
Spio.—The body projecting from a tube, jointed
and furnished with dorsal fibres; peduncles or feet rough
with bristles, and placed towards the back; feelers 2 ;
long, simple ; eyes 2 ; long.
This animal inhabits some species of sabella.
Amphitrite.—Body projecting from a tube, and an¬
nulate ; peduncles or feet small, numerous, with lateral
fasciculi, and branchiae; feelers 2, approximate, fea¬
thered ; no eyes.
The amphitrite inhabits some species of sabella and
serpula.
Terebella.—Ho&y oblong, creeping, naked, furnish¬
ed with lateral fasciculi, or tufts, and branchiae;
mouth placed before, furnished with lips, without teeth,
and protruding a clavated proboscis; feelers numerous,
ciliated, capillary, and placed round the mouth.
This animal is an inhabitant of many species of den-
talium, serpula and sabella.
Nereis.—Body long, creeping, with numerous late¬
ral peduncles or feet on each side ; feelers simple, rare¬
ly none ; eyes 2 or 4, rarely none. According to
some naturalists, the nereis inhabits some species of
sabella.
Sepia.—Body fleshy, receiving the breast in a sheath,
with a tubular aperture at its base; arms 8, beset
with numerous warts or suckers, and in most species 2
pedunculated tentacula ; head short; eyes large ; mouth
resembling a parrot’s beak.
The animal which inhabits the argonauta is consi¬
dered by naturalists as belonging to this genus.
Clio.—Body oblong, natant, generally sheathed, and
furnished with two dilated membranaceous arms or
wing-like processes ; tentacula 3, besides 2 in the mouth.
According to some naturalists, it is an animal be¬
longing to this genus, which inhabits the argonauta.
CHAP.
CONCHOLOGY.
iap
.III.
395
•ms em- Terms em-
jyed in ployed in
S:“s CHAP. III. OP THE TERMS WHICH ARE EMPLOYED INf DESCRIBING
-v—1 SHELLS.
16
:ms ex- AS it will tend to facilitate our progress in the stu-
ined. Jy 0f Conchology, clearly to understand the terms which
are employed in describing shells, and the names by
which the different parts have been distinguished by
naturalists ; we shall here give a few definitions of the
principal terms. And that these definitions may be
easily consulted, we shall observe the same order as in
the classification which is to be adopted. They may
be conveniently arranged, therefore, into the three di¬
visions of multivalves, bivalves, and univalves.
i. Explanation of the Terms of Multivalve Shells.
ilti- Multivalve shells are composed of more than two
ves. pieces.
Articulated (testae articulatae), when the different
pieces of which the shell is composed are so strongly
united that they seem to form one shell.
AEqutvalve shells (testae aequivalves), when the valves
of the two sides have the same form, size, and posi¬
tion.
A shell is said to adhere (testa adherens,) when it is
attached to solid bodies by some of the pieces of
which it is composed : It is said to be loose (testa
libera), when it is not attached by any point.
'Pedunculated (testa pedunculata), when all the pieces
of which it is composed, are supported by a tendi¬
nous peduncle which is fixed to solid bodies.
Tubular (testa tubulosa,) when the greatest part of the
shell is formed of a cylindrical tube.
Base of the shell (basis testae), that part on which it
is supported.
Ligament (ligamentum), is a membranous or tendi¬
nous substance which connects the valves together,
and sometimes lines the cavity of the shells. Of
this there are several varieties.
—  scaly (ligamentum squamatum,) when the sur¬
face is covered with small granular scales.
— prickly (ligamentum aculeatum), when the
surface is furnished with small rough points.
— smooth (ligamentum laeve), when the surface
has neither points, scales, nor tubercles.
punctated (ligamentum punctatum), when the
surface is marked with small cavities.
Lid (operculum), is the name given to four small tri¬
angular valves, articulated in the form of a cross,
which shut up the superior orifice of some species of
multivalve shells.
Peduncle (pedunculus) is the tendinous substance which
supports some of the multivalve shells. It is flexi¬
ble while the animal is alive, and is smooth or
scaly.
Bays (radii) j these are impressions on the external
surface of some shells $ they are of a conical form,
having the vertex turned towards the base of the
shell. They are only distinctly seen in adult
shells.
filiform (radii filiformes) are long and narrow.
smooth (radii leves.)——
striated (radii transversim striati.)——
Vlives (valvulae) are the different pieces of which mul¬
tivalve shells are composed.
2. Explanation of the Terms applied to Bivalve Shells.
A bivalve shell is said to adhere (testa adherens), gjvaiyes
when it is fixed by any part of one of its valves to
a solid body.
It is said to have ears (testa aurita), when it forms
at its base, one or two compressed angles.
Gaping (testa hians), when the valves do not shut
close.
Bearded (testa harbata), covered externally with an
epidermis composed of strong hair or bristles.
Compressed (testa compressa), when the valves are flat,
forming a small cavity.
Heart-shaped (testa cordata), having the form of a
heart 5 (subcordata) approaching to that form.
Toothless (edentula) without teeth at the hinge.
Equilateral (testa sequilatera), when the anterior and
posterior part of the shell is equal in form and
figure.
Equivalve (equivalvis), when the two valves are simi¬
lar in form and convexity.
Irregidar (testa irregularis), when the form varies in
the individuals of the species.
Lenticular (lenticularis) when the valves are round,
and little elevated in the middle, and diminish gra¬
dually in thickness towards the edges.
Linear (testa linearis), when the length considerably
exceeds the breadth, but without a cylindrical
form.
Tongue-shaped (linguaeformis), flat and oblong, having
the two extremities round and obtuse.
Boat-shaped (navicularis), resembling the figure of a
boat.
Pectinated (pectinata), when the valves being furnish¬
ed with longitudinal ribs, have on their anterior sur¬
face ribs nearly transverse, which form by their union
with the first acute angles.
Radiated (radiata), when it is marked on the external
surface with rays, ribs, or elevated striae, which pro¬
ceed from the extremity of the summits, and termi¬
nate in the circumference of the valves.
Beaked (rostrata), when one of its surfaces, either an¬
terior or posterior, being contracted and elongated,
terminates in form of a beak.
Base (basis). The situation in which Linnaeus has de¬
scribed and considered bivalve shells, consists in
placing the beaks of the shell turned downwards,
in such a way that the ligaments of the valves may
be seen, so that the base of the shell is the region of
its beaks.
Margin of the shell (margo testae) signifies the whole
circumference of the shell, parallel to the edge of
the valves. It is divided into anterior, posterior, and
superior.
■ anterior (margo anterior), when the shell is
placed on the beak of the valve, commences at
the side of the ligament, on the fore-part of the
3 D 2 beaks,
396
Terms em¬
ployed in
describing
Shells.
CONCH
beaks, and extends to one-third of the whole circum¬
ference of the valves.
Margin posterior (margb posterior), extends to one-
third of the circumference from the beaks of the
valves behind.
 superior (margo superior), includes the upper
part of the circumference of the valves comprehend¬
ed between the superior extremity of the anterior
margin, and the superior extremity of the posterior
margin. Hence the whole circumference of the
shell is divided into three equal parts.
Margins of the valves (margines valvularum), signify
the whole interiqr circumference of the valves, in¬
cluding about the breadth of a line of the outer
edge. They are divided into
    furrowed (margines canaliculati), having on
some part of the anterior circumference, a small gut¬
ter parallel to it.
—— ■ notched (margines crenulati), furnished inte¬
riorly with rounded notches.
■  toothed (margines dentati), provided with
pointed teeth.
folded (margines plicati), furnished with folds
which reciprocally correspond with those of the op¬
posite valve.
— . ' —i simple (margines simplices), having neither
folds, teeth, nor notches.
  striated (margines striati), having longitudinal
striae.
Hinge. The hinge of a shell is the most solid and thick¬
est part of the circumference of the valves, consti¬
tuting their base. It is almost always furnished with
teeth of dilferent proportions, which serve to fix the
valves together. The hinge is
—— compressed (cardo depressus), formed of one
compressed tooth.
 — lateral (cardo lateralis), when it is placed at
one of the sides of the shell.
  - oblong (cardo oblongus), when it occupies the
whole base of the shell.
  reflected (cardo reflexus), when its edges are
folded back externally towards the convexity of the
valves.
    terminal (cardo termlnalis), situated at the in¬
ferior extremity of the shell.
truncated (cardo truncatus), when the base
of the shell terminates transversely and suddenly,
and the teeth of the binge are fixed in this part.
Teeth (dentes), are solid protuberances, commonly
pointed, with which the hinge of shells is usually
furnished, and which are destined to fix the two
valves together. They are divided into
  —. alternate (dentes alternati), when they are
placed in a line parallel to the edges of the hinge j
and when the teeth of one valve are received into
the interstices of the teeth of the other valve.
.m  articulated (dens insertus), when it is receiv¬
ed in a corresponding cavity at the opposite
valve.
— forked (dens duplicatus seu blfidus), having
the point divided into two.
n—■»— . cardinal (dens primarius seu cardinalis), is the
tooth which is placed immediately opposite.
— compressed (dens depressus), which is very
. much flattened,.
O L O G Y. Chap. H
Teeth erect (dens erectus), when the valve is laid on Terras e?
the convex side, the tooth rises perpendicularly. ployed!
• - ■ longitudinal (dens longitudinalis), when it ex- deseribir
tends like a rib on the base of the valves. . Sh^8, '
The disk (discus), signifies the convex centre of the
valves, which is usually situated between the belly
of the shell and its limb.
Limb (limbus), is the circumference of the valves from
the disk to their edges.
Belly of the shell (testae umbo), is the most inflated
part of the valves.
It is vaulted (umbo fornicatus), when in the interior of
the valves it exhibits a cavity separated from the
hinge by a vertical membrane.
Nates are two protuberances of a conical figure, some¬
what spiral, which accompany the external base of
most bivalve shells. They are
   flattened (nates depressae), when the surface is
sensibly compressed.
— — - approximate (nates approximate), meeting to¬
gether when the shell is shut.
. horned (nates corniformes), when the angles
being considerable, and their direction waved or spi¬
ral, they resemble a horn.
-■. bent (nates incurvatse), when the curvature of
the one is directed towards that of the other.
— " ■ separated (nates distantes), when they are se¬
parated from each other, at least the distance of a
line.
— ■ . distant (nates remotissimse), when the interval
is very great.
■ ■ ■ reflected (nates recurvae), when the curva¬
ture is directed towards the posterior surface of the
shell.
•  wrinkled (nates rugosae), when the surface is
marked with unequal lines.
•  - spiral (nates spirales), when the curvature ex¬
hibits more than one circumvolution.
Vulva, is situated at the lower part of the anterior mar¬
gin of the valves. It is divided into
■ M ' hollowed (excisa, seu canaliculata), when it is
marked with a groove during its whole length.
  distinct (distincta), marked by a perceptible
difference of colour.
— lettered (scripta seu literata), when the sur¬
face is marked with lines resembling written cha¬
racters.
■ inflected (inflexa), when the edge of the lips
is bent towards the inner surface of the valves.
Anus, is an impression, usually hollow, placed at the
lower part of the posterior surface. It is divided
into
    bordered (marginatus), when it is circumscrib¬
ed by a distinct elevation.
■    heart-shaped (cordatus), exhibiting the form of
a heart.
 — toothed (dentatus), furnished with teeth or
notches.
■ . ■ ■ lanceolated (lanceolatus) when the length is
greater than the breadth, and the extremities are
pointed.
- open (patulus seu hians), forming by the se¬
paration of its edges, a considerable opening, which
penetrates into the interior of the shell.
-   oval (ovatus), of an elliptical figure.
Valves,
cribing
hells.
(iap. III. C O N 0 H
Jmsem_ Valves, of bivalve shells, are divided into right and
)yed in left, equal and unequal, equilateral and inequilate¬
ral, superior and inferior.
  — right valve (dextra), is distinguished from the
left, by placing the shell on its base, having the car¬
dinal ligament before, and the anus behind. In this
position the right valve of the shell corresponds to
the left of the observer, and the left valve (sinistra)
to the right of the observer.
—  equal (equales), when the right valve corre¬
sponds with the left in form, size, and other external
characters.
superior (valvula superior). In an irregular
shell, such as the oyster, one of the valves is attach¬
ed to solid bodies $ the other in this case is superior.
This valve is sometimes called by Linnaeus, the lid
(operculum) : in some species it is flat and small,
and in others more convex than the inferior valve.
■ keel-shaped (valvulse carinatae), when
part of their convexity presents a sharp edge,
chambered (concameratae), when they
one
exhi¬
bit in their cavity testaceous plates, detached and
raised.
spinous (spinosae), when the whole surface is
furnished with spines.
-   handed (fasciatae), exhibiting large coloured
transverse stripes or bands.
■ lamellated (lamellosse), when the surface is
furnished with plates more or less separated.
-   radiated (radiatae), exhibiting divergent or
coloured rays.
sinuated (lacunosae), when one of the valves
has a sensible depression at the middle of its mar¬
gin, and a corresponding elevation of the opposite
valve.
■ striated (striatse) when the surface is marked
with strias.
   transverse, when the striae are parallel to the
margin of the valves.
—— — longitudinal, when they run from the base to
the circumference.
Muscular impressions (impressiones), are marks on the
interior surface of the valves, where the muscles of
the animal are attached.
—   solitary (solitariae), when the inner surface of
each valve has only one.
—— double (duplicate), two on the inner surface
of each valve.
—   - triple or ternate (ternate), three in each
valve.
Ligament (ligamentum), is a horny substance, of little
flexibility, which unites the two valves near their
base, and which in almost all bivalve shells is placed
at the lower end of their anterior surface. It is
divided into
—  gaping (hians), when its upper extremity is
divided into two.
—■ ■ ■■ double (duplex), when under the external li¬
gament there appears a second, in a particular hol¬
low of the hinge> which does not appear externally.
— internal (internum), when it unites the valves
without appearing externally.
—~— profound (retractum seu intractum), when it
is so deep in the suture as scarcely to he seen when
the valves are shut.
O L O G Y. 397
——truncated (truncatum), when shorter than its Terms em-
suture. ployedin
Furrows (sulci), are those impressions or interstices
between the ribs or rays on the surface of the ' ^ .
valves.
  square (quadrat!), when the bottom is flat.
  lamellated (lamellosi), when the bottom is
marked with small transverse scales.
      ■ punctated (excavato punctati), when the whole
surface is marked with small cavities or dots.
3. Explanation of Terms applied to Univalve Shells.
19
The base, (basis) is the most elevated part of the Univalves.,
shell, opposite to the spire. It is divided into
■ ■ ■ notched (emarginata), when it is accompanied
with a deep notch.
■ - tubular (tubulosaseu cordata), when it is form¬
ed by a tube.
   simple or entire (simplex aut integra) without
notch or tube.
Summit (vertex) signifies the top of some patellae, and
from its position is central, marginal, or submar¬
ginal.
The shell (testa) is divided with regard to its posi¬
tion into superior and inferior.
The anterior part (pars antica), is that which forms the
spire of the shell; and it is also the superior part.
The form of shells is
■ ■ ■ ■ bordered (marginata), when the two sides of
the opening are broader and thicker than the rest of
the diameter.
■■ —— chambered (polythalamia), when it is inter¬
nally divided by different partitions parallel to the
opening.
—■ — ■ convoluted (convoluta), when the spires turn
round a lengthened cone, nearly vertical to each
other.
— —. rooted (radicata), when it is attached to a so¬
lid body by a ligament proceeding from its base.
■ interrupted (interrupta), when the successive
additions to the shell are marked with distinct
rings.
  umbilicated (umbilicata), when the axis round
which the spire turns, being empty, forms a cavi¬
ty at the base of the shell, whose diameter is at least
a sixth part of that of the shell.
1 ■■■ — ■ imperforated (imperforata sen exumbilicata),
when its inferior axis has neither hole nor umbili¬
cus.
   oval or elliptic (ovalis), the longitudinal dia¬
meter exceeding the transverse, and the two extre¬
mities equal and a little contracted.
.1-1 1 — egg-shaped (ovata), the longitudinal diameter
exceeding the transverse, and the extremities termi¬
nated by the segment of a circL.
  - beaked (rostrata), when the two extremities,
sometimes tubular, form a projection in form of a
beak.
. 1.1. imbricated (imbricata), when the surface is co¬
vered with parallel scales, so arranged as to cover
each other.
.„, - . turbinated (turbinata), when the belly ef the
shell is large in proportion to the spires, which seem
to proceed from its centre.
Opening
Shells.
398 CON
Terms em- Opening or mouth (apertura), is that part of the cavity-
ployed in of the shell which is visible. It is
deseiibiitg:   angular (angulata), when its circumference
has several angles.
   gaping (dehiscens), when one of the extremi¬
ties is wider than the other.
 bimarginated (bimarginata), when the right
lip forms a double margin.
compressed (coarctata), when it is distinctly
C H O L O G Y. Chap. I]
—— lineated (lineati), marked with coloured lines.e
   radiated (spinoso-radiati), having the circum- played;
ference bordered with straight spines, separating and describij
flattened.
semicircular (semiorbiculata), when it forms
half a circle.
linear (linearis), when it is narrow, and the
length considerably exceeds the breadth.
longitudinal (longitudinalis), when the length
is greater than the breadth, and the greatest dimen¬
sion is parallel to the axis of the shell.
orbicular (orbicularis), forming an entire cir¬
cle.
striated (striata), when the cavity is marked
with striae, parallel to the direction ol the convolu¬
tions.
 transverse (transversa), when the breadth is
greater than the length.
Pillar (columella), is that part of the shell situated
within the opening, near its axis, round which the
spires turn. It is brought into view by dividing the
shell its whole length. It is
  flattened (plana), when the surface is flat and
smooth.
caudated (caudata), when it is lengthened be¬
yond the base of the shell.
 folded (plicata), marked with transverse and
distinct folds.
spiral (spiralis), proceeding from the base, and
forming a small twisted elongation.
truncated (truncata), cut transversely at the
base.
Convolutions (anfractus), are the turnings of the spire
round the pillar, from the opening to the base of
the shell. They are
——— bifid (bifidi), when each is divided into two
equal parts by a furrow or spiral line.
 — grooved (canaliculati), when the superior edge
is marked with a groove.
————* keel-shaped (carinati), when the outer turn of
the shell is marked with an angle more or less
acute.
 crowned (coronati), when the upper surface is
bordered at a little distance from the sutures, with a
single row of tubercles or spinous scales.
dextral (dextri), turning from the left to the
right.
 sinistral (sinistri), turning from the right to
the left.
——— lettered (script!), marked with characters.
spinous (spinosi), having short spines on the
cles.
divergent.
separated (disjuncti), having an interval be¬
tween each convolution.
furrowed (sulcati), having the surface marked
with furrows, which are always broader than stria;.
  decussated (decussati), when the striae cross
surface.
entire (simplices), without furrows or tuber-
each other at right angles
Spire (spira), signifies all the convolutions taken to¬
gether. It is
- -. pointed (acuta), when the convolutions join¬
ed together form an acute angle.
   flattened (depressa), forming a flat surface.
. — convex (convexa), when it is rounded, and
the point of the base has little elevation.
   convex (convexo acuta), rounded at the outer
edge, but elevated into an acute angle.
convex and elevated (convexo-exserta), round¬
ed at the outer edge, and elevated without forming
an acute angle.
. . . convex and pointed (convexo-mucronata), ob¬
tuse and almost rounded at the outer edge, and ter¬
minated at the centre with a pointed elevation.
  crowned (coronata), when the outer edges of
each convolution are accompanied with a row of
spines or tubercles.
 capitate (capitata), the convolutions united,
forming a swelling resembling a head.
obtuse (obtusa), the convolutions united, form¬
ing an obtuse angle.
 piano concave (plano-concava), the convolu¬
tions forming no elevation, but are slightly grooved.
—   pyramidal (pyramidata), of a conical form.
Sutures (suturae), signify the place of junction of the
different convolutions, forming a spiral line. They
are
grooved (canaliculatae), when they are so deep
as to form a small canal.
notched (crenulatae), when the points of con¬
tact are marked with notches.
 double (duplicatae), accompanied with two
striae, which run parallel.
effaced (obsoletae), when the place of junction
is not perceptible.
Siphon (sipho), is a small canal situated in the inter¬
nal part of the shell of the nautili, which penetrates
into the divisions of which it is composed. It is
 central (centralis), when it is situated in the
middle of the divisions.
.  - lateral (lateralis), situated at one side.
oblique (obliquus), cutting the axis of the di-
banded (fasciati), when the surface is marked
with broad coloured stripes.
lamellated (lamellati), the surface marked with
longitudinal or transverse excrescences, and lamina¬
ted like membranes.
visions obliquely.
Veins (varices), are elevations or ribs, running in the
direction of the length of the shell, formed by the
junction of the different additions which the shell
has received. They cut the convolutions of the
spire transversely. They are
■ continued (continuatae), proceeding from the
base of the spire to the convolution at the opening,
without interruption,
- spinous (spinosae), furnished with strong spines,
interrupted (decussatae), not corresponding with
the different convolutions.
CHAP.
CONCHOLOGY.
(ap. IV.
( isifica-
>n of
lelis.
w -y—>
CHAP. IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SHELLS.
399
Classifica¬
tion of
Shells.
SHELLS are divided by Linnaeus into multivalve,
bivalve, and univalve. In the following classification
the same arrangement will be adopted $ and we shall
first exhibit in one view the characters of each genus,
in the original language of Linnaeus, with a translation
opposite, for the sake of the English reader; so that
the genus of any shell may be easily determined. In
describing the species, we shall observe the utmost bre-
vity, giving such characters only as are necessary to
afford precise marks of distinction. In arranging the
species under each genus, the British species will be
distinguished with an asterisk j so that, with the advan¬
tage of a general classification, this will answer the pur¬
pose of a British conchology.
GENERIC CHARACTERS.
I. MULTIVALVE SHELLS.
( i. Chiton. Animal doris. Testae plures, secun-
S acter dum longitudinem sibi appositae dorso incumbentes.
c ulti-
' es* 2. Lepas. Animal triton. Testa basi affixa multi-
valvis : valvis inaequalibus erectis.
3. Pholas. Animal ascidia. Testa hivalvis divari-
cata, cum minoribus accessoriis difformibus: cardo re-
curvatus cartilagine connexus.
1. C. Animal inhabiting the shell a doris. Shell
consisting of several segments or valves disposed down
the back.
2. L. Animal a triton. Shell affixed at the base,
and consisting of many unequal erect valves.
3* P* Animal an ascidia. Shell bivalve, divaricate,
differently shaped ; accessory valves : hinges bent back,
united by a cartilage : beneath the hinge, internally, is
an incurved tooth.
II. BIVALVE SHELLS.
ihalTes. 4* Mya. Animal ascidia. Testa bivalvis hians, ut
plurimum, altera extremitate : cardo dente (plerisque
uno) solido, crasso, patulo, vacuo $ nec inserto testse
appositae.
5. SoLEN. Animal ascidia. Testa bivalvis oblon¬
gata, utroque latere hians. Cardo dens subulatus re-
flexus, saepe duplex, non insertus testae appositae j mar-
go lateralis magis obsoletus.
6. Tellina. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis, an-
terius hinc ad alterum latus flexa. Cardinis dentes ut
plurimum tres : laterales plani alterius testae.
7. Cardium. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis sub-
aequilatera, aequivalvis, plerumque convexa, longitudi-
naliter costata, striata aut sulcata, margine dentata.
Cardo dentibus mediis binis alternatis : altero ut pluri-
mum incurvo j lateralibus remotis insertis.
8. Mactra. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis, in-
aequilatera, aequivalvis. Cardo dente medio complicato
cum adjecta foveola, lateralibus remotis insertis.
9. Donax. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis, mar¬
gine saepe crenulato antico obtusissimo, Cardo denti¬
bus duobus; marginalique solitario (rarius duplice,
triplice, aut nullo) subremoto sub ano.
10. Venus. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis j la-
biis margine antico incumbentibus. Cardo dentibus
tnbus, omnibus approximatis lateralibus apice diver-
gentibus.
4. M. Animal an ascidia. Shell bivalve, generally
gaping at one end. Hinge with broad, thick, strong
teeth (seldom more than one), and not inserted into
the opposite valve.
5. S. Animal an ascidia. Shell bivalve, oblong,
open at both ends. Hinge with a subulate, reflected
tooth, often double, and not inserted in the opposite
Valve $ the lateral margin more effaced.
6. T. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
sloping on one side, in the fore part of one valve a
convex, of the other a concave fold. Hinge usually
with three teeth: the latter ones in one shell being
smooth.
7. C. Animal a tetbys. Shell bivalve, nearly equi¬
lateral, aequivalve, generally convex, longitudinally
ribbed, striated, or grooved, with a toothed margin.
Hinge with two teeth near the beak, and a larger re¬
mote lateral one on each side, each looking into the
opposite.
8. M. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, of unequal
sides, and sequivalve. Middle tooth of the hinge com¬
plicated, with a small hollow on each side, lateral ones
remote and inserted into each other.
9. D. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
with a notched margin : the frontal margin very obtuse.
Hinge with two teeth, and a single marginal one placed
behind (rarely double, triple or none).
10. V. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve j the fron¬
tal margin flattened with incumbent lips. Hinge with
three teeth, all approximate ; the lateral ones divergent
at the tip.
2
11. Spondylus.
«
400
CJasrifica- II. SpoKDYLUS. Animal tethys. Testa inseqm-
tion of valvis rigida. Cardo dentibus duobus recurvis, cum
Shells, foveola intermedia.
12. Chama. Animal tetbys. Testa bivalvis cras-
sior, cardo callo gibbo, oblique inserto fossulse obliquse*
13. Arca. Animal tetbys ? Testa bivalvis ^qui-
valvis. Cardo dentibus numerosis, acutis, alternis in-
sertis.
14. Ostrea. Animal tethys. Testa bivalvis, plu-
rimis iiicEquivalvis subaurita. Cardo edentulus, fossu-
la cava, ovata, sulcisque (inplurimis) lateralibus trans-
versis.
15. Anomia. Animal corpus ligula emarginata ci-
liata: ciliis valvte superior! affixis : brachiis duobus
linearibus corpora longioribus conniventibus porrectis,
valvse alternis utrinque ciliatis: ciliis affixis valvse utri-
que : testa inaequivalvis, valva altera planiuscula, al¬
tera basi magis gibba : parum altera basi soepe perfora¬
ta. Cardo cicatricula lineari prominente introrsum
dente laterali 5 valvse vero planioris in ipso margine.
Radii duo ossei pro basi auimalis.
16. Mytilus. Animal ascidia ? Testa bivalvis,
rudis, ssepius affixa bysso, ut plurimum, crassiori. Car¬
do in plurimis edentulus, distinctus, paucis exceptis,
iinea subulata, excavata longitudinali.
17. Pinna. Animal Umax. Testa sub-bivalvis fra-
gilis, erecta hians, emittens barbam byssinam. Cardo
edentulus, coalitis in unam valvis.
Chap. l\
11. S. Animal a tetbys. Shell bard, solid, with ciassitlc
unequal valves. Hinge with two recurved teeth, sepa- tion 0
rated by a small cavity. _ ,
12. C. Animal a tetbys. Shell bivalve, rather ^
coarse. Hinge with a callous protuberance, obliquely
inserted in an oblique holl«w.
13. A. Animal a tethys ? Shell bivalve equivalve.
Hinge with numerous sharp teeth, alternately inserted
between each other.
14. O. Animal a tethys. Shell bivalve, generally
with unequal valves, and slightly eared. Hinge with¬
out teeth, but furnished with an ovate cavity, and in
most with lateral, transverse furrows.
15. A. Animal an emarginale, ciliated, strap-shap-
ed body, with bristles attached to the upper valve ;
arms two, linear, longer than the body, projecting and
approaching together, alternate on the valve, and ci¬
liated on each side, with bristles affixed to each valve.
Shell inequivalve, one of the valves flattish, the other
protuberant at the base: one of the valves often per¬
forated near the base. Hinge with a linear prominent
cicatrix, and a lateral tooth placed within 5 but on the
very margin of the flat valve there are two bony rays
for the base of the animal.
16. M. Animal an ascidia ? Shell bivalve, rough,
generally affixed by a byssus or beard of silky filaments.
Hinge mostly without teeth, and in most cases with a
subulate, hollow, longitudinal line,
17. P. Animal a limax. Shell bivalve, brittle,
gaping at one end, and having a byssus or beard.
Hinge without teeth, the valves being united into one.
CONCHOLOGY.
III. UNIVALVE SHELLS.
UniTatves. 18. ArGONAUTA. Animal sepia aut clio. Testa
univalvis, spiralis, involuta, membranacea, unilocularis.
19. Nautilus. Animal ? Testa univalvis, isthmis
perforatis concamerata, polythalamia.
20. Conus. Animal limax. Testa univalvis con-
voluta, turbinata ; apertura effusa, longitudinalis, line¬
aris, edentula, basi integra j columella levis.
21. CypRJEa. Animal limax. Testa univalvis,
involuta, sub-ovata, obtusa, Isevis. Apertura utrinque
effusa, linearis utrinque dentata longitudinalis.
22. Bulla. Animal Umax. Testa univalvis con-
voluta, inermis. Apertura sub-coarctata, oblonga, lon¬
gitudinalis, basi integerrima. Columella obliqua, 1m-
vis.
23. Voluta. Animal limax. Testa unilocularis
spiralis. Apertura ecaudata, sub-effusa. Columella
plicata : labio umbilicove (ut plurimum) nullo.
24. Buccinum. Animal limax. Testa univalvis,
spiralis, gibbosa. Apertura ovata desinens in canali-
culum (retusam lacunam) dextrum, cauda retusa. La¬
bium interius explanatum.
25. Strombus. Animal limax. Testa univalvis,
spiralis, latere ampliata. Apertura labro saepius dila-
tato, desinens in canrlem sinistrum.
26. Mures. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spi¬
ralis, exasperata suturis membranaceis. Apertura desi-
3
18. A. Animal a sepia or clio. Shell univalve,
spiral, involute, membranaceous, one cell.
19. N. Animal? Shell univalve, divided into seve¬
ral chambers communicating with each other.
20. C. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute,
turbinate; aperture effuse, longitudinal, linear, with¬
out teeth j entire at the base. Pillar smooth.^
21. C. Animal a slug. Shell univalve, involute,
subovate, smooth, obtuse. Aperture effuse at each end,
linear, extending the whole length of the shell, and
toothed on each side.
22. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, convolute,
without teeth. Aperture a little narrowed, oblong, lon¬
gitudinal, quite entire at the base. Pillar oblique and
smooth.
23. V. Animal a Umax. Shell one cell, spiral.
Aperture without a beak, and somewhat effuse. Pillar
twisted or plaited: generally without lips or perfora¬
tion.
24. B. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, gib¬
bous. Aperture ovate, ending in a short canal, lean¬
ing to the right, with a retuse beak. Internal or pil¬
lar lip expanded.
25. S. Animal a Umax. Shell univalve, spiral, en¬
larged at the side. Aperture dilated with the lip ex¬
panding, and ending in a groove towards the left.
26. M. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral,
rough, with membranaceous sutures. Aperture oval,
terminating
4oi
I iap. IV. CONCH
nens in canalem integrum rectum sive subascenden-
tem.
27. Trochus. Animal Umax. Testa univalvis,
spiralis, subconica. Apertura subtetragono-angulata
seu rotundata, superius transverse coarctata •, columella
obliquata.
28. Turbo. Animal Umax. Testa univalvis, spi¬
ralis, solida. Apertura coarctata, orbiculata, inte-
gra.
29. Helix. Animal Umax. Testa univalvis, spi¬
ralis, subdiaphana, fragilis. Apertura coarctata, intus
lunata seu subrotunda j segmento circuli dempto.
30. Nerita. Animal limax. Testa univalvis, spi¬
ralis, gibba, subtus planiuscula. Apertura semiorbi-
cularis, vel semilunaris j labio columellse transverso,
truncato, planiusculo.
31. Haliotis. Animal limax. Testa auriformis,
patens : spira occultata lateral! disco, longitudinaliter
poris pertusa.
32. Patella. Animal limax. Testa univalvis
subconica, absque spira.
33. Dentalium. Animal terebella. Testa tubu-
losa, recta, monothalamia, utraque extremitate pervia.
34. Serpula. Animal terebella. Testa unival¬
vis, tubulosa, adherens (ssepe isthmis integris passim
intercepta).
35. Teredo. Animal terebella. Valvis duabus
calcariis hemisphericis, anterius excisis, et duabus lan-
ceolatis. Testa teres, flexuosa, lignum penetrans.
36. Sabella. Animal nereis. Ore ringente, ten-
taculis duobus crassioribus pone caput. Testa tubulosa,
contexta ex arenulis confertim membranae vaginali in¬
serts.
0 L O G Y.
terminating in an entire straight, or slightly ascending
canal.
27. T. Animal a Umax. Shell univalve, spiral,
somewhat conic. Aperture somewhat angular, or
rounded: the upper side transverse and contracted j
pillar placed obliquely.
28. T. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, so¬
lid. Aperture contracted, orbicular, entire.
29. H. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, sub*
diaphanous, brittle. Aperture contracted, semilunar
or roundish.
30. N. Animal a limax. Shell univalve, spiral, gib¬
bous, flattish at bottom. Aperture semiorbicular or
semilunar, pillar lip transversely truncated and flatten¬
ed.
31. H. Animal a limax. Shell ear-shaped dilated,
with a longitudinal row of orifices along the surface j
the spire lateral and nearly concealed.
32. P. Animal a limax. Shell subconic, without
spire.
33. D. Animal a terebella, Shell tubular, straight,
or slightly curved, with one cavity open at both ends.
34. S. Animal a terebella. Shell tubular, generally
adhering to other substances (often separated internally
by entire divisions.)
35. T. Animal a terebella. With two calcareous,
hemispherical valves, anteriorly cut off, and two lan¬
ceolate ones. Shell round, flexuous, penetrating
wood.
36. S. Animal a nereis. With a ringent mouth,
and two thicker tentacula behind the head. Shell tu¬
bular, consisting of particles of sand united to a mem¬
brane by a glutinous cement.
M
iton.
I. MULTIVALVES.
Gen. 1. Chiton.
Gen. Char.—-The animal inhabiting this shell is a doris.
The shell consists of several segments or valves, ar¬
ranged along the back.
Species.
All the Species marked * are British.
lamosus 1. Eight valves, semistriated ; margin covered with
minute scales j 2 inches long. America. Wood, t. 1.
f. 1.
' triatus. 2. With eight doubly striated valves, middle valves
with curvilinear striae ; margin scaly. Chemnitz, viii.
t. 94. f. 788 to 91.
j vus. 3. With eight valves, and whitish dotted striae j
margin coriaceous 5 I inch long. S. America. Wood,
t. 1. f. 2.
h inula-
'•
1 katus.
4. With eight smooth valves ; margin coriaceous
and spiny ; colour pitchy j 2 inches long. Red sea.
Wood, t. 1. f. 3.
5. Flat above, with numerous raised dots in rows 4
border broad, coriaceous, spinous ; 2 inches long. W*
Indies. Chem. viii. t. 96. f. 806.
6. Eight-valved, striated j valves prickly; margin
VOL, VI. Part, II, f
with bristles; 2^ inches long. Asia. Chemnitz, v. t.
173. f. 1692.
7. With eight valves j lower triangular, half of the Jasciatus.
6 middlemost granulated $ 14 inch long. WT. Indies.
Chemnitz, viii. t. 94. f. 792 and 3.
8. Eight-valved, smooth, varied with white andmarmora-
black $ margin tumid and scaly j 14 inch long. W. tus.
Indies. Chemnitz, viii. t. 95. f. 803 to 5.
9. Eight-valved, smooth, within sea-green j margin maculatt/s
covered with gray white scales 5 inch long. India.
Chemnitz, viii. t. 95. f. 802.
10. With eight smooth, white valves j above the tunicatus.
membrane roundish 5 margin coriaceous and reflected j
4 inches long, and inch broad. North seas. Wood,
t. a. f. 1.
11. Eight-valved, thick, convex, white ; first valve
notched, last toothed, middle ones emarginate ; 4 inches
long j margin coriaceous. Cape of Good Hope.
Chemnitz, viii. t. 96. t. 819.
12. Eight-valved, kidney-shaped, fragile j valves im-amicula-
bricated j covered with a broad coriaceous membrane '^tus.
6 inches long. Kurile islands. Pallas, t. 7. f. 26.
13. With eight very smooth chesnut-coloured valves, castaneus.
inside rosy *, 2 inches long. Wood, t. 2. f. 2.
14. With eight valves,'with slight curved striae }rz^r.
margin red j 1 inch long. North seas. Chemnitz, viii.
t 96. f. 813.
3 E.
*5-
CONCH
15. With eight valves, smooth body ; with excava¬
ted dots on the margin. Asia, Europe, and America.
16. Eight-valved, whitish ash colour, border scaly $
middle valves finely punctured ; 1 inch long. W. In¬
dies. Chemnitz, viii. t. 96. f. 811.
17. With eight valves $ keel triangular, very rough
and slightly toothed } margin scaly 2 inches long.
Chemnitz, x. t. 173. f. 1689.
18. With eight smooth streaked valves j margin
broad and coriaceous j inch long. Wood, t. 2. f.
4 and 5.^
* 19. With eight valves, having one lateral tuft of hair
at the junction of each valve, and two in the front $
from 4 t0 1 i110!1 long- Barbary. Wood, t. 2. f. 6.
20. With eight thick, convex, grooved valves j
margin broad and scaly j 4 inches long. South seas.
Wood, t. 3. f. I.
21. Eight-valved, thick ridged } the outside sea-
green j margin blackish, inside white; 2^ inches long.
India. Chemnitz, viii. t. 94. f. 794 and 5.
22. With eight smooth cherry-coloured valves, and
a white crenated border; if inch long. Surinam.
Chemnitz, viii. t. 9.5. f. 797 and 8.
23. Eight-valved, thick, striated, black brown ; 2^
inches long. Straits of Magellan. Chemnitz, viii. t.
95. f. 797 and 8.
24. Eight-valved, brown, smooth ; inside teeth of the
margin snowy; 2f inches long. India. Cliemnitz, viii.
t. 95. f. 799 and 800.
25. Eight-valved, smooth, black, very small, mealy,
with a transverse band on each; f inch long. Norway.
Chemnitz, viii. t. 96. f. 814.
26. Eight-valved, carinated, diaphanous, banded ;
terminal valves finely punctured; ^ inch long. Nor¬
way. Chemnitz, viii. t. 96. f. 815.
27. Eight-valved, deep black, convex above, with a
yellowish spot on each valve ; l inch long. North seas.
Chemnitz, vii. t. 96. f. 816.
28. With eight convex black valves, covered with
very minute raised dots; margin cinereous, minute..
Iceland.
* 29. Eight-valved, carinated along the back ; the
valves projecting over each other in a point; f inch long,
Salcomb bay, Sandwich. Linn. Tr. viii. t. 1. f. 3.
* 30. Eight valves, smooth, carinated, oval, compres¬
sed ; margin ciliated at the edge ; £ to ^ of an inch
long. Goree and Britain.
etbus*. * 31* Eight valves, smooth, with transverse lines at the
margin of the valves ; body white, oval ; first valve
notched on the binder edge ; £ inch long. Northern
seas ; on oyster shells from Poole. Linn. Tr. viii. t.
^ f' 4- . _
nchatinus.* 32 With eight valves, oblong, elevated, with indis¬
tinct striae ; anterior and posterior valves, with curved
striae; margin very broad, minutely shagreefted ; f inch
long. Newhaven. Brown, t. . f.
keviu * 33. Eight-valved, smooth, with an elevated band
down the back; the length f inch. Loch Broom,
Boss-shire, Salcomb bay. Pennant, iv. t. 36. f. 3.
tpinosus. 34. With eight black valves; anterior one with
raised dots; whole shell substriated, and slightly dotted
at the sides of the valves ; margin broad, with long
black tapering spines ; 2f inches long. N. Holland.
Yery rare. Brown’s Collection, N° JO.
402
punctatus.
indicus.
virides.
lineatus.
fascicula-
ris.
sulcalus.
bicolor.
eerasinus.
magellani-
cus.
fuscus.
minimus.
cimex.
asellus.
islandicus,
margina-
tus.
linereus.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV
35. Seven-valved, body tuberculated ; inch long. taJeroi-i|
America. Schroeter, t. 9. f. 19. latus.
36. With seven striated greenish valves; stripedtesie/afaj 1
with black and white on the hack; margin scaly; 2
inches long. St Thomas’. Chem. x. t. 173. f. 1690.
* 37. Seven-valved, thick set with short hairs; I- incbmmW
long. Sandwich, Aberdeen. Pennant iv. t. 36. f. I.
38. Six-valved, glabrous, oval, a little convex, sea-
green; f inch long. America. Schroeter, t. 1. f. I. nus,.
39. With six plates or valves striated ; colour black-Ai'jpu/ittJl
ish gray, with white spots and dots. Schroeter, t. 9. f.
18.
* 40. With five valves oval, carinated, and strongly1
shagreened ; margin broad, and finely ciliated at the valvis.
edge, and shagreened ; ^ long. Tenby. Brown, p. 1.
Gen. 2. Lepas, Acorn-shell. Lepat.
Shell with many unequal valves, fixed by the base.
A. Shells sessile.
* With the base solid.
Gen. Char.—Animal a triton ; shell affixed at the base,,
and composed of many unequal erect valves.
Species.
* 1. Conic, truncated, grooved, with the interstices 1
striated transversely ; lid with four valves, sharp-point¬
ed, and bent. European seas, Britain. Brown, t. vi..
f. I. I
* 2. Conic,, truncated, smooth ; lid 4-valved, two ap-balanoich
per slightly striated transversely, obtuse. American.
and Indian seas ; abundant on the coasts of Britain.
Brown, t. vi. f. 4.
* 3. Conical, truncated, rugged ; lid with four fialpunctati'
valves, punctured. Britain. Brown, t. vii. f. 13.
4. Conical, contracted at the aperture ; valves and
interstices smooth ; lid 4-valved and blunt. E. Indies.
Chem. viii. t. 79. f. 7I5*
* 5. Conical, truncated ; longitudinally striated; valves|
rounded at the summits ; interstices straight and
smooth. Britain and Holland. Chem. t. 97. f. 823.
* 6. Subcylindrical, wrinkled longitudinally ; opercu-rwgwa.
lum 4-valved,. acute. Dorset. Brown, t. vii. f. 1.
7., Club-shaped, elongated, and dilated at the aper-e/owgflM
tore; lid with four obliquely striated valves. New¬
foundland. Wood, t. 7. f. 2,
* 8. Conic, smooth, valves pointed, aperture very conoide) 1
small; shell small, reddish ; valves finely tesselated.
Weymouth. Brown, t. vi. f. 7.
9. Semiovate, valves longitudinally striated; aper-angusto
ture small, and much contracted. Barbary and E. In¬
dies. Wood, t. 6. f. 5.
* 10. Somewhat conic, with equidistant ribs, diver-
gent from the aperture ; lid sharp-pointed. On rocks
on the Pembrokeshire coast. Brown, t. vi. f. 3.
* II. Depressed, with four serrated interlaced valves,
striated obliquely. Britain. Brown, t. vii. f. 30.
12. Convex, with six equal 3-lobed valves ; aper-/^,,$/
ture oval; lid convex, 4-valved.. Africa. Chem. viii. nctf.
t. 98. f. 833. # .
13. Depressed, with five radiated angular ribs ; aper-paww
ture small, and somewhat pentagonal. Coromandel.
Chem. t. 98. f. 839.
IV. CONCH
14. Conical, thick, of a violet colour $ valves slight¬
ly grooved longitudinally, and the interstices smooth.
E. Indies. Chem. viii. t. 99. f. 842.
15. Conical, of a violet colour j valves strongly rib¬
bed longitudinally j interstices faintly striated trans¬
versely. Wood, t. 8. f. 5.
16. Erect, conic j valves pal mated at the base $
shell white.
17. With six smooth valves, marked with longitu¬
dinal violet rays, and the interstices very finely stii-
ated transversely. Wood, t. 7. f. 7*
18. Conical, with unequal transversely striated dot¬
ted valves, and the interstices smooth j aperture beak¬
ed at one side. Wood, t. 7. f. 6.
19. Conical, with rows of incurved spines on the
valves, and the interstices striated transversely. E.
Indies. Wood, t. 7. f. 4. and 5.
20. With rugged irregularly muricated valves; in¬
terstices transversely striated. E. Indies. Wood,
t. 8. f. I. to 4.
* 21. Conic, longitudinally striated ; aperture very
small; lid with four valves striated transversely. Ten¬
by. Brown, t. vii. f. 9. to 12.
22. Conical, purplish, with the valves strongly and
irregularly ribbed ; interstices delicately striated trans¬
versely. W. Indies. Lister, t. 443* 3^5*
23. Subconical •, whitish, with the valves slightly
wrinkled ; interstices striated longitudinally. Iceland.
Wood, t. 6. f. 3.
24. Conical, strong; valves with deep longitudinal
striae, and the interstices very regularly striated trans¬
versely. S. America. Brown’s Collection, N° 20.
25. Conical, strong, irregularly wrinkled $ inter¬
stices with fine regular transverse striae. E. Indies.
Brown’s Collection, N° 19.
* 26. Subconic, slightly striated longitudinally j inter¬
stices substriated ; lid 4-valved, upper two strongly
striated transversely and longitudinally, under two
very slightly, with a longitudinal groove. Hartlepool.
Brown, t. vi. f. 10.
A. ** With radiated cells at the lose.
udema. 27. Subhemispherical, transversely striated through¬
out, and strongly ribbed longitudinally. Northern ocean.
Wood, t. 4.
danaris. 28. Depressed, longitudinally ribbed, upper half
smooth, lower parts and interstices striated transverse¬
ly. Northern ocean, adhering to the Balaena Boops.
Wood, t. 5. f. 1. to 3.
studina- 29. Oval, depressed, with four nearly smooth valves.
«• Attached to the backs of turtles. Wood, t. 5. f. 4.
A. *** Porous at the base.
ww. 30. Subconical, with four consolidated rugged valves,
and the base porous. Tranquebar. Wood, t. 9. f. 4.
rpuras- 31. Angular, with four subconsolidated rugged
as. valves, and the base porous. Amboyna. Wood, t. 9.
f. I. to 3.
A. **** With a cup-like appendage at the base.
'Qngiosus* 32. Shell formed of two cones connected by a liga¬
ment at their base, of which the upper is 6-valved and
spinous. Britain. Brown, t. vii. f. 24. to 26.
leoto, 33. Shell formed of two cones, connected by a liga-
(tap.
i acea.
j rata.
j mpes.
1 Uata.
nor.
msa.
spata.
mchii.
\Unna-
lum.
'ipa.
usus.
nistri-
us.
ndidus.
O L O G Y,
at the base, of which the upper is 6-valved and
h, Mediterranean. Phil. Trans, i. t. 14. f. 19*
403
ment
smooth
***** Tubular and truncated at both ends.
34. Tubular, truncated at both ends, longitudinally £rac/*ea/<s.
striated, and transversely ribbed. Inhabits the S. seas,
imbedded in the skin of whales. Wood, t. 4. f. 1.
to 3.
B. Shells seated on a fleshy peduncle.
B. * With more than five valves, and a wreath of
smaller ones round the base.
35. Compressed round the base, irregularly striated
transversely, and the peduncle scaly. Amboyna.
Wood, t. 10. f. I.
* 36. Compressed, smooth, and the peduncle co\t\'ti\pollicipes.
with minute scales. Britain. Brown, t. v. f. 11.
* 37. Compressed, with 13 valves concentrically stri-
ated ; peduncle hairy, with testaceous scales. Britain.
Brown, t. v. f. 8, 9, and 10.
B. ** With five contiguous valves.
* 38. Compressed, with five striated valves ; peduncle
wrinkled transversely. Britain. Brown, t. v. f. 1.
* 39. Compressed, somewhat triangular, with faeanatifera.
smooth valves seated on a red and long peduncle. Bri¬
tain. Adheres to the bottom of ships, when it is well
known by the name of bernacle. Brown, t. iv. f. I.
and 2.
It was from this species of shell that the bernacle goose was
supposed to have had its origin. Gerard’s account of this trans¬
formation, as it affords a remarkable instance of the credulity of
the times, is too curious to be omitted. “ There are found in
the nortli parts of Scotland, and the islands adjacent called
Orchades, certain trees whereon do grow certain shells tending
to russet, wherein are contained little living creatures: which
shells in time of maturitie do open, and out of them grow those ,
little living things, which falling into the water do become
fowles, which we call barnakles; in the north of England brant
geese; and in Lancashire, tree geese; but the other that do
fall upon the land perish, and come to nothing. Thus much
from the writings of others, and also from the mouths of people
of those parts, which may very well accord with truth.
“ But what our eyes have scene, and hands have touched,
we shall declare. There is a small island in Lancashire, called
the Pile of Foulders, wherein are found the broken pieces of
old and bruised ships, some whereof have been cast thither by
shipwracke, and also the trunks and bodies with the branches
of old and rotten trees, cast up there likewise: whereon is
found a certain spume or froth that in time breedeth into cer¬
tain shells, in shape like those of the muskle, but sharper point¬
ed, and of a whitish colour: wherein is contained a thing in
forme like a lace of silke, finely woven, as it were, together, of
a whitish colour, one end whereof is fastened unto the inside of
the shell, even as the fish of oisters and inuskles are; the other
end is made fast unto the belly of a rude mass or lumpe, which
in time commeth to the shape and forme of a bird: when it is
perfectly formed the shell gapeth open, and the first thing that
appeareth is the foresaid lace or string; next come the legs of
the bird hanging out, and as it groweth greater it openeth the
shell by degrees, till at length it is all come forth and hangeth
only by the bill: in short space after it cometh to full maturitie,
and falleth into the sea, where it gatherelh feathers, and grow,
eth to a fowl bigger than millard, and lesser than a goose, ha.
ving blacke legs, bill or beake, and feathers blacke and white,
spotted in such a manner as is our magpie, called in some places
a pie-annet, which the people of Lancashire call by no other
name than a tree goose: which place aforesaid, and those part*
adjoyning do so much abound therewith, that one of the best
is bought for threepence. For the truth hereof, if any doubt,
let them repaire unto me, and I shall satisfie them by the testi-
mouie of good witnesses.” Herball, p. 1588.
3 E 2 *
40.
404
sulcata.
cula.
fascicula-
ris.
dentata.
vtHosa.
dorsalis.
vittata.
aunta.
blainvilUi.
2(J
Fho!as>
dactylus.
orientalis.
costata.
Candida.
pana.
stricpa.
CONCH
* 40. Compressed, subtriangular, with five strongly
ribbed valves; peduncle short and dusky. Britain.
Brown, t. v. f. 6.
* 41. Compressed, five striated, and strongly spinous
valves; peduncle short and brown. Devonshire. Brown,
t. v. f. 3.
* 42. Compressed, with five smooth, membranaceous,
semitransparent valves ; dorsal valve dilated at the
base, and forming a prominent acute angle. Britain.
Brown, t. v. f. 2.
* 43. Compressed, with five smooth valves, and the
dorsal ridge serrated. Britain. Brown, t. iv. f. 5.
44. Compressed, with five smooth valves, seated on
a short downy peduncle. Mediterranean. Enc. Meth.
t. 166. f. 2.
45. Compressed, with five valves, scaly at the base ;
dorsal valve transversely wrinkled ; peduncle scaly.
Mosquito shore. Ellis Zoop. t. 15. f. 5.
B. *** With minute distant valves placed on a fleshy
extension of the peduncle.
* 46. Membranaceous, ventricose, truncated, and an¬
gular at the summit; green, with black stripes, and
five minute narrow distant valves. Mediterranean.
Brown, t. v. f. 16, 17, and 18.
47. Membranaceous, ventricose, seated on a tube,
and ending in two ear-like appendages ; aperture with
8 toothed valves. Northern ocean. Brown, t. v. f. 14.
and 15.
* 48. Ventricose, membranaceous, seated on a tube,
and ending in two ear-like appendages ; colour whitish,
spotted, and streaked with brownish purple. Devon¬
shire. Brown, t. v. f. 13.
Gen. 3. Pholas.
Gen. Char.—The animal is an ascidia, Shell bivalve,
divaricate, with several lesser differently accessory
ones at the hinge. Hinges recurved, united by a
cartilage. Beneath the hinge ii^rnally is an in¬
curved tooth.
Species.
1. Oblong, with reticulated, subspinous striae, on
the upper part, and the anterior end strongly muricated
and beaked. Europe. Salcomb bay, Devonshire.
Five inches long ; is found in hard clay, marl, and
wood ; has a phosphorescent property. Brown, t. viii.
f. I, 2, and 3.
2. Oblong, with a straight margin : one half quite
smooth, ,the other reticulated with striae. Siam and
Tranquebar. Lister, t. 431. f. 274.
3. Ovate; striated with strong elevated ribs; 6 in¬
ches long. American seas. Lister, t. 434. f. 277.
4. Oblong, muricated on all sides, with decussated
prickly striae. Europe, America, Salcomb bay. Brown,
t. ix. f. 6, 7, and 8.
* 5. Ovate, with reticulated striae; and the teeth of
the hinge issuing from a tubercle. Britain. Brown,
t. ix. f. 11. and 12.
* 6. Ovate, multifariously striated ; wedge-shaped be¬
fore, and ventricose behind. Europe, India. Brown,
t. viii. f. 4. to 9.—This species seems to be nearly
equally destructive with the teredo navalis. The pholas
perforates the wood across the grain or fibre; the teredo
O L O G Y. Chap, rvjj
insinuates itself along the fibres, or in the same direc¬
tion.
7. Oblong, rounded ; striae arched. America, pulsUla, I
dia. This animal penetrates the bottom of ships.
Wood, t. xvi. f. 1, 2, and 3.
8. Short, turgid, turrowed, with fine elevated trans-corr/afc, ]
verse striae; aperture heart-shaped. Ency. Method.
t. 169. f. 8. to io.
9. Somewhat oval, variously striated ; hiatus vervfalcata. |
large; hinge with a hooked tooth. Wood, t. 16. f. 5.
to 7.
10. Bivalve, white, with transverse arched striae: hians,
convex in the middle, and wedge-shaped below ; aper¬
ture large, oval; perforates calcareous rocks. Ameri¬
can islands. Chem. t. 172. f. 1678 to 81.
11. Oval; part next the hinge more obtuse, waved,rr»»a/a.||
striated ; tooth of the hinge curved, large, and strong.
rIwo inches long. Europe. West of England. Brown,
t. ix. f. I. to 5.
II. BIVALVE SHELLS.
27
Gen. 4. Mya. Gapers. Mya.
Gen. Char.—The animal is an ascidia. The shell is
bivalve, generally gaping at one end. The hinge
has broad, thick, strong teeth, seldom more than
one, and not inserted into the opposite valve.
Species.
* Hinge with one or two rounded teeth, not insert¬
ed in the opposite valve.
* I. Gaping at both ends, thick, transversely wrinkled,I
lamellous, oblong, oval ; 5 inches long, 10 broad. Me¬
diterranean sea. Donovan, t. 142.
* 2. Ovate, truncated, gaping greatly behind; tooth *rMWca;:! M
projecting, obtuse ; 24- inches long. Europe. Brown,
t. x. f. 2.
* 3. Ovate, rounded behind; hinge with a tooth pro-
jecting forwards, and a smaller one by its side ; 2^
inches long. European seas, Portsmouth. Brown, t.
10. f. i.
4. Ovate, obliquely angulated, and subtruncated ^tdeckvis. ||
the anterior end ; hinge with a thick tooth ; 2\ inches
long. Hebrides. A fish much esteemed as food by
the inhabitants. Brown, t. xi. f. 5.
* 5. Oval, convex, brittle; anterior end obliquely1
angulated; tooth in the hinge semioval. Cramond
Island ; 2 inches long. Brown, t. xi. f. 3.
* 6. Sub-oval, with tumid deformed valves; hingej
with a thick tooth. Plymouth. ^ inches long. Brown,
t. xi. f. 7.
* 7. Subovate, obsoletely wrinkled ; hinge with tvioferrv£i-
projecting teeth, separated by a large triangular notch.«05C*
Portobello. Brown, t. xi. f. 8. and 9.
* 8. Oval, thin, brittle, flat; striae fine, concentric
hinge with a spoon-shaped tooth ; f inch long. Brown,
t. xiv. f. 1.
9. Suborbicular, covered with decussated striae;
hinge with a spoon-shaped tooth. Mouth of the Niger.
6 inches long. Chem. vi. t. 2. f. 13. to 16.
10. Suborbicular, with transverse striae, decussated^0^'7*
on one side ; hinge with a spoon-shaped tooth. Wood,
t. 24. f. 4. to 6. ' J
* H. Oblong, attenuated at one end; obsoletely sixi-prisviatu
ated
c ip. IV, CONCH
ateil concentrically ; hinge somewhat spoon-shaped ;
^ of an inch long. Portobello. Brown, t. xiv. f. 5.
m is. 12. Oval, striated concentrically j hinge with a
single tooth in one valve, which shuts into a deep cleft
between slight elevations in the other. J inch long.
West Indies. Wern. Tr. I. t. 8. f. 4.
n barica 13. Ovate, oblong j valves equal, with decussated
striae ) hinge with a broad perpendicular spoon-shaped
tooth. inch long. Nicobar Islands. Chemnitz,
vi. t. 3. f. 17. and 1 8.
t ■'ata. 14. With a long cylindrical beak at one end, and
gibbous at the other j hinge with a small excavated
tooth. ^ inch long. Bergen. Chem. xi. p. 189.
f. C and D.
h ntata. * 15. Suboval, compressed 5 hinge with two broad,
erect, laminated teeth in one valve •, none in the other.
Salcomb bay. Brown, t. xiv. f. 10. and 14.
d ’ssata. 16. Ovate, with irregular concentric ridges, and
longitudinal strise, forming tubercles at the anterior
end; margin undulated. Mont. t. 28. f. 1.
f mrea. * 17. Ovate, transversely wrinkled; hinge with an
erect bifid tooth in each valve ; I line long. Britain.
srtriata* 18. Minute, subovate, with distant obsolete longi¬
tudinal striae. Devonshire.
4 ata. * 19. Oblong, back margin nearly straight ; thin,
transparent; anterior end truncate ; posterior round¬
ed ; hinge with a single broad erect tooth in one valve.
Linn. Tr . xi, t. 13. f. 1. A.
** Hinge callous without teeth.
c itula. 20. Oval, striated with equal valves, forming a
large hiatus. Caspian sea. 1 inch long.
r nbra- 21. Oval, membranaceous and white; one side is
? ea. extended so as to form a beak; margin reflected ;
hinge toothless ; £ inch long.
i wegica* 22. Oval, transparent, longitudinally and thickly
striated ; one end rounded, the other truncated. Tenbv.
5 nia. 23. Thick, strong, gaping at both ends, and covered
with a black epidermis ; I inch long, 3 broad. North
America. Wood, t. 22. f. 5.
*** Hinge with teeth inserted into the opposite
valve.
f iva,
l wum.
0 '«•
r iata.
3 krosa.
[ ’j/a.
* t.
24. Suboval; rounded at both ends; 1 inch long,
and broad. Danube. Lister, t. 146. f. 1.
* 25. Ovate; a single, longitudinal, notched tooth, in
one hinge; a long lateral tooth in one valve, and two
in the other; near 2 inches long, and 3^ broad.
Europe, Barbary, River Kennet, Berkshire.—This
shell is employed by painters for holding water colours.
Brown, t. xxvi. f. 2.
* 26. Ovate, thick, and narrower on the anterior side ;
inch long, and broad. Britain. Brown, t.
xxvi. f. 4.
27. Equivalve, pellucid, finely striated transversely ;
broad at one end and narrow at the other ; 1^ inches
long, and 2 broad. Rivers of Malabar. Ency. Me¬
thod. vi. t. 2. f. 7.
28. O vate, ponderous, narrow before, and truncated
towards the cartilage-slope ; beaks decorticated. China
rivers. Wood, t. 20. f. 21.
29. Ovate, compressed, front margin straight, and
obliquely truncated towards the cartilage slope ; hinge
with the primary teeth three-sided. Mississippi river;
2 inches long, 3! broad. Lister, t. 150. f. 5.
O L O G Y. 405
30. Suboval, and studded with tubercles; hingenodulosa.
with a thick crenated tooth. Wood, t. 22. f. 1. to 4.
31. Ovate, a little contracted in the middle of t\\emargari»
thinner margin ; primary tooth of the hinge conic; tifera.
length 24 inches, breadth 5 inches ; inhabits most parts
ot the arctic circle, and is most frequently found in
mountainous rivers, and about cataracts.—This shell
yields mother-of-pearl and pearl. The river Conway,
in W ales, was formerly famous for producing pearls of
great size and value. They have also been found in
the river Irt, in Cumberland. Sir John Hawkins ob¬
tained a patent for fishing them in that river. Brown,
t. xxvi. f. 1.
32. Rhombic, green.
Rivers of Coromandel.
33. Oval, wrinkled ;
teral teeth long, and in
greenish, within pearly ;
protuberant parts wrinkled, corrv/goto.
Wood, t. 24. f. I. to 3.
primary teeth crenulated ; ]a.-rt/gosa.
one valve double ; outwardly
1 inch long, i|- broad. Rivers
of Coromandel. Ency. Meth. t. 249. f. 3.
34. Sub-rhomboidal, gibbous and longitudinally variabilis.
wrinkled at the beaks ; hinge with two teeth diverging
at the apex ; and inserted into corresponding linear
cavities ; 1 inch long. South America. Linn. Tr.
x. t. 24. f. 4. to 7.
35. Oval, thin, with raised tubercles about thenodosa.
beaks; | inch long, if broad. Chem. x. t. 170. f. 1650.
36. Ovate, depressed ; margin of the hinge with ^.syrmato-
subulate projection near the primary tooth ; that oiphot'a.
the other valve dilated ; 2^ inches long, and 2 broad.
Rivers of Guinea. Gronovius, t. 18. f. I. and 2.
* 37* Subpellucid, faintly striated transversely ; si&tssuborbicu-
nearly equal, rounded ; hinge central; of an inch ‘j laris.
foimd in hard limestone at Plymouth. Montagu, t. 26.
38. Subtriangular, opaque, white; under \a\ve incequi-
deep ; upper valve not half the size of the other. Corn- valvis.
wall, Devonshire. Montagu, t. 26. f. 7.
39. Suboval, with the valves shutting very close;/cfocta.
and the margin of one valve projecting like a lip ; 4
inch long, I broad. Linn. Tr. x. t. 24. f. 1. to 3.
**** Hinge toothless, with a conical rounded hollow
for the reception of the cartilage.
40. 'longue-shaped ; hinge terminal, toothless, with
a conical rounded hollow for the reception of the carti¬
lage; semiorbicular; 4 inches long, and if broad.
Indies. Lister, t. 1055. f. 10. x ° a-
Gen. 5. Solen, liaxor-sheath.
38
Solen.
Gen. Char.—The animal inhabiting this shell is an as-
cidia: shell bivalve, oblong, open at both ends;
hinge with a subulate reflected tooth, often double,
and not inserted in the opposite valve.
Species.
* Shells linear.
* I* Linear, straight, roundish; one end margined ;
hinge with a single opposite tooth in each valve. Eu- *
ropean and Indian seas, Caermarthenshire, Weymouth.
Brown, t. xiii. f. 2.
2. Linear, straight, truncated at one end ; hinge with truncatus.
a single opposite tooth in each valve. Ambovna. Wood
t. 27. f. 2. ' ’
* 3. Linear, straight, one hinge 2-toothed. European
and
4c6 CONCH
and Indian seas. Length I inch, breadth 8 inches.
Common on the shores of Britain, where it is employed
as food. Brown, t. xiii. f. 3.
linearis. 4. Linear, straight, cylindrical, and very thin j hinge
with a single tooth in each valve; thickness of a quill ;
breadth 3 inches. Nicobar islands. Wood, t. 27.
f- 3-
ensis. * 5. Linear, in form of a scymeter ; one hinge 2-tooth¬
ed $ ^ of an inch long, 5 inches broad. European seas ;
not uncommon on the British shores. Brown, t. xiii.
f. 3.
peliucidus.* 6. Subarched, suboval, pellucid 5 one hinge 2 tooth¬
ed 5 length I: inch, breadth above 1 inch. Anglesea,
Cornwall. Brown, t. xiii. f. 4.
legumen. * 7. Linear, oval, straight; hinge in the middle 2-
toothed, one of them bifid ; 2^ inches broad. Europe¬
an and Atlantic seas, Anglesea, Hampshire. Brown,
t. xiii. f. 8. and 9.
tultellus. 8. Kidney-shaped, a single tooth in one valve, two
in the other. Europe and India. Wood, t. 29. f. *.
** Shells ovate or oblong.
gigas. 9. Linear, oval, subdiaphanous, rounded at both
ends 5 a longitudinal rib within extends from the hinge
to the margin ; 2 inches long and 5 broad. Amboyna.
Wood, t. 31. f. 3.
magnus. 10. Linear, oval, subdiaphanous, straight; hinge la¬
teral, with two teeth not shutting into each other, and
furnished with a rib j inch long, 4 broad. Nicobar
islands. Chem. vi. t. 5. f. 35‘
minimus. 11. Linear, oval, straight j hinge lateral, with two
teeth, one bifid, with a longitudinal rib *, 4- inch long,
IJ broad. Tranquebar. Chem. vi. t. 5. f. 31.
guineen- 12. Oblong, oval, ventricose, subpellucid; inside
sis. with a longitudinal rib ; 1 inch long, 3 broad. Guinea.
Chem. xi. t. 198. f. 1937*
inflexus. 13. Ovate-oblong, margin somewhat inflected ; hinge
with two teeth in one valve, and a prominent longitu¬
dinal rib; I inch long, 3 broad. Wood, t. 32. f. I. and 2.
diphos. 14. Oval, straight, smooth, with prominent mem¬
branes ; inches long, 3 broad. Indian ocean. Wood,
t. 32. f. 3.
radiatus. 15. Oval, straight, smooth, with two teeth in one
valve; and a transverse depressed rib on one side.
India. Wood, t. 31. f. I. and 2.
strigilalus 16. Oval, obliquely and concentrically striated, ex¬
cept at one end ; if inch long, 3 broad. Atlantic and
Indian seas. Wood, t. 30. f. 1.
triangte- 17. Elat, fore-part truncated, yellow; if inch long,
laris. and 2 broad. Chem. vi. t. 10. f. 87.
esarctatus 18. Transversely wrinkled, contracted in the mid¬
dle, rounded at both ends ; f of an inch long, 2f broad.
Nicobar islands. Wood, t. 29. f. 3.
fragilis. 19- Linear-oval, nearly smooth, and marked with a
brown longitudinal stripe in the middle; f inch long,
I broad. Nicobar islands. Wood, t. 29. f. 4. and 5.
amtinus. 20. Membranaceous, gibbous, with a short longitu¬
dinal suture at the apex; hinge with a spoon-shaped
tooth, and crooked rib; if inch long and 2 broad.
Amboyna. Wood, t. 30. f. 2. to 4.
r&tms. 21. Equivalve, rosy, tooth of the hinge subbifid ; I
inch long, 2 broad. Red sea. Chem. vi. t. J. f. 53.
gtriaius. 22. Equivalve, diaphanous, transversely striated ;
hinge with a single tooth ; f long. Nicobar islands.
Chem. vi. t. 7, f. 37. and 38.
O L O G Y. Chap, n
23. Oval, pellucid, smooth, marked with triangularcosfmjf
characters, umbones prominent; hinge with a single
tooth ; 10 inches long. Guinea. Chem. xi. t. 198.
f. 1933. and 1936.
24. Ova!, with two white rays on the anterior side; biradiaV
hinge with two bifid teeth in each valve ; l\ inch long,
2f broad. Wood, t. 33. f. I.
23. Suboval, quite smooth ; hinge callous, two-tooth-Sflwgww
ed, flesh-coloured or rosy; if inch long and 2 broad.&»fw.
Jamaica. Wood, t. 33. f. 4. and 3.
26. Concentrically striated ; hinges 2-toothed, with Occident.
a hollow in the middle ; 4 inches broad and 2 long.
Nicobar islands. Chem. vi. t. 7* f* 61.
27. Oblong-oval, truncated at the anterior en&variegati
hinge with two teeth in one valve and one in the other;
f inch long and 2 broad. Wood, t. 34. f. 2. to 4.
28. Oblong-oval, compressed, transversely striated,
and longitudinally rayed ; hinge with two teeth in eachtwf.
valve ; if inch long and 2f broad. India. Wood,
t. 34. f. I.
29. Roundish-ovate, inflated, longitudinally grooved,
gaping and muricated at the anterior margin ; 1 inch
long, if broad. Jamaica. Wood, t. 36. f. 3.
* 30. Oval; angles of the valves serrated; size ofaffzwKto.
cucumber seed. Coral rocks in Norway and Green¬
land ; in hard limestone at Plymouth. Brown, t. xiii.
f. !.
31. Ovate, oblong, with tumid bosses. Java. virens.
32. Suborbicular, minutely punctured; hinge vtlthsquamott
two bifid teeth diverging from the umbo ; f inches long,
f broad.
}9
Gen. 6. Tellina, Tellin. TcIUm,
Gen. C/zor.—-The animal is a tethys : the shell is bi¬
valve, generally sloping on one side ; in the fore
part of one valve there is a convex, and in that of
the other, a concave fold ; the hinge has usually
three teeth, the lateral ones flat or nearly obsolete,
in one valve.
Species.
* Shells ovate and thickisk.
1. Roundish, compressed, wrinkled on the fore-part
if inch long, if broad. Indian ocean, very rare.
Chem. vi. t. 8. f. 63.
2. Wrinkles transversely undulated ; hinged withrt^Mfl*
two lateral teeth. Indian and American seas. Wood,
t. 41. f. 1. and 2.
3. Subovate, rough, with lunated scales, disposed inlingM"
a quincunx order; if inch long. Indian ocean. 'Wood,felis.
t. 40. f. 2. and 3. . # ,
4. Ovate-roundish, angulated at the anterior end, war#*'
striated transversely ; hinge subcentral ; 2f inches hng.nahs-
China. Wood, t. 36. f. 2.
3. Angular, with transverse, recurved strias; 2virgO‘a
inches long, and 2f broad. Indian and Atlantic 0-
ceans. Wood, t. 33. f. 2. and 3.
6. Ovate-oblong, beaked, angulated, and bent at the inteff*
anterior end ; rough, with transverse striae; if inch
long. W. Indies. Wood, t. 36. f. 3.
7. Rounded, thick, gibbous ; striae longitudinal, fine; inflate
lateral teeth remote; if inch long. Chem. vi. t. 9.
f. 76.
8. SuboTate
CONCH
lata. 8. Subovate, angular before, with transverse, re
C ip. iv.
K -pna.
la 'ioscu
osa.
f, iensis.
f: His.
( jtia.
a da.
t ngu-
l s.
c nga.
i ngkri.
] icea.
t ta.
I iota.
• gosa.
t igata.
1 dagas-
1 iensis.
r iata.
F escens.
r rata.
' scens.
escens,
curved strise ; no lateral teeth j inch long, and 2
broad. Indian ocean. Wood, t. 43. f. I.
p. Subventricose, transversely striated, orbicular, an¬
gular on the fore-part j inch long. Tranquebar.
Chem. vi. t. 9. f. 77- >
10. Ovate, thin, ventricose; hinge without lateral,
but with two primary teeth j 1^ inch long. Guinea.
Chem. vi. t. 9. f. 78.
11. Angular, ventricose, and finely striated trans¬
versely. Gualteri, t. 77. f. Q.
12. Striae recurved, transverse j lateral teeth obso¬
lete $ inch long. Indian ocean. Chem. vi. t. 10.
f. 92.
* 13. Oblong, ovate, compressed, with fine, transverse
striae ; 1 inch long, and 2 broad. North seas, Wey¬
mouth, Yorkshire. Brown, t. xvi. f. 182.
14. Ovate, white, gibbous, with transverse, recurv¬
ed striae; beaks yellowish ; % inch long. European
seas. Chem. vi. t. 9. f. 84.
15. Oval, very smooth, and marked with interrupt¬
ed purple lines ; lateral teeth rather prominent; I inch
long. Wood, t. 41. f. 4. and 5.
** Shells ovate, and compressed.
16. Oval, smooth, with prominent membranes, with¬
out lateral teeth j inch long. W. Indies and Bri¬
tain. Brown, t. xvi. f. 3.
17. Slightly wedged, whitish, and transversely stri¬
ated $ if inch broad, and 1 long. Chem. vi. t. 10.
f. 85*
18. Oblong, brittle, yellowish j rounded on one side j
^ inch long. Europe. Chem. vi. t. 10. f. 87.
19. White, transversely striated, and bifariously
hooked on each side; f inch long. Nicobar islands.
Wood, t. 37. f. 2.
20. Oval, with rough pubes, flattened sides, serrated 5
if inch long, and 3 broad. Indian ocean. Wood,
t. 36. f. 1.
21. Oval, compressed, very minutely striated longi¬
tudinally j margins sharp ; 2 inches long. W. Indies.
Wood, t. 44. f. 1.
22. Ovate, compressed, transversely substriated,
smooth, with acute margins *, l£ inch long, 2 broad.
European and Mediterranean seas. Born, t. 2. f. 9.
23. With whitish bands, glabrous and wrinkled at
the margin. African shores. Adamson, t. 17. f. 19.
24. Ovate, smooth, lateral teeth, margined. Eu¬
ropean and Indian seas. W'ood, t. 41. f. 1.
25. Oval, a little pointed at one end j 2f inches
long and 3f broad. Madagascar. Wood, t. 39. f. 2.
and 3.
26. Oblong •, strise faint, longitudinal. European
and American seas. Wood, t. 38. f. 2. and 3.
27. Oblong, striated transversely, beaked, and ob¬
liquely angulated $ hinge central. E. Indies. Lister,.
398. f. 237.
28. Oblong, the fore-part produced into an angular
beak. Indian ocean. Woon, t. 37. f. 3.
29. Purple, with white bands, and decussated striae j
one valve convex, the other flat j 2.\ inches broad, and
long. Wood, t. 42. f. 1.
30. Oval, yellowish white, with decussated striae,
and one valve much more convex than the other j i-|
inch long, 12^ broad. E. Indies. Chem. vi. 1.11. f. 98.
O L O G Y. 407
31. Oval, inequivalve, flat, pellucid, with fine de-Ayc/iW.
cussated striae $ f inch long, 3 broad. Guinea. Chem.
vi. t. 11. f. 99.
32. Oblong, produced into a beak, upper valve flat,
lower convex j length f inch, breadth I inch. Euro-'fo/fif.
pean and North seas. Wood, t. 47. f. 2 to 4.
33. Ovate, smoothish, triradiate with red, and slight-tfiT/ascwta
ly striated transversely. European seas. Chem. vi.
t. 12. f. 114.
34. Oval, pellucid, scarlet, transversely striated, cocci’wea.
very thin $ \ inch long, if broad. Mediterranean.
Chem. vi. t. 12. f. 109.
35. Ovate, a little produced on the fore-part, incarnata.
tish j 2 inches broad. European and Mediterranean
seas. Gualteri, t. 88. f. M.
36. Oval, pellucid, with a rib in each valve, reach- apalina.
ing from the hinge to the outer margin j very thin.
Nicobar. Chem. vi. t. 112. f. 107.
37. Oval, very thin, transversely striated j 10 Wnzs lanceclata.
long, if inch broad. India. Wood, t. 45. f. 2.
38. Oblong-oval, transversely striated, angular, sawgMfnca
and somewhat beaked at the anterior end ; hinge with
pointed lateral teeth j f inch long. Wood, t. 44. f. 2.
39. Oval, compressed, somewhat angular on the an-»fmr.
terior side ; hinge with a solitary cleft primary tooth,
in one valve, inserted between two in the opposite. A-
merican ocean. W^ood, t. 46. f. 1.
40. Oval, flat, transversely grooved, and angulated j sulcata.
hinge with two teeth in one valve, and the lateral tooth
prominent j f inch long. Wood, t. 47. f. 1.
* 41. Ovate, flattish, very obtuse on the fore-part j </onocf«cr.
striated concentrically. Mediterranean, Sandwich,
Weymouth. Brown, t. xvi. f. 6.
42. Flattish, red, with white rays; one end pointed,owg-yj/a.
the other rounded. Lister, t. 383. f. 226.
43. Oval, compressed, substriated; fore-part inm-truncatav
cated. Java.
44. Oval, flat, equal sided, transversely striated )punicea.
I inch lung, 2 broad. Don, t. 123.
* 45. Very thick, depressed, oblong, with transverse fAprewcr.
concentric strise ; anterior end pointed. Europe, Bri¬
tain. Brown, t. xvi. f. 12.
1 46. Ovate, compressed, inflated, lengthened before \fabula.
one valve smooth, the other with oblique reflected
striae. Mediterranean, American and North seas,
Wales. Wood, t. 45. f. 4.
47. Yellowish, very thin, perpendicularly striated, vitrea.
North and Baltic seas. Chem. vi. t. 11. f. Jor.
48. Unequal sided, found at both ends, rosy white, striata^
pellucid ; 2 inches broad, if long. Gualteri, t. 89.
f. C.
49. Dilated, orbicular, lateral teeth in one \a\xe.balaustina
Mediterranean. Wood, t. 44. f. 3. and 4.
50. Ovate, very brittle, glabrous, and inflected ztcalcat'iao .
the anterior end; hinge with a primary cleft tooth in
one valve, which shuts into a cavity in the other. Ice¬
land. Chem. t. 13. f. 136.
*** Shells suborlicular.
51. Compressed and transversely wrinkled ; 3 inches remies.
long, 3* broad. Indian and American oceans. Wood,,
t. 38. f. 1.
52. Roundish-ovate; somewhat truncated at the nn-fausta* .
terior end, and obsoletely striated transversely. Ja¬
maica. Lister, 265. f. 101-
53. Lentiforra,
408 CONCH
reticulata. 53. Lentiform, compressed, recticulate. India.
Wood, t. 42. f. 2. and 3.
cancellata. 54. Thin, with numerous longitudinal grooves cross¬
ing the transverse wrinkles. Atlantic. Adanson, t.
r7* f- T9-
gumaica. 55. With transverse, minute, longitudinal striae j
and the anterior surface waved. Guinea. Chem. x.
t. 170. f. 1651. to 1653.
scabrli. 56. Squarish, convex, inflected on the anterior side,
strongly striated transversely ; hinge with a single pri¬
mary tooth. W. Indies. Chem. xi. t. 199. f. 1943.
and 1944.
crassa. 37. Very thick, broad, depressed ; concentric striae
numerous, inch broad, and I-J long. Europe, Bri¬
tain. Brown, t. xvi. f. 16.
decussata. 38. With fine decussated striae, inside variegated
with purple-brown zig-zag streaks ; 1 inch long. Wood,
t. 43. f. 2. and 3.
cordifor- 39. Densely striated longitudinally, and transverse-
mis. ]y j two primary teeth in each valve, and oblong lateral
teeth. W. Indies. Chem. xi. t. 199. f. 1941. and 2.
tnuncata. 60. Compressed, closely striated longitudinally, with
imbricated serrated striae. WT. Indies. Chem. 209.
t. 199. f. 1943.
scobinata. 61. Lentiform, rough, with lunated scales disposed
in a quincunx ; 2f inches long, 2^ broad. Indian
ocean. Wood, t. 33. f. I.
lactea. 62. Lentiform, gibbous, white, pellucid, smooth.
Mediterranean. Montagu, t. 2. f. 4.
rotundata. 63. Rather convex j hinge with two teeth in each
valve j one is bifid, the other a little diverging. Mont,
t. 2. f. 3.
i jtexuosa. 64. Convex, thin, with a longitudinal furrow at the
anterior end extending from the apex. Britain. Wood,
t. 47. f. 7. and 8.
carnaria. 63. White, with a rosy tinge within and without j
fine striae, disposed obliquely. Europe and American
islands. Wood, t. 40. f. 4. and 3.
%onata. 66. Rosy, with a white band. Shores of Tuscany.
Lister, 403. f. 230.
bimacula* 67. Triangularly rounded, smooth, whitish, with two
ta. oblong red spots on the inside j scarcely an inch broad.
Europe and American seas. Don, t. 19. f. 1.
balthica. 68. Roundish, smooth, outside bloom colour ; size
of a horse bean. Baltic. Chem. vi. t. 11. f. 128.
pisifortnis. 69. Subglobular, smooth, obliquely substriated j size
of a pea. Mouths of rivers in Europe.
divaricata 70. Subglobular, white, with oblique bifarious striae.
American seas. Wood, t. 46. f. 6.
dentata. 71. Suborbicular, convex, with the two sides ob¬
liquely striated, in opposite directions j margin serrated.
Bahamas. Wrood, t. 46. f. 6.
digitaria. 72. Subglobular, pale, surrounded with oblique uni¬
form striae ; size of a pea, nearly an inch long. Ame¬
rican and Indian seas. Chem. t. 12. f. 121.
cornea. * 73. Globular, glabrous, horn-colour, with a trans¬
verse groove $ size of a pea. Ponds and fresh waters
of Europe, Britain. Wood, t. 43. f. 3.
lacustris* 74. Rhombic, flattish, glabrous, with an acute pro¬
tuberance. Pools and marshes of Europe. Wood, t.
49. f. 5.
ammea. 73. Heart-shaped, transversely grooved. Pools and
ditches of Europe. Wood, t. 47. f. 6.
pulsilla. 76. Ovate, ventricose, thin, transversely striated,
very minute. Rivers of Europe. Lister, t. 139. f. 13.
3
O L O G Y. Chap. Ji
77. Ovate, transversely striated, and purple within \ limosa.
umbones prominent and acute. S. American rivers 5
inch long. Linn. Tr. x. t. 24. f. 8. and 9.
78. Triangular, gibbous, transversely striated. Ri-/Zw»uW
ver Euphrates. Chem. vi. t. 30. f. 320.
79. Triangular, gibbous, transversely ribbed. Q\\\n?L.jlumim
Chem. vi. t. 30. f. 322. and 323.
80. Triangular, transversely wrinkled. Canton.^wwofijl
Chem. vi. t. 30. f. 321.
81. Heart-shaped, triangular, thick, ponderous,/^ma-
coarse, but very smooth. Rivers in Guinea. Qhzm.phrodiuA
vi. t. 31. f. 327. to 329. . I
82. Obliquely subovate, transversely grooved j sizertvalis.
of a pea. River Avon near Salisbury.
3°
Gen. 7. CarDIUM, Cockle. Cardium.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys t the shell is bi¬
valve, nearly equilateral, equivalve, generally con¬
vex, longitudinally ribbed, striated or grooved, with
a toothed margin. Hinge of the two teeth near the
beak, and a larger remote lateral one on each side j
each looking into the opposite.
Species.
r. Gibbous, equivalve, with elevated, carinated, costafw
concave, membranaceous ribs $ three inches long, three
and a half broad, three high. African ocean. Wood,
t. 36. f. 1.
2. Gibbous, with prickly ribs; anterior ones with lima.
recurved, membranceous tubercles, crenated at the
sides. Nicobar islands. Chem. vi. t. 13. f. 133.
3. Heart-shaped 5 valves compressed and carinatedcard/iSi
with teeth; two inches and a half long, above two
broad. Indian ocean. Wood, t. 39. f. I. and 2.
4. Heart-shaped, valves compressed and keeled jhuman
anterior side convex ; umbones approximate. Wood, t.
39. f. 3. and 4. East Indies.
5. Heart-shaped; forepart surrounded with lines, row««
hind part with broader striae, forming by their union
the figure of a heart. Nicobar islands. Wood, t. C7.
f. 6.
6. Gibbous; one side impressed and ochraceous,twomM
the other convex, heart-shaped, and whitish, spottedswh.
with yellow. Nicobar islands. A very rare species.
Chem. vi. t. 14. f. 149. and 30.
7. Heart-shaped; valves striated, notched; behind retail
the beaks a lunated heart-shaped gape ; two inches long,
and nearly the same breadth. India, Arabia, and
Egypt. Wood, t. 38. f. 4. and 3.
8. Heart-shaped, subquadrilateral, with punctured1
grooves; valves carinated, beaks distant; incheseftim.
long. Indian ocean. Wood, t. 37. f. 7.
9. Something heart-shaped, subangular ; valves an- medium
gular, grooved, smooth, European and American seas.
WTood, t. 30. f. 3.
10. Somewhat heart-shaped, longitudinally grooved ; donOdy
anterior end truncated ; umbones cancellated. West mg
Indies. Chem. vi. t. 16. f. 163.
* 11. Somewhat heart-shaped, subangular; grooveseffjjoW'
imbricated, or beset with recurved scales. Falmouth,
Sandwich. Don, t. 32. f. 3.
* 12. Somewhat heart-shaped^ ribs high, and grooved
down the middle, and beset with large hollowed spines
near
up. IV. CONCH
near the circumference, European and Mediterranean
seas, Devonshire, Wood, t, 48.
„ ftum. 13. Somewhat heart-shaped, nearly equilateral, with
crowded longitudinal ribs, marked along the middle
with an obsolete groove, and very spinous, Mediter¬
ranean. Wood. t. 5f.f, I.
ei natUtn* I4* Slightly heart-shaped; ribs spinous, carinated.
European seas, Britain. Wood, t. 49. f. I. and 2.
ci turn. 1S' Slightly heart-shaped, with elevated subtriangu-
lar, ciliated grooves. North seas.
ti rcu- * 16. Somewhat heart-shaped, with obtuse, knotty,
(L tn, transversely striated grooves. Mediterranean. Wood,
t. 50. f. I. and 2.
ii irdta. J 7* Heart-shaped, with arched imbricated scales
along the grooves. Mediterranean. Wood, t. 52, f.
I. and 2.
ft urn.
u h.
r ens.
v ica-
t ,
v num.
k >StO-
r,
' ula-
t •
1 urn.
■' Return
0 ’’gum.
I atm.
s atm.
p /ra-
f n.
r '‘tum.
1m,
, ,
t m-
»tc.
t tare.
18. Somewhat heart-shaped, subangular. India.
Wood, t. 58. f. I. and 2.
19. Subcordate, with lunated, coloured grooves.
India. Wood, t. 58. f. 3.
20. Rounded, ventricose, white, with deep teeth on
the margin ; anterior ones rosy. Africa and America.
Lister, t. 330. f. 167.
21. Subcordate, grooved, and muricatedat the sides.
America. Wood, t. 51. f. 2. and 3.
22. Oblong, with angular grooves, serrated at the
side. America and India.
23. Oblong, with numerous longitudinal ribs, cre-
nated on both sides, and imbricated at the anterior.
Jamaica. Wood, t. 53. f. 3.
24. Ventricose, with longitudinal angular ribs, stri¬
ated transversely on the posterior side. Virginia.
Lister, t. 328. f. 165.
25. Subovate, grooved ; anterior margin rough, pos¬
terior, one toothed. India. Schroeter, t. 7. f. 11.
26. Obovate, with obsolete, longitudinal striae, and
a few transverse ones concealed by a glossy, yellowish
brown epidermis. European and American seas. Wood,
t. 54. f. I.
27* Oblong, ventricose, ribbed longitudinally, ex¬
cept at the ends, which are nearly smooth. Mediter¬
ranean. Wood, t. 55. f. 1,
28. Heart-shaped, carinated ; fore part obliquely
truncated, thin, quite smooth, snowy, with gilt striae
above an inch long. Wood, t. 52. f. 3.
2p. Obovate, smooth, with obsolete striae ; interior
margin serrated. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
Wood, t. 54. f. 3.
30. Pellucid, cinereous, with numerous thin longi¬
tudinal ribs. India. Wood, t. 55. f. j.
31. With obsolete slightly crenated longitudinal
ribs; anterior end produced and gaping. Jamaica.
Wood, t. 56. f. 2.
32. Broad, unequal sided, within white ; ribs flat
and spinulous : two inches long, two and a half broad.
Tranquebar and Nicobar islands. Wood, t. 57. f. 4.
and 5.
33. Roundish, angulated at the anterior end, and
produced at the margin j ribs crenulated and somewhat
nodulous. Wood, t. 57. f. 2. and 3.
t 34* Roundish, compressed, with triangular ribs, and
sides muricated, Chem. vi. t. 17. f. 180.
, 35* Ovate, equilateral, with convex longitudinal
nbs, and elevated crescent-shaped transverse striae 5
lamellated at the anterior end. St Domingo.
Via,. VI. Part II. t
0 L 0 G Y. 459
* 36. Antiquated, with 28 depressed ribs, with oh-, echile.
solete recurved scales. Abounds frequently on all san¬
dy coasts, and is lodged a little beneath the sand. J bis
is employed as a wholesome and nourishing food. It
is the common cockle of this country, Mood, t. 55.
f. 4-
37. Heart-shaped with 24 longitudinal ribs; mw-fimbria*
gin fringed. Wood, t. 56. f. 4. and 5. tum.
38. Antiquated, with 20 remote grooves, the inier-rusticum,
mediate spaces rugged, Mediterranean seas. Wood,
t. 55. f. 2. and 3.
39. Grooved with about 36 triangular, smooth iWis.istandi-
Iceland and Greenland seas. Chem. vi. t. 19. f. 196. cww.
and 7.
40. Antiquated, glabrous, thin, with angular {ex-green-
ruginous lines; two and three fourth inches long, three landicum.
and a half broad. Greenland and Iceland. Chem. vi.
t. 19, f. 198.
41. Slightly heart-shaped and pectinated. Mediter-7><?cta«a-
ranean. Wood, t. 57. f. 1. tum.
42. Subantiquated, hind part with 20 grooves \m~glaucum.
bricated upwards. Barbary.
43. Rounded, whitish, with a brown band; ribsfasciatum.
flattened 27, with distant transverse striae. Montagu,
t. 27. f. 6.
* 44. Suboval, angulated, compressed, with 2i xormti-elongatum
ed and slightly wrinkled ribs. Devonshire.
* 45. Minute, rounded, convex, glabrous, and pellu-
cid ; hinge with nearly obsolete primary teeth. Devon
and Tenby. Montagu, t. 27. f. 4.
* 46. Minute, heart-shaped, opake, margin muricated. wiwricafw-
Kent. Walker, f. 84. - him.
Gen. 8. Mactra. Mactra.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys ; the shell is bi¬
valve, unequal sided and equivalve ; the middle tooth
of the hinge is complicated, with a small hollow on
each side ; the lateral ones are remote, and inserted
into each other.
Species.
* Shells subtriangular.
1. Smooth, with a flat anterior margin, on which isspengleid.
a lunated cape, 3-^ inches broad. Cape of Good Hope.
Chem. vi. t. 20. f. 199. to 201.
2. With transverse, wrinkled plaits, diaphanous ;plicatoria.
anterior margin flattish, shell thin like paper ; from I
to 2 inches long, 2f broad. Indian ocean. Chem. vi.
t. 20. f. 202. to 204.
3. Thin, pellucid, white, convex, fore-part a \\tt\epapyracea.
gaping, finely striated and ribbed. Nicobar islands.
Very rare. Chem. vi. t. 23. f. 201.
4. Somewhat heart-shaped, diaphanous and brittle, vitrea.
transversely plaited; anterior depression lanceolate ;
posterior ovate-oblong. Chem. xi. t. 200. f. 1959.
5. Smooth, diaphanous ; back substriated, with astriatula.
smooth marginal impression before them, surrounded
with a rim ; 2f inches long, 3 broad. Mediterranean
and Coromandel coasts. Chem. vi. t. 21. f. 205. and
206.
6. Three-sided, finely striated transversely ; foie-cygnca.
part flattish and slightly wrinkled ; 1 inch long and ra¬
ther broader. Tranquebar. Chem. vi. t. 21. f. 207.
7. Obtusely triangular, smooth, thin, with peUucii maculata,
3 F chesnut
4io
turgida.
violacea.
cuneata.
rotundata.
glabrata.
nitida.
corallina.
lactea.
striata.
radiata.
stnltoi'um.
grandis.
achatina.
sdida.
sdidis-
sima.
truncata.
subtrun*
cata.
australis.
CONCHOLOGY.
Chap. 1’ |
chesnut spots ; within white, and finely striated ; a
heart-shaped impression behind the beaks $ IJ inch
long, and rather broader. Nicobar islands. Chem.
vi. t. 21. f. 2c8.
8. Inflated, faintly striated, ochraceous and white
within ; hinge with a supernumerary, triangular, double
tooth j 2^ inches long, broad. Tranquebar. Chem.
vi. t. 21. f. 210. to 212.
9. Thin, obsoletely radiated, finely striated trans¬
versely ; margins on each side the beaks whitish j 2
inches long and 3 broad. Tranquebar. Chem. vi.
t. 200. f. 1954.
10. Wedge-shaped, blue, with fine transverse striae;
margin notched within ; 1 inch long, and scarcely so
broad. Tranquebar. Chem. vi. t. 22. f. 213. and
214.
11. Obtusely triangular, whitish, with milk-white
bands on the beak ; margins on each side the beaks
violet; 1^ inch long, and nearly 2 broad. Mediterra¬
nean. Lister, t. 263. f. 99.
12. Smooth, diaphanous, striated; beaks smooth,
margins on each side of them striated ; jf inch long
and 2 broad. African and Indian oceans. Chem.
t. 22. f. 216. and 217.
13. Snowy, glossy, thick, diaphanous, smooth ; de¬
pressions on each side the beaks striated. Schroeter,
t. 8. f. 2.
14. Smooth, subdiaphanous, white, with paler bands;
2 inches broad, long. Mediterranean and Guinea.
Chem. vi. t. 22. f. 218. and 219.
15. Thin, turgid, pellucid, white ; fore-part finely
striated, with paler bands. Indian ocean. Chem. vi.
t. 22. f. 220. and 221.
16. Triangular, thick, with strong, thick crowded,
arched strise. Chem. vi. t. 22. f. 222. and 223.
'* 17. Subtriangular, thin, brittle, compressed, with
five transverse and minute longitudinal strice. Ports¬
mouth. Don. t. 161.
* 18. Semitranspai’ent, smooth, glossy, obsoletely radi¬
ated, white without, purplish within ; sides nearly
equal; length if inch, breadth l|. European and
American seas, England, and shores of Scotland.
IJrown, t. xv. f. 2.
19. Semitransparent, smooth, fawn colour with pale
rays ; beak and hinge placed beyond the middle ; 2^
inches long, 3f broad. New Jersey. Chem. vi. t. 23.
f. 228.
20. Heart-shaped, smooth, radiated towards the mar¬
gin, with two violet spots on the anterior and two on
posterior slope. Tranquebar. Chem. xi. t. 200. f.
1957. and 1958.
* 21. Strong, subtriangular, of a yellowish-white co¬
lour, with a few concentric ridges; equal sided; I *-
inch long, l^- broad. Common on European shores,
and also in Britain. Brown, t. xv. f. 4.
22. Ovate, subtriangular, solid, with obsolete con¬
centric ridges ; lateral teeth striated ; hinge central.
N. Jersey. Chem. x. t. 170. f. 1656.
* 23. Triangular, equilateral, strong ; with concentric
ridges; umbones thick and prominent; lateral teeth
striated. Britain. Brown, t. xv. f. 5.
* 24. Triangular, thickish, finely striated transversely;
umbones thick and prominent. Britain. Brown, t. xv.
f- 7-
25. Transversely oval and wrinkled, compressed,
nearly equilateral, and rounded at both ends; hinge
with two lateral teeth. N. Zealand. Chem. vi. t. 3.
f. 19. and 20.
26. Ovate, compressed, transversely striated ; hinge
teeth very minute, with a large oblique hollow. Medi¬
terranean. Lister, t. 253. f. 88.
* 27. Subtriangular, rounded, compressed, and trans- tenuis. 1 ]
versely wrinkled ; hinge with lateral teeth in one valve
only. Britain. Montagu, t. 17. f. 7.
* 28. Ovate, compressed, glabrous; hinge with late- boysii. (I
ral teeth in one valve only. Britain. Montagu, t. 3.
f. 7.
* 29. Subtriangular, minute, strong, opaque ; umbones triang |
prominent; margin crenated. Britain. Montagu, laris,
t. 3. f. 5.
* 30. Subtriangular, minute; umbones prominentI
margin entire. Britain. Montagu. sima.
** Shells ovate oblong.
* 31. Ovate, dirty white, with glaucous rays, and hneglauca, ]
transverse striae ; 2f inches long, 3^ broad. Mediter¬
ranean. Brown, t. xv. f. 1.
32. Ovate, thin, pellucid, white, with unequal tr&m-pdiuch
verse striae; if inch long, and 2 broad. Guinea.
Chem. vi. t. 24. f. 234.
33. Ovate, thin, smooth, pellucid, flattish ; anteriorfragiin \
gape transversely striated, and wrinkled. Nicobar
islands. Chem. vi. t. 24. f. 235.
34. Ovate, dirty white, with elevated longitudinal rwgow 1
striae, crossing the transverse ones, which are a little
more raised ; 2f inches long, 2f broad ; thick, and
white within. Mediterranean. Chem. vi. t. 24. f. 236.
35. Oblong-oval, coated with a yellowish epidermis; orgyp/;
longitudinally striated. Red sea. Chem. xi. t. 200.
f* I955’ • .
36. Oblong-oval, gaping, compressed, thick, finelyp«iflSl 1
striated and ridged transversely ; hinge without lateral
teeth. Tranquebar. Chem. vi. t. 24. f. 238. and 239.
* 37. Oval, oblong, smooth, with irregular concentricfotw;
striae; inside glossy white, gaping a little at both ends.
Europe, near the mouths of rivers. Found very large
on the coast of Caermarthen, and some parts of Corn¬
wall.—The animal which inhabits this shell, accord¬
ing to Montagu, is an ascidia; and he observes that it
frequently protrudes not less than 7 or 8 inches from
the smaller end in search of food. Brown, t. xii. f. 2.
* 38. Oblong, gaping, marked with irregular rugged
transverse striae, and the upper margin incurved ; hinge
without lateral teeth. Britain. Brown, t. xii. f. 1.
r
Gen. 9. DqNAX, or Wedge-shell. Donas
Gev. Char.—The animal is a tethys. The shell is bi¬
valve, with generally a crenulate margin ; the ante¬
rior margin very obtuse ; hinge with two teeth, and
a single marginal one placed a little behind ; rarely
double or triple.
Species..
1. Triangular, heart-shaped, with a flat frontal mar-wre/i
gin. Indian ocean. Chem. vi. t. 25. f. 242 to 247.
2. Ciliated, with spines on the anterior margin. In-yubei^'
dian ocean. Chem. vi, t. 25. f. 248.
3. Wrinkled and gibbous before, with notched rvgoi
margins.
Cap. IV. CONCH
margins. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Cliem.
t. 25. f. 250.
:(j 4. Wedge-shaped ; anterior end wrinkled j margin
crenated ; hinge without lateral teeth $ cartilage cleft,
oblong. Cape of Good Hope. Chem. vi. t. 25. f.
251 and 252.
r :uius, * 5. Oblong, smooth, glossy, finely striated longitudi¬
nally ; margin crenated 5 1 inch broad. European
coasts, Wales. Hon. t. 29. f. I.
:o ita- * 6. Oblong, smooth, glossy, light yellow, with small
ni spots or streaks of white, and one broad ray of the same
from the back to the opposite margin *, inch long, -J
broad. Devonshire, but rare. Montagu, t. 5. f. 4.
tf to. 7* Obtuse before, striated, the margin denticulated.
Southern Europe. Chem. t. 26. f. 255.
& icu- 8. Obtuse in front, lips transversely wrinkled ; fine-
f(! ly striated longitudinally ; margin denticulated. Euro¬
pean and American seas. Lister, t. 376. f. 218.
p ’id. * 9* Oblong, suboval, smooth, glossy, commonly mark¬
ed with two brown stripes longitudinally from the beak j
margin smooth j scarcely f inch long, ^ broad. Wey¬
mouth, Dorsetshire. Montagu, t. 5. f. 2.
Ct men, 10. Ovate, glossy, and slightly wrinkled transverse¬
ly 5 hinge with one large and one small primary tooth,
in each valve, and no lateral teeth. Britain. Mon¬
tagu, t. 17. f. 2.
s; isa. II. Hind-part smooth and perpendicularly striated j
fore-part truncated, and finely cancellated j angles spi¬
nous. Tranquebar. Very rare. Chem. vi. t. 26. f.
258.
i irnata. 12. Flesh-coloured, anterior part truncated, wrink¬
led, and marked with reticulated striae; hind-part
wedge-shaped, and furrowed with fine perpendicular
striae. Tranquebar. Chem. vi. t. 26. f.
c tata. 13. Wedge-shaped, margins very entire ; I inch long,
broad. Tranquebar. Chem. vi. t. 26. f. 260.
igata. 14. Obtuse before *, obsoletely striated at the sides j
margin very entire j hinge without marginal teeth ;
if inch long, 2 inches broad. Tranquebar. Chem. vi.
t. 25. f. 249.
J pta. 15. Ovate, compressed, smooth, marked with purple
waved lines; margins crenulate. Malabar coasts.
Chem. vi. t. 26. f. 261 to 265.
’ 'oc. 16. Ovate, with narrow transverse grooves j ante¬
rior depression excavated ; posterior lanceolate ; mar¬
gin crenulated. East Indies. Chem. vii. t. 43. f.
452. .
/ I. jy. Gibbous, finely striated transversely, spotted
with yellow. Malabar. Chem. vi. t. 26. f. 266 and
267- . . .
* tafa. 18. Brown, with hyaline spots 5 outside with crowd¬
ed, arched, transverse striae, inside with perpendicular
ones j 1 inch broad, if long. Tranquebar. Schroe-
ter, t. 8. f. 3.
’ "icata. 19. Ovate, striae, muricated j margin denticulated.
Indian ocean.
s ninea 20. With thin perpendicular striae, crossing the
transverse ribs on the fore-part j straw colour, with
darker transverse bands •, margin tawney and entire be¬
hind j 1 inch long, ^ broad. Schroeter, t. 8. f. 4.
'! iida. 21. Entirely white, with a few thin, arched, trans¬
verse striae, which are oblique towards the rim j hinge
with three oblique middle teeth j margin entire; I inch
long, and something broader. Tranquebar. Schroe¬
ter, t. 8. f. 5.
O L O G Y. 411
* 22. Oval, with transverse, waved, erect, striated, zn/s.
membranaceous wrinkles ; size of a small kidney bean.
Mediterranean, shores of Devonshire and Cornwall,
where it is found in the hardest limestone. Chem. vi.
t. 26. f. 268 to 270.
33
Genus 10. Venus. Venus.
Gsn. Char.—The animal a tethys j shell bivalve, fron¬
tal margin flattened, with incumbent lips j hinge
with three teeth, all of them approximate $ the la¬
teral ones divergent at the tip.
Species.
* With the anterior depression spinous or toothed on
the margin.
I. Transversely grooved, with a double row of spines
on the anterior slope. American ocean. This shell is
very rare. Lister, t. 307. f. 140.
* 2. Somewhat heart-shaped, with thickened wrinkles ;paphia.
flattened side with attenuated wrinkles j lips compli¬
cated j 2 inches long, 1^ broad. American islands.
Lister, t. 279. f. 116.
3. Somewhat heart-shaped, with thick depressed^a^cfc;a,
transverse ribs, of an uniform thickness throughout.
W. Indies. Chem. vi. t. 27. f. 277 and 278.
4. Heart-shaped, with decussated striae, flattened 5
margin lamellated. American ocean. Very rare.
Chem. vi. t. 27. f. 282 to 286.
5. Somewhat heart-shaped and compressed, with cingenda.
transverse remote reflected ribs, and longitudinal striae.
W. Indies. Lister, t. 278. f. 115.
6. Somewhat heart-shaped, with transverse, remote,
reflected grooves •, margin crenulated. American ocean.
Lister, t. 277. f. 114.
7. Heart-shaped, with transverse, remote, excavated
grooves $ margin crenulated.
8. Somewhat heart-shaped, and angulated towards
the anterior end, with a few distant much elevated ribs j
striated strongly on the lower sides. E. Indies. Chem.
t. 27. f. 279 to 281.
9. Somewhat heart-shaped, and angulated towards^j/fcata.
the anterior end, with numerous transverse, membra¬
naceous ribs 5 cordiform depression, nearly smooth.
Levant sea. Chem. vi. t. 28. f. 295 and 297.
10. Lentiform, transversely striated, with a deep, earcauafa.
heart-shaped depression behind the beaks j flat side,
broad. Schroeter, iii. t. 8. f. 10.
* 11. Sub-triangular, with numerous equidistant vihs^spinifera.
becoming confluent in pairs, and forming short obtuse
spines on the margin of the anterior slope. Devon¬
shire. Montagu, t. 17. f. 1.
** Somewhat heart-shaped.
*J2. With membranaceous, transverse, striated
grooves, forming tubercles towards the outer margin j
margin crenulated ; 2 inches long, 2 broad. Mediter¬
ranean, Antilles islands, Cornwall. Don. t. 44.
13. Longitudinally striated forwards, and transverse-/opfcicfa.
ly backwards. American islands. Chem. x. t. 172.
f. 1664.
* 14. With transverse, recurved, acute grooves ; pos-cassina.
terior margin crenated, and grooved behind the beaks.
3 i 2 European
412
CONCHOLOGY.
diver gens.
cancellata
gallina.
circinata.
petuka.
Jlexuosa.
erycuia.
■mercena-
rid.
isMndfca.
lusoria.
chione.
maculaia.
meretrix.
paradox a.
Iceta.
eastrensis
phryne.
minuia.
Ttigida*
European seas. It is often found in a fossil state.
Britain. Don. t. 147*
15. White, with fine crowded, divergent striae. A-
raerican islands. Chem. x. t. 172. f. 1666.
16. With transverse, membranaceous, remote striae,
and a heart-shaped depression behind the beaks j I inch
long, li broad. Indian ocean. Don. t. 115.
* 17. Radiate, with transverse, obtuse striae; hind
tooth of the hinge minute $ margin crenulated j I inch
long, broad. American and European seas, Corn¬
wall. Don. t. 68.
18. With transverse, acute striae j lips finely striated
and rosy *, margin very entire. Africa. Lister, t.
306. f. 109.
19. Slightly grooved, margin crenated j size of a
hazel-nut. South of Europe.
20. Grooves obtuse, transverse ; lips of the anterior
margin with an elevated angle $ I inch long, broad.
American and Indian oceans. Lister, t. 281. f. lip.
21. Grooves transverse, parallel, obtuse; anterior
margin glabrous ; depression behind the beaks ovate ;
inches long, 3 broad. India. Lister, t. 268. f.
104.
22. Strong and thick, with' slight transverse stria,
and covered with a brown cuticle ; within, pale vio¬
let ; margin crenated ; 3 inches long, and nearly 3
broad. North America. Shells of this species are
found fossil in the mountains of Sweden. In North
America they are called clams, and the Indians make
wampum or money of them. Lister, t. 271. f. 107..
* 23. Thick and strong, with slight transverse strite,
and covered with a brown cuticle ; within pure white,
and smooth ; margin entire ; inches long, 4 broad.
Europe, Africa, Caspian sea, Caermarthenshire, and
shores of Scotland. The fish is employed as food by
the Icelanders. Don. t. 77.
24. Somewhat heart-shaped, ponderous, with the an¬
terior slope truncated, and the margin very entire.
Amboyna. Chem. vL t. 32. f. 340,
* 25/Smootb, with fine transverse wrinkles; margin
entire ; hind tooth of the hinge lanceolate; 3 inches
long, 3! broad. Asiatic seas ; Cornwall, where this
species is called queen. Don. t. 17.
26. Smooth, with a few faint spots ; if inch long,
2f broad. American ocean. Lister, t. 270. f. 106.
27. Glabrous, with a brown gibbous slope before,
and gaping membranes; margin entire. Near the
mouths of rivers, Indian ocean. Chem. vi. t. 33. f. 347
to 352.
28. Somewhat heart-shaped, solid, compressed at
both ends, and the cartilage slope protruded in the
middle. Peru. Born, t. 4. f. 12 and 13.
29. Smooth, radiated with white ; lips of the anterior
slope violet; if inch long, if broad. Mediterranean
and Indian seas. Chem. vi. t._34. f.
. 30. Triangular, rounded, gibbous, smooth, and mark¬
ed with angular characters ; if inch long, 2 broad..
Indian ocean. Lister, t. 262. f. 98.
31. Smooth, transversely striated before and behind ;
posterior slope obcordate, with violet veins. Southern
ocean. Ilumphius, t. 42, f. O.
32. Subovate, transversely striated, and. subpellucid ;
membranes closed ; from 1 to 2 inches broad, if long.
Iceland.
33. Heart-shaped, ventricose, with numerous trans-
2.
Chap. I j,
verse membranaceous reflected ribs ; posterior depres¬
sion kidney-shaped; margin crenulated. Jamaica.
Lister, 286. f. 123.
* 34. Heart-shaped, with strong longitudinal stv'ne, sutcor-
and remote elevated transverse ribs. Montagu, t. $.data.
f. 1.
*3?. Rather compressed, very glossy, with broad maWm
transverse strioe, and two red streaks at the margin.
Falmouth. Montagu, t. 3. f. 3.
* 36. Somewhat triangular, with transverse ribs, be-sw/ca/c
coming obsolete towards the umbones, and the depres¬
sion oblong oval ; margin crenulated. Dunbar. Linn.
Tr. viii. t. 2. f. 2.
* 37. Slightly compressed, with many regular paralleDcotaVa
transverse ribs ; margin entire. Linn. Tr. viii. t. 2.
f. 3.
* 38. Slightly compressed, with regular strong ecpn-danmo 1.
distant transverse ribs ; margin crenulated. Devon¬
shire. Montagu, t. 29. f. 4.
39. Suborbicular, with numerous, thin, elevated, dis-re^m
tant ribs, and the interstices minutely striated, longitu¬
dinally ; margin crenulated. Gualter, t. 75. f. o.
* 40. Heart-shaped, much compressed, transversely eofljpn j
grooved. Newhaven. Montagu, t. 26. f. I.
41. Flattish, with transverse, elevated, slightly mem-
branaceous striae ; anterior depression lanceolate and
wrinkled. Falkland islands. Chem. xi. t. 202. f.
1977.
42. Slightly gibbous, with elevated, decussated striae ',granu
and the margin crenulated. Jamaica. Lister, t. 33^*
f..i75.
* 43. Oval heart-shaped, slightly compressed, withoraffl.
longitudinal grooves, and transverse striae; posterior
depression oblong, and elevated in the middle ; margin
crenulated. Britain. Linn. Tr. viii. t. 2. f. 4.
44. Smooth, with the anterior depression oval, andpaufc
the posterior,cordiform. Coromandel. Chem. xi. t. 202. cw/o.
f- l91>
* 45. Subtriangular, with a few transverse antiquated triang >
ridges, and the margin entire; hinge with three teethm.
in one valve ; and two, besides a semilunar lamina, in
the other. Devonshire. Montagu, t. 17. f. 3.
46. Oblong, heart-shaped^ polished, with broad trans-cofifl/i
verse ribs ; anterior depression lanceolate, and the pos¬
terior cordiform. Ceylon. Chem. xLt. 202. f. 1975*
47. Oblong, heart-shaped, polished, with flattishjjocyi
transverse striae, and the posterior depression cordi¬
form. South seas.. Chem. xi. t., 202. f.. 1976.'-
48. Somewhat heart-shaped, glabrous, thick, sinApingu
tumid; anterior depression oval; posterior rounded
and impressed ; margin entire. East Indies. Chem.
vi. t. 34. f. 355 to 357.
49. Somewhat heart-shaped, glabrous, with three
blackish rays; anterior depression oval; posterior
ovate. Tranquebar.. Chem. vi. t. 34. f. 358.
50. Somewhat heart-shaped, very smooth, withoutfxz’fe
any posterior depression ; anterior tooth of the hinge
slightly crenulated. Malabar. Chem. vi. t. 34. f.
362 and 363.
51. Somewhat heart-shaped, with three longitudinal recen
rays, and transversely striated ; posterior depression
impressed and oval. Coromandel. Chem. xi. t. 202.
f. 1979.
52. Somewhat heart-shaped, ventricose ; transverse]y/>rc<&*
striated ; posterior depression oblong-oval, striated, andew/^
rather
lap.
I n%ina,
ata.
loraia.
briata.
CONCH
Red sea. Chem. vl. t. 35. f. 375 to
inches long,
lamosa.
?rpera.
nulata.
diata.
icta.
IV.
rather obsolete.
377-
, 53. Smooth, with dark, transverse, zig-zag stripes 5
posterior depression cordiform. Ceylon. Chem. vi. t.
200. f. 1961.
54. Subtriangular-heart-shaped, smooth, with some¬
what reticulated, angulated veins; posterior depression
nearly obsolete. Tranquebar. Lister, t. 259. f. 95.
55. Oval, longitudinally wrinkled, semipellucid,
faintly radiated with purple and white j if inch long,
broad. European and American seas. Lister, t.
425. f. 273.
56. Oval, gibbous, longitudinally striated, and trans¬
versely grooved ; margin crenated j 2 inches long, 3
broad. East Indies. Lister, t. 1056. f. 1.
iculata. 57. Striae elevated, decussated ; with a heart-shaped
depression behind $ margin entire 5 2
broad. India. Lister, t. 335. f. 172.
58. Striae reticulated, and scaly on the back part.
Amboyna. Chem. vi. t. 31. f. 335.
39. Roundish, with decussated, membranaceous
striae j lips flexuous. India. Gualteri, t. 76. f. G.
60. Ovate heart-shaped, with transverse membrana¬
ceous striae, and the interstices crenulated *, posterior
depression cordiform j, margin crenulated. East Indies.
Lister, t. 283. f. II.
61. Triangular-heart-shaped, with decussated striae;
posterior depression cordifbrm; margin crenulated;
umbones violet. Chem. vi. t. 36. f. 386.
62. Triangular heart-shaped, ventricose, with broad
transverse ribs, and the interstices crenulated; poste¬
rior depression cordiform ; margin crenulated. Chem.
vi. t. 36. f. 387.
63. Triangular, smooth, retuse behind and before ;
I inch long, and rather broader. Mediterranean.
Lister, t, 252. f. 86.
64. Gibbous, with transverse, membranaceous, arch¬
ed striae; posterior slope kidney-shaped ; margin cre¬
nated ; 2 inches long, 2 broad. India. Lister, t. 286.
f‘ I23*
63. With transverse, acute striae, anteriorly mem¬
branaceous ; anterior slope short, posterior indistinct.
Red sea. Schroeter, iii. t. 8. f. 8.
■oricata. gg. With perpendicular, imbricated ribs, transverse¬
ly striated ; margin crenated. It has been found in a
fossil state in France. •
aricata fiy. With fine transverse striae, crossing some di¬
verging longitudinal ones towards the margin ; poste¬
rior impression ovate ; margin crenated. E. Indies.
Chem. x. t. 172. f. 1666.
Milana gg. Oblong, ovate, radiated, with thick, crowded,
transverse striae; anterior slope broad, ovate; poste¬
rior impression heart-shaped; if inch long, 2 broad.
Malabar. Chem. vi. t. 32. f. 337 and 338..
69. Transversely striated, the back glabrous ; an¬
terior slope broad, with brown lines ^ posterior im¬
pressions heart-shaped, with brown lines. Red Sea.
Schroeter, vii. t. 8. f. 12.
70. Green, within white, with transverse, unequal,
membranaceous striae ; margin acute ; 2f inches long,
3 broad. Rivers of Ceylon. Chem. vi. t. 32. f. 336:
71. Gibbous, snowy ; anterior part convex; within
pale violet; anterior slope roundish, posterior heart-
shaped ; margin very entire* India. Cfaem. vi. t. 32;
f. 346.
pla.
ida,.
istt.
wmea.
'■tans.
ta.
O L 0 G Y. 413
72. Thin, glabrous, convex ; white variegated with foeta.
brown; posterior slope elongated, with oblique tumid
lips ; four teeth in the hinge. Mauritius. Chem. vi.
t- 34- f- 353- . . ,, . ,
73. Ochraceous, with cinereous and bluish spots ; nebulosa.
anterior slope oval ; posterior slope ovate, bluish.
Tranquebar. Chem. vi. t. 34. f. 359. to 361.
74. Oblong, ovate, inequilateral ; lid transverse \japomca.
striae crowded at the sides; posterior slope oblong,
©vate. Japan. Chem. vi. t. 34. f. 364.
75. Ventricose, anteriorly angular, with transverse,
thick, smooth, and slightly arched striae; posterior slope
heart-shaped. Nicobar. Rare. Chem. vi. t. 34. f.
365. and 366.
76. Solid, weighty, inequilateral, wrinkled on bothplumlea.
sides ; margin crenulated ; hinge with two teeth.
Southern ocean. Chem. vii. t. 69. f. A. to D.
77. Posteriorly ovate, transversely and unequally coZ/zj^a.
striated, and marked with angular lines. Red sea.
Chem. xi. t. 20 r. f. 1968.
78. Triangular, white or yellow, with transverse pa.- mactroides
rallel striae; If inch long. Senegal. Lister, t. 251.
f.85.
*** Suborbicular.
79. Lentiform, with crenated, decussated striae; po- trgerina.
sterior slope impressed, ovate. American and Indian
ocean. Lister, t. 337. f. 174.
80. Orbicular, transversely striated, with roaghprostratac
membranaceous lips ; 2 inches long, not so broad. Co¬
romandel. Chem. vi. t. 29. f. 298.
81. Lentiform, with glabrous wrinkles, white with/^ww.?^/-
a longitudinal groove anteriorly on each side ; 2 inches xxinica.
long. America. Lister, t. 305. f. 138.
82. Slightly ventricose, with transverse membrana-ytfwa/ce7/-
ceous striae, and inflected with a longitudinal furrow atw.
both ends; posterior depression minute. Jamaica.
Chem. vii. t. 39. f. 408. and 409.
83. White, somewhat glabrous, with a longitudinal spuria.
groove anteriorly, and hinge without lateral teeth.
Shores of Iceland and Ferro islands. Lister, 296. f.
133* ...
84. Lentiform, longitudinally grooved, dotted vi\t\i-punctcttn.
in ; 2 inches long, 2^ broad. India, but rare. Chem.
vii. t. 37. f. 397. to 398.
* 85. Lentiform, transversely striated,. pale with ob*sm)/tffo.
solete rays ; posterior slope heart-shaped ; 2 inches
long, and 2 broad. Norway, and coast of Britain,
Cornwall. Lister, t. 291. f. 127.
* 86. Thin, convex, orbicular, whitish, tinged with wwrfuta-
yellow, with thin transverse stride ; margins waved.
British seas, Falmouth. Don. t. I2r.
87. Gibbous, with transverse, remote, rather obso- tumidula.
lete grooves ; margin entire.
88. Longitudinally striated, with transverse, white,
and violet arches; margin interiorly crenated. Chinese
shores. Chem. x. t. 171. f. 1663.
89. Lentiform, transversely striated, with an oblong cxcisa.
gaping vent on the anterior slope ; hinge with 4 teeth.
Nicobar islands. Lister, t. 294. f. 130.
90. Gibbous, with longitudinal nodulous ribs, bl anch-pectinate.
ed at the anterior end; margin toothed. Amboyna.
Lister, t. 313. f. 149.
* 91. Lentiform; with remote, transverse, membrana-iorar/j's*
naceous
4U
dispar.
(quivoca.
divaricata
contraria.
corrugata.
script a.
cdentula.
concentric
ca.
juvenis.
histrio.
globosa.
discors.
aculeate.
gigantea.
literata.
geogra-
phica.
rdtundata
decussata,
tindulata*
naceous striae $ if inch long, 2 broad.
Britain. Chem. vii. t. 39* !• 412. to 414.
92. With the posterior side transversely striated,
and the anterior obliquely ribbed. South seas. Chem.
xi. t. 202. f. 1981. and 1982.
93. Slightly compressed, with angulated diverging
ribs; posterior depression lanceolate; margin crenated.
E. Indies. Chem. xi. t. 202. f. 1980.
94. With narrow transversely striated ribs, oblique¬
ly divaricating from the centre ; margin crenulated.
E. Indies. Lister, t. 310. f. 146.
95. Suboval, convex, with oblique curved striae ;
margin crenulated. Guinea. Chem. vi. t. 30. f. 317.
to 319.
96. Ovate, whitish ; striae transverse, anteriorly
thick and strong, posteriorly thin and undulating. Me¬
diterranean. Chem. vii. t. 39. f. 410.
97. Lentiform, compressed, striated, angular; the
hinder angle straight. Indian ocean, and Red sea.
Very rare. Chem. vii. t. 40. f. 420. to. 426.
98. Subglobular, lenticular, wrinkled, without teeth ;
posterior slope ovate. American ocean. Chem. vii.
t. 40. f. 427. to 429.
99. White, suborbicular, compressed, with concen¬
tric striae ; margin very entire; posterior slope heart-
shaped. Atlantic and American seas. A large shell.
Lister, t. 288. f. 124.
too. Lentiform, with transverse, crowded striae ; an¬
teriorly circular, and terminating in wrinkles behind ;
posterior slope heart-shaped ; margin very entire. In¬
dia. Chem. vii. t. 38. f. 405.
101. Lentiform, with transverse, acute, arched striae;
margin entire; posterior slope heart-shaped. India.
Rare. Chem. vii. t. 38. f. 407.
102. Globular, with fine transverse striae; margin
very entire ; hinge with two teeth ; I inch long, i|-
broad. Red sea. Very rare. Chem. vii. t. 40. f. 430.
431*
103. Orbicular, a little convex, with longitudinal
striae perpendicular in the middle, obliquely divergent
towards the outside, and crossed by transverse ones ;
intermediate grooves and inner margin crenated. Isle
of France. Lister, 312. f. 148.
104. Orbicular, subequilateral, with elevated, acute,
tuberculated ribs ; margin denticulated, and crenated.
Schroeter, iii. t. 8. f. 13.
**** Subovaly and slightly angulated on the anterior
side.
105. Ovate, livid, with numerous, interrupted, bluish
rays ; posterior slope ovate. Shores of Ceylon and
Florida. Chem. x. t. 171. f. 1661.
106. Ovate, anteriorly angular, with undulated trans¬
verse striae ; 2 inches long, 2 J broad. Europe and In¬
dia. Lister, t. 402. f. 246.
107. Inequilateral, thin, with fine decussated striae ;
white, reticulated with brown. Mediterranean. Chem.
vii. t. 42. f. 260.
108. Ovate, anteriorly angular, with transverse
striae; intermediate tooth of the hinge bifid ; inch
long, 3 broad. Indian ocean. Chem. vii. t. 42. f. 441.
* 109. Ovate, with decussated striae anteriorly angu¬
lar ; if inch long, 2 broad. Mediterranean, British
coasts. Don. t. 67.
110. Oval, quite smooth, inequilateral; slopes ob-
Chap. l\
long ; margin very entire ; i-f inch long, 2^ broad.
Malabar, Red sea. Lister, t. 400. f. 239.
* in. Subovate, anteriorly subangular, with unequal,virginal
transverse striae ; anterior slope tumid. Adriatic. Bri¬
tain. Lister, t. 403. f. 247.
112. Oval, with transverse striae, which are stronger o^jo/da,
on the anterior side, and undulated in the middle. Me¬
diterranean. Chem. vii. t. 42. f. 144.
113. Ovate, with fine decussated striae; white orsenegaltl
flesh-coloured, varied with brown; if inch broad, notm,
1 inch long. Senegal. Linn. Tr. vi. t. 17. f. 3.
* 114. Thin, convex, somewhat triangular, with aperforo
deep obtuse sinus in the middle of the front. Britain,
Montagu, t. 3. f. 6.
* 115. Suborbicular, inequilateral, transversely strl-aurea.
ated, and marked with faint longitudinal striae ; I inch
long, i^ broad. Dorsetshire. Lister, t. 404. f. 149.
116. Ovate, whitish ; striae decussated ; hinge withmoHd/uj
only two teeth in the left valve. Nicobar islands.
Chem. vii. t. 42. f. 445.
34
Gen. II. SpoNDYLUS. Spondyhi
Gen. Char.-—The animal a tethys ; shell solid, with
unequal valves, one of them convex, the other rather
flat; hinge with two recurved teeth, separated by a
small hollow.
Species.
* Shells with ears.
1. Slightly eared and spinous. Mediterranean, In-gadarv
dian, and other seas.—This species varies greatly inp!/s,
size, thickness, and colours. Sometimes it is entirely
purple, orange, white or bloom colour, and sometimes
it is marked with various streaks, spot, dots, or bands.
Lister, t. 206. f. 40.
2. White, base deep orange-coloured, longitudinally awen-
sulcated ; spines very long, and somewhat tongue-shap-^^.
ed ; apice subfoliated. S. America. Chem. vii. t. 45.
f. 465-
3. Thin upper valve, deep rose-coloured, with short
spines; the smaller valve with lamellated foliations,^,
and long submarginated spines. Knorr. Vig. v. t. 9.
f. I.
4. With distinct longitudinal strise, white and vn-Canc!idi
spotted, rough. N. Holland.
5. Round, white, larger valve purple, with \ongitn-multila
dinal striae ; with tongue-shaped spines. E. Indies.mellatu
Chem. vii. t. 46. f. 472. and 473.
6. With white and purple longitudinal ribs andcostatu
stripes ; ribs spinous, and with subserrated teeth. Red
sea. Knorr. Wg. i. t. 9. f. 2.
7. Longitudinally sulcated and ribbed; ribs with variegf
very long white spines. E. Indies. Chem. vii. t. 45.
f* 464- ...
8. Longitudinally sulcated and ribbed, thickly spin-/o«o7-
ed, of a reddish colour; alternate spines arenated, and Spina.
tongue-shaped ; umbones orange-coloured. E. Indies.
Chem. vii. t. 46. f. 472. and 473.
9. W ithout ears, and spinous. In this species the regi>/s,
shell is sub-globular, white within, without purplish,
scarlet, flame colour, orange or white ; spines generally
two inches long, sometimes cylindrical, with a crenated
margin. India, Malta. Very rare. Chem. vii. t. 46.
f. 471.
10. Oblong-
CONCHOLOGY.
European seas,
(,ap. IV. CONCH
o 'ularis. 10. Oblong-oval, purple, longitudinally sulcated,
ribbed, and spinous ; smaller valve, with the base turn¬
ed upwards, and very much produced. E. Indies.
Gualt. t. IOI. f. B.
i inus. II. Round, longitudinally sulcated, of a scarlet and
purple colour, with short subulate spines j base extort¬
ed and flexuous. Gualt. t. 99. f. E.
( 12. Red on both sides, longitudinally ribbed and sul-
j (ima. cated j ribs with distant scales j scales strong, and
somewhat spoon-shaped, sometimes palmated. Humph,
t. 48. f. 1.
thuli- 13. Purple, or whitish purple, longitudinally sulcat-
i is. ed and ribbed ; scales spoon-shaped, erect and undi¬
vided. E. Indies. Chem. vii. t. 47. f. 474. and 475*
: all's. 14. Whitish, with brown and violet-coloured spots,
or longitudinally lineated ; scales white, spoon-shaped,
or palmated. E. Indies. Chem. vii. t. 47. f. 477-
and 478.
1 ptudi- 15. Oblong-oval, longitudinally sulcated, and scaly;
; is. umbones white ; scales orange-coloured ; underneath
scarlet.
•rolepos 16. Red on both sides, longitudinally ribbed and
striated; ribs with five or six truncated scales. E.
Indies. Knorr. vi. t. 12. f. 3.
ecus. 17. Scarlet on both sides, longitudinally costated ;
with twenty distant ribs, variously spined. E. Indies.
Chem. vii. t. 45. f. 463.
'ante- 18. Orange on both sides, with longitudinal ribs ;
f. and from 20 to 26 subulated spines on each. China.
Ency. Method, t. 191. f. 3.
Hans. 19. Whitish, spotted, with scarlet and purple, or
brown rays, sulcated and spined ; spines frequently
thin. Nicobar islands. Chem. vii, t. 45. f. 469. and
470-
ms. 20. Inequivaive, sulcated, radicated, and spined ;
umbones white, spotted with black and white ; broad.
E. Indies.
laces- 21. Ash-coloured and violet, with longitudinal ribs
!$* and strise ; with sulcated scales, subcylindrical spines.
** Shells without ears, and base attenuated.
■atus. 22. Without ears or spines, and plaited longitudi¬
nally. Java. Lister, t. 210. f. 44.
status, 23. Oblong wedge-shaped, rust-coloured, suberest-
ated; with large simple plaits, and scaly. America.
Lister, t. 210. f. 44.
dfortnis 24. Round, subarcuated, white ; plaits simple, and
scaly. Jamaica. Sloan, ii. t. 241. f. 20. and 21.
tralis. 25. Round, spined, white ; with a waved margin
and no plaits. N. Holland.
1 35
imi1, Gen. 12. Chama, or Gaping Cockle.
Gen. Char.—-The animal a tethys : the shell bivalve,
rather coarse *, hinge with a callous gibbosity, ob¬
liquely inserted in an oblique hollow ; anterior slope
closed.
Species.
* Shells detached.
* 1. Roundish, smooth ; beaks recurved ; anterior
sloped with a gaping fent. Adriatic and Caspian seas,
Hebrides. Sometimes it is found of a large size.
Chem. vii. t. 48. f. 483.
0 L O Cx Y. 415
2. Obtusely triangular, equilateral, plaited ; anterior rnoltkiana.
slope elevated, with oblique plates and striae : size of a
hazel nut. Chem. vii. t. 48. f. 484. to 487.
3. Plaited, with arched scales ; posterior slope gap-gfgfls.
ing, with crenulated margins. Indian ocean.—This
species sometimes measures only about an inch in
length, but sometimes it is found to be the largest of
shells, and equal to 532lb. weight. The fish which it
contains is said to furnish a meal to 120 men, and its
muscular strength is so great as to cut asunder a cable,
or lop off the hand of a man. South Sea. Chem. vii.
t. 49. f. 492. to 494.
4. Plaited, muricated, posterior slope retuse, c]osei\,hippopus.
toothed ; 5 inches long, and 7 broad. Indian ocean.
Chem. vii. t. 50. f. 498. and 499.
5. Suborbieular, solid, tuberculated, and coated withplumbta.
a brown epidermis ; apices recurved, and the margin
entire. South Sea. Chem. xi. t. 203. f. 1991.
6. Somewhat heart-shaped, with longitudinal grooves,
and transverse striae ; ribs from 19 to 22. Atlantic
and Indian seas. Chem. vii. t. 48. f. 488. and 489.
7. Somewhat heart-shaped, slightly produced at the ajax.
anterior end, with longitudinal fiattish ribs, and trans¬
versely striated and tuberculated ; posterior depression
suborbicular. Mouth of the Niger. Chem. vii. t. 48.
f. 490. and 491.
8. Trapeziform, gibbous, with longitudinal, crenu- trapezia.
lated grooves ; about the size of a pea. Norway seas.
Chem. xi. t. 204. f. 2005.
9. Suborbicular, compressed, coarse, with Aecus-semiorli-
sated strise. Arabia. Chem. vii. t. 50. f. 502. and ^o^.culata.
10. Oblong, with imbricated grooves ; anterior part ca/ycw/cta.
retuse; -§ inch long, broad. American and Indian
seas. Chem. vii. t. 50. f. 500.
11. Heart-shaped, transversely striated; one siAecordata.
elongated, compressed. Indian and Red seas.
12. Roundish, with toothed grooves, mixed with satiata.
dots ; posterior slope retuse ; heart-shaped.
13. Oblong, fore-part angular, with anterior acute oifottgo.
teeth. Shores of Guinea. Chem. xi. t. 203. f. 1993.
14. Suborbicular, with very deep grooves ; wrinkles
slightly imbricated ; margin doubly folded. The grooves
are about 30 in number.
15. Transversely wrinkled, and longitudinally stri-conffl^s-
ated. In the middle of each valve within is an addition-ra/ri.
al chamber. American ocean. Small, whitish. Very
rare. Chem. vii. t. 50. f. 506.
16. Oblong, oblated above, and produced at thepectuncu-
base, with smooth longitudinal ribs. Lister, t. 347. f. las.
i85-
17. Cylindrical, white, diphanous, with decussated«>rra/:o-
strice; the transverse strise arched and imbricated./^ogfl.
East Indies. Chem. x. t. 172. f. 1673.
** Shells attached to some other substance.
18. Imbricated, with jagged lamellae; beak a \\t-lazarus.
tie spiral obliquely. India. Chem. vii. t. 51. f. 507.
19. Orbicular, muricated; one valve Matter, thegryphoi-
other with a subspiral, produced beak. Mediterra-
nean, American, and Indian seas. Chem. vii. t. 52. f.
5H-
20. With conic valves, and horn-shaped, oblique,
tubular beaks, longer than the valve. Indian and A-
merican seas.
12. Grooved,
416
arcinella.
lamdlosa.
punctata.
sineros-
tra.
areinella.
■ ■
Area,
tortuosa.
noce.
barbata.
imbricata.
navicula-
ris.
plicata.
Candida.
lacerata.
bicolorata
modiolus.
CONCH
21. Grooved, muricated, with excavated dots : hinge
with a sessile callus j 2 inches broad and 2 long. A-
merican ocean. Lister, t. 355. f. 192.
22. White, with foliaceous, serrated, transverse,
strife, the insterstices crenated, beaks recurved. Medi¬
terranean and American seas.—This species is found
fossil in Campania; it is sometimes round, and some¬
times oblong. Chem. vii. t. 52. f. 5 21.
23. Suborbicular, with transverse rows of rather dis¬
tant scales, and the inside dotted. Guadaloupe. Ency.
Meth. t. 197. f. 3.
24. Ear-shaped, thick, scaly, with one or two longi¬
tudinal farrows; margin crenulated, and the summits
reversed. West Indies. Chem. xi. t. 116. f. 992.
and 993.
25. Somewhat heart-shaped, with spinous longitudi¬
nal ribs, and excavated dots ; margin crenulated and
slightly plaited. Brazil. Lister, t. 355. f. 192.
Gen. 13. Arc a, or Ark-shell.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys : The shell bivalve,
equivalve ; the hinge with a number of teeth, sharp,
alternate, and inserted all along the rim.
Sl>£CIES.
* With the teeth in a straight line.
I. Parallelepiped, distorted, with unequal valves
and sides, deeply striated longitudinally ; lesser valve
obliquely carinated. Indian ocean. Very rare. Chem.
vii. t. 53. f. 524. and 525.
* 2. Noah's ark; oblong, striated, and emarginated
at the tip ; beaks very remote, bent in ; margin gaping.
Mediterranean and Atlantic seas, Cornwall. Don. t.
158. f. 1. and 2.
* 3. Oblong, striated, bearded with byssus ; beaks ap¬
proximate ; margin closed. Europe and Indian seas.
Lough Strangford, Ireland. Chem. vii. p. 186. t. 54.
*'• S3 S’
4. Ovate, rhomboidal, with decussated striae, of
which the transverse are imbricated and acute ; apices
recurved and very remote. Jamaica and Ireland.
Lister, t. 367. f. 207.
5. Oblong, rhomboidal, compresed in the middle,
and longitudinally ribbed ; apices incarved, and very
remote ; margin crenulated at both ends. West Indies.
Chem. vi. t. 5. f. 533.
6. Rhomboidal, with decussated striae on the sides,
and plaited and angulated at the anterior end ; mar¬
gin crenated, and sinuated. Red sea. Chem. xi. t.
204. f. 2008.
7. Oblong, subrhomboidal, with longitudinal, slight¬
ly decussated, crenulated striae, and intermediate smal¬
ler ones towards the anterior end ; margin obsoletely
toothed. Guinea. Lister, t. 229. f. 64.
8. Transversely subovate, depressed, with longitudi¬
nal decussated strife, alternately larger ; margins cre¬
nulated and closed. East Indies. Chem. vii. t. 54.
f. 536. and 537.
9. Transversely oval, tumid, with decussated striae ;
summits approximated and recurved. Red sea. Chem.
xi. t. 204. f. 2007.
10. Dblong, striated, anteriorly angular; posterior
slope incurved. , Mediterranean. Lister, t. 36 c. f.
205.
O L O G Y. Chap. H
11. Ovate, pellucid, substriated ; anterior slopepe/fo.
beaked, prominent; hinge ciliar. Mediterranean.
Chem. vii. t. 55. f. 546.
12. Ovate, with decussated striae, snow’y, and cover-mt’fa,
ed with russet brown epidermis-; margin gaping. Red
sea. Chem. vii. t. 54. f. 538.
13. Pellucid, brittle, round at each end, obsoletely
striated ; teeth of the hinge very sharp. Nicobar islands.
Ency. Method, t. 309. f. 8.
14. With cancellated striae, and bearded; margincawce/Za
gaping in the middle. American ocean. Schroeter,
iii. t. 9. f. 2.
15. Transversely ovate, with longitudinal granulated/tfjca.
striae ; summits approximated ; margins nearly entire
and closed. Barbadoes. Lister, t. 231. f. 65.
16. Entirely white, rhomboid, heart-shaped, and
ribbed ; anterior and dorsal ribs knotty ; beaks remote.
Indian and American oceans. Chem. vii. t. 56. f. 553. a.
*17. With a rhomboidal, yellowish white shell, andlactea,
obsolete, decussated striae ; size of a horse bean. Eu¬
ropean seas, Devonshire. Don. t. 135.
18. Obliquely heart-shaped, with numerous unarm-antiqual
ed grooves. Mediterranean and Indian seas. Lister,
t. 230. f. 64. a.
19. Obliquely heart-shaped, smooth, with grooves
margin plaited; 3 inches long, 4 broad. America,
Africa. Lister, t. 238. f. 72.
20. Slightly heart-shaped, with muricated grooves igranosa,
inch long, 1^ broad. American and Indian oceans.
Lister, t. 241. f. 78.
21. Ovate compressed ; with perpendicular knotty corbula,
striae; beaks obtuse, approximate. Nicobar islands.
Lister, t. 234. f. 68.
22. Ventricose; striae decussated; anterior slope
heart-shaped; 2 inches long, and 3 broad. Nicobarro/ff.
islands. Chem. vii. t. 53. f. 526. and 527.
23. Rounded on each side; chesnut, and markedffMge/fc
with decussated striae ; external margin inflected, anden.
repand in the middle ; beaks approximate. Straits of
Magellan. Chem. vii. t. 53. f. 539.
24. Rhomboidal, white, with decussated striae; reticulat
beaks approximate ; anterior slope heart-shaped. West
Indies. Chem. vii. t. 54. f. 541.
25. Pellucid, rhomboid, with decussated striae ; iore-complam
part produced ; hind-part truncated. American ocean ta.
and African shores. Chem. vii. t. 55. f. 544. and 555.
26. Inequivalve, ovate, with flat, longitudinal striae
and deep grooves ; anterior slope heart-shaped ; ^ inch
long, i£ broad. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 232. f. 66.
27. Ovate, longitudinally grooved, with slight trans-senegck
verse wrinkles ; white ; 8 lines long, 10 broad. Africa, sw.
Adanson, t. 18. f. 6.
** W1ith the teeth in a curved line.
28. Ovate, with broad, crenated, or scaly perpendi-ffowp^-
cular striae ; hinge arched. Campeachy bay and liai-chiensi^'
badoes, Lister, t. 237. f, 71.
29. Lenticular, without ears, smooth, with a plaited
margin; 2 inches long, 2 broad. American ocean.
Chem. vii. t. 57. f. 560.
30. Lenticular, slightly eared, with slightly imbri-pectunci
cated grooves; margin plaited; 14 inch long, and/tt*.
something broader. American ocean and Red sea.
Lister, t. 239. f. 73.
31. Lenticular
IV.
CONCH
tinata.
uila-
a.
lens.
rulosa.
cyme-
31. Lenticular, without ears, with smooth longitudi¬
nal striae. American ocean. Lister, t. 243. f. 74.
ussata. 32. Lenticular, with longitudinal striae, crossed by
faint, transverse ones j anterior slope closed. American
ocean. Chem. vii. t. 57. f. 361.
33. Lenticular, nearly equilateral, perpendicularly
striated without and within ; white, with chesnut spots.
American ocean. Chem. vii. t. 57. f. 562.
34. Lenticular, a little oblique, with decussated
strise; anterior slope, with a very narrow vent. Indian
and American oceans. Schroeter, iii. t. 9. f. 1.
35. 'Ventricose, with longitudinal strise and lines j
and angular on one side ; beaks approximate j hinge
arched j brown with a few spots. Shores of Africa and
American ocean. Lister, t. 245. f. 76.
* 36. Suborbicular, gibbous, and faintly striated trans¬
versely. European and Indian seas. Cornwall. Chem.
vii. t. 57. f. 564.
* 37. Suborbicular, equilateral, hairy j l£ inch long,
2^ broad. Asiatic and American seas. Britain. Don.
c 37-
38. Orbicular, with minute decussated strioe; sum¬
mits curved obliquely, and stellated; margin crenulat-
ed. Coasts of Portugal. Adanson, t. 18. f. io.
39. Suborbicular; convex, with decussated strise,
and transverse zig-zag lines ; summits curved oblique¬
ly ; margin crenated. St Domingo. Lister, t. 246.
f. 80.
maria 40. Roundish, smooth, slightly eared, and trans¬
versely striated j su-nimits incurved, margin crenulated.
Mediterranean. Lister, t. 239. f. 81.
41. Ovate, suborbicular, rather compressed, with
crowded longitudinal and minute transverse striee;
margin very entire. Red sea. Chem. vii. t. <:8. f.
573*
*** With the teeth in a broken line.
'lata.
ipta
hi-
iata.
:leus.
(rata.
* 42. Obliquely ovate, smoothish, with a triangular
hinge ; size of a hazel nut. European seas. It is
sometimes found fossil. Shores of Britain. Don. t.
63-
43. Convex, with transverse striae j hind-part round¬
ed, fore-part extended into an acute beak ; 1* inch
l°ng> broad. Baltic and Norway seas. Ency.
tuta.
* 'ns.
Method, t. 309. f. 7.
* 44. A little compressed, transversely striated, taper¬
ing at the remoter end, and rounded at the opposite
ones ; 2I lines long, and 4 broad. Greenland seas.
Sandwich and Newhaven. Don. t. 78.
* 45. Somewhat heart-shaped, smooth j umbones small,
with the summits slightly inflected, and placed near to
one end ; margin entire. Dunbar and Leith. Mon¬
tagu, t. 29. f. x.
37
strea.
Gen. 14. Ostrea, Oyster.
Gen. C/iar.-—The animal is a tethys ; the shell bi¬
valve, generally with unequal valves, and slightly
eared ; hinge without teeth, but furnished with an
ovate hollow, and mostly lateral, transverse grooves.
Species.
ma.
Valves with auricles equal. Scallops.
1. With 14 or 15 rounded ribs, longitudinally groov-
Vol. VI. Part II. 6 t
O L O G 417
ed, with fine transverse striae } 5 inches long, 5^ broad :
ears large, with decussated striae; lower valve convex,
white, often varied with red bands or spots ; upper
valve flat, reddish. Pound in large beds in most Eu¬
ropean seas, where they are dredged up, pickled, and
barrelled for sale, It is said, that the greatest quan¬
tity is taken after a fall of snow. This is the shell
worn formerly by pilgrims on the hat or coat, as a mark
that they had crossed the sea for the purpose of pay¬
ing their devotion to the Holy Land ; in commemora¬
tion of this it is still preserved in the arms of many fa¬
milies. Donovan, t. 49.
* 2. With about 14 angular and longitudinally striated jacobcea.
rays; upper valves flat, with rounded rays, which are
finely striated transversely ; lower valve with angular
rays, which are striated longitudinally. Ears concave
and smooth on the upper side. European seas. Dor¬
setshire, but rare. Don. t. 137.
3. With 18 flattened rays; ears finely wrinkled ; %ic-%ac.
lower valve convex ; rays finely striated transversely ;
upper valve flat, with about twice as many angular lines
as there are rays. Amei-ican ocean. Lister, t. 168.
f‘ 5‘
4. W ith 16 faint rays, and transverse membrana-striatula.
ceous strise ; margin very entire ; valves nearly equally
flat. Indian ocean.
5. With 20 convex rays; lower valve white andminuta.
very convex ; upper valve white, clouded with brown,
flatter and plaited. Indian ocean.
6. Equivalve, with 12 doubled rays, and smooth onpleuroncc-
the outside; 4^ inches long, gaping at each end. In-tes.
dian ocean. Chem. vii. t. 61. f. 595.
7. Equivalve, a little convex, margined with yz\-japonic a.
low; upper valve with faint lines crossing transverse
concentric bands, and 48 elevated stria; within; 5^
inches long, about the same breadth. Guinea and Ja¬
pan. Chem. vii. t. 62. f. 596.
8. Equivalve, glabrous, with oblong crowded strise ; magellani-
upper valve more convex, lower flatter than in mostca.
others. Straits of Magellan. Chem. vii. t. 62. f. 597.
9. With 9 or 10 rays; the interstices longitudinally////inefa.
striated ; margin repand within. Norway seas. Chem.
vii. t. 63. f. 601. and 602.
10. Nearly equivalve ; with J 2 convex rays crossed radula.
by crenated strim ; 3^ inches long, 2f broad. Indian
ocean. Lister, t. 175. f. 12.
11. Equivalve, ilattish, with 9 unequal rays, imbri- imbricata.
cated with scales. Red sea. Chem. vii. t. 69. f. G.
12. Nearly equivalve, with 16 convex smoothishp/zca.
rays, and striated across ; inch long, 1 inch broad.
India. Chem. vii. t. 62. f. 598.
x3' Somewhat wedge-shaped, with six convex xihspes lutra.
and longitudinal strise; auricles small and unequal.
Lister, t. 171. f. 8.
** Vlives with the auricles equal.
14. Ducal mantle. Equivalve, with 12 convex Tzys,pallium.
striated, rough, and imbricated with scales ; red, varied
with brown and white ; ears striated, crenated or scaly,
India. Lister, t. 187. f. 25.
1$. Equivalve, with 9 thick obtuse rays; inter-sanguino-
stices longitudinally striated, tuberculated and prickly. Aftta.
Red sea. Chem. vii. t. 64. f. 608.
16. With about 20 angulated ribs, and slightly im-mlliala.
bricated transverse striae. Kn^rr. i. t. 19. f. 2.
3 G 17. With
4i8
nodosa.
pes felis.
pellucens.
obliterata.
sulcata.
senatoria,
exotica.
sanguined
varia.
pusio.
sinuosa.
muricata.
obsoleta.
levis.
solans.
glabra..
proteus.
opercula-
ris.
lineata.
nucleus.
gibba.
CONCH
17. With 9 rays, covered with apparently vesicular
tubercles. American and African oceans. Lister, t.
174. f. XI.
18. With 9 striated rough rays j one of the ears
very small. African seas. Chem. vii. t. 64. f. 612.
19. Nearly equiyalve, with 9 rays ; smooth, with
spoon-like hemispherical scales on the lower valve;
minute, pellucid ; upper valve spotted with red. Afri¬
can seas. Lister, t. 184. f. 21.
20. Smooth on the outside, with 24 doubled rays.
Indian ocean. Chem. vii. t. 66. f. 622. to 624.
21. Snborbicular, compressed; with about 11 pro¬
minent, convex, transversely scaly ribs, and striated
longitudinally. Chem. vii. t. 65. f. 614.
22. With about 22 rounded, transversely wrinkled
ribs; and granulated striae in the interstices ; valves
equal. Molucca islands. Chem. vii. t. 65. f. 617.
23. Suborbicular, slender, and smooth ; margin acute
and entire. Chem. xi. t. 207. f. 2037. and 2038.
24. Equivalve, with 22 rays ; ears small; 2 inches
long, 1^ broad. Mediterranean and Atlantic seas.
Chem. vii. t. 66. f. 628.
* 25. Equivalve ; rays about 30 ; compressed, and
beset with transverse, prickly scales ; one ear very
small ; 2^ inches long, 2 broad. European seas, coasts
of Britain. Don. t. 1. f. 1.
26. Equivalve, rays about 40, filiform ; surface
often irregular or distorted ; 2 inches long, 14 broad.
European and American seas. Chem. vii. t. 67. f.
635*
* 27. Ovate, irregularly tumid ; with about 45 un¬
equal filiform ribs, and the auricles nearly equal. Bri¬
tain. Don. t. 34.
28. Subovate, with numerous muricated filiform ribs,
and the auricles nearly equal.
* 29. Equivalve, semi-transparent, smooth ; dark
purple; with 8 nearly obsolete rays; 4 *nch long.
British coasts. Don. t. 1. f. 2.
* 30. Smooth ; ears red ; 4 inch long. Anglesea,
Falmouth. Montagu, t. 4. f. 4.
31. Orbicular, flattish, glabrous ; with 20 convex
rays, and intermediate longitudinal strioe; ears nearly
equal. Adtiatic. Chem. vii. t. 67. f. 638. to 640.
32. Ears nearly equal, equivalve, smooth, with from
10 to 13 smooth flattish rays; inside with elevated
double strite ; 2 inches long, 2 broad. European and
American seas. Chem. vii. t. 67. f. 641. to 645.
33. Suborbicular, with about 3 broad convex plaits,
ami numerous longitudinal striae; auricles nearly equal.
Mediterranean. Chem. xi. t. 207. f. 2042.
34. Lays 20 ; roundish and rough, with decussated
striae; upper valve a little more convex; 2*- inches
diameter. North seas, Devonshire and Cornwall,
where it is called/rf// or queen. Don. t. 1 2.
* 35- Suborbicular, with about 20 subcarinated ribs,
and crowded decussated striae ; upper valve more con¬
vex than the lower. Britam, and coast of France.
Don. t. 116.
36. With 20 rounded rays ; interstices finely wrin¬
kled ; margin repand ; upper valve more convex.
Tranquebar. Lister, t. 179. f. 16.
. .3#* Equivalve, gibbous, with 20 glabrous rays, lon¬
gitudinally _ striated ; slightly wrinkled transversely;
smaller auricle oblique. American ocean. Chem. vii!
t. .63. f. 619. and 620. .
3 s
O L O G Y. Chap. l\
38. White, with flesh-coloured spots ; rays glabrous,sw/cofr/.
32 on the lower valve, 33 on the upper ; xi inch long.
Malabar. Chem. vii. t. 63. f. 603. and 604.
* 39. Orbicular, with purple circles, and about lOOcinnaha,
rays; 34 inches long, 34 broad. Mediterranean, Bri-««,
tain. The fish of this species is employed as food.
Lister, t. 1057. f. 4.
40. Equivalve, glabrous, immaculate, with minute triradia
strise ; upper valve with 3 rays. Norway seas. Chem.
xi. t. 207. f. 2043.
41. Nearly equivalve, striated, spotted, rough io-fuci.
wards the margin. Found on the fucus saccharinus in
the North sea. Chem. xi. t. 207. f. 2039.
42. Nearly equivalve, striated, glabrous, red, withtigrina.
whitish spots. On fuci in the North seas. Chem. vii.
t. 207. f. 2031.
43. Equally convex, both sides with 20 glabrousturgida,
rays ; interstices with transverse, crowded wrinkles ;
margin with plaited teeth. Indian and American seas.
Lister, t. 169. f. 6.
44. Convex, purple ; within, white or red, with i^porphyr
thick, rounded, scaly rays; 24 inches long. Red sea.
Chem. vii. t. 66. f. 632.
43. Hyaline, with an acute margin, very slenderv/frai.
rays, and concentric scaly carves. North seas. Chem.
vii. t. 67. f. 637. a.
46. Suborbicular, with about 30 smooth ribs ; warperpyxidak
valve flattisb ; margin plaited. Malabar. Chem. vii.
t. 63. f. 603. and 4. j
47. White, with purple spots, and numerous unequal famiatfij
rays; margin crenated. Red sea. Chem. vii. t. 69. f. H.
48. Orange, with 22 rounded rays, and plaited mar-citrine.
gin ; lower valve flatter. India. Chem. vii. t. 6 c. f.
618.
*** Valves more gibbous on one side than on the
other.
49. Nearly equivalve, with 8 striated rays ; margin/fowaa
rounded on one side. South sea.
30. Equivalve, with 20 x-ough rays; intersticesyiwcfata,
striated ; ears equal, small. Atlantic seas. Chem.
vii. t. 68. f. 649. a.
31. Co nvex on each side ; closed, oblong, pellucid \ bullata.
32 rays ; twice as long as it is broad. A rare shell.
Chem. vii. t. 68. f. 649. b.
32. Equivalve, with 23 rays; margin.very entire
ears acute ; 14 inch long. Nicobar islands. Chem.
vii. t. 68. f. 650.
33. Equivalve, with 22 imbricated scaly rays, lima.
rounded at one margin ; ears obliterated ; 3" inches
long, 24 broad. Mediterranean and Indian seas.
Chem. vii. t. 68. f. 637.
34. With 30 imbricated, interrupted rays ; enrsg/acialn
equal; one of them unequally plaited. American ocean.
Chem. vii. t. 68. f. 632.
55* Whitish, thin, gaping on each side, and ohWvpxe, Mans.
with obsolete, undulated rays, and transverse, rounded,
semilunar strias; if inch long, 4 broad. Norway.
Sehroeter, iii. t. 9. f. 4.
36. Ovate, compressed, with about 30 narrow scaly
ribs, and the scales vaulted and imbricated ; hinge
slightly oblique ; margin crenated. W. Indies. Lis¬
ter, t. 176. f. 13.
37- Dirty white, with longitudinal, undulated strix,excavat
and a few transverse rings; one ear obsolete; rrr rgin
entire ;
hap IV.
entire ; 5 inches long, 3^ bro^d.
vii. t. 68. f. 654.
**** Valves coarse and rugged. Oysters.
jilkus. 58. Equivalve, 3-lobed, two of them placed trans¬
versely like the bead of a hammer *, 6 inches long, and
4^ broad. Deep parts of the Indian and Southern
oceans. Very rare. Chem. viii. t. 70. f. 655. and
656.
vula. S9‘ Subpellucid, narrow, elongated, lamellated ; one
end rounded } inches long, 1 broad. Ked sea.
Chem. viii. t. 70. f. 657.
nirata. 60. Pellucid, lamellated, and laterally incurved ;
I inch broad, and including the curvature, 3 inches
long. Nicobar islands. Chem. viii. t. 70. f. 658.
lends. 61. Rough, lamellated, unequal, and glabrous with¬
in ; lower valve large ; 4 inches long. Chinese shores.
Chem. viii. t. 72. f. 668.
’him. 62. Ovate, obtusely plaited at the sides*, parasiti¬
cal ; found adhering to gorgonia in the Indian ocean.
Chem. viii. t. 71. f. 662. to 666.
bicvlaris 63. Orbicular, flat, with an entire crenated mar¬
gin ; size of the end joint of the thumb. ‘Chem. viii.
t. 74. f. 680.
ulis. 64. Eatable or common oyster; orbicular and rug¬
ged, with undulated, imbricated scales; one valve flat,
and very entire. European and Indian seas. Pennant,
iv. t. 62. f. 70.—-It is found, either in large beds, or ad¬
hering to rocks. The shell is of various sizes, forms,
and colours 5 within white, and often glossy, and of a
pearly appearance. The old shells have often an ane¬
mia fixed to them, and they are frequently covered
with the serpula and lepas, and the sertularia and other
zoophytes.
'stersem- The common oyster has been long known as a nu-
ivedas tritious food, and indeed in most countries is greatly
^ esteemed as a delicate luxury of the table. The oy¬
ster is supposed by naturalists to be a hermaphrodite
animal. The spawn which they cast in May, adheres
to the rocks and other substances at the bottom of the
sea; and the shell, it is supposed, is formed in the
space of 24 hours, and which, according to some,
never leaves the spot till removed by violence. But
from the observations of M. Dicquemare, who has
particularly studied the economy of the oyster, it ap¬
pears that it possesses the power of moving from place
to place, and that it varies its habits according to cir¬
cumstances. Oysters which are recently taken up from
places which are left dry by the sea, open their shell,
lose their water, and die in a few days. But the
same oysters kept in reservoirs, where they are left oc¬
casionally by the sea, exposed to the rays of the sun,
to severe cold, or are disturbed in their beds, acquire
the habit of keeping the shell close when they are un¬
covered with water, and exist without injury from this
treatment for a long time. The oyster should be fresh,
tender, and moist. Those which are most esteemed are
caught at the mouths of rivers, and in clear water.
The want of fresh water, it is said, renders oysters
hard, bitter, and unpalatable. Mud and sea weeds
are extremely injurious to the propagation and increase
of the oyster. Other shell fish, and crustaceous ani¬
mals, as mussels, scallops, star-fish and crabs, are their
most destructive enemies.
419
Oysters are of different colours in different places: in 39
Spain they are found of a red and russet colour } in Illy- Of (bfi'erent
ria brown, with the fish black, and in the Red sea, of the
colour of the iris. The green oyster, which is eaten in
Paris, is brought from Dieppe. This colour is ascribed
to the verdure which encompasses the bed on which they
are produced. The oysters from Britanny in France,
too, have been long famous ; but those which are
brought from Marennes in Saintogne, are in highest
estimation. The oysters which are edged with a small
brown fringe or beard, are generally preferred. These
are accounted by the epicures fecundated oysters. 40
In tropical regions, the common oyster is found at-Adhere to
tached to trees. This assertion of the growth of oys-treesiu
ters on trees has been often ranked among the exag- C l'
gerated or groundless stories of the marvellous travel¬
ler ; but this circumstance, when properly explained,
will not appear different from the usual economy of
this testaceous animal. In warm climates, where vege¬
tation is so much more luxuriant than in northern lati¬
tudes, a great variety of plants, among which are seen
large trees, grow on the shores to the very edge of the
sea ; and particularly on those places which are shel¬
tered from the agitation of the waves. In such places,
at the heads of bays and harbours, great abundance of
mangrove trees grow up from the bottom, where it is
several feet deep, covered with water. It is generally
on the mangrove tree that the oyster is found in the
West Indies. Without the trouble of picking them
from the trees, the branches growing under water to
which they are attached, are cut off’, carried home in
baskets, and in this state brought to table, where thev
are either eaten raw, or roasted, as the European oys¬
ter. We have eaten oyster? which were produced in
this way, in the Lagoons at the head of Port Morant
harbour in Jamaica, a few minutes after they were ta¬
ken from the water. They were of a small size, but
extremely delicate and high flavoured.
Britain has been noted for oysters from the time of
Juvenal, who, satirizing Montanus an epicure, says,
• Circceis nata forent, an
Lucrinum ad saxum, Rutupinove edita fundo,
Ostrea, callebat primo deprendere morsu.
He, whether Circe’s rock his oysters bore,
Or Lucrine lake, or distant Richborough’s shore,
Knew at first taste.
The luxurious Romans were very fond of this fish,
and had their layers or stews for oysters as we have at
present. Sergius Grata was the first inventor, as early
as the time of L. Crassus the orator. He did not make Pennant's
them for the sake of indulging his appetite, but through Brit. Zool.
avarice, and made great profits from them. Grata got’^'d*iv*
great credit for his Lucrine oysters ; for, says Pliny,p* I02*
the British were not then known.
The ancients ate them raw, having them carried up
unopened, and generally eating them at the beginning
of the entertainment, but sometimes roasted. They
also stewed them with mallows and ducks, or with
fish. 41
Britain still retains its superiority in oysters over Oyslers °f
other countries. Most of our coasts produce them ®ntain.
naturally *, and in such places they are taken by dred¬
ging, and are become an article of commerce, both
3 G 2 raw
CONCHOLOGY.
Norway, Chem,
420
v CONCH
raw and pickled. The shells calcined are employed
in medicine as an absorbent, and in common with
other shells, prove an excellent manure.
Stews or layers of oysters are formed in places
which nature never allotted as habitations for them.
Those near Colchester have been long famous } at pre¬
sent there are others that at least rival the former, near
the mouth of the Thames. The oysters, or their spats,
are brought to convenient places, where they improve
in taste and size. It is an error to suppose, that the
fine green observed in oysters taken from artificial beds,
is owing to copper j this substance, or the solution of
it, is destructive to all fish. The following is the ac¬
count of the whole treatment of oysters, from Bishop
Sprat’s History of the Royal Society, from p. 307 to
3°9-
“ In the month of May the oysters cast their spawn,
(which the dredgers call their it is like to a
drop of candle, and about the bigness of a half¬
penny. The spat cleaves to stones, old oyster-shells,
pieces of wood, and such like things, at the bottom
ot the sea, which they call cultch. It is probably
conjectured, that the spat in 24 hours begins to have
a shell. In the month of May, the dredgers (by the
law. of the admiralty court), have liberty to catch all
manner of oysters, of what size soever. When they
have taken them, with a knife they gently raise the
small brood from the cultch, and then they throw
the cultch in again, to preserve the ground for the
future, unless they be so newly spat, that they can¬
not be safely severed from the cultch y in that case
they are permitted to take the stone or shell, &c. that
the spat is upon, one shell having many times twenty
spats. After the month of May, it is felony to carry
away the cultch, and punishable to take any other
oysters, unless it be those of size, (that is to say) about
the \bigness of a half-crown piece,, or when, the two
shells being shut, a fair shilling will rattle between
them.
“ The places where these oysters are chiefly catch-
ed, are called the Pent-Burn/ia?n, Malden, and Colne-
watcrs; the latter taking its name from the river of
Colne, which passeth by Colchester, gives name to
that town, and runs into a creek of the sea, at a place
called the Hythe, being the suburbs of the town. This
brood and other oysters they carry to the creeks of the
sea, at Bricklesea, Mersy, Rangno, Bingrego, Wi-
venho, I olesbury, and Saltcoase,. and there throw them
into the channel, which they call their beds or layers
where they grow and fatten; and in. two or three years
the smallest brood will be oysters of the size aforesaid.
Those oysters which they would have green, they put
into pits about three feet deep in the salt marshes
winch are overflowed only at spring-tides, to which they
have sluices, and let out the salt water until it is about
a. toot and a half deep. These pits,, from some quality
m the sod co-operating with the beat of the sun, will
become green, and communicate their colour to the
oysters that are put into them in four or five days
though they commonly let them continue there six
weeks or two months, in which time they will he of a
dark green. To prove that the sun operates in the
greening, Tolesbury pits will green only in summer •
but that the eayth hath the greater power, BrickR-'--
O L O G Y. Chap, F
pits green both winter and summer : and for a further
proof, a pit within a foot of a greening pit will not
green ; and those that did green very well, will in time
lose their quality. The oysters, when the tide comes in,
lie with their hollow shell downwards ; and when it
goes out, they turn on the other side; they remove not
far from their place, unless in cold weather, to cover
themselves in the oose. The reason of the scarcity of
oysters, and consequently of their dearness, is, because
they are of late years bought up by the Dutch.
“ There are great penalties by the admiralty court
laid upon those that fish out of those grounds which the
court appoints, or that destroy the cultcb, or that take
any oysters that are not of size, or that do not tread
under their feet, or throw upon the shore, a fish which
they call a five-finger, resembling a spur-rowl, because
that fish gets into the oysters when they gape, and
sucks them out.
“ The reason that such a penalty is set upon any
that shall destroy the cultch is, because they find
that if that be taken away, the oose will increase,
and the muscles and cockles will breed there, and de¬
stroy the oysters, they having not whereon to stick
their spat.
“ The oysters are sick after they have spat; but in
June and July they begin to mend, and in August
they are perfectly well; the male oyster is black-sick,
having a black substance in the fin ; the female white-
sick (as they term it), having a milky substance in the
fin. They are salt in the pits, salt in the layers, but
saltest at sea.”
The oyster affords the curious in microscopic obser-Liquid a
vations a very pleasing entertainment. In the clear bout the
liquor many little round living animalcules have been°)’sterse
" ' ‘ ----- t])e
microscc
esea
found, whose bodies being conjoined, form spherical"1,
figures, with tails, not changing their place otherwise ml
than by sinking to the bottom, as being heavier than
the fluid ; these have been seen frequently separating,
and then coming together again. In other oysters,
animalcules of the same kind were found, not conjoin¬
ed, but swimming by one another, whence they seem¬
ed in a more perfect state, and were judged by Mr
Leeuwenhoek to be the animalcules in the roe or semen
of the oyster.
A female oyster being opened, incredible multitudes
of small embryo oysters were seen, covered with little
shells, perfectly transparent, and swimming along slow¬
ly in the liquor; and in another female, the young ones
wTere found of a browner colour, and without any ap¬
pearance of life or motion.
Monsieur Joblot also kept the water running from
oysters three days, and it appeared full of young oy¬
sters swimming about nimbly in it; these increased in
size daily ; but a mixture of wine, or the vapour of vi¬
negar, killed them..
In the month of August oysters are supposed to
breed, because young ones are then found in them.
Mr Leeuwenhoek, on the 4th of August, opened an
oyster, and took out of it a prodigious number of
minute oysters, all alive, and swimming nimbly about in
the liquor, by means of certain exceeding small organs,
extending a little way beyond their shells ; and these he
calls their beards. In these little oysters, he could dis¬
cover the joinings of the shells ; and perceived that there
were
421
lap.
IV.
CONCH
atalis.
nicata.
ncu-
'is.
iticu-
a.
•nfy-
lea.
'skalli.
cata.
'trata.
ginica.
ullata.
'orea.
were some dead ones, with their shells gaping. These,
though so extremely minute, are seen to be as like the
large oysters in form as one egg is to anothei’.
As to the size of them, he computes, that 12c of
them in a row would extend an inch } and conse¬
quently, that a globular body, whose diameter is an
inch, would, if they were also round, be equal to
1,728,000 of them. He reckons 3000 or 4000 are
in one oyster, and found many of the enii/iyo oysters
among the bairds j some fastened thereto by slender
filaments, and others lying loose r he likewise found
animalcules in the liquor 500 times less than the em¬
bryo oysters.
It is not uncommon to see on oyster-shells, when in
a dark place, a shining matter or bluish light, which
sticks to the fingers when touched, and continues shin¬
ing and giving light for a considerable time, though
without any sensible heat. This shining matter being
examined with a microscope, is said to consist of three
sorts of animalcules •, but it is moi-e probable that it is
the phosphorescent light which separates from animal
matters, particularly fish, in the incipient stage of the
putrefactive process.
65. Parasitical, ovate, yellowish brown, with black
rays, and one valve much flatter than the other. East
Indies. Chem. viii. t. 71. f. 660.
66. Rough, oblong, linear, with divergent hinges ;
internally vaulted. Red sea. Chem. viii. t. 71. f.
667.
67. Orbicular, flattish, parasitical, longitudinally
plaited, and transversely wrinkled towards the margin 5
margin obtuse, and somewhat toothed at the hinge.
68. Suborbicular, with strong, transverse, imbricated
wrinkles, and somewhat truncated at the hinge, on both
sides of which the margin is toothed. Cape of Good
Hope. Lister, t. 193 and 194.
69. Equivalve, pellucid, flattened, oval, with per¬
pendicular, undulated striae on the upper valve ; three
inches long, 2y broad. India. Chem. viii. t. 72. f.
669.
70. Plaited, and terminating in a long, incurved,
hollow beak ; middle ribs with imbricated, spinous
wrinkles j 2 inches long, and 1 bi’oad. Red sea. Chem.
viii. t. 72. f. 671.
71. With longitudinal, wrinkled plaits ; lower valve
smaller and flattery varies much in shape and size.
American and Mediterranean seas. Chem. viii. t. 73.
f. 674.
72. Oblong, rugged $ upper valve lamellated, with a
denticulated margin j the lower excavated, and longi¬
tudinally grooved. Mediterranean. Chem. viii. t. 75.
f. 676.
73. Nearly equivalve, thick, rough, lamellous j one
valve with a prominent beak 5 9 inches long, and 4
broad. American and Indian oceans. Lister, t. 200.
f’ 34-
74. Upper valve flat, lower one hollow and striated $
rough with scales, wrinkles and plaits, and terminating
in an elongated beak. Indian and African oceans.
Chem. viii. t. 74., f. 679.
75. Thin ; lower valve convex and thicker; the
other flat. Atlantic and Indian seas.—This species,
like the common oyster, fixes itself to the roots and
branches of trees, particularly the mangrove, which
grow out of the water. It varies in form and size,
O L O G ¥.
and is often as large as the palm of the hand, Chem.
viii. t. 74. f. 681.
76. Rugged, with imbricated-lamellae ; margin with cmtafa.
obtusely plaited teeth j 1 inch long. Schroeter, iii. t.
9. f. 7.
77. Equivalve, roundish, smooth, flat j 2 \x\ches senegalen-
diameter. Shores of Senegal. Adanson, t. 14. f. 5. sis.
78. Oval, thin, terminating in a short, acute, lateral, oralis.
channelled beak j striae perpendicular, unequal, ob¬
solete $ 1 inch long. Schroeter, iii. t. 9. f. 8.
* * * * With the hinge composed of transverse furrows,
in a straight line.
79. Oval, slightly eared, smooth, with an obliquesemiaurita
base inch long, and 1^ broad. Mediterranean.
Schroeter, iii. t. 9. f. 6.
80. Equivalve, obovate, unequal, rounder at oneperna.
end $ inches long ; has some resemblance to a gam¬
mon of bacon. Indian and American seas. Lister, t.
199- f- 33-. .
81. Equivalve, with a larger lobe, forming a right isogonum.
angle with the hinge $ from 5 to 7 inches long, and
broad in the middle j shell blackish, violet without,
pearly within. Indian ocean and South seas. Is a
rare shell. Chem. vii. t. 59. f. 584.
82. Equivalve, thin, pellucid, and pointed at thepicta.
hinge ; the other end dilated ; max-gin acute ; 2 inches
long, more than an inch broad. Red sea. Chem. vii.
t. 51. f. 575.
83. Flat, hoary, thin, pellucid, lamellated; inter-legumen.
slices of the grooves black $ 2 inches long, 4 lines
broad. Nicobar islands. Chem. vii. t. 59. f. 578.
84. Equivalve, orbicular, compressed, membrana-ephippium
ceous j 5 inches long, bi’oad. Indian ocean and
Cape of Good Hope. Very rare. Chem. vii. t. 58. f.
5?6*
85. Flat, brittle, pellucid j dilated towards the mar- alata.
gin y hinge oblique. W. Indies. Chem. vii. t. 58. f.
SIS'
43
Gen. 15. Anomia. Anomia.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a ligula or strap-shaped
body, emarginated and ciliated •, the bristles being
fixed to the upper valve. There are two linear
arms, longer than the body, open, stretched out, al¬
ternate on the valve, ciliated on both sides j the hairs
are fixed to both valves. The shell is inequivalve ;
one valve being x-ather flat, the other more gibbous-
at the base, with a px-oduced beak, generally curved
over the hinge j one of the valves is often perforat¬
ed at the base ; the hinge is without teeth. A small
linear scar appears prominent, with a lateral tooth
placed within j but on the vex-y margin of the flat
valve. There are two bony rays for.the base, of ther
animal.
Species..
1. Orbicular 5 the gibbous valve conico-convex; flat cranio*
valve with, three hollows at the base ; 1 inch long, Claris.
bx-oad. Mediterranean seas and Philippine islands.
It is sometimes found fossil. Chem.' viii. t. 76. f.
688.
2. Oblong, with branched grooves j the gibbouspectinata.
valve
422
CONCH
valve with two hollows behind *, an inch long, broad $
flat valve perforated. Mediterranean. Chem. viii. t.
76. f. 689 and 690.
ephippium* 3. Koundish, pellucid, with wrinkled platesj flat valve
perforated ; diameter sometimes inches, most fre¬
quently about two. European and American seas,
shores of Britain.—It is often found adhering to the
common oyster. Mr Montagu thus accounts for the
perforation in these shells. The testaceous plug, he ob¬
serves, by which the animal fixes itself to other bodies,
is firmly attached by strong ligaments to these bodies,
and so closely cemented, that they become inseparable.
When, therefore, the shell is torn from its native place,
the plug is left behind upon the stone or other shell to
which it adhered. Don. t. 26.
cepa. * 4. Obovate, unequal, violet; upper valve convex j
lower perforated. European and American seas, shores
of Britain. Chem. viii. t. 76. f. 694 and 695.
elecirica. 3. Roundish, yellow, smooth ; one valve convex and
gibbous $ very thin. Coasts of Africa. Lister, t. 205.
*'• 39- ,
squamula. * 6. Small, orbicular, entire, thin like the scale of a
fish. European seas, Britain. Chem. viii. t. 76. f.
696.
patellifor* 7. Ovate, convex, subdiaphanous, striated ; poste-
mis. rior beak recurved and smooth. North seas. Chem.
viii. t. 77. f. 700.
scolnnata. 8. Roundish, smooth, and rough within ; beak per¬
forated. Mediterranean. Chem. viii. t. 78. f. 706.
aurita. 9. Subovate, striated, and slightly eared ; beak per¬
forated. Norway seas. Gualteri, t. 96. f. B.
retusa. 10. Obovate, striated, retuse, with a longitudinal
cavity ; beak perforated. Norway seas, adhering to
zoophytes.
truncata. n. Suborbicular, obsoletely striated 5 hinge trun¬
cated. European seas. Chem. viii. t. 77. f. 701.
pubescens. 12. Obovate, grooved; beak of one valve promi¬
nent, the other gaping; about the size of a cucumber
seed, covered with small, erect, distant hairs. Nor¬
way seas. Gualteri, t. 9. f. C.
caput-ser- 13. Obovate, striated, downy; one valve with a
pentis. longer perforated beak. Norway seas. It is generally
found adhering to the madrepora prolifera. Chem. viii.
t. 78. f. 712.
terebratu- 14. Obovate, smooth, convex ; one valve with three
la. plaits; the other with two; the beak of one valve
prominent and perforated. 1 ound frequently in a fossil
state. Knorr. iv. t. 30. f. 4.
placenta. 15. Orbicular, flat, pellucid; hinge with two linear
callosities growing within the shell ; 5 inches diameter.
Indian ocean. Lister, t. 225. f. 60.
cella. 16. Nearly quadrangular, convex, and almost closed;
bronzed ; margin repand ; 7 inches diameter. Indian
ocean. Chem. viii. t. 79. f. 713.
aculeata. 17. Roundish, prickly ; crown smooth and recurved
behind ; lower valve flat, smooth, and perforated at the
crown. Norway seas. Chem. viii. t. 77. f. 702.
muricata. . 18. Hyaline, ventncose ; crown bent towards the
right; upper valve longitudinally striated ; lower valve
flat, very thin, and the circumference of the perfora-
tion^elevated. Guinea. Chem. viii. vig. p. 63. f. A.
squama. 19. Oblong, with a rounded margin ; one valve flat
thin, smooth, with a large ovate perforation at the,
O L O G Y. Chap. V
tip; the other convex, and longitudinally striated.
Seas of Norway. Chem. viii. t. 77. f. 697.
20. Orbicular, hyaline, thin, punctured ; flat valvepwndo
perforated at the tip; small, brittle. Ferro islands.
Chem. t. 77. f. 698.
* 21. Margin crenated ; flat valve thin and smooth, wnrM?
with a large oval perforation ; convex valve with trans¬
verse arched striae, crossing undulated longitudinal
ones. Mediterranean, North seas, Devonshire. Don.
^ 45-
22. Longitudinally striated, a little truncated; withcapemA
a rounded notched margin. C. of G. Hope. Chem.
viii. t. 77. f. 703.
23. Truncated, orbicular, longitudinally striated ; cfeeo//<j|
flat valve with three ribs within ; other valve longi¬
tudinally striated within, and divided by a partition in
the middle. Mediterranean. Chem. viii. t. 78. f.
7°5-
24. Horny, smooth, and convex on each side ; upper sanguik
valve emarginated, and radiated at the sides, with an
elevated sanguineous back. India. Chem. viii. t. 78.
f. 706.
23. Smooth, ventricose, finely striated transversely; craniml
^ inch broad, something longer. Norway seas. Chem.
viii. t. 78. f. 707 to 709.
26. Heart-shaped, solid, with arched transverse rfcrM/d
ring and wrinkles, and longitudinal strise and grooves.
Magellanic seas.—Is often found fossil. Chem. viii. t.
78. f. 710 and 7x1. |
27. Horny, and finely striated longitudinally; short-jwiVtocJ
er valve gibbous ; longer one flat, with an incurved tip,
triangularly perforated ; rather large, pellucid. Green¬
land. Very rare. Lister, t. 212. f. 46.
28. Yellowish, pellucid, thin, finely striated trans- tridenik
versely ; tricuspidate with tubular points ; valves united.
Mediterranean. Chem. viii. vig. 13. f. F. and G.
29. Very thin, cylindrical, and narrowed outwardly; cyliftdr .
upper valve gibbous, lower hollow. North seas.
Schroeter, iii. t. 9. f. 9.
30. Roundish, ovate, longitudinally ribbed, and co-
vered with impressed dots ; one summit perforated, and
slightly inflected over the other. Leach Zook Misc.
i- t. 33.
31. Suborbiciilar, with the upper valve conical-con-
vex, and the apex nearly marginal ; lower valve flat,
and very thin. Poli, ii. t. 30. f. 13. and ^1 to 24.
44
Gen. 16. Mytilus, the Mussel. Mytilus
Gen. Char.—The animal is allied to an ascidia ; the
shell bivalve, rough, generally affixed by a byssus or
beard of silky filaments ; hinge mostly without
teeth, with generally a subulate, excavated, longi¬
tudinal line.
Species.
* Parasitical, affixed by claws.
1. Plaited, spinous ; both lips rough. Indian ocean *
and Red sea. Chem. viii. t. 73. f. 683. and 684. qalli.
2. Plaited and imbricated, with broad compressed hyotis. ,
scales; both lips smooth. Inhabits the ocean, on beds
of coral. Indian ocean. Chem. viii. t. 73. f. 683.
3. Plaited towards the margin, and transversely/roflf.
wrinkled, smoothish; one lip rough. American ocean.
** Flat,
> lap. IV. CONCH
** Flat, or compressed into a flattened form, and slight¬
ly eared.
i rgari- 4. Fearl-hearing mussel. Flattened, nearly orbicular,
1 rus. with a transverse base , imbricated with toothed tunics.
American and Indian seas. Lister, t. 221. f. 56.—
This species is about 8 inches long, and somewhat
broader j the inside is finely polished, and produces the
true mother-of-pearl j and frequently also it affords the
most valuable pearls. When the outer coat of the
shell, which is sometimes sea-green, or chesnut with
white rays, or whitish with green rays, is removed, it
exhibits the same pearly lustre as the inside •, the
younger shells have ears as long as the shell, and re¬
semble scallops.
'iatus. 5. Roundish, with transverse membranaceous scales,
forming spinous processes arranged in longitudinal lines.
Tranquebar. Chem. viii. t. 80. f. 719.
\uis. 6. Roundish j longitudinally striated, pellucid, and
slightly eared. Mediterranean.
*** Somewhat ventricose or convex.
opha- 7. Cylindrical ; rounded at both ends. European,
f. American, and Indian seas. It is about an inch broad,
and 3 long.—It perforates and eats away coral rocks,
and even the hardest marbles. Those which are found
in Europe have a thin brittle shell : the shell of those
found in India is soft, and nearly coriaceous. Chem.
viii. t. 82. f. 731.
status. 8. Subcylindrical, rounded at the hinge, and armed
at the opposite extremity with two beak-like processes
which cross each other. Senegal. Liun. Tr. viii. t. 6.
f. 2.
biguus. * 9. Oblong, smooth, rounded at both ends, and gap¬
ing on one side. Weymouth and Devonshire. Wood,
t. 25. f. 2. and 3.
]om. * 10. Rhombic, oval, brittle, rugged, antiquated, and
rounded at the ends. Seas and lakes, north of Europe.
Britain. Don, t. lor.—It is usually found lodged in
limestone; each individual in a separate apartment,
with apertures too small for the shell to pass through.
1 ?ctW. * 11. Oblong, distorted, with the valves unequal, and
strongly wrinkled transversely » hinge terminal. Bri¬
tain, adhering to roots of algae, or burrowed in lime¬
stone. Montagu, t. 4. f. 2.
12. Subcylindrical, smooth, compressed at the mar-
s‘ gin, and marked over one half with minute branching
lines. China. Chem. xi. t. 198. f. 2016.
cularis 13. Striated, with vaulted knobs, and a white parti¬
tion. Nicobar islands. Chem. viii. t. 82. f. 736.
s us> 14. Convex j one of the margins angular ; the ante¬
rior extremity crenated ; inch long. American
ocean and Red sea. Lister, t. 366. f. 206.
‘talus. 13. Very finely striated longitudinally, with the an¬
terior side slightly angulated, and the other incurved ;
striae slightly crenated. Northern ocean. Schroeter,
c r *ii. t. 9. f. 16.
is' * 16. Eatable or common mussel. Smooth, violet ;
valves slightly recurved on the obtuse sLle, and some¬
what angular on the acute side; beaks pointed ; from
2 to 3 inches long. European and Indian seas. Lis¬
ter, t. 362. f. 200.—This species is observed to be
larger within the tropics, and to diminish gradually
O L O G Y. 423
towards the north. It is found in large beds, and ge¬
nerally attaches itself to other bodies by means of its
long silky beard. The fish is employed as food in
many parts of the world, and is esteemed rich and nu¬
tritious.
* 17. Very crooked on one side near the beaks, then incurva*
generally dilated; within with a violet tinge. Coast
of Anglesea. Linn. Trans, viii. t. 3. f. 7.
* 18, Oval, transparent, and elegantly radiated \zngl\\-pellucidus.
wise with purple and blue ; 2 inches long. Auglesea,
in oyster beds. Chem. t. 84. f. 755.
19. Smooth, slightly curved; hind margin inject-tmgidatus.
ed ; hinge terminal, two-toothed. Mediterranean, Cape
of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Found at the lat¬
ter place resembling M. edulis ; but is 5 inches long,
and 2^ broad. Lister, t. 360. f. 199.
20. Ovate, with the posterior side rather conwx, latus.
and the apices distant and slightly curved ; hinge chan¬
nelled with a tooth in one valve. N. Holland. Lister,
t. 362. f. 201.
21. Oblong, smooth, with the sides nearly straight,
and the apices acute ; hinge with a tooth in each valve,
and channelled. Straits of Magellan. Chem. viii. t.
83. f. 738.
22. Subtriangular and compressed ; hinge with twosmaragdi-
teeth in one valve, and one in the other. Tranquebar.m/s.
Chem. viii. t. 83. f. 746.
23. Oblong, longitudinally striated, except on thedemissus.
anterior side next the hinge ; summits rounded and ap¬
proximated. Virginia. Lister, t. 358. f. 196.
* 24. Smooth, blackish, obtuse at the smaller end, modiolus.
and rounded at the other; one side angular, near the
beaks ; from 6 to 7 inches long, 3 broad. European,
American, and Indian seas, Devonshire, Weymouth.
Don. t. 23. A variety, with a deep umbilicus under
the summit, is not unfrequent on our coasts. Don.
t. 40.
*25. Ovate, very brittle, transversely wrinkled ; wa-cygneus.
terior end compressed, the other rounded ; hinge late¬
ral ; from 2 to 5 inches broad, and 3 long. Frequent
in the lakes and rivers of Europe, Britain.—-It is the
largest of British fresh-water shells. It arrives at the
greatest size in ponds and stagnant waters. Lister,
t. 156. f. 11.—With a suboval shell, of an olivaceous
brown colour, with concentric wrinkles ; size of the
M. anatinvs, but broader in proportion to its length.
The posterior side generally more obtuse and rounded.
River Avon in Wiltshire. Montagu, Test. Brit. 172.
Miftilus avonensis.
26. Transversely oval, rounded on both sides, and fluviatilis.
smooth ; umbones large and rounded ; summits reflect¬
ed. N. America. About 2 inches long, and 3 broad.
Lister, t. 157. f. I 2.
27. Oval, flattisb, and transversely ribbed ; 8 inchesstagnalis.
broad, 44- long. In fresh waters. Sowerby, Brit.
Misc. t. 16.
* 28. Oval, a little compressed; brittle and semi-anatinus.
transparent, with a membranaceous margin. Fresh
waters of Europe.—It resembles the last, but is longer
and narrower. Ducks and crows, it is said, are ex¬
tremely fond of both this and the last species. Don.
t. 113.'
29. Transversely wrinkled; obtuse at each end ^dubiuso .
fulvous,
424
ruber.
discrcpens
discors.
impactus.
hirundo.
morio.
ala-corva.
vulgaris.
plicatus.
niveus.
corallopha-
gus.
lineatus.
fuscus.
punioeus.
wiger.
dubius.
lingua.
CONCHOLOGY,
fulvous, within pearly 5 beaks obsolete j hinge without
teeth j 5 inches broad, 2 long. Fresh waters of Sene¬
gal. Adanson, t. 17. f. 21-
30. Wrinkled ; valves oblique and anteriorly di¬
lated. Southern ocean.
*31. Transversely ovate, compressed, with the two
sides longitudinally ribbed, and plain in the middle.
Baltic, and Newhaven near Edinburgh. Montagu,
t. 26. f. 4.
*32. Oval, horny, subdiaphanous ; extremities longi¬
tudinally striated ; middle transversely. European and
southern seas, Cornwall and Devonshire. From the
South seas it is inch broad j in Britain rarely ex¬
ceeds f inch. Don. t. 25.
33. Transversely oval, somewhat four-sided, very
convex, with the two sides longitudinally ribbed, and
the middle transversely wrinkled; inside iridescent.
New Zealand. Chem. viii. t. 86. f. 768.
34. Smooth j valves 2-lobed $ lobe at the hinge
longer and thinner. American, Mediterranean, and In¬
dian seas. Chem. viii. t. 81. f. 722.
35. Transversely striated, Avith two lateral lobes,
and the epidermis longitudinally undulated, and form¬
ing rays from the umbo. Red sea. Chem. xi. t. 205.
f. 20x8.
36. With two rather obsolete lobes, and marked with
minute white dots, forming longitudinal rays. South
sea islands. Chem. viii. t. 81. f. 727.
37. Flattened on one side and inflected ; beaks in¬
curved, convergent •, hinge i-toothed. American ocean.
Chem. viii. t. 82. f. 732.
38. Rhombic, inequilateral *, transversely striated
and wrinkled ; beaks incurved. Nicobar islands. Chem.
viii. t. 92. f. 733.
39. Ovate, subdiaphanous ; finely striated longitudi¬
nally j margin acute ; hinge 2-toothed; shell snowy
and polished within. Nicobar islands. Very rare.
Chem. viii. t. 82. f. 734.
40. Cai'inated in the middle, and crenated at the
margin, with an obtuse knob ; | inch long. Indian
and American oceans. Perforates rocks like a pholas.
Chem. viii. t. 84. f. 752.
41. Triangular and dilated outwards, with angular,
decussated, and confluent lines; hinge 2-toothed. A
minute shell. Chem. viii. t. 84. f. 753.
42.. Oblong, narrow, finely striated transversely *,
one side emarginated, the other rounded ; beaks pro¬
minent, curved. A minute brown shell. E. Indies.
Lister, t. 359. f. 197.
43. Gibbous, pointed, with 15 grooves ; margin
toothed j 14 lines long, and half as broad ; hinge with
4 minute teeth. Africa. Adanson, t. 15. f. 2.
44. Flat, thin, with minute grooves, covered with a
black skin, under which it is milky, and finely polish¬
ed; if inch long j grooves about 100. Africa. Adan¬
son, t. 15. f. 3. ^
45. Transversely wrinkled j obtuse at each end;
fulvous, within pearly •, beaks obsolete ; hinge without
teeth ; 5 inches broad, 2 long. Fresh waters of Sene¬
gal. Adanson, t. 17. f. 21.
46. Somewhat tongue-shaped, compressed, very
brittle, and the umbones keeled; summits acuminated
and both ends gaping. Amboyna. Chem. x. t 1*7 2*
f. 1675. and 1676. ' *
Chap, p
47. Oblong, thin, truncated; beak sharp and cari-coffje///.|
nated ; valves completely closed, Japan.
48. Striated, slightly curved; hind margin inflect-I
ed ; binge terminal, 2-toothed ; scarcely an inch long.
Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Lister, t. 356. f.
f93*
45
Gen. 17. Pinna, Sea-Wing. Pinna.
Gen. C/zar.—-The animal a Umax; the shell bivalve,
fragile, upright, gaping at one end, and furnished
with a byssus or beard. Hinge without teeth; the
valves united into one.
Species.
1. Vaulted with arched scales, arranged in rows;rudis.
from 12 to 16 inches long, and from 4 to 8 broad ; red ;
from 6 to 8 grooves. Atlantic, Indian, and Red seas.
Lister, t. 373. f. 214.
2. Ovate, ventricose, with the margin rounded on nigra,
both sides, and striated longitudinally. Amboyna and
Red sea. Chem. viii. t. 88. f. 774.
* 3. Subtriangular, ovate, slightly incurved towards
the summit, with irregularly scaly wrinkles, and inter¬
rupted longitudinal striae. Scotland, and Devonshire.
Don. t. 152.
4. Longitudinally striated half way ; one sidepectinahi
slightly wrinkled transversely; 3 inches long, 4 broad.
Indian ocean. Chem. viii. t. 87. f. 770.
5. Subtriangular, ovate, and slightly keeled longitu-z/zyta.
dinally, with abbreviated ribs on one side, and reticu¬
lated wrinkles on the other. Nicobar islands. Chem.
viii. t. 87. f. 771.
*6. Thin, flesh-coloured, subtriangular; pellucid, ccrnc. J
with 8 or 10 longitudinal ribs beset sparingly with
vaulted spines at the broader end. West Indies, and
Dorsetshire. Montagu, t. 5. f. 3.
7. Subtriangular, ovate, with about 13 spinous ribsrigida,
on one side, and the other transversely wrinkled ; spines
tubular. Cura^oa. Chem. viii. t. 89. f. 775.
8. Striated, with channelled, tubular, subimbricated mbilis.
scales ; 7* inches long, 3f broad. Mediterranean,
Adriatic, and American seas. Chem. viii. t. 80. f.
776. < # ^
9. Striated with concave, ovate, acute scales; fromtnuricat
3 to 9 inches long, and 1 to 3 broad. European and
Indian oceans. Lister, t. 370. f. 10.
10. With obsolete scales, margin rounded; some rotunda
times 2 feet long. Mediterranean. Chem. viii. t. 02.
f. 787.
11. With fine undulated scales, and flexuous broad
wrinkles ; smaller end pointed and naked ; 13 inches
long, 6f broad. Mediterranean. Chem. viii. t.92. f.784.
12. Smooth, satchel-shaped ; a little erect, and saccate.
slightly fastigiated ; 3-I inches long, 2^ broad. Medi¬
terranean a»d Indian seas. Lister, t. 371. f. 212.
13. Smooth, tubular, finger-shaped, incurved; ex-digit ifM
treme margin membranaceous ; pellucid. mis.
14. Naked, lobed, straw-coloured, with purple strite.
ij. Hyaline, with longitudinal waved striae; thevitrea.
striae with a few* scales, and crossed by other transverse
striae at the margin. Indian ocean. Very rare. Chem.
viii. t. 87. f. 772.
16. Narrow, long, naked, carinated, with tv^as-incuna
verse,
Imp. IV. CONCHO
verse, undulated wrinkles. Indian ocean. Chem. t.
go. f. 778.
I lor. 17* inflected at the lateral margin ; yellowish,
with black brown rays ; thinly striated longitudinally.
Red sea. Chem. viii. t. 90. f. 780.
c sta. 18. Flattish, horny, with blackish rays, spots, and
clouds; and many smooth strioe. Southern ocean of
India. Red sea. Chem. viii. t. 91. f. 782.
1 ilium. 19. Truncated at the outer margin; dilated, na¬
ked, with a few black clouds ; striated longitudinally
on the fore-part, and transversely wrinkled behind.
India. Very rare. Chem. viii. t. 91. f. 983.
I yracea. 20. Thin, brittle, horny, longitudinally ribbed; ex¬
treme margin roundish. Indian ocean. Chem. viii. t.
93. f. 786.
General Observations.—It has been doubted whether
the animal which inhabits the pinna be a limax or slug,
according to the opinion of Linnaeus; and it is even
asserted, that it has not the smallest affinity with this
animal, but approaches much more nearly to that
which belongs to the mytilus. In proof of this, it is
said that the pinna possesses no locomotive power, but
remains fixed by its byssus or beard to other bodies;
and so firmly attached, that it can by no means be dis¬
engaged at the will of the animal ; for the fibres are
strongly agglutinated to the sand, gravel, or other ex¬
traneous bodies within reach. Indeed it seems not
at all improbable that all testaceous animals, furnished
with a similar beard, are intended by this structure to
remain attached to the spot where they are orginally
produced.
The animal inhabiting the pinna has the power of
affixing itself at pleasure to any substance, by throwing
out an extensile member, and discharging from its tip
a drop of gluten, which by the retraction of the same
organ, is formed into a silky filament; and by fre¬
quently repeating this operation, a thick tuft is formed,
by which the shell is fastened in any situation the ani¬
mal chooses.
Ibis shell-fish was celebrated among the ancients on
account of the cloth which was made of the fine byssus
or beard by which it is attached. As a rare and cost¬
ly production it brought a high price, and was held in
great estimation. At the present day even, according
to the information of modern travellers, the inhabitants
of Palermo and Naples manufacture gloves and stock¬
ings from the same substance.
The pinna has obtained a little reputation for the
practice of some of the moral virtues, in treating a
small species of crab with hospitality and friendship, by
receiving it into the shell, and defending it against its
enemies. In return for this kindness, the crab, like
the jackal! with the lion, acts the parts of a provider
and monitor, by warning its host of the presence of its
prey or of the approach of an enemy. But this friend¬
ly intercourse accords ill with the nature of the ani¬
mals between whom it is practised. The crab, it is
far more probable, is a troublesome intruder; and not¬
withstanding all the service he can repay, is consi¬
dered as a very unwelcome guest, and is indebted for
his lodging to his own activity, and the sluggish na¬
ture of his host, rather than to his kindness and hospi¬
tality. r
Vol. VI. Part II. 4.
LOGY. 42;
III. UNIVALVE SHELLS.
41?
Gen. 18. ArgoNAUTA. Argonauta.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a sepia or clio. The shell
is univalve, spiral, involute, membranaceous, with a
single chamber.
Species.
1. The paper nautilus. Keel or ridge of the shell argo.
slightly toothed on each side. Lister, t. 556. f. 7.
The shell, which is thin as paper, brittle, and transpa¬
rent, is white or yellowish, with smooth or knotty strise
or ribs, which are sometimes forked ; the keel is ge¬
nerally brownish. This shell presents considerable va¬
rieties. Sometimes the keel is narrow’, and marked
with close bifurcated wrinkles; sometimes it has a
broad keel with tuberculated ribs ; and sometimes a
broad tuberculated keel with few and smooth ribs.
The singular structure and wonderful economy of
this animal very early attracted the attention of na¬
turalists. lo its progressive motion on the surface of
the ocean, mankind are indebted, it is said, for the first
hint of the art of navigation. This is alluded to in the
numbers of Pope.
Learn of the little nautilus to sail,
Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.
What is the particular organization which enables
this animal to rise to the surface or to sink to the bot¬
tom at pleasure, seems not to be understood by natura¬
lists ; whether it is by throwing out a quantity of wa¬
ter, by which it becomes specifically lighter than the
element in which it lives, or by taking in a quantity of
air, which will produce the same effect. It is only
when the sea is calm and unruffled that the nautilus,
with his feeble bark, appears on the surface. In rising
through the water, the shell is reversed, the sharp edge
of the keel presenting less resistance to the liquid ; and
when it reaches the surface, the animal, by exerting its
arms, restores it to a proper position for its voyage. A
quantity of water is taken into the shell to balance it.
The animal then employs its arms as oars ; or if a gen¬
tle breeze sweep the surface, it stretches two of them
perpendicularly, by which means the membrane be¬
tween them is extended in form of a sail ; the other
arms serve as oars to direct the course, or to keep the
bark steady, as w'ell as part of the body which hangs
over the shell, and seems to answer for a rudder.
Thus equipped, the solitary navigator glides smoothly
along the bosom of the ocean. But, on the approach
of the smallest danger, the appearance of an enemy,
or the slightest ruffling of the surface of the water, it
instantly retires within the shell, and taking in a quan¬
tity of water, or ejecting a quantity of air, quick as
thought it sinks to the bottom. Mediterranean and In¬
dian ocean.
2. With the keel rather broad and bluntly toothed jtubercu-
lateral ridges tubercular. Amboyna. Martini, t. i^.lata.
f. 156.
3. Keel of the shell toothed in the middle. Thevitrea.
shell is conic, transversely ribbed, with a convex keel;
3 aperture
426
cymhium.
cornu.
arctica.
hians.
gondola,
hau strum.
CONCH
aperture oval. It is a very rare species. Amboyna.
Martini, t. 18. f. 163.
4. Keel of the shell wrinkled, and without teeth ;
depressed, thin, wrinkled, with fine longitudinal strke
crossing the wrinkles. Mediterranean. Martini, i.
t. 18. f. 161. and 162.
5. Keel with 4 smooth elevated rings ; 1 line high,
5 broad. Cape of Good Hope. Chem. x. t. 137*
1271.
6. Shell perforated, with an entire keel ; 3-f lines
diameter. Greenland seas, where it is frequently seen
floating in spring and autumn.
7. With the keel dilating outwards ; lateral ridges
distant, alternately shorter 5 aperture dilated. Mexi¬
co. Martini, i. t. 17. f. 158. and 159.
8. With the keel edged, with compressed teeth ; la¬
teral ribs numerous and branched j aperture broad,
ovate.
9. With the keel edged, with compressed teeth j la¬
teral ridges smooth and simple $ aperture subtriangular.
E. Indies. Martini, i. p. 221. f. 2.
Some species of the argonauta are met with in all
climates, from the Indian ocean to the shores of Green¬
land.
O L O G Y. Chap. V,
shores $ minute. Adriatic, Britain. Montagu, t, 18.
f. 6.
* 8. Similar to the preceding species, but with thepervers
spires reversed. Shores of Britain, frequent. Mont.
t. 18. f. 6.
* 9. Spiral, slightly umbilicated on each side, with depress',
many depressed joints. Re culver, England. Very/ws.
minute, and rare. Montagu, t. 18. f. 9.
* 10. Spiral, umbilicated, with furrowed joints j co-umbihc
lour opaque, white. Sandwich. Minute, not common, tus.
Montague, t. 18. f. 1.
*11. Thick, spiral, doubly umbilicated, with finecrasstd
joints } opaque, white. Reculver, England. Minute,
rare. Montague, t. 18. f. 2.
* 12. Spiral, lobate j spires rounded on one side, Ae-lobatnb
pressed on the other. Whitstable. Walker, t. 3.
f- 71*
13. White, convex; aperture linear; first spire baltkici
largest. Baltic. Schroeter, i. t. 1. and 2.
14. Aperture linear; spires compressed, with thick-rygoM/s
ened margins. Southern ocean. Very small.
15. Aperture compressed, linear; spires compres-umbilic
sed ; umbilicus concave; minute. Croatia, Column.to.
Fhytol. ii. t. 38. f. E.
Nautilus. Gen. 19. Nautilus.
Gen. Char.—The nature of the animal which inhabits
this shell is not well known. The shell is univalve,
divided into several compartments, communicating
by an aperture with each other.
Species.
* Spiral, rounded, with contiguous whorls.
vompilius. I. Aperture of the shell heart-shaped; whorls ob¬
tuse ; smooth ; spire involuted and concealed. Indian
and African ocean. Lister, t. 550. f. 1. and 3.—This
species is often very large, and it is finely variegated
with brown flexuous streaks, spots, and marks, under
the epidermis, which is white ; within it exhibits a
beautiful pearly gloss. It is employed for drinking-
cups by the inhabitants of the east.
suborbicu-. 2. Aperture heart-shaped ; whorls obtuse ; slightly,
latus, obsoletely, striated transversely ; spire with an umbili¬
cus, involute, and concealed : very like the preceding
species, but may at once be distinguished by the um¬
bilicus. New Guinea. Lister, t. 552. f. 4.
calcar. * 3. Aperture of the shell linear; whorls with elevat¬
ed joints ; minute, white, opaque. Sheppey island.
Martini, i. t. 19. f. 169.
rotatus. * 4. Spiral, smooth, keeled ; joints six, with the par¬
titions elevated and flexuous ; keel entire ; aperture
semicordate. Rimini and England. Montagu, t. 15.
f. 4. _
Icevigatus.* $. Spiral, smooth; joints 10, with the partitions
slightly elevated ; aperture triangular. Kent. Mon¬
tagu, t. 18. f. 7, and 8.
crispus. * 6. With lateral spires, with about 20 flexuous, cre-
nated joints in the exterior whorl; marked by elevated
striae; aperture semicordate syphon central; very
minute. Mediterranean, Sheppey island, and Sand¬
wich. Montagu, t. 18. f. 5.
beccarii. * 7. Aperture obovate ; 4 or 5 volutions, with deep
sulcattd joints ; 10 in the first spire, frequent on most
3
■** Spiral, rounded, with detached whirls.
16. Aperture orbicular; whirls cylindrical and de-spirilla,
tached; one inch in diameter. American and Indian
oceans. Lister, t. 550. f. 2.
17. Smooth, with 4 conic tubercles; very minute.
India. Spengler, i. t. 2. f. 9. b. and c.
18. Diaphanous, middle partitions protuberant out-
wards ; surface with six conic tubercles ; minute. \n-latus.
dia. Spengler, i. t. 2. f. 9. d.
*** Elongated, and nearly straight.
* 19. Incurved, spiral at the tip ; whirls contiguous ; semitih*
minute, convex ; the partitions appearing outwardly.
Croatia, Sandwich. Rare. Montagu, t. 19. f. I.
20. Subconic; globular divisions growing gradually
less ; tip incurved, spiral. Red sea. Frequently found
fossil. Spengler, i. t. 2. f. 10. d. to g.
* 21. Oblong, carinated ; aperture oval, narrow, carinat
Sandwich. Minute, rare. Walker, t. 3. f. 72. lus.
* 22. With a slight curvature ; divisions obliquely obliquu
striated ; syphon central. Mediterranean and Adriatic
seas, Britain. Montagu, t. 14. f. 4.
23. Subcylindrical, with thick divisions, marked with raphan
12 elevated striae; syphon central. Adriatic and Me-straw*
diterranean seas. Ledermuller, t. 4. f. x. lower figure.
24. Jointed divisions thick, with 17 elevated striae; ropto'
syphon sublateral, oblique. Adriatic and Mediterra¬
nean. Martini, i. vig. at p. 1. f. A. B.
23. Ovate, oblong, with thick divisions, markedgrflflW
with 8 interrupted elevated strise : syphon oblique;
minute. Mediterranean.
26. Oblong, ovate, with 8 or 9 subglobose articula-radicu
tions ; aperture a small syphon. Adriatic, Sandwich.
Montagu, t. 6. f. 4.
* 27. Straight, ovate-oblong, with swollen spinoas spinubs>-
joints. Britain. Montagu, t. 19. f. 3.
* 28. A little bending, with raised joints ; length one-swfow ‘
tenth of an inch. Sandwich. Very rare. Montagu, tus.
t. 6. f. 5.
29. Arcuated
(
b
f
s
h
L
c
l
r
s
.up. IV. CONCH
ap. Arcuated, with two opposite longitudinal keels j
joints globose. Sandwich.
,•(2, 30. Divisions striated ; joints smooth, elevated: ob¬
tuse at the tip ; denticulated at the margin j syphon
central. Adriatic. Very small. Gualteri, t. 19. f. O.
fjualis. 31. Cylindrical, with 8 divisions j aperture margin¬
ed ; very minute. Red sea. Spengler, i. t. 2. f. 10.
a. b. and c.
uncu- 32, Smooth, with cylindrical, remote divisions ; joints
tapering, cylindrical. Seas of Sicily. Gualteri, t. 19.
f. R. S.
men. * 33* Compressed, jointed, margined at one end ; sy¬
phon lateral. Adriatic, Sandwich. Very rare. Mon¬
tagu, t. 19. f. 6.
itus. * 34* Straight, subcylindrical, tapering; joints 12,
raised, with 4 equidistant, strong, longitudinal ribs the
whole length $ inch long. Coast of Kent. A va¬
riety of this has been discovered with only 6 joints.
Montagu, t. 14. f. 5.
arts. 35- Straight, compressed ; narrow jointed and rib¬
bed at the smaller end. Dunbar. Montagu, t. 30. f. 9.
us, 36. Nearly straight, with smooth depressed joints.
Sandwich. Montagu, t. 19. f. 4. and 7.
ocera. 37* Whirls of the shell with carinated striae. The
ocean. Frequently found fossil.
* Gen. 20. Conus, Cone-shell.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax. The shell uni¬
valve, convolute, turbinate j aperture efl’use, longi¬
tudinal, linear, without teeth, entire at the base ;
pillar smooth.
Species.
* Spire somewhat truncated.
t, Mb 1. Brown, with ovate, subangular, white spots;
r . whirls of the spire channelled. American ocean. Lis¬
ter, t. 787. f. 39.
urnus 2. Granulated at the base; blackish, with bands of
white ; somewhat heart-shaped, confluent spots ; spire
coronated and channelled. Amboyna. Rare. Martini,
ii. t. 62. f. 687.
« iWj- 3. Mottled, • with black and somewhat heart-shaped
e white spots, and marked with two darker transverse
bands ; spire coronated; throat yellow. Chem. x. t.
139. f. 1292.
a :knoi- 4» Reticulated with chesnut, with two or three dark-
er bands; spire crowned and acute. A very rare
species. Coromandel. Chem. x. t. 144. A. f. c. and d.
s itus. 5* With alternate articulated belts and tesselated
spots ; spire crowned with tubercles ; shell often mi¬
nute, and with a white band. Asiatic ocean. Martini,
. ii. t. 63. f. 783. to. 785.
u Tialis 6. Whitish, with longitudinal livid bands, and di¬
vided brown and white linear belts : spire flat, painted
with brown undulated stripes, often emarginated. A
rare shell. Lister, t. 766. f. 15.
fl1 itus. 7* Brownish-green, with longitudinal confluent white
streaks, and darker transverse interrupted lines; spire
coronated. New Zealand. Martini, ii. t. 62. f. 692.
Lj and 693.
lllt,itus. 8. White, with brown dots; spire marked with
brown stripes. Asiatic ocean. Lister, t. 770. f. 176.
^ >ieus. 9' White, with transverse rows of dark quadrangu¬
lar spots, and the base transversely grooved ; whirls of
O L O G Y. 427
the spire longitudinally striated. East Indies. Martini,
ii. t. 61. f. 674.
10. White, with transverse rows of red spots ; base tesselatus.
violet, and slightly grooved transversely. Java. Lis¬
ter, t. 767. f. 17.
11. Polished, with a pointed, muricated spire ;generalis.
whirls channelled. India. Lister, t. 786. f. 35.
12. Smooth, reddish, with darker transverse dotted raom/f.
lines, and paler bands; spire flattish, mucronated, and
the whirls channelled. Nicobar islands. Chem. x. t.
140. f. 1301. to 3.
13. White, with reddish-brown interrupted trans-canalicu-
verse bands and lines ; spire mucronated, and the whirls/ettos.
marginated. Ceylon. Chem. xi. t. 181. f. 1748.
14. Yellowish with a violet base; spire slightly ttt'rgo.
convex and obtuse. Java. Lister, t. 754. f. 2.
15. Conic, snowy; spire prominent, and crowned Candidas.
with tubei’cles ; aperture large. Born, t. 7. f. 9.
16. Glabrous, with a brown base ; spire a little can- capilaneus
vex, sometimes flat, and generally striped. Asia. Lis¬
ter, t. 780. f. 27.
17. Greenish-brown, with two white spotted trans-eAew-
verse bands, and numerous scattered white dots ; base nit%ii.
and throat blue. Ceylon. Chem. xi. t. 182. f. 1764.
and 1765.
18. Greenish, with white transverse bands spotted
with brown; base with granulated lines; spire sub-w/zs.
conical and striated. Batavia. Chem. x.t. 138. f. 128c.
19. Brownish-yellow, with dark, longitudinal con-leopardus.
fluent stripes, and two white transverse bands ; spire
convex and striated.
20. With longitudinal dark red stripes, and trans-
verse rows of dots ; spire mucronated. New Zealand.
Chem. xi. t. 181. f. 1750.
21. White, with three yellowish bands ; spotted with centwr/o.
chesnut: spire convex; base transversely striated.
St Domingo. Martini, ii. t. 59. f. 655.
22. Conic, rough with a brown and striated base : miles.
spire convex. India. Lister, t. 786. f. 34.
23. White, with irregularly alternate rows of broad spurius.
and smaller spots ; spire depressed, mucronated. St
Domingo. Martini, ii. t. 56. f. 626. to 628.
24. White, with brown contiguous spots forming in- leonius,
distinct bands ; spire flattish. Amboyna. Martini,
ii. t. 57. f. 640.
25. Transversely grooved at the base; white, with characte-
numerous character-like spots ; spire truncated and risticus.
spotted with brown. West Indies. Chem. xi. t. 182.
f. 1760. and 1761.
26. Transversely striated, granulated, glaucous, with coerules-
irregular brown spots. West Indies. Chem. t. 182.
f. 1762.
27. With white rays and bands, transversely groov- radiatus.
ed at the base. Favanne, ii. t. 15. f. O.
** Pyriform with a rounded base ; body half as long
again as the spire.
28. Yellow, with purplish brown, longitudinal princeps.
branched lines, marked with two white bands, which
have a few brown spots ; spire obtuse and finely stri¬
ated transversely ; 24 inches long. Indies. Chem. x.
t. 138. f. 1276.
29. Oblong, conical, grooved at the base; white, fanus.
undulated longitudinally, with yellowish brown ; whirls'
'3 H 2 of
428
CONCHOLOGY. Chap. l\
of spires striated and channelled. Asiatic ocean. Lis¬
ter, t. 782. f. 29.
guinaicus. 30. Subconical, reddish, with obsolete brown and
white variegated bands 5 spire obtuse, spotted and stri¬
ated. Guinea. Ency. Method, t. 337* ^
fulmineus. 31. With chesnut stripes tire whole length : spire
acute, and with the pillar lip spotted with chesnut) the
base acute and obliquely striated. Africa.
lorsn’zinus 32. Subconical, yellow, with interrupted longitudi¬
nal reddish stripes j base dotted with red *, spire con¬
cave and acute. East Indies. Chem. xi. t. 181. f.
I754-
amadis. 33. Pale brown, with a broad band, and ax'ticulated
belts above and beneath: spire acute, crowned with
tubercles, and finely striated transversely. Java. Chem.
x. t. 142. f. 1322. and 1323.
acumina- 34. Striated at the base, white, reticulated with
tus. brown j whirls concave. Red sea. Martini, ii. t. 57.
f. 638. and 639.
ammiralis 35. With rough punctures at the base.—This spe¬
cies is divided into the following varieties. I. With¬
out bands. 2. With irregular bands. 3. With one
regular band. 4. With two regular bands. 5. With
three regular bands. 6. With four regular bands. 7.
With five or more regular bonds. 8. With punctuated,
reticulated belts. To this last division belongs the
cedo nulli, or celebrated admiral shell, which has been
esteemed the rarest and most precious of testaceous
productions. Some specimens of the cedo nulli have
brought the extravagant price of 100 guineas. The
endless varieties of this species are found in the seas of
South America. Martini, ii. t. 57. f. 634.
thomce. 36. Smooth, white, with bay character's and rows of
dots, with three white belts and spots j the tip reddish j
spire conic, with grooved whirls. Indian ocean. Chem.
x. t. 143. f. 1331.
arc hit ha- 37. Granulated and brownish yellow, with three
lassus. • transverse bands ; spire conical, and the whirls slightly
concave. Amboyna. Martini, ii. vig. 26. f. 1.
cedonulli. 38. Granulated, and marked with dotted lines and
bands,and confluent or detached spots j spire conical and
coronated. South America. Martini, ii. t. 57. f. 633.
aurantius. 39. Conical, granulated, of an orange colour ; spire
conical and coronated. Philippine islands. Lister, t.
775. f. 21.
kucosticus 40. Subgranulated, white, marbled with brown or
yellow ; spire acute, coronated, and nodulous at its
base. St Domingo. Lister, t. 759. f. 4.
vilulinus. 41. White, marbled with orange, and granulated at
the base; spire with dotted striae.
planorhis. 42. Yellow, more or less granulated j spire depres¬
sed, obtuse, and the whirls concave and striated j
throat violet. Guinea. Ency. Method, t. 326. f. 8.
senator. 43. Conic, smooth, glabrous j with obtuse, sculptur¬
ed whirls ; yellow spotted with white. Guinea. Mar¬
tini, ii. t. 59. f. 659.
latus. 44. Subovate, more or less granulated, marbled with
brown and yellow, and marked with convex spotted
strife \ spire obtuse and striated. St Domingo. Mar¬
tini, ii. t. 55. f. 609. and 6x0.
nobilis. 45. Subcylindrical, smooth, glabrous ; finely polish¬
ed ; yellow or brown, spotted with white. Amboyna.
Chem. x. t. 141. f. 1313. and 1314.
siamensis. 46. Yellowish, with white bands, and numerous spot¬
ted narrow belts, China. Rumph. t. 34. f. E.
47. White, with transverse rows of yellow spots andpapilm
dots j whirl slightly channelled. Guinea. Lister, t.ccwf.
773. f. 19.
48. Conical-oblong, white, with transverse bands vijluctifeA
short ferruginous undulated stripes j spire conical,
concave, and acuminated. Java. Lister, t. 771. f.
17. &c.
49. Striated at the base, white, with a blue band,
and transverse rows of spotted lines j spire obtuse and
coronated. China. Ency. Method, t. 322. f. 4.
50. Flesh-coloured, with two white bands, and milian
crowded transverse dotted lines 5 spire obtuse and co¬
ronated. China. Ency. Meth. t. 319. f. 6.
51. With linear belts, articulated with white undgenuani
brown : red, with bands alternately tesselated with
brown and red. Guinea. Martini, ii. t. 56. t. 623.
52. Emarginated at the base, striated ; spire \m-glaum
armed, with contiguous whirls. India and Africa.
Chem. x. t. 138. f. 1277. and 1278.
53. Striated and emarginated at the base; yellow, swrate;,
with transverse rows of brown linear spots j spire con¬
vex and mucronated j spotted with brown. E. Indies.
Chem. xi. t. 181. f. 1752 and 1753.
54. Gibbous, clouded with bluish brown; acute,wtowac/
striated at the base ; sometimes dotted in rows. Me¬
diterranean. Martini, ii. t. 55. f. 614.
55. White, clouded with red and yellow, or olive, ramm
with elevated dotted striae; spire obtuse, whirls stri-/«^.
ated. American ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 331. f. 1.
56. White, grey, or cinnamon colour, spotted, andcHmw
finely striated transversely; spire obtuse and striated.
New Holland.
57. Scabrous at the base, of a dark colour, withat'AflhL
bluish white spots and intenupted dotted lines; spire
acute.
58. Whitish, with brown spotted bands, and trans-/w20««.
verse milk-white intex’rupted lines; spire convex, and
somewhat coronated. Philippine islands. Ency. Meth.
t. 338. f. 6.
59. Ovate, rugged, and muricated at the base; rustici
spire conico-convex. Var. 1. Without band. 2. With
a band, clouded, whitish. Africa. Lister, t. 765. f. 14.
60. Grooved towards the base, cinereous, clouded
with white, and marked with transverse rows of brown¬
ish spots; spire convex. East Indies. Chem. xi. t.
183. f. 1784. and 1785.
61. With transverse granulated strife at the base,/xW(fw
and livid, and one or two white bands; spire coro¬
nated and obtuse ; inside violet. Cape of Good Hope.
Ency. Meth. t. 321. f. 5.
62. Ash-coloured, with elevated transvex'se striae,
one white band, and obsolete longitudinal yellowish
brown stripes ; spii'e acute and coronated. American
ocean. Lister, 784. f. 31.
63. Somewhat elongated, with distant strife ; h&szdistaii
and throat violet; spire convex and coronated. New
Zealand. Chem. x. t. 138. f. 1281.
64. Orange coloured, with crowded transverse pa-ca/ift/o 1
rallel red striae; spire acute, coronated. New Cale-cw$.
donia. Ency. Meth. t. 321. f. 10.
65. Pyriform, yellowish, with two marbled trans- vittatt
verse bands, and obsolete interrupted lines. Asiatic
ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 335. f. 3.
66. Ferruginous, with two white varigated bands ;
base white. Asiatic ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 335. f. 7.
67. Ovate,
429
hap. IV. CONCH
rcator. 67. Ovate, white, with reticulated yellow bands.
Africa. Lister, t. 788. f. 41.
t.ulinus. 68. Slightly emarginated at the base and wrinkled ;
spire flattish, mucronate. India. A large shell. Lis¬
ter, t. 762. f. 11.
'ulinus. 69. Slightly emarginated at the base, and wrinkled;
spire acuminated, with flattish whirls: three inches
long. India. Lister, t. 785. f. 32.
•ercinus 7°* Yellow, with numerous pale chesnut transverse
lines ; spire conical, depressed ; whirls longitudinally
striated. Madagascar. Martini, ii. t. 69. f. 657.
icatus. 71. Granulated at the base, white, variegated with
brown, and marked with crowded interrupted lines ;
spire obtuse. Isle of France. Ency. Meth. t. 326.
f. 2.
ues. 72. Somewhat ventricose, whitish, with a transverse
yellow band, and two rows of distant large brown
spots; spire convex. New Zealand. Ency. Meth.
nrineus. 73. lleddish-yellow, with two mottled bands, and
blackish granulations at the base; spire conical, and
the whirls flat. Isle of France. Ency. Meth. t. 338.
studi-
arm.
wulatus.
amoca-
ut.
Iraeus,
renatus.
ulicarius
’wus.
peratus.
media¬
's.
creus-
uscarum
wins.
fiord
nus,
‘lanus.
74. Yellowish-brown, with two mottled bands, and
irregular longitudinal streaks ; base blackish ; spire
spotted with brown and tipped with yellow. Batavia.
Chem. xi. t. 182. f. 1758.
75. Whitish, clouded with dark grey, and marked
with two dark bands, spotted with white ; spire obtuse.
Surinam. Ency. Meth. t. 335. f. 6.
76. Striated at the base; white, with somewhat re¬
ticulated yellowish stripes ; spire convex. Manilla.
Ency. Meth. t. 337. f. 9.
77. Yellowish, with numerous transverse darker
bands, and intermediate lines ; spire obtuse and stri¬
ated. South sea. Ency. Meth. t. 338. f. 5.
78. Ovate, white, with a black band, composed of
transverse spots : a small shell. E. Indies. Lister,
t. 779. f. 25..
79. Emarginated at the base, white, with transverse
rows of black dots ; spire coronated. Batavia. Lis¬
ter, t. 761. f. 10.
80. Emarginated at the base ; white, with small
brown ovate spots ; spire mucronated and coronated.
New Guinea. Lister, t. 774. f. 20.
81. Emarginated at the base; white, tinged with
chesnut colour, and marked with dark-clustered dots;
spire depressed, coronated, with a double groove. Ma¬
dagascar. Ency. Meth. t. 320. f. 8.
82. Emarginated at the base, fawn-coloured, with
two white belts, and numerous slightly elevated dotted
striae; spire coronated, and spotted with brown. E.
Indies. Ency. Meth. t. 319. f. 8.
83. White, cancellated with transverse grooves and
longitudinal striae ; spire acuminated. Owhyhee, in the
South sea. Ency. Meth. t. 338. f. 1.
84. Emarginated at the base, and striated ; whirls
of the spire channelled. Asia. Lister, t. 757. f. 9.
85. Elongated, muricated : the spire crowned a-
cute, and striated longitudinally. Indian ocean. Enc.
Meth. t. 321. f. 3.
86. Granulated, white, with brownish yellow spots ;
spire convex and mucronated. America. Enc. Meth.
t. 338. f. 4.
87. Red, clouded with pale bluish spots, and scat-
O L O G Y.
tered yellowish dots; spire convex. Ency. Meth. t.
338. f. 2.
88. Slightly grooved transversely, and granulated barbaden-
at the base, reddish, with two white bands ; spire ob-sf?.
tuse, and coronated. St Domingo. Ency. Meth. t.
322. f. 8.
89. Transversely grooved, and of a rose-colour, with roseus.
one white band ; spire obtuse and coronated. Martini,
ii. t. 63. f. 707.
90. Transversely striated, and granulated; scarlet,cocc/w^J1.
with a white mottled band ; spire convex, and coronat¬
ed. Martini, ii. t. 61. f. 680.
91. Gibbous, with the base transversely striated
and granulated ; white, with one or two rows of large
remote spots ; spire coronated. S. seas. Ency. Meth.
t. 322. f. I.
92. Transversely striated, of a blackish, violet co- taitensis.
lour, with a few white spots and dots ; spire obtuse,
striated. Otaheite. Ency. Meth. t. 336. f. 9.
93. White, with transverse elevated roughish scabrius-
and five transverse rows of reddish spots ; spire obtuse.
Guinea. Chem. xi. t. 182. f. 1768. and 9.
94. With transverse punctured grooves, livid, nndpunctut'a-
and marked with two white zones ; spire coronated, tus.
obtuse, tip rosy. Botany Bay. Ency. Meth. t. 322.
f.9.
95. Granulated at the base, yellowish, with two ceylonen-
white spotted bands, and intermediate, zig-zag stripes ; sis.
spire coronated and obtuse. Ceylon. Ency. Meth.
t. 322. f. 6.
96. White, with brown longitudinal spots, and di-exiguus,
stant transverse striae ; spire convex, acute, and coro¬
nated. Asiatic seas.
97. White, with longitudinal reddish stripes, nodpusillus.
transverse rows of dots ; spire conical, depressed, and
slightly coronated. Guinea. Chem. xi. 183. f. 1788.
and 9.
98. Slightly grooved, and the base granulated ;
white, spotted with rose colour; spire coronated and
lamellated. Ceylon. Ency. Meth. t. 322. f. 5.
99. Greyish violet, with a white band, and scatter- rattus.
ed distant spots ; spire obtuse. American coasts. Ency.
Meth. t. 338. f. 9.
100. Slightly gibbous, olive, with transverse rows oi jamaicen-
dots, and white bands marbled with brown ; spire con- sis.
vex and acute. Jamaica. Ency. Meth. t. 335. f. 3.
101. Dull olive, clouded with two obsolete w\\\to'nieditev-
bands, and transverse brown lines and dots; spire a-raneus.
cute and striated. Algiers and Naples. Ency. Meth.
t. 330. f. 4.
102. Slightly grooved at the base, white, with tv&ns-puncticid-
verse rows of dots ; spire obtuse, and whirls channel-/atas.
led. St Domingo. Ency. Meth. t. 331. f. 2.
I03’ White, with pale brownish yellow spots, wadmauriti-
transverse rows of brown crescent-shaped dots; spirefi/iwr.
obtuse, base grooved. Africa. Ency. Meth. t. 330.
f. 9.
IC4. White, and transversely grooved ; spire coro-
nated, obtuse. W\ Indies. Ency. Meth. t. 321. f. 6.
105. Striated, and granulated; spire conical, with verruca-
the lower whirls concave and crenated on the edge. sus.
Africa. Lister, t. 756. f. 8.
106. Rose-cloured ; base striated ; spire acute. Isle co/wm&z,
of France. Ency. Meth. t. 331. f. 3.
107. Greenish, with three or four bands, clouded ram/wms-
with sis.
43°
CONCH
with white and yellow, with transverse brown and
white dotted lines j spire acuminated. Asiatic ocean.
Ency. Meth. t. 333. 1. 3.
radiatus. 108. With white rays and bands, transversely groov¬
ed at the base. Favanne, ii. t. 15. f. O.
jaspulsus* 109. Eight olive, with multifarious white dots, and
an oblique band *, oblong. Small. St. Domingo. Enc.
Meth. 334. f. 4.
coffece. no. Short, brown, with two white bands: that
nearest the spire spotted with brown. American seas.
Ency. Meth. t. 336. f. 7.
mindanus. ill. White, variegated with scarlet, and white dot¬
ted transverse lines 5 aperture acuminated. Philippine
islands. Ency. Meth. t. 330. f. 7.
festivus. 112. Scarlet, with two transverse rows of large
white spots, and numerous dotted brown lines $ spire
conic j whirls convex. Molucca islands. Chem. xi.
t. 182. f. 1770. and 71.
fuhnineus. 113. With chesnut stripes the whole length 5 spire
acute, and with the pillar lip spotted with chesnut; the
base acute and obliquely striated, Africa. Enc. Meth.
t. 337. f. 3.
arachnoi- 114. Reticulated with chesnut, with two or three
des. darker bands j spire crowned and acute. A very rare
species. Coromandel. Chem. x. t. 144 A. f. c. and d.
costatus. 115. Brown, with a white band, undulated with
reddish 5 thick, and broad striae j spire nodulous, with a
granulated band. South sea. Chem. ii. t. 181. f.
J745-
citrinus. 116. Citron, with black lines, interrupted beneath j
spire crowned with tubercles, with the base white.
Cura^oa. Ency. Meth. t. 322. f. 3.
coronatus. 117, With alternate articulated belts and tesselated
spots j spire crowned with tubercles 5 shell often mi¬
nute, and with a white band. Asiatic ocean. Mar¬
tini, ii. t. 63. f. 713. to 15.
*** Elongated and rounded at the base; body as long
again as the spire.
slavus. 118. With convex smooth striae j the base bluish.
Indian ocean. Very rare. Lister, t. 774. f. 34.
aureus. 119. Transversely striated j yellow, with orange
longitudinal stripes, and white triangular spots j spire
acute.
terebellum 120. White, shaded with blue j subcylindrical, with
annular striae and yellow bands. Isle of France. Lis¬
ter, t. 745. f. 6.
australis. 111. Transversely grooved, yellowish, with trans¬
verse rows of brown spots, and irregular longitudinal
stripes *, spire acuminated. New South Wales. Chem.
xi. t. 183. f. 1774. and 5.
laevis. 122. Transversely striated, of a pale yellowish red,
with brown and white spots, and variegated with yel¬
low 5 spire smooth.
strigatus. 113. Transversely striated, of a pale violet colour,
with yellowish spots and dots j spire convex. E. In¬
dies. Ency. Meth. t. 342. f. 1.
mtratus. 124. With transverse granulated stria; ; white,
with brownish-yellow bands ; spire pyramidal. Indian
ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 342. f. 3.
glwis. 123. Transversely striated, brown, with an obsolete
white band } spire longitudinally striated, and convex.
Isle of France. Chem. x. t. 143. f. 1331.
tenellus. Xl6. Transversely striated and dotted j white, with
O L O G Y. Chap. It
interrupted yellow bands ", spire depressed ; whirls
channelled. Moluccas. Chem. xi. t. 183. f. 1782
and 3.
127. Transversely striated*, white, clouded with
yellow, and marked with transverse rows of dark dots ;
spire conical. Amboyna. Lister, t. 744* ^* 35*
128. Elongated, transversely ribbed, dull yellowish/hsws.
white 5 spire conical, striated j whirls convex and
channelled at the sutures.
129. Subcylindrical, yellow j the base obliquely stri-ochrokuX
ated, with a white band near it j spire pointed with cos.
striped spots. America. Ency. Meth. t. 343. f. 6.
130. Bluish white, with four fulvous linear bands,
and intermediate dull purple dots. E. Indies. Ency.
Meth. t. 342. f. 4. and 5.
131. Rough, unarmed, with smooth, grooved striae.
African ocean. Shell red, with white bands, and pur-t«#.
pie linear dots. Lister, t. 760. f. 5.
132. Orange flag, smooth, with whitish bands
whirls grooved at the tips. India. Ency. Meth. l.cus.
339* f* 4*   t
133. Elongated with distant ribs j spire conical, o\}.terelra.
tuse, and the whirls flattish. Batavia. Ency. Meth,
t. 339. f. 2.
134. Elongated, transversely ribbed ; white, withrcp&raK
brownish yellow dotted bands; spire obtuse ; apex
rosy. Asiatic ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 341. f. 1.
and 2.
135. Grayish yellow, with a white interrupted band,otfawoNi
and numerous rows of brown dots j spire convex, acute,
striated and spotted. Senegal. Ency. Meth. t. 343.
f- 7* .
136. White, grooved at the base, with numerousOtfgttr.
transverse rows of reddish dots, and two oblong brown
streaks. Ceylon. Lister, t. 755. f. 7.
137. Subcylindrical, with longitudinal bands, Aot-magus.
ted with white. India, Isle of France. Chem, xi. t.
183. f. 1778. and 9.
138. Ovate, oblong, gibbous, clouded with fine pa- striatus.
rallel brown striae; 4 inches long. Africa. Ency.
Meth. t. 340. f. 1, 2, and 3.
139. Reddish white, grooved at the base, with irre-gubtrna
gular, longitudinal undulated stripes, and two transverse/or.
brown bands j spire mucronated. Asiatic ocean. Ency.
Meth. t. 340. f. 4, 5, and 6.
140. Subcylindrical, elongated, white, with minuteg/orw-
brown reticulations, and transverse orange bands ; spire wono.
acuminated; upper whirls nodulous. Indian ocean.
Ency. Meth. t. 47. f. 7.
141. Yellowish, with numerous longitudinal zig-zag pyramid
brown lines, and irregular white spots $ spire elevated,/w.
acuminated j upper valve nodulous. Torrid zone.
Ency. Meth. t. 347. f. 5.
142. With zig-zag yellow veins, and yellow and textile.
brown spots, Asia, Isle of France. Lister, t. 788.
f. 40.
143. Orange, striped with brown, and marked witha^^-
a few white spots, and three or four transverse bands.
Isle of France. Ency. Meth. t. 345. f. 3.
144. Ventricose, yellowish, with cancellated brown archipu
lines, and four bands of blue violet and white reticu-coj5M£*
lations j spire acuminated. E. Indies. Ency. Meth.
345* f* 5* . .
145. Brown, reticulated with crowded very xm-canomc
equal
(ap.
q opus,
'atus.
mceus.
r ’gint
a
I
e ria.
t ctis.
c >ratus,
IV. CONCH
equal white angular spots j spire acuminated 5 upper
whirls acuminated. E. Indies. Ency. Meth. t. 345.
f. I.
146. Dark brown, with triangular white spots, and
transverse dotted lines j spire obtuse. E. Indies. Lis¬
ter, t. 790. f. 43.
147. Yellow, with transverse dotted lines, and two
bands, variegated with brown, white, gray, and flesh-
coloured ; spire acute. E. Indies. Ency. Meth. t.
345* f* 4-
148. Orange brown, with transverse dotted lines,
and heart-shaped white spots j spire obtuse. Amboyna.
Ency. Meth. t. 344. 1. 4*
149. Orange brown, with irregular large oblong
white spots j spire convex, obtuse. Amboyna. Ency.
Meth. t. 344. f. 2.
150. Yellowish brown, with large, three-sided white
spots, and transverse dotted lines j spire obtuse j lip
rosy. New Guinea. Ency. Meth. t. 344. f. 3.
151. White, with brown reticular veins, and inter¬
rupted logitudinal bands. Asia. It varies much in its
colours. Amboyna. Ency. Meth. t. 343. f. 4.
152. Striated at the base, yellowish brown, with
transverse bands, of brown and white spots and dots }
spire acute.
**** Ventricose, with a wide aperture.
$ (rum. 153* Bluish, with yellow clouds and yellowish thick
dots and strioe ; spire rather acute. Asiatic seas.
Ency. Meth. t. 341. f. 9.
i irm's. 154. Striated at the base, often deformed, white,
with brown and bluish spots 5 spire convex, acute.
N. Zealand. Ency. Meth. t. 337. f. 8.
t 'jrensis 155. Flesh-coloured, mottled with white, and mark¬
ed with a dotted transverse zone ; spire acuminated,
channelled j aperture effuse. E. Indies. Ency. Meth.
t. 341. f. 3.
» ibosus. 156. Transversely grooved, whitish, with transverse
brown lines and dots, and rose-coloured bands ; spire
depressed and striated. E. Indies. Ency. Meth. t.
341. f. 5.
'(atus. 157. Yellow clouded with whitej aperture large
and bluish j spire sometimes flat, sometimes acute.
Molucca. Ency. Meth. t. 389. f. 6.
1 aceus. 158. Subventricose, rose-coloured, with two narrow
whitish bands j spire conical $ aperture effuse. East
Indies. Chem. xi. t. 181. f. 1756 and 1757.
‘pa. 159. Oblong, gibbous, smooth; aperture gaping.
India, South America. Lister, t. 764. f. 12.
t ’ra- 160. Oblong, gibbous, crowned ; aperture gaping ;
/■ "us. wrinkled at the base, and a little narrower ; aperture
white ; spire sometimes rosy. Indian and African seas.
Lister, t. 747. f. 41.
1 trico. 161. Brown, barred with white, beneath narrower,
s shaded with bluish, and smooth ; spire conic, exserted,
African ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 337. f. 5.
O L O G Y.
43i
Species.
4a
Gen. 21. Cypr/ea, Cowrie..
Gen. Char.—The animal is a slug ; shell univalve, in¬
volute, subovate, smooth, obtuse at each end ; aper¬
ture effuse at each end ; linear, extending the whole
length of the shell, and toothed on each end.
Species*.
* Spire not quite concealed.
1. Slightly turbinated, ferruginous, with whitish exanthe-
round spots and eyes; line down the back a little wo.
branched. American and Atlantic seas. Lister, t. 669.
f* I5‘ .
2. Slightly turbinated, and marked with UYeguV&r mappa.
characters; line down the back branched. Indian and
African seas, and Amboyna. Ency. Meth. t. 352.
f- 4- .
3. Slightly turbinated with irregular characters ; a/’£z6ic-tf.
stripe down the back simple. India. Lister, t. 658.
f- 3* .
4. With the character like markings confluent, and his trio.
inclosing paler spots. Amboyna. Lister, t. 659. f.
3*A* .
5. Slightly turbinated, subcylindrical, sprinkled with argus.
eyes ; beneath 4 brown spots ; about 4 inches long.
Indian and Atlantic seas. Lister, t. 705. f. 54.
6. Obtuse, subcylindrical; extremities depressed.testfwr/f/m-
Persian gulf and Indian ocean. This is the largestr/o.
shell of this genus. Lister, t. 689. f. 36.
7. Slightly turbinated, gibbous, with livid and testn- stercora-
ceous spots ; emarginate on each side, and flat beneath, ria.
Guinea. Lister, t. 587. f. 34.
8. Ventricose, orange, with a white unspotted mar-aurora.
gin and base ; teeth orange. This rare and beautiful
shell is a native of Otaheite, is about 4 inches long,
and about 2^ broad. It is exceedingly valuable ; and
not unfrequently sells for 50I. or 60I.
9. Slightly turbinated, pale, with flesh-colouredawmb/tfs
bands ; mouth violet; 2^ inches long. Asiatic ocean.
Lister, t. 664. f. 8.
10. Slightly turbinated, subcylindrical, with puletalpa,
bands ; beneath thickened and brown ; 3 inches long.
India. Lister, t. 668. f. 14.
11. Slightly turbinated, lurid and slightly barred; lurida.
extremities pale yellow, with 2 black spots. Mediter¬
ranean and Atlantic seas. Lister, t. 671. f. 17.
12. Slightly turbinated, spotted, and marked with vanella.
yellowish dots; extremities spotted with brown; throat
rufous. Barbadoes. Lister, 684. f. 31.
13. Slightly turbinated, white, with subulate denti-/oto.
cles. Sicily. Martini, i. t. 30. f. 322.
14. Thin, gibbous, fulvous, dotted with white, With guttata.
a horizontal line in the middle ; beneath white with
yellow teeth. Lister, t. 676. f. 23.
15. Thin, oblong, barred with brown, and dotted
with red at the sides. Ency. Meth. t. 356. f. 12. lenta.
16. Cylindrical, milk-white; one side bordered and temv
varied with a few pale yellow, narrow marks, back
with three brownish waved bands. Schroeter, i. t. 1.
7-
17. rI urbinated, undulated with brownish, clouded undata.
with pale ochre, and deeper bands. Mauritia islands,
Chem. x. t. 144. f. 1337.
**
Obtitse, spire quite concealed.
18. With the sides dark brown, and thickly cazted achatindi
with enamel ; aperture wide. Otaheite. Martyn
Un iv. Conch, i. t. 14.
19. Triangularly gibbous ; behind depressed, acute ; mauriti-
beneath ana.
432
CONCH
beneath black; a large shell, spotted with brown.
Java, Mauritius, and Nussatella. Lister, t. 703. f.
caput- 20. Triangularly gibbous, and rather obtuse behind ;
serpejitis. brown, spotted and white; beneath white; if inch
long. Mauritius and Nussatella islands. Lister, t.
702. f. 50.
vitellus. 21. Livid, with small white spots ; 2 inches long.
Indian ocean. Lister, t. 693. f. 40.
mus. 22. Retuse, gibbous, cinereous, with a longitudinal
brown band ; teeth of the aperture blackish. Ameri¬
can and Mediterranean seas. Ency. Meth. t. 354.
f. 1.
tigris. 23. Ovate, obtuse behind, and rounded before ;
ferruginous, with deep brown spots, and a yellow
longitudinal, dorsal line; 4f inches long. Indian
ocean. Lister, t. 748. f. 42.
pantheri- 24. Reddish, with small dark spots; base white, and
na. the dorsal line undulated. Red sea. Lister, t. 681.
f. 28.
lynx. 25. Oblong, ovate, with brown dots, and a yellow¬
ish line ; hind part a little acute, with a rufous mouth ;
2 inches long. Madagascar. Lister, t. 683. f. 30.
cinerea. 26. Thin, ventricose, reddish gray, with paler bands.
Barbadoes. Lister, t. 667. f. 11.
cylindrical 27. Cylindrical, above ; pale violet, and spotted with
brown at the sides, with two brown spots at each end.
Born, t. 8. f. 10.
fehna. 28. Oblong, narrow, plumbeous, with ferruginous
dots and spots, and paler bands ; marked at each ex¬
tremity with 2 brown spots. Maldives. Lister, t.
680. f. 7.
Isabella, 29. Subcylindrical, with pale yellow extremities;
If inch long. Mauritius. Lister, t. 660. f. 4.
scuj'ra. 30. Ovate, oblong; beneath fiat; yellowish, with
greenish and livid confluent drops; sides varied with
scattered brown dots. India. Ency. Meth. t. 352. f. 2.
*** Umbilicated.
onyx.
clandesti-
na.
succincta.
xic-xac.
sonata.
hirundo.
asellus.
errones.
ursellus.
pyrum.
felina.
31. Beneath brown, above whitish; small. Asia.
Lister, t. 657. f. 2.
32. With fine transverse lines here and there meet¬
ing together. India.
# 33- Interior lip rounded at each extremity. Chem.
xi. t. 180. f. 1741 and 1742.
34. Pale yellow, with brown dots; the extremities
with 2 brown spots. E. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 66r.
f- -*•
35. Bluish, with 4 transverse zones, marked with
brown moon-shaped spots. Guinea. Chem. x. t. 14 c.
f. 1342.
36. Above bluish; extremities marked with two
brown spots. Maldivia islands. Lister, t. 674. f. 20.
37. White, with 3 brown bands; oblong; minute.
Madeira islands. Lister, t. 666. f. 10.
3^. an e8ual testaceous spot. E. Indies.
Martini, i. t. 27. f. 278 and 279.
39. Oblong, white; above smooth, varied with
brown, and marked with 2 brown dots at the umbilicus
or perforation. Martini, i. t. 24. f. 241.
4°* Pfd^ brown, with paler bands and ochraceous
spots; beneath and at the sides fulvous; within blue
Sicily. Martini, t. 26. f. 267 and 268.
41. Oblong, narrow, plumbeous, with ferruginous
dots and spots, and paler bands; marked at each ex-
O L O G Y. Chap. IT
tremity with 2 brow'n spots. Maldives. Lister, t.
680. f. 7.
42. Oblong, snowy, dotted with brown; each tr\&atomari
marked with 2 dusky dots ; f inch long. Ency. Meth.
t. 255. f. 10.
43. Oblong, gibbous, smooth, yellowish. Gualteri,jwMat’fi
t. 13. f. D.
44. Brownish, with two white bands; beneath pale/«fea.
yellow, dotted with brown. Gronovius, t. 19. f. 17.
45. Ovate, white, with ferruginous dots. I^ncy.punctate
Meth. t. 355. f. 10.
***# jppp i]ie margin thickened.
46. Umbilicated, pale yellow, with white round spots, cribran
China. Lister, t. 695. f. 42.
47. Whitish, with a knotty margin. Mediterra-wo/ieta*
nean, Atlantic, Ethiopic, and Indian seas.—This spe¬
cies is collected in great quantities, and transported
to Bengal, Siam, and other parts of India, where it
is employed by the natives as the medium of commerce.
Lister, t. 709. f. 59.
48. Surrounded on the back with a yellow ring, annulus
Amboyna and Alexandria. Ency. Meth. t. 356. f. 7.
49. Gibbous, unequal, whitish ; margin dotted with caurica.
brown ; back marked with testaceous clouds. Indian
ocean. Lister, t. 677. f. 24.
50. Pale glaucous, specked with ferruginous; max-ci'Uenta,
gin slightly tumid, with bright red spots. Amboyna.
Ency. Meth. i. t. 29. f. 303.
51. With a jagged margin; yellow, dotted witherosa.
white ; sides with a brownish spot. Mauritius and
Ascension islands. Lister, t. 692. f. 39.
52. With a jagged margin, flesh-colour, with adraceeni
greenish back, marked with fulvous dots ; sides dotted
with brown. Mediterranean. Ency. Meth. t. 356.
f. 10.
53. With a jagged margin; yellow, dotted withJlaveok
white; sides marked with obsolete scattered brown
dots.
54. Slightly margined, yellowish, with deeper specks ;
sides dotted with brown. Mediterranean. Martini, i.
55. Cinereous, variegated with testaceous; whitestolida,
beneath, and at the sides; if inch long. Amboyna.
Martini, i. t. 29. f. 305.
56. Glaucous, with somewhat tesselated bands, anA tabescer,
sprinkled with ferruginous dots ; margin thickened on
one side. Lister, t. 678. f. 25.
57. Triangularly gibbous, dotted with white, jaggei helvoh. \
behind ; beneath yellow', immaculate. Indian ocean.
Lister, t. 691. f. 38.
58. Slightly margined, pale yellow with black eyes yocellata, I
margin white, dotted with brown ; if inch long. In¬
dian ocean. Lister, t. 696. f. 43.
59. Pale violet, dotted with white; a very sma\\poraria
shell. Jamaica. Lister, ^694. f. 41.
60. Bluish, with scattered white and ferruginousgflTZgW
spots, and two brown spots at each extremity. China, nosa.
Martini, i. t. 26. f. 261 and 262.
61. Ventricose, transversely ribbed, with a broad |
dorsal groove, and the ribs thickened at its edge; aper¬
ture broad. Adriatic sea. Lister, t. 706. f. 55.
62. With numerous transverse furrows, some olsulcata
which are forked ; a small shell, and ovate, with vari¬
ous tints of red or white ; marked with a longitudinal
groove,
IV. CONCH
groove, or sulcus, down thfe back. W. Indies. Lister,
t. 706. f. 56.
* 63. Transversely ribbed, without any groove, and
with three spots on the middle of the back. Europe.
Britain. Don. t. 43.
64. Margined on each side, slightly produced and
ragged, with raised tubercles above ; I inch long. Nus-
satella island. Ency. Meth. t. 355. f. 3.
65. Whitish, produced on each side ; hack tubercu-
lated, and marked with transverse undulated striae.
Madagascar. Lister, t. 710. f. 61.
66. Lead coloured, with raised striae and orange
tubercles, surrounded by brown rings. China. Lister,
t. 710. f. 62.
67. Somewhat produced, with elevated dots j ex¬
tremities pale yellow. E. Indies. Lister, t. 708. f.
58' ...
68. Produced on each side, and sprinkled with
raised dots. Mediterranean and Indian seas. Lister,
t. 700. f. 60.
irgarita 69. Subglobular, white, smooth, beaked at both ex¬
tremities, and umbilicated. Amboyna. Martini, t. 24.
f. 242.
70. Produced on each side, and smooth, white or
yellow. Amboyna. Ency. Meth. t. 356. f. 2.
71. White or gray, with obsolete ferruginous spots
and transverse bands ; lips of the mouth marked with
violet spots. Martini, i. t. 26. f. 263 and 264.
72. Narrow, brown, with reddish spots at the side.
Gualteri, t. 13. f. Q Q.
(tap
opea.
kus.
dagas-
■iens'is.
rtulata.
phylcea
ircula.
lulus.
ibriata.
mtata.
5*
ilia.
m.
peri alls,
lua.
sida,
’ostrit,
’ala
ilta.
"rucosa.
ibesg.
Gen. 22. Bulla, Dipper.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax *, the shell univalve,
convoluted, unarmed with teeth j aperture a little
straitened, oblong, longitudiaal, very entire at the
base ; pillar oblique, smooth.
Speciks.
1. Ovate, obtuse, slightly doubly beaked j one of
the lips toothed, from which it has the appearance of
a cyprasa ; 4 inches long. Amboyna and Friendly
islands. Lister, t. 711. f. 65.
2. Obtuse, beaked at both ends, and the outer lip
toothed ; inside of a pale pink colour. Otaheite.
3. Two beaked $ the beaks long, striated and acute.
Jamaica. A rare shell. Lister, t. 711. f. 63.
4. Ovate-oblong, slightly beaked, of an orange-colour,
and the outer lip toothed 5 pillar with one plait. Leg¬
horn. Petiver, t. 66. f. 2 and 3.
5. Two-beaked, margin thickened outwardly ; beaks
long, smooth j size of a bean. Rare. Java. Petiver,
t. 66. f. 2. and 3.
6. Subcylindrical, acuminated at both ends; outer
lip very slightly thickened at the margin. America.
Lister, t. 711. f. 66.
7. Oblong, rather obtuse at both ends ; equal ; lip
arched •, margin thickened within 5 twice the size of
a grain of wheat. Mediterranean and Adriatic. Lis¬
ter, t. 712. f. 68.
8. Transversely angular, ovate, with a bony dot on
each side. India. Lister, t. 712. f. 67.
9. Angular, with an elevated central belt. Brazil.
Lister, t. 711. f. 64.
Vol. VI. Part II. f
O L O G Y. 433
10. Rounded, pellucid, slightly striated transverse-
ly ; perforated at each end j an inch long. African
and Indian seas. Lister, t. 714. f. 73.
11. Subovate, equable j pale grey, undulated withferrugi~
brown, and marked with ferruginous spots, and two nose,
white bands. Martini, i. t. 22. f. 209. and 210.
* 12. Roundish, pellucid, transversely substriated }
outside a little wrinkled ; glossy ; one inch long. Eu¬
rope, Africa, Devonshire. Don. t. 120.
* 13. Rounded, pellucid, slightly striated longitudinal-
ly ; crown umbilicated ; size of a pea. Mediterranean,
Devonshire. Don. t. 88.
14. Rounded, obtuse at one end j crown umbilical-om/w/Zu.
ed. Frequent on most shores. Amboyna. Lister, t.
7I3* f- 69-
15. Oval-oblong, opake ; dotted in waves j apex amygdalijs
umbilicated ; outer lip contracted in the middle. W.
Indies. Lister, t. 7x4. f. 72.
* 16. Oblong, oval, transversely striated ; crown n-Ar-lignarm.
row, and slightly umbilicated j 3 inches long. Euro¬
pean shores, Britain. Lister, t. 714. f. 72.
17. Rounded, glabrous, pellucid, marked with trAns-physis.
verse lines ; spire retuse. India. Ency. Meth. t. 359.
L 4‘
* 18. Thick, white, opaque; aperture compressed in
the middle ; minute. Reculver, England. Walker,
f. 62.
19. Obovate, with a clavated crown, indistinct spire,
and elongated beak ; surface marked with reticulated
striae ; 3 inches long. American and Indian oceans.
Lister, t. 750. f. 46.
20. Rounded, turbinated, slightly striated, with & rapa.
curvated beak, and finely wrought spire ; from 2 to 3
inches long. Indian ocean. Martini, iii. t. 68. f. 747.
to 749. [7a/a.
21. Cylindrical ; whirls of the spire grooved. canalicu-
22. Oblong, turbinated, smooth; base a little sixi-conoidea.
ated ; sutures crenulated ; size of an acorn.
* 23. Ovate, pellucid; spire obsolete; whirls con-fontinalis.
trary, or turning from right to left ; aperture ovate,
oblong; f inch long. Shores of the Danube; lakes
and rivers of Europe ; Britain. Linn. Tr. viii. t. 4.
f. 1.
24. Oval, pellucid, with the whirls reversed ; spire rivalis.
prominent, acute ; aperture ovate-oblong. W. Indies.
Linn. Tr. viii. t. 46. f. 2.
* 25. Ovate, pellucid; spire contrary, prominent \ hypnorinn
aperture ovate, lanceolate. Europe, Britain. Linn.
Tr. viii. t. 4. f. 3.—Linnaeus supposes that this species
may be a variety of the last ; but according to Mr
Montagu, the form of the shell, the structure of the
animal, and its habitat, are always distinct. Linnaeus
says, that this species is found among wet moss. Mr
Montagu found it only in ditches, and in a place occa¬
sionally overflowed by the river Avon.
26. Brittle, with a depressed contrary spire ; a per- gelatinosa.
ture ending in a beak ; 2\ lines long. Rivers of Den¬
mark.
27. Sides cylindrical, with a subulate spire, trun- terelelltim
cated at the base ; 2 inches long. Indian ocean. Lis¬
ter, t. 736. f. 30. and 31.
28. Ovate ; spire indistinct, prominent at the lopcypraa.
aperture more dilated behind ; pillar twisted ; size of
an acorn. Mediterranean. Martini, ii. t. 61. f. 731.
3 I 29. With.
434
virginea. 29. With party-coloured double bands, and purple
truncated pillar j aperture semilunar. Rivers ot Asia.
Lister, t. 15. f. 10.
ventricosa 30. Ovate-ventricose, and of a yellowish orange-co¬
lour ; aperture effuse, with a white, smooth, oblique
enlargement on the pillar. Lister, t. 74^* 4°*
fasciata. 31. Conic, pointed with transverse bands and undu¬
lated spots •, aperture white. South America, India.
Lister, t. 12. f. 7.
strigata. 32. Conic, pointed, glabrous, with undulated fulvous
streaks; 2 inches long ; 8 whirls in the spire.
striatula. 33. Conic, white, striated ; pillar straight and re¬
flected.
exarata. 34. Oblong, pointed, white, grooved ; spire with 6
or 7 whirls. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 120. f. 1031. and 1032.
•zebra. 33. Ovate, pointed, with longitudinal brown bands;
pillar inflected, entire. Tranquebar. A land species.
Lister, t. 11. f. 6.
achatina. 36. Ovate, pointed, with a wide crimson mouth and
lip ; pillar truncated ; 8 inches long. American ocean.
Lister, t. 579. f. 34.
pectinata, 37. Ovate, rough, with the aperture pectinated at
its base ; apex truncated. Denmark. Muller, ii. t.
71. f. 10. to 12.
soluta. 38. Subcylindrical, transversely striated, with the
outer whirl detached ; apex truncated and channelled.
Ceylon. Chem. x. t. 146. f. 1359. to 1361.
nitiduki* 39. Oval, white, with straight, transverse, and waved
longitudinal red lines; spire convex. W. Indies. Lis¬
ter, t. 715. f. 74.
amplustre. 40. Roundish ; spire elevated, obtuse, with flesh-co¬
loured bands ; shell white. Asia. Ency. Meth. t.
, 359-f-2*.
velum. 41. Thin, umbilicated on each side ; white, with ca¬
pillary brown lines, and a snowy band, edged with brown
on each side ; 1 inch long. Tranquebar. Chem. x.
t. 146. f. 1348.
prjrum. 42. Pear-shaped, thick, and faintly striated trans¬
versely ; beak produced ; aperture spreading. Lister,
t. 877. f. 1.
crassula. 43. Ovate, ventricose, rather thick ; whirls revers¬
ed ; spire prominent. Virginia. Lister, t. 135. f. 35.
ampla. 44. Elongated, semicylindrical, white ; spire very
small ; aperture effuse, with a striated oblique enlarge¬
ment on the pillar. Martini, ii. t. 65. f. 722.
tvuncata. 43. Oblong, turreted, white, striated longitudinally ;
sutures crenulated ; pillar truncated and inflected.
Chem. ix. t. 1 20, f. 1028. to 1030.
priamus. 46. Ovate, ventricose, with transverse rows of di¬
stant spots ; pillar sinuated ; outer lip acute. Guinea.
Chem. ix. t. 120. f. 1026. and 1027.
bicarinata 47. Ovate, obtuse, ventricose, with the whirls re¬
versed and bicarinated ; pillar truncated. Lister, t.
, . 37- f. 36. . .
etjhndnca. 48. Cylindrical, involuted, umbilicated at the apex,
and striated at the two extremities. E. Indies. Chem.
x. t. 146. f. 1336. and 1337.
cyhndra- * 49. Cylindrical, smooth, white, thin, slightly umbi-
Heated ; twice as large as a grain of wheat. Europe,
Britain.
i/mbiheata* 30. Oblong, oval, smooth, white, apex rounded, um¬
bilicated ; aperture very narrow ; inch long. Fal¬
mouth. Montagu, t. 7. f. 4.
retusa. * 31. Subcylindrical, opaque, white; upper part Ion-
CONCHOLOGY. Chap. I
gitudinally striated, lower plain ; apex truncated, and
largely umbilicated. Falmouth. Montagu, t. 7. f. 3.
* 32. Cylindrical, involuted, with the spire somewhateblum
prominent. Britain. Montagu, t. 7. f. 3.
33. Smooth, cylindrical, olive ; aperture effuse ; pil- valuta,
lar inflated, truncated; 7 whirls in the spire. Chem.
xi. t. 117. f. 1009.
34. Subcylindrical, spiral, reddish, with longitudinal domim
strias, and spotted ; sutures crenulated ; pillars sinuat- chetisi;
ed and truncated. St Domingo. Chem. ix. t. 117.
f. ion.
33. Ventricose, rugged, and longitudinally streak-^arjaw;
ed ; aperture ovate, with a pointed lip, and deep black
border within. Africa, in rice fields. Lister, t. 381.
f. 35-
36. Ovate, rough, slightly carinated on the back, sovi/'c
and marked with decussated strice ; white with rosy
lines; pillar scalloped, reflected. Java. Chem. x. t.
j46. f. 332. and 333.
* 37. Ovate, pellucid, with a truncated channelled r/fom
crown ; 6 lines long. Norway seas, Banff in Scotland,
and near Portsmouth. Don. t. 79.
38. Ovate, flesh-coloured, gibbous ; lip arched, came a
thickened and toothed within. Shores of Africa. Encv.
Meth. t. 337. f. 2.
* 39. Smooth, glossy, white, pellucid, oblong, involut-7?ata/ff,
ed ; aperture large, terminating in a short canal, most
contracted at the top; length 1 inch. Weymouth.
Don. t. 142.
* 60. Suboval, thin, pellucid, white, resembling a ha-halioto,
liotis ; a little wrinkled ; aperture oval ; length ^ inch.r/ea.
Weymouth. Montagu, t. 7. f. 6.
* 61. Ovate, oblong, depressed, pellucid, thin ; strong-
ly wrinkled concentrically; length f inch. Milton
sands, Devonshire. Montagu, t. 13. f. 9.
* 62. Pellucid, white, finely striated transversely ;ca/m?=
the striae, magnified, have the appearance of the links
of a chain ; one-tenth inch diameter. Devonshire.
Montagu, t. 7. f. 7.
Voluta.
Gen. 23. Voluta, Volute.
Gen. C/iar.'—The animal a limax; the shell is one-cel-
led, spiral; aperture without a beak, and sometimes
effuse ; pillar twisted or plaited, generally without
lips or perforation.
Species.
* I/xt/i the aperture entire.
1. Contracted, oval, oblong, with a rugged spire ;
pillar 2-toothed ; 4 inches long. India. In marshy
woods and swamps. Lister, t. 1038. f. 6.
2. Contracted, oblong ; spires smooth ; pillar auris-
toothed. Fens of India. Lister, t. 32. f. 10. jud<e.
3. Ovate-oblong, longitudinally wrinkled; aperture
ear-shaped, contracted ; pillar with one tooth. N.
Holland. Chem. x. t. 149. f. 1393.
4. Fusiform, granulate, with an ovate aperture; pil-flwm*
lar cut, spreading; 3 inches long. New Caledonia.
Chem. ix. t. 121. f. 1037.
3. Ovate, banded transversely round the sutures fascial
aperture ear-shaped ; pillar with one tooth. Austral¬
asia. Chem. xi. t. 121. f. 1041.
6. Oval-
Chap. IV. ^ CONCH
itiris-vir- 6. Oval-oblong, rose-coloured, with a white hand at
rjiiis, the suture ; aperture ear-shaped ; pillar toothless. E.
Indies. Lister, t. 24. f. 22.
iiiris-vul- 7. Oval, with the whirls crenated and flattened at
niu?< top ; aperture ear-shaped ; pillar without teeth. St
Helena. Chem. xi. t. 210. f. 2086 and 2087.
juris-catu 8. Oval, with the whirls longitudinally plaited ; aper¬
ture contracted, with 3 folds on the pillar, and the lip
reflected. Chem. xi. t. 177. f. 1711 and 1712.
Hammed. 9. Oval, ohlong, with a wide aperture ; pillar 1-
toothed. Lister, t. 814. f. 24.
Hava. io* Contracted on the upper part j yellow', with a
crenulated lip ; pillar with two plaits j lines long.
E. Indies. Martini, ii. t. 43. f. 444.
minuta. xr. Oval, oblong, banded; outer lip crenulated;
pillar with three plaits. Barbadoes. Lister, t. 834.
f. 60.
msilla. 12. Thin, brown; whirls of the spire cancellated ;
pillar 3-toothed ; very minute. Martini, ii. t. 43. f.
446.
vlabra. 13. Oval, oblong, glabrous, with a reflected grooved
lip; pillar i-toothed. Martini, ii. t. 43. f. 447 and
448-
miris-si- 14. Oval, gibbous, umbilicated ; pillar with one thick,
lent. flexuous plait ; 2 inches long. Chem. xi. t. 176. f.
1701 and 1702.
tornatilis. * 15. Oval, pointed at each end, and spirally striated ;
pillar with a single fold ; ^ inch long. Europe, Wales.
Don. t. 57. f.
Senlieula- * 16. Ovate, glabrous; spire elevated, acute ; outer lip
ta, denticulated ; pillar toothed. Britain. Montagu, t.
20. f. 5.
triplicata. 17. Ovate, smooth, with the spire elevated; aper¬
ture narrow, contracted ; pillar with 3 teeth. W. In¬
dies. Don. t. 138.
pusilla. 18. Ovate, striated, with the spire elevated ; pillar
with 3 teeth. Martini, ii. t. 43. f. 446.
hdentata. * 19. Ovate, slightly wrinkled longitudinally ; spire
elevated, conical; pillar with 2 teeth. Scotland. Mon¬
tagu, t. 30. f. 2.
alba. * 20. White, opaque, longitudinally striated. Very
minute. Sandwich. Walker, f. 61.
pellucida. * 21. Conical, minute ; body striated transversely at
its base, and longitudinally ribbed above. Salcomb bay,
Devonshire. Montagu, t. 12. f. 9.
mden* *22. Conical, smooth, with 5 or 6 rather depressed
tata. whirls ; pillar with a single tooth. Devonshire.
viler- * 23. Turreted, minute, with 5 flattish whirls, longi-
'hncta. tudinally ribbed ; pillar with a small tooth. Devon-
. shire. Montagu, t. 12. f. 10.
asculpta. * 24. Subconical, minute, with 5 or 6 transversely
striated whirls; pillar with a small tooth. Devon¬
shire.
1 uatula. * 25. Acuminated, minute, smooth, with 6 flattish
whirls; pillar with a tooth-like fold. Devonshire.
Montagu, t. 21. f. 2.
,nibigua. * 26. Acuminated, minute, smooth, with 6 or 7 flat¬
tish whirls; aperture suhorbicular; pillar slightly fold-
ed. Devonshire. Montagu, t. 21. f. 4.
J taula. 27. Contracted, oblong, ovate, opaque, striated ;
spire elevated and a little pointed ; pillar slightly plait¬
ed. Southern ocean. Martini, ii. t. 43. f. 440 and
44x.
I'Jida, 28. Contracted, ovate, cylindrical ; spire a little
O L O G Y. 435
elevated, obtuse; pillar with 5 plaits ; x inch long.
Africa. Gualteri, t. 25. f. 13.
** Subcylindrical, and emarginated.
29. Smooth ; spire obliterated at the base ; lip vq-porp/tyrea
tuse in the middle ; pillar obliquely striated ; 5 inches
long. Brazil and W. Indies. Martini, ii. t. 46. f.
485 and 486.
30. Cylindrical; spire small, conical, with a pro-erythro-
jecting appendage over the upper angle of the aperture ; stoma.
throat orange-coloured. Martini, ii. t. 45. f. 476 and
477-
31. Smooth; spire short, depressed, reflected at the o/zt’er.
base; pillar obliquely striated. Indian seas. Lister,
t. 728. f. 15. There are 20 varieties of this species,
distinctly made out ; but the variety in the markings
is almost endless. Lamarck has formed distinct species
of almost all the above varieties.
32. Subovate, slightly gibbous ; spire elevated, wit her weft fa.
a wide and deep suture; bulb simple. Amboyna.
Lister, t. 720. f. 4 and 5.
33. Smooth, white, with a keel shaped ring on the annulata.
hack; sometimes with reddish waves. Amboyna.
Lister, t. 717. f. 1.
34. Suboval; spire depressed, with the whirls con-
vex ; pillar transversely ridged, with the upper ridge
thickest. Mindanao and Molucca islands. Lister, t.
735- f. 25- .
35. Ovate, gibbous; spire rather depressed, withxwcnwsofa
the whirls thickened at the base; outer lip somewhat
angular, and very thick. Moluccas. Martini, ii. t.
47. f. 499 and 500.
36. Somewhat cone-shaped ; spire short and depres-pinguis.
sed, with a vitreous mass concealing the whirls, and
forming a callosity over the pillar lip ; belt double.
Brazil. Chem. x. t. 147. f. 1367. and 1368.
37. Ovate, gibbous; spire elevated, with a \\\.rcomgibbosa.
mass extending over the base of the whirls, and form¬
ing a callosity over the pillar lip ; belt double. Coro¬
mandel. Lister, t. 723. f. 10.
38. Cylindrical, with a prominent conic spire; andispidula.
the base of each whirl coated with enamel; belt double.
Isle of France. Lister, t. 722. f. 9.
39. Elongated, smooth, with a prominent spire. In- utriculus.
dian and Ethiopic seas.
40. Thin, with a cinereous spotted back, callous hz-hiatirfa.
neath; aperture large ; pillar toothed at the base.
Shores of Spain. Lister, t. 729. f. 17.
41. White, dotted with greenish brown, or violet
spire prominent ; whirls with a band composed of spots
at the base ; an inch long. Shores of Spain. Lister,
t. 725. f. 13. '
42. Snowy, elongated, smooth, banded. Spanish wzm/.
seas. W. Indies. Martini, t. 50. f. 557. and 558.
43. Subcylindrical; spire short, depressed, covered tigrina.
with enamel; throat dark violet. Eastern ocean.
Lister, t. 721. f. 6. ,
44. Orange with blue bands; spire flattened; aper-ccr?Wo/a.
ture white. Java and Isle of France. Martini, ii. t.
46. f. 495. > . .
45. Suboblong; spire short, covered with enamel; wztwzs.
pillar lip thickened ; belt double. Moluccas and Phi¬
lippines. Lister, t. 733. f. 22.
46. Subovate; spire conical, prominent; pillar lip niiidula,
3 I 2 thickened ;
A36
onjza.
dactijlus.
fenestrata.
crenufata.
texturata.
tniKaria.
monilts.
cxilis.
persicula.
cingulata.
guttata.
porcellana
pallida.
catenata.
kevis.
faba.
chem-
nitzil.
glabella.
picva..
CONCHOLOGY.
Chap. IV
thickened ; belt double. Philippines. Martini, ii. t.
50. f. 545 to 547.
47. Ovate-conical, minute, white, without any spots j
and the spire conoidal. Martini, ii. t. 50. f. 54^*
*** Ovate, effuse, and emarginate.
48. Smooth, with decussated striae, obtuse j pillar
witli six plaits j \ inch long. India. Lister, t. 813.
f. 23.
49. Ovate, with strong decussated striae, of which
the longitudinal are more obtuse 5 pillar with 8 plaits.
Indian seas. Ency. Meth. t. 372* ^ 3‘
50. Subcylindrical, with decussated striae, and the
whirls nodulous and crenulated at the suture ; pillar
with 8 plaits. E. Indies. Lister, t. 8x3. f. 23. A.
51. Ovate-acute and granulated, with transverse
grooves and longitudinal striae 5 pillar with 4 plaits.
Lister, t. 819. f. 36.
52. Slightly emarginated, white, with an obliterated
pale yellow spire 5 pillar obliquely striated. Mediter¬
ranean. Martini, ii. t. 42. f. 428.
53. Entire white, with an obliterated white spire •,
pillar obliquely striated ; I-J inch long. China ; where
it is employed for making beads and necklaces. A
variety is found in Africa only 2-1 lines long, with 8 or
10 thin plaits in the pillar. China. Martini, ii. t.
42. f. 426.
54. Obovate, entire, yellowish, with two brown
bands; spire prominent; pillar obliquely striated. Se¬
negal. Martini, ii. t. 42. f. 427.
55. Smooth, with a retuse umbilicated spire ; pillar
with seven plaits ; lip with a crenated margin ; 1 inch
long. African sea. Lister, t. 803. f. 10.
56. Ovate, smooth, transversely striped, and the
spire retuse and umbilicated ; pillar with 6 plaits.
Cape Verde. Lister, t. 803. f. 9.
57. Ovate-oblong, reddish, spotted with white;
spire concealed ; pillar with 4 plaits. Jamaica. Mar¬
tini, ii. t. 42. f. 417 and 418.
58. Oval, white, with transverse rows of dark spots ;
spire obtuse, under lip gibbous and toothed ; pillar
with 5 plaits. Indian ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 337.
f.5.
59. Shell entire, oblong-ovate, with an elevated
spire ; pillar with four plaits. African and European
shores. Lister, t. 714. f. 70.
* 60. Ovate, glabrous, involuted at the apex ; pillar
with 4 plaits. Guernsey and W. of England. Mon¬
tagu, t. 6. f. 2.
* 61. Ovate, very smooth, with an obtuse spire; pillar
with two plaits ; outer lip gibbous, and slightly denti¬
culated. Devonshire. Don. t. 165.
62. Slightly emarginated, smooth, a little plaited ;
Spire prominent ; pillar with four plaits ; lip with a
crenulated margin ; one inch long. African ocean.
Lister, t. 812. f. 22.
63. Ovate, smooth, with the spire nodulous ; pillar
4-plaited; outer lip with a thickened toothed margin.
Guinea. Chem. x. t. 150. f. 1422.
64. Very entire, smooth, with a levigated spire ;
pillar with four plaits ; lip gibbous; margin toothed ;
from one to two inches long. African and American
seas. Lister, t. 818. f. 29.
6$. Ovate, smooth, body transversely angular; spire
conical ; pillar 4-plaited ; outer lip margined. Brazil.
Ency. Meth. t. 377. f. 2.
66. Ovate, shining, slightly striated longitudinally ;cai<a«fa
pillar 4 plaited ; outer lip thickened, and toothed with¬
in. Brazil. Martini, ii. t. 42. f. 43°*
67. Ovate, smooth, obtuse; pillar five-plaited ; oat-str'gata,
er' lip marginated ; thickened and toothed within.
Guinea. Ency. Meth. t. 377- ^ 7*
68. Very entire, smooth, with a levigated ffire',prumm,
pillar with four plaits ; lip without tooth, or margin ;
14- inch long. Island of Goree. Lister, t. 817. f.
28.
69. With slight decussated grooves ; lip internallyre/iWat
striated ; pillars slightly perforated ; two inches long.
American ocean and Guinea. Lister, t. 830. f. 22.
70. Ovate, rugose; plaited longitudinally; grooveda/eragf
transversely at the base ; sutures channelled and cre¬
nated ; pillar 4-plaked ; outer lip denticulated. Ency.
Meth. t. 375. f. 9.
71. Striated, with an obtuse spire; pillar retuse,tfzmufo.
toothed ; lip gibbous, denticulated ; ^ inch long. Me-no.
diterranean, American, and Indian seas. Lister, t.
824. f. 43.
72. Smooth, with a prominent spire; pillar retuse,n/ffrcfl.
toothed ; lip gibbous, denticulated. Mediterranean
and American seas. Lister, t. 824. f. 44.
73. Oval, oblong, smooth, obsoletely striated attbete/m
base; spire elevated ; subventricose ; pillar retuse,
slightly toothed; outer lip gibbous and denticulated.
Barbadoes. Lister, t. 826. f. 48 and 49.
74. Entire, smooth, with a striated base ; spire a pauper*
little prominent; pillar with four plaits; lip obtuse.c«/c.
Mediterranean and Indian seas. Lister, t, 819. f.
35-
75. Ovate, transversely striated throughout; spireyuca.
prominent ; pillar five-plaited. Saint Bartholomew.
Ency. Meth. t. 372. f. 7.
76. Suboval, ventricose, transversely ribbed ; pillaryern/gai
4-plaited. Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1398. and 1399.
77. Ovate, solid, transversely striated, and u,nga-patrian
lated, with longitudinal plaits, forming nodules onalis.
the margins of the whirls ; base granulated ; pillar 4
plaited. East Indies. Chem. x. t. 150. f. 1425. and
1426.
78. Ovate, solid, transversely grooved; groovesmurica*
granulated; spire short, angulated, and coronated; tula.
pillar with 4 plaits. Indian ocean. Chem. x. t. 150.
f- 1427, ....
79. Slightly striated, with a slightly granulated
spire; pillar smooth; lip gibbous and denticulated ; no.
size of a kidney bean. Mediterranean and Indian
seas. Lister, t. 826. f. 47.
80. Ovate, ribbed longitudinally, and at the basenaud.
transversely grooved ; pillar three-plaited ; outer lip
denticulated. Mediterranean. Martini, ii. t. 44. f.
459-
81. Ovate, obtusely ribbed longitudinally; trans-wijc/’fl®
versely wrinkled at the base ; pillar 3-plaited. Eastfl/oi’.
Indies. Ency. Meth. t. 374. f. 8.
82. Entire, plaited, reticulated; pillar with threecancelh*'
plaits, slightly umbilicated, and a little produced.
African ocean. Lister, 830. f. 33. and 34.
83. Entire, ovate, transversely striated and sharply wawfl*
ridged longitudinally, with the whirls flattened at the
sutures ;
( af. IV. . CONCH
sutures j pillar umbilicated and three plaited. Guinea.
Martini, iv. t. 124. f. 1172. and 1173.
i ms* 84. Smooth, white, with blue bands and yellow
mouth; spire nearly obliterated; pillar six-toothed;
scarcely one inch long. Martini, ii. t. 42. f. 424. and
425*
l ata. 85. Smooth, greenish white, with numerous bands;
lip inflected; pillar with four plaits; 2^ inches long.
Indian ocean. Lister, t. 803. f. II.
) ’•gwatn 86. Spire obsolete ; sides with thickened margins ;
four plaits in the pillar. Guinea. Ency. Meth. t. 376.
f-9-
j ea. 87. Suhstriated, glabrous ; spire obtuse, smooth,
prominent; five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
Gronovius, t. 18. f. II.
, us, 88. Conic, white, with hollow punctured grooves
at the base ; whirls crenated ; six plaits in the pillar.
Lister, t. 814. f. 23. b.
**** Fusiform.
nga, 89. Nearly entire, oblong, smooth, with a prominent
excoriated spire; three plaits in the pillar ; lip slight¬
ly toothed inwardly. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 825.
*• 45- . .
•nicula. 90. Oblong, slightly emarginated, smooth, and horn-
coloured ; spire rather long ; pillar four-plaited ; outer
lip equal and toothless. Mediterranean. Chem. xi. t.
179. f. 1731. and 1732.
iroeteri. 91. Oblong, fusiform, nearly entire, smooth, of a
horn-colour, clouded with white and yellowish brown
spots ; pillar four plaited. Guinea. Ency. Meth. t.
371* f* 2* . . . , .
'•go. 92. Entire, tapering, plaited, and transversely stri¬
ated ; three plaits in the pillar, which is perforated.
About a finger’s length, and marked with about twelve
grooves. Haynam.
surata. 93. Fusiform, emarginate, very smooth, of a pale
colour, irregularly reticulated with white lines ; pillar
four-plaited. Ency. Meth. t. 377* f* !•
ibricula 94. Emarginated, striated, and transversely wrink¬
led ; four plaits in the pillar, which is perforated ; lip
notched; two inches long. India. Ency. Meth. t. 371.
f. 5.
fim. 95. Nearly entire, transversely wrinkled ; four plaits
in the pillar ; lip crenulated. India. Lister, t. 822.
f. 40.
ibila, 96. Nearly entire, smooth, yellowish with red clouds
transversely striated ; lip crenulated ; tour plaits in the
pillar. Friendly islands. Chem. xi. t. 177. f. 1705.
and 1706.
97. Emarginated, longitudinally grooved and trans-
jtf. versely striated ; lips smooth ; four plaits in the pillar;
l£ inch long. Mediterranean and Indian seas. Lis¬
ter, t. 821. f. 38.
T™. 98. Emarginated, round, smooth; whirls of the
spire with plaited striae ; four plaits in the pillar; 21-
inches long. Asiatic sea. Ency. Meth. t. 373. f. 4.
ri°. 99. Slightly, emarginated, round, smooth ; about
three plaits in the pillar-* W. Indies.
ls' 100. Tapering, marked with transverse rays of red
dots ; spire pointed^ smooth: scarcely an inch long.
Martini, iv. t. 157. f. 1493. and 1494.
^ccula, 101. Emarginated, subangular, unarmed, and trans¬
versely striated; four plaits in the pillar. > throat stri-
O L O G Y. 437
ated ; two inches long. India. Amboyna. Ency.
Meth. t. 373. f. 5. _ . .
102. Turreted, emarginate, longitudinally ribbed,costcllaris,
and striated transversely; whirls angulated above;
pillar lour-plaited. East Indies. Ency. Meth. t. 373.
J‘ 3* .
103. Fusiform, with small longitudinal ribs andmelongcnci
transverse stria:, which are strongest under the sutures ;
pillar four-plaited. Indian ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 373.
*’• 3- . . . . '
104. Turreted, elongated, longitudinally plaited,
ribbed and angular, and transversely grooved ; pillar
four-plaited. Bombay. Ency. Meth. t. 373. f. 7.
105. Emarginated, angular, anterior angles a littlepheariu.
spinous ; four plaits in the pillar ; lip smooth ; 2 inches
long. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 820. f. 37.
106. Turreted, emarginate, angular, with longitudi-c/w/itata.
nal knotty ribs ; and transversely striated ; pillar three-
plaited. East Indies. Chem. x. t. 157. f. 1438. and
l^9-
107. Tapering, black with white spots, transversely scutuluta.
striated, first whirl a little ventricose ; four plaits in the
pillar. Indian ocean. Chem. x. t. 151. f. 1428. and
i429-
108. Tapering, emarginated, blackish; whirls flat-
tish; four plaits in the pillar. Guinea, Greenland.
Chem. x. t. 151. f. 1430. and 1431.
109. Tapering, emarginated, longitudinally ribbed, subdivisa.
plaited, and transversely striated ; three plaits in the
pillar. Indian ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 373. f. I.
110. Turreted, with the whirls transversely angular; fMmcw/a..
outer lip thick, pillar two-plaited. Martini, iv. t. 149.
f' lV6' , . . .
in. 1 usiform, elongated,subemarginate, and trans-oc’f'fl^.y.
versely striated ; outer lip rather thick ; pillar four-
plaited. East Indies. Chem. xi. t. 177. f. 17C9. and
1710.
112. Subfusiform, with transverse punctured strife,
and longitudinal undulated chesnut stripes ;. pillar five-
plaited. Indian ocean. Ency. Meth. t. 370. f. 4.
113. Ovate, fusiform, nearly smooth, with obsoleteoiivaria.
transverse strife; pillar five-plaited. Ency. Meth. t.
. . .
114. Oblong, fusiform, emarginate, with transverse
crenulated grooves, and the margin of the whirls tooth¬
ed ; outer lip denticulated; pillar above five-plaited.
East Indies. Ency. Meth. t. 370. f. 5.
115. Tapering, emarginated, granulous, with &e-exaspcrata
cussated strife and longitudinal ribs barred with brown ;
five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean. Chem. x. t.
151. f. 1440. and 1441.
116. Tapering, emarginated, transversely striatedjg/wzcwz.
and longitudinally grooved, with elevated dots and
reddish lines ; three plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
E. Indies. Chem. x. t. 151. f. 1442. and 1443.
117. Tapering, smooth, brown with white bands
six plaits in the pillar, which is emarginated at the
base. Shores of Amboyna. Chem. x. vig. 20. f. C.
and D.
118. Tapering, chesnut, with flexuous white bands \leuccgoni~-
pillar obsoletely plaited : two inches long. Martini, as.
iv. t. 148. f. 1371. and 1372.
119. Tapering, white with reticulated and spotted wacw/coff.
brown bands: one inch long. Martini, iv.t. 149.!. 1377.
119. Tapering,
4.^
mdulosa.
spadicea.
attraniia.
decussata.
polygona.
acuminata
biplicata.
lineala.
discors.
striata.
sulcata.
l&vigata.
ocellata.
nasata.
marmorea
barbaden-
sis.
turrits.
rvgosa.
strigasa.
dathrus.
leucostoma
CONCHOLOGY. Chap. V
ISO. Tapering, brown, cancellated; angles of the
section nodulous, and whitish : four plaits in the pil¬
lar. West Indies. Martini, iv. t. 149. f. 13^5’
121. Tapering, chesnut with yellow clouds and spots ;
eight whirls in the spire, which are longitudinally plait¬
ed and transversely striated ; live plaits in the pillar.
Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1392.
122. Tapering, orange; a white band in the four
first whirls of the spire ; lip denticulated ; four plaits
in the pillar. Ency. Meth. t. 375. f* 5.
123. Tapering, with decussated striae ; the longitu¬
dinal ones undulated ; about four plaits in the pillar.
Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1395*
124. Tapering, punctured, whirls longitudinally
ribbed, and finely striated transversely ; three first an¬
gular, about five plaits in a slightly umbilicated pillar.
East Indies. Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1401. and 1402.
125. Tapering, cancellated; beak short and cancel¬
lated ; four plaits in the pillar. Tranquebar. Mar¬
tini, iv. t. 150. f. 1403. and 1404.
126. Tapering, smooth, white with yellow spots and
black dots ; pillar doubly plaited. Martini, iv. 1.149.
f' I375-
127. Tapering, with perpendicular black lines cross¬
ing a white band ; 3 plaits in the pillar. Martini, iv.
t. 149. f. 1376.
128. Tapering, beneath brown dotted with white ;
above white, with perpendicular waved yellow stripes ;
a minute shell. West Indies. Martini, iv. t. 1 CO. f.
1400.
129. Tapering, finely striated transversely ; dusky,
with red dots, and two paler bands ; minute. Minorca.
Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1405. and 1406.
130. Tapering and grooved longitudinally; brown,
with a transverse white nodulous band ; pillar five¬
toothed. Tranquebar. Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1407.
I31* Tapering, smooth, brown; spire with a paler
band ; narrow, small. Mediterranean. Martini, iv.
t. 150. f. 1408.
132. Tapering, chesnut, with white eyes ; minute.
W. Indies. Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1409.
I33- Tapering, red, with rows of black dots; lip
prominent; beak reflected. W. Indies. Martini, iv.
t. 150. f. 1411.
134. Tapering, varied with white and brown; lip
inflected. W. Indies. Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1411.
135" Tapering, reddish, finely striated transversely;
aperture oblong, oval ; spire obtuse ; inch long. A-
merican seas, Barbadoes. Lister, t. 819. f. 33.
136. Tapering, chesnut brown, with undulated brown
lines ; aperture striated ; 3 plaits in the pillar. Lis¬
ter, t. 836. f. 62.
/37- Tapering, a little ventricose ; longitudinally
wrinkled, and transversely striated ; whitish, with pi-
ceous lines. E. Indies. Ency. Meth. t. 373. f. 8.
138. Tapering, cinereous, striated with red; spire
glabrous ; whirls rather tumid.
139. Tapering, whitish, cancellated; whirls with a
band of yellow spots. China. Knorr. iii. t. 27. f. 2.
^140. Tapering; spire acute, with longitudinal ribs,
which reach half down the body ; transversely striated
transversely ; pillar with 8 plates : the whole shell co¬
vered with longitudinal undulated clouds of a brown co¬
lour ; outer lip crenulated. E. Indies. Verv rare.
Knorr. iv. t. ti. f. 3.
2
141. Tapering, transversely striated; yellow, with varicgc
a brown band and spots. Knorr. v. t. 18. f. 6.
142. Emarginated, tapering, marked with decussa-^/f/om.
ted strise, and red thread-like lines; pillar 3-plaited.
143. Tapering, white; spire with fine transverseccwfato,
striae, and rounded ribs ; first whirl with 3 brown
bands ; 4 plaits in the pillar. Schroeter, i. t. 1. f. 17.
144. Ovate, white ; spire spotted with brown ; six spuria,
brown bands in the first whirl; tail emarginated ; lip
impressed ; pillar 6-plaited.
145. Emarginated, striated, and marked with hoWovipertusa
punctures; lip denticulated ; 5 plaits in the pillar; 3
inches long. India. Lister, t. 858. f. 65.
146. Emarginated, smooth ; margin of the whirls
entire ; lip denticulated ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; 5 inches
long. India. Lister, t. 839. f. 66.—The animal of
this shell is said to be poisonous when it is eaten, and
has the power of inflicting a wound on those who touch
it, with a kind of pointed trunk. The natives of the
island Tanna employ the shell as a hatchet, fixing it in
a handle.
147. Emarginated, transversely striated ; margins^cpo/w.
of the whirls and lip denticulated ; pillar 4-plaited. In¬
dian ocean. Lister, t. 839. f. 67.
148. Emarginate, with transverse, hollow, punctured tran*.
strise ; whirls contracted below, and strongly toothed
at the margins; outer lip denticulated, and pillar 4-
plaited. Madagascar. Lister, t. 840. f. 68.
149. Ovate, fusiform; transversely striated andcoronatti
punctured, with the sutures nodulous ; pillar 5-plaited.
W. Indies. Ency. Meth. t. 371. f. 6.
150. Margined, with obtuse spines in the whirls
lip smooth and very thick ; pillar 8-plaited. American
ocean. The plaits in the pillar are from 9 to 12 in
some varieties. Lister, t. 806. f. 15.
151. Emarginate, with pointed nodules on the virexen\
whirls ; spire produced at the summit ; plaits on the
pillar numerous. Guinea. Ency. Meth. t. 382. f. 3.
152. Emarginate, longitudinally plaited and angu-plicate.
lar, and transversely grooved ; spire nodulous ; pillar
with 12 plaits. E. Indies. Chem. x. t. 149. f. 1403
and 4.
153. Emarginated, with acute spines on the whirls ; vespert\
lip smooth; pillar 4-plaited ; from 3 to 6 inches long.
Indian seas. Lister, t. 807. f. 16.
154. Emarginate; spire with curved spines; sum-impend
mit slightly mamillary ; pillar 4-plaited. Molucca and
Philippine islands. Ency. Meth. t. 382. f. 1.
155. Oblong, fusiform, emarginate ; spire much yvo-pacifica
duced, and transversely angulated and nodulous ; pillar
with 5 plaits. Otaheite and New' Zealand. Chem. xi.
t. 178. f. 1713 and 14.
156. Emarginated ; whirls with subacute spines; $ebrcz(i> ;
stronger and 3 obsolete plaits in the pillar ; 6 inches
long. India, Jamaica. Very rare. Lister, t. 809.
f. 18.
157. Nearly entire, turbinated, with conic some-turbine
what erect spines ; upper ones larger ; pillar 4-plaited ;/«•?•
3 inches long. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 8n. f.
20.
158. Ovate, rugged, knotty; 3 plaits in the pillar; capiteb l<
2| inches long. Indian and American seas. Chem.
xi. t. 179. f. 1723 and 4.
159. Ovate, triangular, rugged, knotty, transversely
grooved and umbilicated ; pillar 3-plaited ; lip toothed ;
throat
439
lap. IV.
CONCHOLOGY.
throat striated ; whirls muricated with knobs. Shores
of New Guinea. Chem. x. t. 150. f. 1407 and 8.
; ricata. 160. Ovate, with alternately smaller ribs ; base no¬
dulous j whirls spinous; pillar 5-plaited. Jamaica.
Lister-, t. 810. f. 19.
1 amica. 161. Ovate, acute, with divergent spires j about 5
plaits in the pillar ; spines on the outer whirls gradual¬
ly lessening into tubercles. Coromandel and Ceram.
Lister, t. 829. f". 51.
j unu 162. Obovate, slightly tailed, with striated whirls
on the spire j tip produced and quite glabrous ; pillar
3-plaited j 7 inches long. Tranquebar and Ceylon.
Lister, t. 815. f. 25.
ivis. 163. Ovate, somewhat beaked j striated, and slight¬
ly reticulated j spire rather depressed j whirls convex j
pillar 3-plaited. Molucca. Ency. Meth. t. 390. f. 1.
bosa. 164. Subglobular, emarginate, solid, longitudinally
plaited and grooved, with transverse strioe ; spire no¬
dulous j pillar 3-plaited. Chem. xi. t. 178. f. 17x5
and 16.
[mica. 165. Obovate, smooth, with a pointed spire, and
ventricose 5 pillar 5-plaited. Indian and American
seas. Ency. Meth. t. 381. f. 3.*
n'Ct. 166. Ovate, fusiform, emarginate, smooth, with the
spire somewhat papillary at the summit j pillar 5-plait¬
ed, with the uppermost plait obsolete. New Holland.
Rax-e. Leach. Zool. Misc. i. t. 12. f. 1.
„ means. 167. Pyriform, smooth, with yellowish clouds ; spire
varied with chesnut spots; 4 plaits in the pillar. E.
Indies. Martini, iii. t. 95. f. 922.
■ilium. 168. Ventricose, yellowish-white, with orange bands j
first whirl tuberculated and larger than the rest} pillar
6-plaited. Indian ocean. Very rare. Ency. Meth.
t. 381. f. 1.
lestris. 169. Elongated, ribbed } ribs crossed with fine trans¬
verse lines; lip margined ; spire papillary at the tip;
many plaits in the pillar; 4 inches long. Japan. Mar¬
tini, t. 98. f. 941. and 2.
lulata. 170. Ovate, fusiform, emarginate, scored at the
base ; spire short, and conical ; pillar 4-plaited. Au¬
stralasia and Van Diemen’s Land. Shaw’s Nat. Misc.
xvii. t. 702.
t>a.
j mia.
> Jia.1
s iha,
i olis.
» e/la.
n ,
1.
171. Cylindrical, whitish, glabrous; spire project¬
ing, obtuse, emarginated at the base ; pillar 4-plaited ;
2 inches long. Shores of Guinea. Chem. x. t. 148. f.
1389 and 90.
172. Ovate, smooth, transversely striated at the
base; spire striated longitudinally, and the summit
papillary; pillar with 7 plaits. Pacific ocean. Shaw’s
Nat. Misc. xix. t. 815.
173. Ovate, smooth; whirls transversely angular,
and subpapillary at the summit; outer lip sharply an-
gulated above ; pillar 4-plaited.
174. Coarse, clouded, with zig-zag brown lines; lip
subulate ; pillar bluish, with 4 plaits. Cape of Good
Hope. Very rare. Lister, t. 709. f. 6.
175. Longitudinally ribbed, and finely striated
transversely ; a row of acute tubercles on the two first
whirls; 3 plaits on the pillar. Indian seas. Rumphius,
t. 29. f. X.
176. Ventiicose, ochraceous, with white and brown
lines ; lip subulate ; whirls of the spire convex; first
largest; 2 inches long. Straits of Magellan. Ency.
Meth. t. 385. f. I and 3.
177. Finely reticulated and striated, with elevated
transverse belts; lip crenated ; 4 plaits in the pillar,
which is a little umbilicated. E. Indies. Gualteri,
t. 53. f. H.
178. Ovate, emarginate, subventricose, glabrous; magnijica.
whirls transversely angulated ; summit papillary ; aper¬
ture effuse ; pillar 4-plaited. New' Zealand. Chem.
xi. t. 174. f.
***** Ventricose, and the summit of the spire ‘pa¬
pillary.
179. Subglobular, with a transverse row of nodulouscolocyntfiis
plaits on the body whirl ; spire short ; elevated pillar
2-plaited. Chem. xi. t. 176. f. 1695 and 6.
180. Emarginated; spire crowned with vaulted cetkiopica.
spines ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; 7 or 8 inches long.
Persia, Asia, and the Cape of Good Hope. Lister, t.
797-
181. Ovate, emarginate, with longitudinal striae, ro/’OHtf.
ending on spines on the upper margin of the body ;
pillar 4-plaited. E. Indies. Chem. x. t. 148. f. 1387
and 8.
182. Emarginated ; whirls of the spire with grooved cymhium.
margins ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; lip callous. Spain,
Africa, and America. Lister, t. 796. f. 3.
183. Ovate, glabrous ; whitish, with longitudinal
red lines ; whirls knotty ; 3 plaits in the pillar; 2
inches long. Indian ocean. Chem. x. t. 148. f. 1385.
184. Somewhat cylindrical, whitish, with the spire/?ora7*ff.
truncated, rather concave, and its margin keeled ; pil¬
lar 3-plaited. Philippine islands. Ency. Meth. t. 386.
f. 2.
185. Emarginated ; spire smooth ; pillar 3-plaited \ olla.
4 inches long. Spain, America, Philippine isles. Lis¬
ter, t. 794. f. 1.
186. Emarginated; covered with a brown cut\c\e%neptuni.
under which it is reddish ; lip a little prominent; 4
plaits in the pillar ; 4 whirls in the spire ; 8 inches
long ; nearly as broad. Persian gulf. Lister, t. 802.
f. 8.
187. Emarginated ; lip a little prominent; pillar 4-navicula.
plaited ; 2 inches long. Guinea. Lister, t. 795. f. 2.
188. Elongated, yellow, with 3 bands of brown dots; indica.
4 plaits in the pillar. India. Ency. Meth. t. 389.
f. 1.
189. Subovate, testaceous, with reddish bay spots,
emarginated at the base; 4 plaits in the pillar. Coro-zw*.
mandel coast. Lister, t. 798. f. 5.
190. Cylindrical, yellowish, emarginated ; apertureg7c/?$.
effuse, spreading; 3 plaits in the pillar. Eastern
shores of Africa. Chem. x. t. 148. f. 1393 and 94.
^ 52
Gen. 24. Buccinum, Whelk. Buccmnm.
Gen. Char.—Shell univalve, spiral, gibbous ; aperture
ovate, terminating in a short canal which bends to
the right, with a retuse beak ; pillar-lip flattened.
Species.
* Inflated, rounded, thin, slightly transparent
and brittle.
1. Roundish, transversely ribbed, with an elevated o/eanttm
line in the interstices ; aperture without teeth; 6 inches
long. Indian ocean. Rumphius, t. 27. f. D.
2. Ovate, transversely ribbed ; ribs convex, and \st-galea,
coming
44°
perdi$.
pommn.
sulcosum.
dolium.
chincnse.
CONCHOLOGY.
eau datum
comins; double near tlie edge ; aperture toothless j 10
inches long. Mediterranean. Luster, t. 898. f. 18.
3. Ovate, inflated, slightly grooved and undulated
with white ; aperture toothless ; 6 inches long. West
Indies. Lister, t. 984. f. 43.
4. Ovate, with transverse convex ribs j pillar
wrinkled ; outer lip toothed and thickened ; 2f inches
long. Amboyna, &c. Lister, t. 792- ^ 45*
5. Ovate, with transverse flat ribs j pillar-lip
smooth; outer lip toothed and thickened; 4 inches
long. China. Martini, iii. t. 118. f. 1081.
6. Ovate, inflated, with remote semi-cylindrical ribs;
beak prominent; 4 inches long. Mediterranean. Lis¬
ter, t. 899. f. 19.
7. Globose, inflated, ribbed and striated transverse¬
ly ; aperture spreading ; outer-lip crenated ; 7 inches
long. Java and China. Chem. xi. t. 188. f. 1804.
and 1805.
. 8. Ovate, with transverse rounded ribs, beak some¬
what prominent; outer-lip plaited and toothed within;
11 inch long. Martini, iii. t. 118. f. 1083. and
1084.
Chap. ]f,
** With a short exserted rejlected beak, and the outer-
lip unarmed outwardly.
nodosum.
rvstosum.
abbrevia-
tum.
plicatum.
sornutum.
eehinopho- 9. With four tuberculated belts, and the beak pro-
rum. minent; and with transverse elevated striae ; 3 J inches
long. Lister, t. 1003. f. 68.
10. With five acute transverse belts ; upper one tu-
bercuiated ; beak prominent; 14 inch long. Lister, t.
ion. f. 71. f.
11. With crowded transverse elevated striae, of
which two of the upper are tuberculated, and broader
than the others ; aperture toothed on both sides ; 3^
inches long. Mediterranean. Lister, t. lon.f. 71. e.
12. With crowded transverse, elevated equal striae;
whirls inflated, and decreasing gradually ; base abbre¬
viated ; aperture toothed on both sides ; beaks trun¬
cated ; li inch long. Indian ocean. Chem. x. t. 153.
f. 1465. and 1466.
13. Slightly plaited on the fore-part, with decussated
striae; aperture toothed, beak recurved; Inches
long. Jamaica. Lister, t. 1002. f. 67.
14. Turbinated, and armed with three transverse
rows of tubercles ; inner-lip much dilated and rounded;
aperture toothed ; beak much recurved ; 13 inches
long. Amboyna. Lister, t. 1006. f. 70.
15. With decussated striae, and nodulous transverse
belts, between which is a double line ; aperture tooth¬
ed ; beak recurved ; 7 inches long. Amboyna. Lis¬
ter, t. 1007, f. 71.
16. Turbinated, and armed with 3 transverse rows
of tubercles ; inner-lip much dilated and triangular;
aperture toothed, beak recurved ; 7 inches long. W.
Indies. Gualteri, t. 41.
flammeum 17. Shell longitudinally plaited, transversely nodu¬
lous, and slightly coronated ; plaits on the spire imbri¬
cated ; aperture toothed, beak recurved ; 4^ inches
long. West Indies. Lister, t. 1004. £ 69.
18. Shell ovate, with elevated longitudinal and de¬
cussated striae; aperture toothed; beak recurved; 3
inches long. West Indies. Lister, t. 1001. f. 66.
19. With decussated striae, covered with small
square scales ; aperture toothed ; beak recurved ; i£
inch long. Mediterranean. Lister, t. looo. f. 63.
ufum.
tuberosum
ttsticulus.
decttssa-
20. Body whirl smooth ; spire elevated, rough, with areolw
decussated striae ; aperture toothed ; pillar wrinkled ;
beak recurved ; 2£ inches long. Mediterranean.
Lister, t. 1012. f. 76.
21. Sobventricose ; body whirl rather smooth, and s/nga 7i
the spire rough with decussated striae ; aperture tooth¬
ed ; beak recurved ; pillar wrinkled ; inches long.
Mediterranean. Lister, t. 1014. f. 78.
22. Whirls inflated and rounded, with narrow trans-
verse grooves ; aperture toothed ; pillar-lip strongly
wrinkled transversely at the base ; beak recurved ; 2^
inches long. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 1012. f. 76.
23. Shell transversely grooved, and longitudinallygroflt/
striated; aperture toothed ; beak recurved; pillar-lip turn.
granulated ; 4 inches long. Lister, t. 1056. f. 9.
24. Thick, with transverse broad convex ribs ; apev-undult
ture toothed; beak recurved; pillar-lip granulated ; fwjn.
3I- inches long. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 996. f. 61.
25. Ventricose, and slightly ribbed transversely;
upper whirls with decussated striae ; aperture toothed ;
beak recurved ; pillar-lip wrinkled and granulated ; 4f
inches long. Indian ocean. Chem. xi. t. 186. f. 1792.
and 1793.
26. Slightly plaited longitudinally, and granulated tewA)«
above; spire rather depressed ; aperture toothed;
beak recurved; pillar lip wrinkled and granulated;
4^ inches long. Amboyna. Lister, t. 997. f. 62.
* 27. Smooth, with a double row of tubercles on thebilinem
body whirl ; aperture toothed ; beak recurved ; pillar
lip wrinkled and granulated ; size of a hazel nut.
Weymouth. Lister, t. 998. f. 63.
28. Ovate, smooth, covered with hollow dots ; spire
elongated; aperture toothed; beak recurved; pillartf/rn.
lip wrinkled and granulated. Indian ocean. Grono-
vius, t. 19. f. I. and 2.
29. Slightly striated longitudinally ; body whirl in-mm
flated; spire rather prominent; outer lip toothed; mfrw
beak recurved ; pillar smooth ; 2f inches long. Bar-
badoes. Lister, t. 1016. f. 75.
30. Slightly striated transversely ; beak recurved ; catsd
inner lip membranaceous, and united to the pillar, with
crowded transverse elevated striae ; outer lip thin ; I-J
inch long. Bay of Naples. Chem. x. t. 152. f. 1456.
*** Resembling the last division, but the outer lip on
the outside is spinous at the base.
31. Slightly plaited longitudinally, and crowned with
papillae; outer lip muricated at the base; if inch
long. Amboyna. Lister, t. 1015. f. 73.
32. Slightly plaited longitudinally, and crowned with bkan ■
papillae; outer lip with two rows of sharp spines; itum.
inch long. Schroeter, i. t. 2. f. 9.
33. Longitudinally plaited, and nodulous on thejW*'
shoulder ; crowned with papillae ; spire cancellated ;
outer lip toothed within, and muricated at the base ;
2|- inches long. Indian ocean. Chem. x. t. 153. f.
1459. and 1460.
34. Smooth, and crowned with papillae; spire can-gA»e 1
cellated ; outer lip toothed within, and muricated at
the base 5 4 inches long. Amboyna. Lister, t. 996.
f. 60. . , ' ;; I
35. Quite smooth and level ; outer lip externally
muricated towards the base ; pillar slightly plaited; 2
inches long. Jamaica, &c. Martini, ii. t. 35. f. 3^4*
5. and 6.
36. Covered
lap. IV. CONCH
illosum 36. Covered with rows of tubercles 5 outer lip mu-
ricated at the base j I'f inch long. Atnboyna. Lister,
t. 969. f. 23.
ns. 37* Smooth $ summit of the spire longitudinally
grooved ; outer lip muricated j inside delicately stri¬
ated j 11 inch long. Asiatic ocean. Lister, t. 981. f. 40.
bum. 38. Subventricose, smooth, slightly striated j outer
lip muricated at the base ; upper part of the pillar lip
becomes abruptly rounded by the inflated contour of
the whirl; if inch long. Bay of Naples. Lister, t.
975* f- 3°-
**** With the pillar lip dilated and thickened.
ularia.
( ma-
t !•
, aticum
/ us.
i 'sites.
! 'UCO-
I .
f abile,
T than.
HI.
et
w tion.
Pe cum.
39. Plaited longitudinally, and transversely striat¬
ed ; whirls papillary above ; pillar lip dilated and
thickened ; outer lip crenated on the margin, and stri¬
ated within j 14 lines long. Isle of France. Lister,
t. 970. f. 24.
40. Striated at the base j whirls smooth, and with
white tubercles at the sutures; outer lip spinous; 1
inch long. Madagascar. Schroeter, i. t. 2. f. 4.
* 41. Ribbed longitudinally, and papillary at the su¬
tures ; spire sharp-pointed ; with 7 strongly ribbed
whirls ; pillar lip dilated, and rugose ; 1 inch long.
Dorsetshire coast. Montagu, t. 8. f. 1.
42. Gibbous, obliquely striated, and cancellated ;
pillar lip dilated and thickened; f inch long. Medi¬
terranean. Lister, t. 970. f. 25.
43. Gibbous, with halt the body whirl, and the whole
spire longitudinally plaited ; pillar lip dilated and thick¬
ened ; f inch long. Asiatic ocean. Lister, t. 971. f.
2tS.
44. Gibbous and tuberculated ; pillar lip dilated and
thickened ; has 4 rows of tubercles on the body whirl,
in which it differs from B. thersites ; f inch long. E.
Indies. Lister, t. 972. f. 27.
45. Gibbous, smooth ; pillar lip dilated and thick¬
ened; spire short, pointed, and half buried in the lip;
f inch long. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 973. f. 28.
46. Oblong-oval, smooth ; upper whirls longitudi¬
nally grooved ; pillars two plaited ; 13 lines long. Se¬
negal. Chem. xi. t..i88. f. joio. and 1011.
47. Convex, obtuse, depressed, and smooth ; pillar
Up obsoletely dilated and thickened ; aperture emar-
ginate at the base ; f inch long. Adriatic. Chem. v.
t. 166. f. 1602.
***** Pillar lip appearing as if worn flat.
48. With longitudinal, keeled, mucronate, remote
ribs, and longitudinally striated ; pillar smooth ; from
f inch to 3*^ inches long. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 994.
f‘ S1‘.
This beautiful shell has very properly been instituted
a new genus, of which there are about 10 species ; one
of which, the many-stringed harp, a native of Amboy-
na, is often sold for 50I. or 60I. sterling.
49. With 16 longitudinal mucronate ribs, with their
interstices transversely striated ; pillar smooth ; if
inch long. Tranquebar. Chem. x. t. 152. f. 1453.
50. With crowded longitudinal mucronate ribs; pil¬
lar smooth. Philippine islands. Martini, iii. t. 119.
f. 1093.
51* Scabrous, with a crenated outer lip and flat pil¬
lar; brown, with transverse bands and lines. Am-
boyna. Lister, t. 987. f. 47.
VOL. VI. Part II. i
O L O G Y. 44I
52. Muricated; outer lip crenated without, and thepatulum.
pillar oblique and falcated ; with six or seven spinous
elevated belts on the body ; 2 to 4 inches long. Ame¬
rica and E. Indies. Lister, t. 989. f. 49.
53. Iransversely ribbed, and longitudinally wrivik-mono don.
led, which gives it a scaly appearance ; outer lip cre-
nulated, and armed with a subulate tooth at its base ;
2f inches long. Cape Horn. Martini, iii. t. 69. f.
761.
54. Transversely ribbed, and the spire short ; \>\\\&v haustimm
oblique ; outer lip crenulated, and striated within. Re¬
sembles the former ; but is smooth, and has no teeth ;
2 inches long. Chem. x. t. 152. f. 1449 and 50.
55. Spire obliquely recurved ; aperture very large ; £W?c/zo-
outer lip reflected ; pillar lip with two obsolete teeth
at the base ; external surface rugged ; inside smooth ;
4 inches long. Peru. Favanne, i. t. 4. f. H. 2.
56. Submuricated ; outer lip striated within ; pillar//crwzo.y-
flattened ; throat and aperture fulvous; transverselyftwio.
striated, with four elevated belts ; upper two nodulous;
4 inches long. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 988. f. 48.
57* lurbinated, armed with three transverse rowsarmige-
of large conical tubercles on the body whirl ; aperture rz/w.
white ; 3 inches long. South sea. Chem. xi. t. 187.
f. 1798 and 9.
58. With crowded transverse striae, and four rows oUutcosto-
tubercles on the body whirl, and two on the spire ; mum.
aperture yellowish ; 2 inches long. South sea. Chem.
xi. t. 187. f. 1800 and 1801.
59. Deeply channelled transversely, with longitudi-/am<?//o-
nal remote and narrow ribs ; body whirl lamellated to-sum.
wards the outer lip, and the inside bright blue ; 21-
inches long. New Zealand. Chem. x. Vig. 21. f. A.
and B.
60. Ribbed transversely, and longitudinally wrinkled,crispatum.
with curled imbricated membranes; aperture ovate ;
if inch long. New Zealand. Chem. xi. t. 187. f.
1802 and 3.
61. Ovate, acute, striated longitudinally and tv<ms-lapillus.
versely, without any protuberances; pillar flattish ;
aperture oval ; outer lip slightly toothed'; 2 inches
long. Coasts of Great Britain. Don. i. t. 11.
The famous purple dye, supposed to be the same as
the indelible Tyrian purple, is extracted from a vein
on the back of the animal which inhabits this shell.
62. Ovate, whitish, with red transverse striae ; sfyrejilosum.
rather prominent; aperture oval ; outer lip striated
with red, and the pillar subumbilicated ; 1 inch long.
Martini, iii. t. 121. f. 1113 and 14.
63. Oblong-ovate, with the whirls contiguous AnA.sulcatum.
transversely grooved ; outer lip crenulated and striated
within; if inch long. Tranquebar. Lister, t. 976.
1. 3 J*
64. Ovate-oblong, with transverse crenulated striae jjfrfzwz.
the pillar livid; 2 inches long. Tranquebar. Lister.
t. 986. f. 45.
65. Ovate, acute, and very smooth ; outer lip ere-srnaragdu-
nated, and striated within ; pillar slightly plaited ;/«,?.
aperture beaked; if inch long. Tranquebar. Lister.
C 831. f. 55.
66. Ovate, coarse, with transverse elevated nodu- variant.
lous ribs ; aperture ovate, and the pillar without
plaits ; if inch long. Martini, iii. t. 121. f. 1106.
67. Subfusiform ; body nearly smooth, and thrice tuba.
as long as the spire, which is cancellated ; 3f inches
3 K i°ng*
442
Jong. Indian ocean. Martini, iii. p. 201. t.
908.
jpyrum. 68. Pyriform, with a short depressed spire, and the
body ventricose ; pillar smooth, transversely striated
at the base ; aperture orange 5 inch long. Martini,
iii, t. 94. f. 908 and 10.
plumbeum 69. Subglobose, ponderous, glabrous, with a deep
transverse groove near the base of the body whirl, and
an obsolete one lower down, and ends in a projecting
tooth on the pillar lip, which is thick j if inch long.
California. Chem. xi. t. 188. f. 1806 and 7.
spadiceum 70. Pyriform, smooth, chesnut-coloured, with trans¬
verse undulated white lines j if inch long. W. Indies.
Martini, iii. t. 94. f. 911.
umbilica- 71. Oblong, subturbinated, and slightly plaited lon-
tum. gitudinally 5 spire nodose, transversely striated at the
base j aperture grooved within, and the pillar subum-
bilicated ; 2f inches long. Martini, iii. t. 94. f.
915*
candidum 'll. Ovate, ventricose, ponderous j smooth, white,
without any markings ; spire short $ 2 inches long.
Martini, iii. Vig. 31. p. 191. f. 3.
crassum. 73. Subglobose, ventricose, and glabrous j aperture
oval, and the pillar thickened, with two callosities ;
spire small, with five whirls j 2 inches long. Martini,
iii. t. 120. f. 1099 and 1100.
wbita. 74* Ovate, thick, with transverse, distant, knotty,
reflected ribs, and intermediate smaller ones j outer
lip plaited j 3 inches long. New Zealand. Chem. x.
t. 154. f. 1473. _ i
scaia. 75. Ovate, with distant recurved elevated trans¬
verse white belts, and their interstices longitudinally
striated 5 whirl faced, flattened at top j aperture toothed
on the outer lip, and strongly grooved within $ ^ inch
long. Cape. Lister, t. 1059. f. 2.
****** Somewhat polished, and not enumerated in
the former divisions.
spiratum. 76. Smooth, with the whirls separated by a deep
canal, somewhat sunk into each other j pillar abrupt
and perforated j 2 inches long. E. Indies. Lister, t.
983. f. 42. c.
zcylani- 77. Smooth, with the whirls produced $ pillar abrupt,
cum. with a large umbilicus, and toothed at the margin.
Amboyna. Lister, t. 982. f. 42.
glabratum 78. Umbilicated, highly polished, with obsolete su¬
tures 5 body whirl channelled and produced at the base j
3 inches long. Tranquebar. Lister, t. 974. f. 29.
turgitum. 79. Ovate, subumbilicated, smooth, with transverse
rows of red spots, and a sinus in the outer lip; spire
with 6 whirls \ upper 3 slightly plaited longitudinally j
under ones smooth and level; 2 inches long. New
Zealand. Chem. x. t. 156. f. 1475 and 1476.
scutula- 80. Ovate, smooth, brown, with longitudinal veins j
turn. whirls flattish, and beak obtuse j 2^ inch long. New
Zealand. Chem. vig. 21. f. C. and D.
testudi- 81. Oblong-ovate, smooth, with transverse rows of
neum. crowded dark brown spots, and somewhat produced at
the base 5 if inch long. New Zealand. Chem. x. t.
152. f. 1454.
catarracta 82. Ovate, rough, with crowded, minute} transverse
grooves j and marked longitudinally with undulated de-
current stripes ; if inch long. New Zealand. Chem.
, . . x. ^ f- HSS-
feevisti- 83. Oblong-ovate, polished j obliquely truncated at
mum.
Chap. IV
the base ; apex obtuse; pillar-lip concave 5 2 inches
long. E. Indies. Martini, iv. t. 127. f. 1215 and
1216.
84. Ovate'oblong, brittle, transversely striated, ^cyaneum
bluish ) whirls imbricated at the sutures $ pillar with
one plait j striated minutely; if inch long. Chem.
x. t. 152. f. 1448.
85. Ovate-oblong, smooth, brown, with darker tavr.
bands; and minute, distant, transverse striae; aper¬
ture oval, ending in a canal; body ventricose, double
the length of the spire; 16 lines long. E. Indies.
Martini, iv. t. 124. f. 1150.
86. Oblong, narrow, glabrous, yellowish, clouded
with red, upper part longitudinally striated ; if inch
long. Martini, iv. t. 127. f. 1217.
87. Oblong, transversely striated ; pillar lip with aplumatui
tooth at the upper end, and the outer lip striated ; 2
inches long. Jamaica. Lister, t. 822. b. f. 41.
88. Smooth, black, with rows of white spots andocel/atun
dots ; body whirl ventricose, and the spire rather pro¬
minent and nodulous ; inside blue ; 1 inch long. E.
Indies. Martini, iv. t. 124. f. 1160 and 1161.
89. Very smooth, minute, with the base truncated
7 lines long. Martini, iv. t. 125. f. J177. mum.
90. Oblong-ovate, transversely striated; pillar oh-nucleus,
liquely grooved ; aperture truncated at the base; 7
lines long. Madagascar. Lister, t. 976. f. 32.
91. Oblong, smoothish, transversely striped ; spire/fnecta
acute, pyramidal; outer lip a little expanded ; f inch
long. W. Indies. Martini, iv. t. 125. f. 1188 and
1189.
92. Oblong, cancellated ; aperture expanded ; spot-exile.
ted and crenated ; f inch long. Martini, iv. t. 125. f.
1190 and 1191.
93. Ovate, smooth, black; spire carious and abrupt‘7prarosu
pillar glabrous ; 7 lines long. S. of Europe. Fluviatile.
Chem. ix. t. 121. f. 1035 and 1036.
94. Oblong, smooth, white ; whirls flattened at thecockhdit
sutures ; aperture oval and efl’use ; 3 inches long. S.
sea islands. Terrestrial. Chem. xi. t. 209. f. 2053
and 2054.
95. Oblong, smooth, with narrow, transverse, x&rle-austrak
gated bands and veins; aperture oval, and entire ; 3
inches long. New Zealand. Fluviatile. Chem. ix. t.
120. f. 1033 ant* 1034*
******* Angulated, and not included in the former
divisions.
96. Ovate, with transverse, elevated, glabrous striae )undosu\
body obtusely 5-angled ; pillar slightly plaited at the
base ; 2 inches long. Amboyna. Lister, t. 938. f.
33* . _
97. Ovate, with transverse, elevated, glabrous striae ;
body rounded ; outer lip swollen ; pillar toothed ; 2
inches long. Straits of Malacca. Martini, iv. t. 123.
f‘ II35’ . . . ,.
98. Nearly cval, longitudinally plaited, and ixans-fuhncse
versely ribbed ; interstices striated ; aperture effuse;
2 inches long. Martini, iv. t. 123. f. 1145 and
1146.
99. Ovate, reticulated, with transverse ribs, and dftndicM
vated longitudinal striae; aperture effuse ; if inch long.
E. Indies. Martini, iv. t. l 23. f. 1138 and 1139*
100. Ovate, with 12 angles; nodulous, striated trans-/ro«?a
versely; aperture toothed ; outer lip orange ; pillar bariw
toothed;
CONCHOLOGY.
94. f.
( ap. IV.
toothed ; 2 inches long. Coromandel,
t. 123. f. 1146 to 1x49.
•jj icolor. 101. Coarse, transversely striated, with 2 interme¬
diate rows of black dots j spire with 4 concave whirls 5
inch long. Martini, iv. t. 123. f. 1145.
fi "nta- 102. Ovate, white, minutely striated transversely,
f; . with squarish red spots $ whirls convex. Martini, xv.
t. 123. f. 1143 and 1144.
b nr. 103. Roundish, whirls lamellated above ; pillar per¬
forated ; 2f- inches long. China. Martini, iii. t. 68.
f. 754 and 755.
i mum. 104. Roundish, obliquely contracted at the base,
with two transverse rows of vaulted spines $ whirls
channelled at the sutures ; aperture and umbilicus very
wide j 4 inches long. Tranquebar. Lister, t. 894.
f. 14.
g iaie. 105. Ovate-oblong, smooth, and somewhat striated
transversely $ body slightly keeled j 3 inches long.
Northern ocean. Chem. x. t. 152. f. 1446 and 1447*
cV.natum 106. Oblong, transversely striated j upper whirls
with many oblique and obtuse angles ; lower whirls
single keeled *, 2 inches long. Spitsbergen. Phipps’
Voyage, t. 13. f. 2.
\ ella- 107. Oblong, lamellated longitudinally ; white, with
i 1. a purple inside, and white pillar lip j if inch long.
Ksemmer Cab. t. 9. f. 2.
» latum. * 108. Oblong, coarse, with transverse striae, and lon¬
gitudinal oblique ribs; whirls venti’icose; 5 inches
long. Britain. Don. iii. t. 104.
1 109. Turreted, patulous ; somewhat beaked, angu-
lated, longitudinally ciliated 5 pillar slightly plated ;
6 inches long. Greenland.
'■turn. no. Ovate, with unequally distant longitudinal tu¬
bercles on the body $ outer lip channelled, and some¬
what detached. Hermann, t. 2. f. 3 and 4.
i ynx- iii. Ovate-oblong,slender; obsoletely striated trans-
im. versely, and the whirls depressed at their summits. Lis¬
ter, t. 963. f. 17.
hei- 112. Oblong, transversely grooved, with the grooves
se* wrinkled and dotted, and the sutures finely crenulated.
Otaheite. Chem. x. t. 154. f. 1477.
'catum. 113. Ovate-oblong, subyentricose, thick, transverse¬
ly ribbed, and the interstices striated ; pillar convex.
Mexico. Lister, t. 963. f. 16.
atum. 114. Fusiform, longitudinally ribbed, and the ribs
transversely striated ; apex blackish. Martini, iv. t.
127. f. 1221 and 1222.
i'ozo- 115. With transverse plaits, and undulated striae;
; the base and spire a little prominent; body whirl with
a double, and the other whirls with a single fulvous
band. Martini, iii. t. 109. f. 1017.
turn. 116. Shell tuiTeted, longitudinally ribbed, and trans¬
versely striated ; whirls flattish at the top. Mai’tini,
iv. t. 125. f. 1201 and 1202.
('4ra- 117. Ovate, ventricose, longitudinally ribbed; de-
1 *• cussated with transvei’se undulated striae, and channel¬
led at the sutures. E. Indies. Born, t. 9. f. 17 and
x8.
1 €u*n. 118. Suboval, with elevated cancellated striae, and
the body whirl ventricose, and produced at the base.
. Martini, iv. t. 122. f. 1X22 and 1123.
119. Oval, ventricose, acuminated, and channelled
with longitudinal ribs, and tx-ansverse elevated striae ;
aperture roundish and effuse. E. Indies. Chem. xi.
t. 188. f. 1808 and 1809.
443
* 120. Ovate-oblong, transversely striated, and long!-
tudinally ribbed ; aperture toothed. Mediterranean turn.
and Britain. Don. t. 76.
* 121. Subpyramidal, with distant longitudinal ribs,
and striated transversely; outer lip slightly denticulat-g’uww.
ed. Britain. Linn. Tr. viii. t. 4. f. 5.
* 122. Ovate, longitudinally ribbed, and transversely fliortt/a.
striated ; outer lip gibbous. Norway and Britain.
Linn. Tr. viii. t. 4. f. 4.
123. Oblong-ovate, with one side of the body nearly
smooth, and the rest plaited longitudinally and obso¬
letely stxiated transversely ; aperture roundish. Tran¬
quebar. Martini, iv. t. 124. f. 1167 to 1169.
* 124. Conical, closely ribbed longitudinally, and the cinctum.
intei’stices obsoletely striated transversely ; apex acute ;
aperture oval. Weymouth. Montagu, t. 15. f. 1.
* 125. Acuminated, minute, and reticulated, with \qw-minimum.
gitudinal elevated ribs, and transverse striae; aperture
oval. Devonshire. Montagu, t. 8. f. 2.
126. Oblong, longitudinally plaited, and transverse-p/zcaftf/wm
ly striated ; bi’ownish white, with darker brown bands,
and the inside violet. Martini, t. 114. f. 1158 and
1159'
127. Cancellated, and nodulous at the intersections^/iycofo-
on the lower whirls ; pillar with one plait, and u mb iii- rium.
cated ; aperture effuse. E. Indies. Martini, iv. t.
124. f. 1151 and 1152.
128. Ovate, with longitudinal ribs, which form onmauritii.
the body four ti’ansvei’se rows of tubercles; outer lip
six toothed. Island of St Maurice. Martini, iv. t. 124.
f. 1153. and 1154.
129. Ovate, with each whirl crowned by a row ofarmilla-
tubercles ; aperture large and toothless. Martini, iv. turn.
t. 124. f. 1155. to 1137.
130. Ovate, oblong, polished, transversely striated,
and marked with articulated bands ; outer lip toothed
within. Mediterranean. Gualteri, t. 52. f. 6.
131. Ovate, oblong, brown, striated with white, and reȣrxco-
somewhat plaited. St George’s Bay. Martini, ii. t. sum.
47*
******** Turreted, subulate, and slightly polished.
132. Subfusiform, with smooth undivided very entire
whirls. Amboyna. Lister, t. 846. f. 74. turn.
133. Subfusiform, with the upper half of the whirls ocu/atatf*.
convex and ocellated. East Indian seas. Martini, iv.
t. 153. f. 1442.
134. Subulate, smooth, with undivided very eniite subulatum
whirls. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 841. f. 69.
135. Pellucid, with all the whirls slightly emargi-^,//«tt«7.
nate on the back. Gualteri, t. 56. f. G.
136. With the whirls transvei-sely divided, and ere- crenula-
nated on their margins. Amboyna. Lister, t. 846. turn.
f* 75- . . . . , .
137. With the whirls transversely divided, and the heetteum.
upper margin compressed and attenuated. African
ocean. Chem. xi. t. 188. f. 1817. and 1718.
138. Whirls transversely divided, with the ]ov/ergeminutn.
divisions slightly striated, and the upper more protu¬
berant.
139. With the whirls transversely divided ; hvrerproximo-
division striated, and the upper filiform. turn.
140. Whirls transversely divided, with the lower di- monile.
vision grooved, and the upper moniliform.
141. Striated transversely, with a double crenulated
3 K 2 suture
CONCHO L O G Y.
Martini, iv.
444-
CONCH
suture on the upper margin. Ceylon. Lister, t. 977.
f* 34-
digit ale. 142. Conical, subturreted, glabrous, with the aper¬
ture effuse at the base.
strigila- 143. Whirls transversely divided, and obliquely stri-
tum. ated. Asiatic ocean. Lister, t. 846. f. 145. C.
concinnum 144. Longitudinally striated, whirls undivided, and
marked at the sutures with a spotted belt. Gualteri,
t- 57- f- .
duplica- 145. Whirls transversely divided, and longitudinal-
tum. ly grooved. Coasts of Hainan. Lister, t. 837. f. 64.
cinereum. 146. Subulate, with the upper part of the whirls
longitudinally plaited. Anrboyna. Rumphius, t. 30.
f. 1.
succinc- 147. Minutely striated transversely, and whirls
turn. transversely divided. East Indian ocean. Martini,
iv. t. 154. h 14.51.
ecus. 148. Whirls transversely divided, crenulated, and
wrinkled j pillar twisted spirally. Martini, iv. t. 154.
f. 1449.
lanceatum 149. Smooth; whirls entire, and marked with tes¬
taceous longitudinal stripes. Amboyna. Rumphius, t.
3°. f. G.
dimidia- 150. Whirls transversely divided and smooth,
tum^ orange spotted. Amboyna. Lister, t. 843. f. 71.
murinitm. 151. Whirls somewhat angular, with three muri-
cated striae. Africa. Gualteri, t. 57. f. P.
pertusum. 152. With longitudinal elevated striae, and trans¬
verse row's of excavated dots -7 whirls transversely di¬
vided. Martini, iv. t. 155. f. 1457.
hastatum. 153. Subfusiform, with alternate brown and white
bands, and longitudinal striae. Martini, iv. t. 154. f.
1453. and 1454.
sinuatum. 154. Whirls longitudinally plaited, and attenuated
near the sutures 5 aperture emarginate at both ends.
East Indian rivers. Martini, iv.. t. 155. f. 1464. and
i465-
bifascia- 15.5. Glabrous, white, with two bands 5 whirls con-
tum. tinuous. East Indies. Petiver, t. 53. f. 5.
radiatum. 156. W7ith transverse granulated striae j whirls con¬
vex, and the first twice as large as the next. Coast of
Naples. Gualteri, t. 52. f. D.
virgineum 157* Whirls of the spire flattish ; aperture large
and oval. Virginian rivers. Lister, t. 113. f. 7.
ccicula. * 158. Minute, with the whirls well defined by an ob¬
lique suture ; aperture oblong. Mosswold, walls about
Paris, and in Kent. Montagu, t. 8. f. 3.
53
Strombus,
Gen. 25. Strombus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax : the shell univalve,
spiral 5 aperture much dilated j the lip expanding,
and produced into a groove leaning to the left (c).
Species.
jusus
O L O G Y. Chap, n
straight beak, and the outer lip toothed. E. Indies.
Lister, t. 916. f. 9.
3. Turreted, smooth, with a longitudinal fissure ex-fissus,
tending from the aperture to the summit, of which the
acute margin, and also the outer lip, are toothed.
Chem. xi. t. 195. A. f. 1869.
* 4. Comoran?s Foot; lip with fourpalmated angular
claws; mouth smooth; whirls tuberculated ; 2 inches com.
long. European and American seas, shores of Britain.
Lister, t. 865. f. 20.
5. Lip with 6 curved claws, and recurved beak; chiragn
lip striated ; two hind claws divergent and bent out¬
wards ; beak tuberculated. Indian ocean. Lister, t.
870. f. 24.
6. Lip with 4 knotty claws; hinder one very long ;icorj52w(j|
4 inches long. Amboyna. Lister, t. 867. f. 22.
7. Lip with seven straightish claws ; mouth smooth.lambis,
Asia. A large shell. Lister, t. 866. f. 21.
8. Ovate, with the spire very obtuse and knotty \truncah
aperture with straightish claws, of which one is small¬
er. China. Lister, t. 882. f. 24.
9. Lip with 10 inflected claws ; mouth substriated ; millijxili
back compressed ; gibbous. Asia. Rare. Lister, t.
868. f.
** Outer Up lohed.
* The lip projecting into linear divisions or claws,
1. Tapering, smooth, and slightly ventricose, with a
subulate beak and toothed lip. Red sea. Lister t.
854. f. 12.
unicornis. 2. Turreted, smooth ; aperture ending in a long
10. Lip thickened, and 3-lobed on the fore-part;/c/jfrgik
back warty, and crowned with tubercles ; beak ob-iMj.
tuse ; 3! inches long. Asia, America. Lister, t. 861.
f. 18.
ix. Transversely striated, and transverse nodulous^opj/ic,
bands ; spire coronated ; outer lip growing to the spire,
and situated at the base. E. Indies. Chem. x. t. 158.
f. 1510 and 11.
12. Lip entire; back crowned with 3 rows of pro-fascial
tuberances, and rosy between them. Africa. Lister,
t. 860. f. 17.
13. Subovate, with dark transverse interruptedpo/y/iwc ’
stripes, and a row of pointed tubercles on each whirl
outer lip sinuated only outwards at the base. Red sea.
Chem. x. t. 155. f. 1483 and 84.
14. Lip mucronate on the fore-part, and very longjgalius.
back crowned with tubercles; beak straight; 6 inches
long. Asia and America. Lister, t. 874. f. 30.
15. Transversely ribbed and nodulous ; outer lip si- lacinam
nuated near the base, and much scolloped towards its
upper angle. E. Indies. Chem. x. t. 158. f. 1506
and 1507.
16. Lip projecting into a sharp point; back muri-awnwi ]
cated ; beak erect and acute; 3 inches long. Asia.omr.
Lister, t. 872. f. 28.
17. Anterior lip prominent, rounded, smooth ; spire^wgf/ff
spinous; beak 3-lobed, obtuse. South America. Mar¬
tini, iii. t. 81. f. 830 and 31.
18. Lip a little prominent; beak entire ; back m&r-margh
gined, smooth. China. tus,
19. Lip a little prominent; back smooth; whirls■
rounded, equal; 2|- inches long. Asia. Lister, t. 850.
f. 5.
20. Lip
to observed, that these shells, in their young state, want the lip, and then have a thin turbi-
e appearance ; from which circumstance they have been sometimes referred to a different genus.
c ,p. IV. CONCH
el, rulus 20. Lip a lip prominent *, beak smooth > whirls gib¬
bous, unequal. Asia. Lister, t. ^47* f- i*
J us, 21. Obovate, with knotty belts, and a subulate,
smooth projection j an inch long. South America.
Lister, t. 791. f. 44.
*** XTitA the outer' lip very large.
gi. 1. 22. Lip rounded, and very large *, shell crowned ;
belly and spire with conic expanded spines; glossy
white j within, a rich rose colour; 10 inches long.
South America and W. Indies. Lister, t. 886. f. 7*
la simus. 23. Lip rounded, very large ; belly unarmed ; spire
a little knotty ; 14 inches long. Asia. Lister, t. 856.
f. 12. c.
ai Jeter. 24. Body crowned with spinous tubercles, and their
interstices striated ; first whirl of the spire ribbed,
and the next striated transversely. Asiatic ocean.
Lister, t. 863. f. 18. b.
q romis. 25. Lip rounded, short; belly smooth ; spire a little
knotty; 3J inches long. Southern Asia. Lister, t.
853. f. 10.
« imus. 26. Lip retuse, gibbous ; belly and spire with knotty
plaits ; aperture 2-lipped, smooth ; 2^ inches long.
India. liumphius, t. 36. f. P.
c mum. 27. Somewhat heart-shaped ; with a round, short,
retuse, smooth lip ; pillar smooth ; Jf inch long.
Asia. Lister, t. 853. f. 9.
' t atus. 28. Lip rounded, short; belly smooth ; spire elon¬
gated ; whirls divided by an elevated suture ; 4 inches
long. Lister, t. 852. f. 8.
a utvs. 29. Transversely grooved, with the spire produced
and channelled at the sutures ; outer lip rounded, short,
and sinuated. China. Lister, t. 852. f. 8.
a nctus. 30. Lip rounded, retuse ; belly smooth, with 4 pale,
linear, punctured belts. Asia. Lister, t. 859. f. 16.
U '-trella. 31. Lip continued into a longitudinal cleft ridge.
India. Frequently found fossil in Campania. Mar¬
tini, iv. t. 158. f. 1498 and 1499.
1 32. Lip tapering, retuse, short, striated ; belly and
spire with knotty plaits ; aperture 2-lipped, unarmed;
2f inches long. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 857. f.
? 13. *
ithri- 33. With nodulous plaits on the body and spire ;
'• outer lip striated on both sides; inner lip white and re¬
flected. Red sea. Chera. xi. t. 195-A. f. 1874 and
i875-
J !ar* 34. Thin, white, with orange spots and clouds ;
back smooth, plaited ; whirls grooved ; lip 3-toothed ;
beak violet. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 858. f. 14.
1 tatus. 3j. Lip tapering, short-toothed; belly and spire
plaited; inch long. Isle of France. Chem. x. t.
I57* 1* I5°I ^J02*
1 tHitm. 36. Solid, subcylindrical, with alternate, reddish
and ochraceous bands; lip denticulated within; pillar
flat, glabrous, and emarginated at the base. Indian
ocean. Very rare. Chem. x. t. 157* f* I5°4 an(i
I5°J*
? wegi- 27. Oblong, subulate, white, with round whirls;
aperture spreading ; ovate; beak a little ascending.
Norway. Chem. x. t. 157. f. 1497 and 1498.
**** Turreted, with a very long spire.
’rcula- 38. Oblong, ovate, tuberculated ; lip thickened. Me¬
diterranean. Martini, iv. t. 157. f. 149O0
O L O G Y. 445
39. Smoothish; lip separated behind. Savannahspalustris.
of the Indian ocean. Lister, t. 837. f. 63.
40. Smooth; lip separated before and behind; 26ater.
lines long. Fens of Amboyna. Lister, t. 115. f. 10.
41. Barred with brown ; whirls 7, muricated ; each awnfu.?.
with 7 yellow compressed tubercles ; aperture ovate ;
10 lines long. Africa. Lister, t. 121. f. 16.
42. Subangulated, and armed with spinous nodules ;
outer lip separated on the anterior side. Chem. xi.
Part ii. t. 136. f. 1269 and 1270.
* 43. Very thick; first whirl crowned with tubercles; costa£w.y.
interstices of the tubercles plaited; the next whirl
transversely ribbed; the rest transversely striated ; 6
inches long. W. of England and Bantry Bay. Mon-
iagu, t. 30. f. 7.
54
Murex.
Gen. 26. Murex.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax : the shell univalve,
spiral, rough, with membranaceous sutures ; aperture
oval, terminating in an entire, straight, or slightly
ascending canal.
Species.
* Spinous, with a produced beak.
1. Ovate, tuberculated; with a long subulate,/jawsfe/-
straight, muricated beak. Asia, America, Red se-d.lum.
Lister, t. 903. f. 23.
2. Triangular, with three thick, somewhat spinous ;;jo?ac*7/a.
varices, and transversely grooved ; beak rather long,
subulate, and slightly ascending. E. Indies. Chem.
x. t. 163. f. 1563.
3. Snbovate, with 3 spinous varices, and darkersco/opctf.
transverse ribs ; beak, very long, straight, and armed
with similar long spines. Red sea. Chem. xi. t. 189.
f. 1819 and 1820.
4. Thorny woodcock. Ovate, with a triple row oitribulus.
setaceous spines : beak elongated, subulate, with simi¬
lar spines. Var. 1. With spines shorter than the beak.
2. With spines as long as the beak. This last is rare.
Asia, America, Red sea. Lister, t. 900. f. 22.
5. Roundish, surrounded with subulate, ob\\<\ne cornutus.
spines ; beak long, subulate, straight, with a few short
spines; 8 inches long; spines 2 inches. Africa. Very
rare. Lister, t. 901. t. 21.
6. Subovate, surrounded with straight spines ; beak
subulate, straight, obliquely surrounded with spines.
Mediterranean, Adriatic. Lister, t. 900. f. 20..
7. Ovate, knotty, and surrounded with spines on the trunculus.
fore part; beak short, perforated, truncated. Medi¬
terranean, Jamaica. Lister, t. 947. f. 42.
8. Ovate, with 7 furbelowed spinous varices; beak, rosarium,
short and perforated. Chem. x. t. 161. f. 1528 and
1529.
9. Ovate, knotty, with 3 to 7 protuberances; beakpomum.
broad ; coarse and ponderous. Eastern shores of Af¬
rica. Lister, t. 994. f. 30. a.
10. Ovate, scabrous, with 9 crenulated, subfoliated,
oblique varices; outer lip double and toothed ; beak
short, ascending, and narrow. Nicobar. Chem. x. t.
161. f. 1532 to 1535.
11. Transversely striated, with 8 rows of boWow melano*
black mathos*..
445
ramotus.
foliatus.
lingua.
tripterus.
triqueter.
Scorpio.
saxatilis.
erinaceus.
sacellum.
lyratus.
rana.
spinosus.
crassus.
gyrinus.
bufonictts.
argus.
lampas,
olcarium.
CONCH
black spines ; spire a little knotty and prickly beak
subulate. E. Indies. Martini, iii. t. 188. f. 1015.
** Foliated, and the beak short. Purpura.
12. A triple row of foliations j spire contiguous 5
beak truncated. America, Asia, Red sea. Eister, t.
946. f. 41.
13. A triple row of foliations ; aperture l-toothed.
North America. Chem. x. t. 161. f. l$68 and 1569*
14. Subtriangular, ovate, with three membranaceous
varices, and somewhat nodulous j whirls contracted at
the sutures; beak closed. Coasts of Goree. Chem.
x. t. 161. f. 1540. and 1541.
15. Long, narrow, and subtriangular, with three
membranaceous varices $ beak rather long. Batavia.
Martini, iii. t. 110. f. 1031 and 1032.
16. Long, narrow, and subtriangular, with reticu¬
lated ribs, and three membranaceous varices ; beak ra¬
ther long, and closed. Tranquebar. Martini, iii. t.
in. f. 1038.
17. Four rows of foliations j spire capitate j beak
truncated. Asia. Very rare. Gualteri, t. 37. f. M.
18. Five rows of foliations ; spire contiguous j beak
abbreviated. Mediterranean, Asia. Martini, iii. t.
107. f. 1004 to 1010.
* 19. Subangularj whirls crowned with tubular and
subspinous rays, scales or points ; beak short and cover¬
ed j 2 inches long. European seas, shores of Britain.
Don. t. 35.
20. Umbilicated with muricated ribs j whirls ilattish
above, with acute margins j lip crenated ; beak straight,
ascending. Nicobar. Chem. x. t. 163. f. 1561 and
1562.
*** With thick, protuberant, rounded varices.
21. Protuberances crossed by smooth belts j aper¬
ture ovate. New Zealand. Chem. x. t. 169. f. 1634.
22. Rough, with opposite, impressed protuberances,
and one or two muricated belts. Asia. Lister, t. 995.
f* *8- .
23. With two opposite varices, and remote trans¬
verse spinous belts ; whirls flattened ; spines on the
varices very long j aperture ovate. Tranquebar. Lis¬
ter, t. 949. f. 44.
24. With two opposite very thick varices, and re¬
mote transverse obsolete belts, and granulated strise 5
whirls rather flattened 5 aperture ovate j outer lip very
thick. Madagascar. Martini, iv. t. 133. f. 1272. and
l273‘
25. Protuberances opposite, continued, and barred
with tuberculated dots 5 aperture orbicular. Mediter¬
ranean, Atlantic, India. Lister, t. 939. f. 34.
26. Nodulous, with two opposite varices, and trans¬
verse granulated striae •, outer lip furrowed, and ending
in a channel above. South sea. Chem. xi. t. 192. f.
1843.t0 I846.
27. With two subalternate varices, and rounded no¬
dules on transverse ribs j outer lip double, and strongly
toothed within. Amboyna. Martini, iv. t. 127. f.
1223.
28. Protuberances nearly opposite, gibbous, with
longitudinal tuberculated protuberances j from 4 to 14
inches long. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 1023. f. 88.
29. Protuberances alternate, and numerous tu¬
bercles j back unarmed and striated behind $ aperture
O L O G Y. . Chap. H
toothless. Mediterranean and African seas.”5 Lister,
t. 937. f. 32. , . ,
30. Protuberances decussated, triangular, wrinkled/^W(jra/(
and knotty on the fore-part $ aperture ovate, toothless j
from 5 to 7 inches long. Asia, Guinea, and America.
Lister, t. 941. f. 37.
31. With a single protuberance j angular, and a cutaceu
little wrinkled with knots j pillar perforated 5 aperture
toothed ; 3 inches long. Barbary, Guinea, South A-
merica. Lister, t. 942. f. 38.
32. Protuberances decussated, angular, with longi-/0/0rj*aw
tudinal tuberculous knots $ beak flexuous j aperture
toothed. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 934. f. 29.
33. Protuberances decussated, and a little wrinkled^flrf
with knots ; aperture toothed j beak subascending.
Mediterranean. Chem. xi. t. 191. f. 1837. and 1838.
34. Turreted, with alternate varices, and granulated
all over} aperture channelled above, and the outer lipfaj,
toothed within } beak short and straight. Chem. x. t.
162. f. 1544. and 1545.
35. Six opposite, continued, vaulted protuberances,
and knotty belts } beak oblique. A rare shell. Chem.
xi. t. 192. f. 1843. to 1846.
36. Turreted, elongated, with alternate varices, and macuhs
decussated striae, forming granules at their intersec¬
tions ; beak short and slightly ascending. Amboyna.
Lister, t. 1022. f. 86.
37* Angulated with decussated varices, and a con-spettgla I
catenated row of granules in the interstices of the trans¬
verse ribs } beak short and straight. Chem. xi. 1.191.
f. 1839. and 1840.
38. Varicose, ovate, transversely grooved and knot-^y^j,
ty } beak long, flexuous, subulate. Indian ocean. Mar¬
tini, iii. t. 112. f. 1050. and 1051.
39. Ovate, with two varices, longitudinally plaited c/aro/o; {
and striated, and transversely ribbed } beak long and
flexuous. Ceylon. Chem. xi. t. 190. f. 1825. and 1826.
40. Thin, transversely striated} beak subulate } camM
spire a little prominent, tipt with brown } whirls
grooved } first gibbous. Coromandel. Lister, t. 893.
f. 13.
41. Protuberances decussated, obtuse, with knotty
wrinkles} belly equal} aperture toothed. Africa, India,
South America. Rare. Chem. x. t. 162. f. 1546. and 7.
42. Protuberances hollowed, smooth, nearly oppo-scrobitt |
site } aperture toothed. Mediterranean. Lister, t. tor.
943- f- 39-
43. Protuberances nearly opposite, reticulated with reticulb
tuberculated spots } pillar almost toothless } beak as¬
cending } 6 inches long. Mediterranean, America.
Lister, t. 935. f. 30.
44. Whirls unequally gibbous } ribs decussated, and mulus, \
slightly tuberculated at their intersections } aperture
surrounded by a thin dilated membrane, and the beak
produced and ascending. Coasts of Chiloe. Martini,
ii. t. 41. f. 405 and 6.
45. Protuberances and lips membranaceous, dilated ;
gibbous and reticulated with tubercles} aperture si¬
nuous ; beak erect; 3 inches long. Mediterranean
and Asia. Lister, t. 833. f. 57.
**** Somewhat spinous, and without a beak.
46. Obovate, with subulate spines in rows ; aperture nVfiw
and lip toothed } i^- inch long. Asiatic ocean. Lis¬
ter, t. 804. f. 12 and 13.
47-
447
dp. IV. CONCH
no J. 47- Obovate, with conic spines $ lip toothed j pillar
smooth, coloured j 34 inches long. Jamaica. Lister,
t. 991. f. 53- ...
ne oi- 48. Knots in numerous rows; lip with pointed
de angles 5 pillar flattish. India. Lister, t. 990. f. 50.
h ix. 49. Subovate, with acute spines in 4 rows ; aper¬
ture toothless, repand. Friendly islands.
nu 'inel- 50. Ovate, with obsolete spines, which are blackish j
la aperture toothless j pillar transversely striated. Am-
boyna. Lister, t. 957. f. 9.
hi was- 51. Ovate, striated, with 3 or 5 rows of obtuse
fa m. spines or tubercles 5 aperture transversely striated.
Guinea, India. Martini, iii. t. 99. f. 945 an<^
M tus. 52. Whirls knotty*, aperture violet j lip toothed j
beak straight. New Holland. Martyn’s Univ. Conch,
ii. t. 51.
la 'us. 53. Ovate, transversely striated, and armed with
two rows of compressed spines j spire muricated, and
the whirls keeled. Guinea. Lister, t. 95^* II*
jii \tu$. 54. Ovate, ventricose, with the whirls longitudinally
plaited and striated transversely ; throat violet. E.
Indies. Martini, iii. t. 100. f. 954. and 5.
n fosus. 55. Ovate, transversely striated, and the whirls no¬
dulous ; aperture roundish. W. Indies. Lister, t.
990. b. f. 51.
s-icosus. 56. Small prickly whelk. Tapering, longitudinally
ribbed, and transversely cancellated ; aperture striated;
ribs prickly ; 2 inches long. Indian ocean. Gualteri,
t. 51. f. G.
r vtgena 57. Obovate, glaucous, with a subspinous whirl ;
spire somewhat prominent j aperture smooth ; 5 J inches
long. India, America. Lister, t. 9°4* f* 24.
t aratus 38. Somewhat turbinated, with transverse striae and
spinous belts; aperture subovate. Amboyna. Mar¬
tini, ii. t. 40. f. 400 and 401.
£ itt/. 59. Thick, ventricose, transversely grooved and
knotted ; aperture repand, ovate ; lip sinuous, inward¬
ly plaited and denticulated. India. Chem. t. 160. f.
1516 and 17.
: wni- 60. Ovate, grooved and striated transversely, and
' the upper ends of the whirls flattish and nodulous ; aper¬
ture wide, and lips thickened.
1 trails. 61. Ovate, longitudinally striated, with 4 plaits on
the body, and 3 on the next whirl; whirls channelled,
and the outer lip undulated.
***** With a long, straight, subulate, closed beak,
and unarmed with spines.
1 ytonius 62. Tapering, with acute spotted belts, and straight
tail; lip cleft; 4 inches long. Indian and American
islands. Lister, t. 717. f. II.
J onus. 63. Tapering, with immaculate knotty belts ; lip
with a separate scoop. India. Chem. xi. t. 190. f.
1827 and 28.
e lus> 64. Longitudinally plaited ; and transversely rib¬
bed *, spire a little prominent; aperture ovate ; lipcre-
nulated. Martini, iv. t. 150. f. 1396 and 1397*
1 'atulus 65. Somewhat turreted and coronated, with decus¬
sated striae and prickly nodules ; whirls excavated at
the sutures; outer lip with a notch at the summit, and
the beak short and obtuse. Guinea. Chem. xi. t. 190.
f. 1550 and 1551.
6 'osus. 66. With longitudinal plaits and transverse grooves,
and an elevated belt at the sutures ; outer lip with a
O L O G Y.
notch at the summit, and the beak short and obtuse.
Red sea. Chem. xi. t. 190. f. 1829 and 1830.
67. With longitudinal grooves and transverse gra- virgimcus
nutated strise ; whirls with a belt at the sutures; outer
lip sinuated ; beak short. Guinea. Chem. xi. t. 190.
f. 1835 and 1836.
68. Tapering, striated, knotty ; carinated, with a coins.
long straight beak ; lip crenulated ; beak 3 inches
long. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 917* I0*
69. Oblong, angulated, nodulous, with decussatedJenestra-
strite, and the interstices excavated ; outer lip double tus.
and toothed ; beak rather short and straight. Chem.
x. t. 161. f. 1536.
70. Smooth, with the whirls concave above and con- tornatus.
vex below ; outer lip with a notch at the summit, and
the beak rather long.
71. Black, with a white band; beak dilated; y\\-morio.
lar wrinkled ; whirls knotty ; 6 inches long. Africa.
Lister, t. 988. f. 22.
72. Beak dilated; whirls of the spire flat above.cochlidium
Indian ocean. Chem. x. t. 164. f. 1569.
73. Beak long, spire mucronated ; whirls convex spirillus.
above. Tranquebar. Martini, iii. t. 115. f. 1069.
74. Beak dilated ; whirls of the spire separated by cawo/zcw-
a small canal. Canada, Frozen sea. Lister, t. 878.^^.
f. 2.
75. With the body ventricose, and armed at thecanca.
shoulder with large compressed nodules ; aperture di¬
lated ; beak long. Lister, t. 880. f. 3. b.
76. Beak dilated ; whirls separated by a small ca-jicus.
nal; first crowned with knobs at the base. Red sea.
Martini, iii. t. 66. f. 741.
77. Subovate, with 6 rounded whirls, and transverse c/owfo?-
minute longitudinal striae; aperture toothed ; outer lip
double, ending in a straight somewhat produced beak.
Lister, t. 940. f. 36.
78. Ventricose, beak dilated; spire crowned withari/am/J.
spines. New Guinea. Martini, iv. vig. 39. p. 143.
f. D. \
79. Beak dilated and repand; spire recurved andperversus.
slightly crowned. American ocean. Exceedingly rare.
Lister, t. 907. f. 27.
* 80. Beak dilated; shell oblong; 8 round whirls,antiquus.
first ventricose ; 4 to 6 inches long. European seas,
Scotland. Donovan, t. 31.
* 81. Oblong, striated, and somewhat rugged ; heakdespectus. ■
dilated; whirls 8, with two elevated lines ; 5 inches
long. European seas, shores of Britain. Don. t. 180.
* 82. Oblong, with 8 whirls, angulated, and strongly
keeled transversely ; aperture dilated ; beak short, quatus.
Britain. Don. t. 117.
83. Ovate-oblong; beak dilated ; whirls ventricose
a little angular and longitudinally striated ; 7 inches
long. Greenland seas. Martini, iv. t. 138.
84. Ventricose, umbilicated, transversely striated ;
whirls of the spire with parallel ribs; the first large.
Straits of Magellan. Chem. x. t. 164. f. I57°*
85. Ventricose, turreted, with parallel mevnhrana.-larnellosus
ceous longitudinal ribs, and transverse striae ; beak
short. Falkland Islands. Chem. xi. t. 90. f. 1823
and 1824.
86. Ventricose, oblong, smooth, with rounded whirls 'ttritonif. ■
aperture toothed; beak short; 16 inches long. India
and the South seas.—-This shell is used by the natives
of ■
443
of New Zealand as a musical Instrument, and by tlie
Africans and many nations of the East, as a military
horn. Lister, t. 959. f. 12.
nerd. 87. Ventricose, with alternate varices, decussated
striee, and transverse nodulous ribs 5 inner lip with a
transverse callosity, and the beak short. South sea.
Lister, t. 960. f. 13.
flscellum. 88. Ovate, longitudinally plaited, and transversely
ribbed ; outer lip double, and toothed ; beak short.
Coasts of Pulo Condore. Chem. x. t. 160. f. 1524.
virgatus. 89. Ovate, longitudinally plaited, nodulous, and trans¬
versely ribbed 5 aperture ovate, and the outer lip tooth¬
ed within. E. Indies. Martini, iv. t. 123. f. 1441
and 1442.
ampluslre 90. With dark blue, yellow, and white hands, and
transverse, tuberculated keel, near the margins of the
whirls; beak short and straight, and the pillar three
plaited. Friendly Islands. Chem. xi. t. 191. f.
1841.
push. 91. Ventricose, oblong, smooth ; spire striated with
rounded whirls ; aperture smooth ■, beak short ; if
inch long. Mediterranean and Africa. Rare. Lis¬
ter, t. 914. f. 7.
tulipa. 92. Ventricose, oblong, smooth j whirls rounded with
a double suture ; pillar with two plaits \ beak dilated,
striated. South America. Lister, t. 910. f. I.
clatkratus 93. Oblong beak, and grooved with longitudinal
membranaceous plaits. Iceland. Lister, t. 926. f.
J9.
nassa. 94. Solid, black or pale brown, with a white sub-
diaphanous band ; whirls knotty, pillar a little plaited.
Lister, t. 828. f. 50.
scala. 95. Umbilicated, with distant, wedged, ribbed, and
transversely striated whirls $ aperture heart-shaped.'
E. Indies. Martini, iv. vig. 37. p. 1. f. a, b, c.
corona. 96. Fastigiated with brown and yellowish bands •,
beak straight, entire. Mexico. Chem. x. t. 161. f.
1526 and 1527.
dolariutn. 97* Ovate, with a few elevated obtuse belts on the
whirls; size of a walnut. Portugal. Martini, iii. t.
118. f. 1087 and 1088.
corneus. * 98. Oblong, slender, white; margins of the whirls
complicated ; aperture toothless ; 3 inches long. Bri¬
tish and North seas. Don. t. 38.
lignarius. 99. Oblong, coarse, with obtusely knotty whirls;
aperture toothless; beak short. South of Europe,
Bonanni, t. 3. f. 32.
trapezium 100. Oblong, obtusely angular, with slightly knotty
whirls ; aperture toothed’; 6 inches long. Indian ocean.
Lister, t. 931. f. 26.
pvgilinus. 101. Solid, ventricose, smooth, with an oblong oval
aperture ; beak and crowned spire striated ; 4 inches
long. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 885. f. 6. b.
scolymus. 102. Thin, diaphanous, ventricose, and transversely
striated ; middle of the beak smooth ; spire with ob¬
tuse, undulated knots ; pillar 3 plaited. Martini iv
t. 142. f. 1325.
fasrpa. 103. Ventricose, longitudinally ribbed; ribs trans¬
versely striated ; spire a little prominent; whirls dis¬
tant. Martini, iv. t. 142. f. 1328. and 1329.
tuba. 104. Fusiform, transversely striated ; white, with a
brown tip to the spire, which has 8 whirls distant, and
crowned at the base with knots. China. Martini iv
t. 143. f. 1333.
Chap. I\
105. Oblong, with striated plaited whirls, coveredsyract/j.
with tuberculated ridges ; aperture toothless ; beak anus,
short. Mediterranean ; rare. Bay of Naples. Chem.
x. t. 162. f. 1542. and 1543.
106. Oblong, with rounded, plaited, and transverse-mtf/caA
ly reticulated whirls ; aperture toothed, striated within, fz/s.
Mediterranean. Lister, t. 919. f. 13.
107. Nearly without a beak ; fusiform, smooth, pale,scnjofej,
with longitudinal brown striae ; lip toothed ; very small.
Mediterranean.
108. Transversely striated, with distant undulately tmzafa.
tuberculated whirls; aperture oblong; beak straight;ww.
4 inches long; yellow. Ternate island. Lister, t.
892. f. 82.
109. Umbilicated, undulately knotty; strise ele-infundik
vated, brown ; perforation funnel-shaped; pillar two-Aw.
plaited ; 4 inches long. W. Indies. Lister, t. 921.
f- ^ T .
no. Ventricose, undulated with tubercles; striated,po/ygoro,I
grooved, and obtusely angled; black, with an oval
aperture, and short beak; 3^ inches long. Indian
ocean. Martini, iv. t. 140. f. 1306. to 1309.
m. Solid, ventricose, with waved angles; and wnefotos,:
finely striated transversely ; spire mucronate; whirls
knotty at the base ; lip denticulated ; 8J inches long ;
ponderous. India. Chem. xi. t. 192. f. 1851. and 2.
112. Narrowed; whirls of the spire transversely Ancfff.
ribbed, and longitudinally crenated ; aperture ovate ;
ribbed with white within, and toothed at the margin ;
pillar two-plaited. Amboyna. Martini, iv. t. 145. f.
I347-
113. Subcylindrical; spire obtuse; whirls round vermlm
and striated ; lower ones mostly glabrous. India.
Martini, iv. t. 146. f. 1348.
114. Umbilicated and surrounded with belts; mid-verruca-
die ones more raised; whirls crowned with tubercles,
which are spotted with brown. Red sea. Martini,
iv. t. 146. f. 1349. and 1350.
115. Thin, transversely striated; spire mucronate ‘,striatulu
whirls round ; lip crenulated ; 4 inches long. Martini,
iv. t. 146. f. 1351. and 1352.
116. Rounded, white, with violet spots, longitudi-7?ar</fl/!Z*|'
nally ribbed, and transversely striated ; spire obtuse.
Martini, iv. t. 149. f. 1384.
117. Oblong, ventricose; whirls with a striatedvalpinn
margin; aperture glabrous ; beak short, and bent out¬
wards. Born. t. 11. f. 10. and 11.
118. Whirls of the spire with decussated ribs, the cmzwwij
first large, three outermost smooth ; lip toothed out¬
wardly ; very small. Sandy shores of India. Spengler,
119. Nar row, transversely striated ; spire macro-maroc- ||
nated ; whirls distant, contrary, round, and longitudi-fewsfs.
nally ribbed ; beak prominent ; 1J inch long. Shores
of Morocco. Chem. ix. p. i. t. 105. f. 896.
120. Oblong, whitish, with transverse, reddish]
stria:; beak short, straight. New Zealand. Chem.
x. t. 164. f. 1572.
1 21. A little tapering; whirls carinated above, mar-perron. I
gined and flattened ; beak long and straight. Southern
ocean. Chem. x. t. 164. f. 1573.
122. Ovate, angular, iridescent ; longitudinally^mW1-1
grooved and plaited; beak short; lip denticulated.
India, and South seas. Chem. x. t. 169. f. 1635.
128. Ribs
CONCHOLOGY.
449
Cl p. IV. CONCH
0lu')a- 123. Hibs longitudinally plaited, and transversely
w, grooved j angular, spinous, carinated ; alternately va¬
ried with white and brown j whirls suddenly diminish¬
ing; beak short, straight. Pulo Condore. Chem. x.
t. 169. f. 1637. and 1638.
'?ai, us. * 124. Ventricose, white with acute longitudinal ribs ;
beak rather short and slightly ascending. Frith of
Forth. Donovan, t. 169. f. 1.
m * 125. Turreted, with longitudinal ribs interrupted by
a flat space at the sutures, and transversely striated ;
beak rather long and slightly ascending. Britain.
Montagu, t. 15. f. 5.
ytt talus* 126. Fusiform, with the whirls subcontinuous, and
nine equidistant strong ribs ; beak rather long and
straightish. West of England. Montagu, t. 9. f. 6.
nil z. * 127. Turreted, with longitudinal ribs, and minutely
reticulated ; beak short and slightly bent. West of
England. Montagu, t. 15. f. 6.
tos us. * 128. Oblong, with 8 longitudinal elevated ribs ;
beak very short and obsolete. Britain and Norway.
Don. t. 91.
pn TIM#. * 129. Oblong, with about II longitudinal elevated
ribs ; beak short, and rather spreading at the end.
Scotland. Montagu, t. 30. f. 8.
»f/ tgw- * 130. Oblong, with 7 longitudinal continuous ribs,
hi scarcely interrupted by the sutures ; beak short. West
of England. Montagu, t. 9. f. 5.
tut ula. * 131. Turreted, with longitudinal plaits and trans¬
verse striae; whirls subcylind'rical, and flattened at
their upper extremities ; beak short and broad. Bri¬
tain. Montagu, t. 9. f. 1.
rUj , * 132. Turreted, with longitudinal plaits and trans¬
verse striae, and the whirls convex. England and S.
Wales,
M ms, * 133. Turreted, with 7 longitudinal ribs, and minute
transverse striae ; beak very short ; upper angle of the
outer lip channelled. Weymouth. Montagu, t. 9. f. 8.
hrt "is, * 134, With about 9 longitudinal ribs, dotted by ele¬
vated striae; and the whirls convex; outer lip crena-
ted ; beak slightly produced. West of England. Mon¬
tagu, t. 9. f. 4.
Mirevs* 135. Oblong, acuminated, with convex cancellated
whirls; pillar striated and somewhat tuberculated ;
outer lip crenated. Devonshire, Montagu, t. 9. f. 3.
Hi Wtl/j * 136. Oblong and very rough; whirls ventricose,
with longitudinal ribs, and transverse elevated striae,
forming tubercles at their intersections; beak long and
narrow. Devonshire. Montagu, t. 9. f. 2.
Mrwj- * IS?- Minute, with 5 spirally striated whirls and re¬
mote ribs ; beak closed. Pembrokeshire.
k
us.
k
****** Tapering, svbulate, with a very short beak.
138. Ventricose, with four granulated ribs, of which
the uppermost is tuberculated ; pillar with one tooth,
and the beak ascending, W. Indies. Lister, t. ici8«
f. 80,
139. Whirls of the spire plaited above ; pillar plait¬
ed within) beak ascending; three inches long. India.
Lister, U 1021. f. 85, b,
14a. Whirls of the spire tuberculated, with a spi¬
nous streak in the middle; pillar with a single plait;
beak ascending ; four iuchea long. Southern ocean,
Red sea, Atlantic, Lister, t, 1017. f. 19.
141, Ventricose ; spire transversely striated; whirls
Vqu VI. Part II. 7 f
O L O G Y.
longitudinally plaited and knotty ; aperture oval. E.
Indies. Martini, iv. I. 157. f. 1488.
142. Transversely striated, with large pointed no-tuberosus
dules on the lower part of the whirls ; outer lip strong¬
ly grooved, and the beak slightly recurved. Amboyna.
Lister, t. 1025. f. 87.
143’ Ventricose, with transverse striae, and & row adansoni.
of conical tubercles on each whirl; outer lip crenulated.
River Gambia. Gualteri, t. 57. f. B.
144. Turreted, transversely striated, with the ionvuncinatus.
lower whirls armed in the middle with booked spines,
and the yth and 6th ribbed, and the others glabrous.
Schroeter, t. 8. f. 15.
145. Turreted, with transverse striae, and two tnhor-atratus.
culated belts on each whirl; outer lip striated within,
and the beak nearly straight. Born, t. II. f. 17 and
18.
146. Transversely striated, with spinous plaits he- alucoides.
low the middle of the whirls, and crenulated above ;
beak slightly recurved. Mediterranean. Lister, t.
1019. f. 82.
I47‘ Turreted, angulated, and transversely striated ; eie/nm/s.
whirls nodulous in the middle ; outer lip sinuous.
Friendly islands. Chem. x. t. 162. f. 1548 and 1549.
148. Whirls crenulated ; the upper striae denticu-yh^ca/w#.
lated. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 1 21. f. 1 7.
149. Wh iris of the spire with a slightly knotty xono torulosus.
above; beak short. East Indies. Lister, t. 121. f.
16.
150. Whirls of the spire tuberculated, with a &ouh\e radula.
row of punctured striae. Africa. Lister, t. 122. f.
26.
151. Turreted, with two granulated ribs below, and margina*
a large compressed tuberculated belt at the upper ex- tits.
tremity of the whirls ; pillar with one plait. East
Indies. Linn. Tr. viii. t. 4. f. 6.
152. Turreted, with longitudinal striae, and two trans-ssrniitts.
verse serrated ribs, of which the upper is largest; ser-
ratures spinous, and compressed. Friendly islands. It
is also found fossil. Martyn’s Univ. Conch, ii. t. 58.
I53- Whirls of the spire grooved, transversely stri-ospfr.
ated and muricated. Guinea. Lister, t. 120. f. 84.
154. Rough, with decussated tubercles; beak acute,
ascending ; 2 inches long; white. India. Martini,ta*.
iv. t. 157. f. 1492.
I55‘ Ovate, turreted, with longitudinal plaits and sulcaius.
transverse ribs ; beak straight, very short and tubular.
Molucco islands. Lister, t. 121. f. 85.
156. Turreted, ventricose, with numerous dotted h'tteratus.
muricated striae 011 each whirl ; upper striae tubercu-
lated. Guadaloupe. Born, t. il. f, 14.
* 157" ^ urreted, with longitudinal ribs, and four trans-re7?c7z/a-
verse grooves on each whirl, forming uniform tubercles*?/.?,
all over. Britain. Da Costas’s Brit. Conch, t. 8. f.
i3‘
158. Transversely striated, and surrounded whhfubercv-
glabrous knots ; lip thickened. Britain. Linn. Tran. A/mj.
viii. p. 150.
* 1S9- Turreted, with the whirls reversed, and on each ad versus,
3 transverse rows of tubercles, of which the middle one
is smallest. Britain. Walker, f. 48.
* 160. Turreted, with two rows of tubercles, divided
by a depressed line in each whirl. Sound of Mull,
Scotland. Montagu, t. 30. f. 6.
3 L 161,
450
CONCH 0L0GY,
Chap. IV
decdhtus 161. Turreted, and the summit truncated, with lon¬
gitudinal plaited ribs, and transverse strise.
clava. 162. Transversely striated and spotted ; whirls with
plaited knots; lip double, dilated. Pulo Condore.
Chem. x. vig. 22. p. 233. f". A ar?d B.
hcxagonus 163. Yellowish, hexagonal, with transverse, granu¬
lated striae j first whirl tuberculated. South sea j and
is often found fossil. Chem. x. t. 162. f. 1554 and
I555* . .
atratus. 164. Black ; whirls transversely striated and tuber¬
culated ; pillar with one plait. Born, t. 11. f. 17 and
18.
Trodius. Gen 27. Trochus.—Top Shell.
Gen. Char'.—The animal a limax : shell univalve, spi¬
ral, more or less conic j aperture somewhat angular
or rounded \ the upper side transverse and con¬
tracted ; pillar placed obliquely.
Species.
niloticus.
maculatus
pcrspect;'-
qus.
eruciatus.
pharonis.
magus..
modulus.
sealer,
varius.
cinerarias
divarica-
ius.
umbilica-
ris.
Solaris.
ifstum.
* Erect, and umbilicated.
1. Conic, smooth, somewhat umbilicated ; a large
ponderous shell, with oblique, red, perpendicular striae.
Indian ocean. Lister, t. 620. f. 6.
2. Conic, tuberculated, with an oblique perforation $
inner lip two-lobed. Asia, South America. Lister, t.
632. f. 20.
3. Convex, obtuse, margined ; the umbilicus pervious
and crenulated ; 2| inches long. Asia, Africa. This
is a very beautiful, shell. Amboyna. Lister, t. 636.
f. 24.
4. Convex, with calla-punctured striae ; pillar one¬
toothed. Mediterranean. Chem. v. t. 171. f. 1674.
5. Obovate, striated j marked with concatenated,
globular dots; aperture and pillar toothed; umbilicus
crenated. European and .Asiatic seas. Lister, t. 637.
f. 25.
* 6. Convex, obliquely umbilicated •, ridges of the whirls
rising into obtuse tubercles. European and African
coasts, Britain. Don. t. 8. f. 1.
7. Plaited above, and more convex beneath ; aper¬
ture ovate and i-toothed. Red sea. Lister, t. 653.
f. 52.
8. Subovate} grooves moniliform and alternately
larger ; shell black j aperture yellowish. Chem. v. t.
171. f. 1667.
9. Obliquely umbilicated ; convex ; whirls slightly
margined. Mediterranean. Schroeter, i. p. 659.
* 10. Ovate, obliquely umbilicated j whirls rounded j
size of a pea. Shores of Europe. Britain. Don. t.
74/, upper and lower figures.
11. Ovate, subumbilicated j perforation nearly shut
up 5 lowest whirl more remote. Mediterranean and
Greenland seas. Schroeter, i. p. 660.
12. Conico-convex 5 perforation pervious, exactly
cylindrical ; whirl slightly emarginated. Shores of
Europe. Chem. v. t. 171. f. 1666.
13. .Convex, conic \ whirls spinous and marginated j
aperture semi-heart-shaped; 2 inches diameter. India!
New Zealand, and America. Lister, t. 622. f. 9.
14. Depressed, oblique ; white with brown lines •
spire transversely striated, and longitudinally ribbed •
first whirl ventricose j aperture orbicular ; body whirl
large $ pillar brown. W. Indies, Isle of France. Lis¬
ter, t. 653. f. 51.
15. Conic, white spotted with red 5 whirls round,
with moniliform belts ; first whirl only perforated. In¬
dia. Lister, t. 631. f. 18.
16. Subequal, mucronate j whirls 9, spinous be- spinom.
neath ; on each side a linear band of white and blackr
with a triple row of knots. New Zealand. Chem. v^
t. 167. f. 1611.
17. Lateritious, spotted with white j the base fatjujulinu
with concentric lines of concatenated dots j whirls
channelled, tesselated at the lower margin with white
and chesnut. South America. Chem, v. t. 167. f.
1612 and 1613.
18. Plaited with knots, transversely striated, with alveart,
belts of concatenated dots ; perforation funnel-shaped j
pillar crenulated. India. Gualteri, t. 60, f. P.
19. Base and continued perforation funnel-shaped j concaw,
whirls contiguous, undulated and plaited $ aperture
denticulated at the margin ; 2 inches broad. India.
Coromandel. Chem. v. t. 168. f. 1620 and 1621.
20. Surrounded with granulations and knots, green, vernalk
and whitish towards the tip j the tip varied with black
dots. India, and bay of Naples. Chem. v. t. 169. f.
1625 and 1626.
21. Covered with white, greenish, and buflf-coloured cwttjwm
spots 3 tip with red and black ones 3 base white, spot¬
ted with red; within pearly; whirls with many rows
of knots 3 lower margins glabrous. India. Chem. v.
t. 169. f. 1627.
22. Wrinkled and plaited 3 whirls knotty beneath, tatforuffi
with concatenated dots in the middle ; whirls distant 3
perforation funnel-shaped. India. Chem. v. t. 169.
f. 1628.
23. Wrinkled and plaited, obliquely crenated andochroleu.
transversely striated 3 base flat 3 white with red dots. cus.
India. Chem. v. t. 169. f. 1629.
24. Plaited and wrinkled, sea-green 3 whirls with stellatus.
concatenated dots ; upper ones with a radiated spinous
margin. India. Chem. v. t. 169. f. 1630.
25. Surrounded with rows of ochraceous knots and spengltri
granulations, waved with red ; one part of the base
smooth. Chem. v. t. 169. f. 1631.
26. Dots elevated, concatenated ; whirls with oblongcoJfoM.
white knots beneath, and intermediate purple grooves.
Chem. v. t. 169. f. 1633 and 1634.
27. Rough, with unequal dots and granulations
many rows of knots on the whirls 3 tubercles larger on
the marginal row. Mozambique and Zanguebar. Chem.
v. t. 170. f. 1635 ant* i636.
28. White, with a rosy shade 3 transversely striated, rcjntf#
with many rows of knots; margin of the whirls pro¬
minent 3 perforation funnel-shaped. Chem. t. 170; f.
1637.
29. White, radiated with purple ; conic 3 margin ofrerrucot
the whirls knotty 3 perforation funnel-shaped. E. In¬
dies. Chem. v. t. 170. f. 1638.
30. Brownish, cylindrical; whirls convex, marked
with transverse striae; perforation crenated. Very cus.
rare. Chem. v. t. 170. f. 1639.
31. Radiated with red; pyramidal 3 whirls \tiihradiate
concatenated dots ; perforation funnel-shaped. South
America and Isle of France. Lister, t. 632. f. 19.
32, Green 3,
4Si
C ap. IV. CONCH
v; dis, 32. Green ; first whirl with 5 rows of knots, second
with 4, the rest glabrous. New Zealand. Chem. v.
t. 170. f. 1643 and 1644.
a 'Btis. 33. Black-brown ; obtusely pyramidal •, smooth }
pillar with one obsolete tooth. China. Chem. v. t.
170. f. 1645. and 1646.
n ,r. 34. Deep black •, whirls fiattish j spire transversely
striated j pillar l-toothed. China. Chem. v. t. 170.
f. 1647.
ilmu 35. Whirls of the spire ochraceous, with spotted
tubercles 5 and with an intermediate, spotted, wrinkled
groove. Fernambuca. Chem. v. t. 170. f. 1648 and
l649*
j vosus. 36. Ochraceous, varied with black at the tip j py¬
ramidal and transversely striated ; whirls of the spire
flattish margin tumid and spotted with red ; very
small. Shores of Morocco. Chem. v. t 170. f. 1650
and 1631.
mus. 37. Pyramidal, with chesnut spots and clouds j mar¬
gin of the whirls vaulted and nodulous •, -J to 2 inches
long. Chem. v. t. 170. f. 1652 and 1653.
■ iega- 38. Depressed, varied with white and chesnut j base
i . convex, with a scarlet ring marked with deeper spots.
Cape. Chem. t. 171. f. 1661 and 1662.
1 Ims. 39. Depressed, white spotted with red ; whirls trans¬
versely striated and plaited, distant; pillar i-toothed ;
^ inch long, lied sea. Chem. v. t. 171. f. 1663 and
1664.
wssus. 40. Whitish, radiated with red, and red at the tip ;
depressed ; whirls surrounded with a belt of moniliform
dots. Chem. v. t. 171. f. 1668 and 1669.
its. 41. Pale brown ; base subconvex ; whirls smooth,
obsoletely striated transversely ; perforation white, fun¬
nel-shaped. Chem. v. t. 171.1. 1670.
wnlan- 42. Pellucid, flesh-colour; base convex; whirls 6;
m. convex and finely striated transversely. Greenland.
Chem. v. t. 171. f. 1671.
tricatus 43. Ovate-subumbilicated, and armed with pointed
tubercles. Mediterranean. Gualteri, t. 64. f. H.
sus. 44. Convex, rosy, grooved ; perfoi’ation very minute ;
shell small. Cape of Good Hope. Chem. v. t. 171.
f* l675- ... * .
[liolatus* 43. Depressed, brown, with whitish spots ; very mi¬
nute. England and Scotland. Montagu, t. 10. f. 4.
riduhis. 46. Greenish, obliquely radiated with white; whirls
convex, with a belt of moniliform granulations ; pillar
toothed. Chem. v. t. 171. f. 1677.
'banus. 47. Convex, with numerous rows of granulations;
perforation denticulated ; aperture crenulated. Chem.
v. t. 171. f. 1679.
’ineensis 48. Clouded with brown and gray ; rows of granu¬
lations numerous, with knots ; aperture crenated ; per¬
foration toothed ; 6 lines long. Guinea. Chem. v. t,
171. f. 1680,
Metis. 49. Depressed, pale flesh-colour, with crowded mo¬
niliform belts of granulations; perforation large ; 1-
toothed. Chem. v. t. 171. f. 1682.
'ielatus. 30. Transversely striated ; whirls distant; numerous
square spots on the spire. European seas.
adratus 31. Subovate, tesselated and transversely stniated ;
whirls shelving at the upper margin, and more perpen¬
dicular below. Mediterranean. Chem. v. t. 171. f,
1683.
mcus, 52. Convex, chesrmt; whirls of the spyre convex,
O L O G Y.
the outer one saffron-coloartd. Africa. Chem. v. t. 171.
f. 1684.
33. Depressed, convex, with oblique violet rays 'yobliquatvs
whirls convex. Mediterranean. Pennant, iv. t. 80.
f. 106.
34. Convex, chesnut; whirls with a fillet, \ax\eAvittatus.
with red and white at the upper margin. Chem. v. t.
171. f. 1687. ...
33. Conic-convex; whirlsunarmed; aperture semi-
heart-shaped ; perforation spiral; scarcely 1 inch high.
India. Chem. v. t. 172. f. 1697 and 8.
36. Depressed, chesnut; whirls transversely stria- infundibu-
ted and crenated, with rows of granulations ; perfora- lifornas.
tion pervious, crenulated. Chem. v. t. 173. t. iyo2.
and 3.
37. Straw colour; whirls convex, with decussated strami-
striae separated by a groove ; pertoration pervious, neus.
Tranquebar. Lister, t. 633. f. 23.
38. Convex, transversely striated ; white, with square areola.
reddish spots ; perforation crenulated, whirls of the
spire separated by a white streak. Chem. v. t. I73" ^
1710 and 11.
39. Greenish yellow, with longitudinal plaited ribs inermis.
terminated by a spine ; aperture compressed ; perfora¬
tion wrinkled, W. Indies. Chem. v. t. 173. f. 1712
and 13.
60. Conic, olive, covered with rows of raised violet impcrialis
scales ; whirls inflated, with a spinous radiate margin;
spire with 7 whirls ; large. South seas. Chem. v. t.
173. f. 1714.
61. Depressed, straw colour, with darker r\hs', planus.
whirls of the spire plaited ; perforation pervious. Chem.
v. t. 174. f. 1721 and 2.
62. Conic ; white, with oblique brown bands ; albtdus.
whirls channelled near the suture. Born, t. 11. f. 19
and 20.
63. Conic ; base greenish gray, spotted with brown ',fuscatu$.
whirls round, flattish at the suture. Born, t. 12. f. 1.
and 2.
64. Conic, red, dotted with white; slightly perfo-
rated; whirls round, the first with 13* the next with
6 X’ows of tubercles ; 6 whirls in the spire ; 4 lines long.
Senegal. Chem. v. t. 163. f. I371*
63. Very thin, and of a wax colour; first whix-1fragilis.
large, with a brown band in the middle. Schroeter, t.
3. f. 16.
66. Obtusely pyramidal ; 4 elevated contiguous
whirls, tumid at the margin, in the spire. Saxe-Wei-
mar. Chem. ix. part 2. t. 122. f. I301,
67. Pyramidal, with flattish whirls, separated by a cinercus.
very depressed suture, and the umbilicus cylindrical;
base concave. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 633. f.
21.
68. Conical, smooth, with the whirls rounded, andfasciatus.
flattened at their upper margins ; umbilicus deep, and
the outer lip crenulated. Born, t. 12. f. 2.
69. Depressed, transversely striated, and slightlyperspecti-
granulated ; umbilicus pervious and crenated; ayev-yivnculus.
ture roundish. Chem, v. t. 173* ^ I7°^,an^ 9*
70. Convex, with two teeth on the pillar, and the hybridus.
umbilicus crenulated. Mediterranean. Chem. v. t.
173. f. 1702 to 1703.
71. Conical, subumbilicated, coarse, obtusely plait-conchy Ab¬
ed ; pellucid, and the whirls imbricated; base *0^-pkorus.
3 L 2 cave;
452
CONCH
cave ; pillar lip sickle-shaped. St Domingo. Born,
t. 12. t'. 21.
peflatus. 72. Depressed, with transverse equally granulated
striae; base convex; aperture roundish; inner lip
toothed.
pumilio. 73. Conical, with the whirls marginated at their
bases, and the marginal ribs muricated; base sca¬
brous and slightly convex. Africa. Chem. xi. t. 196.
f. 1888.
terresins. * 74. Conical, longitudinally striated; whirls margi¬
nal ed at their bases ; base flat and striated from the
centre. Cumberland and Italy. A land shell. Lis¬
ter, t. 61. f. 58.
bidens. 75. Subconical, somewhat keeled, with 8 finely stri¬
ated whirls ; base convex ; aperture narrow ; outer
lip with 2 teeth, and reflected. Strasburgh. Chem. ix.
part 2. t. 122. f. 1052.
fulmbieus. 76. Subpyramidal, smooth, with the whirls separated
by a deep suture ; aperture roundish. River Huines.
D’Argenville, t. 27. f. 4.
77. Convex, gray, with whitish spots ; whirls flattish;
6 lines long. Senegal. Adanson, t. 12. f. 6.
78. Subovate, convex, depressed ; smooth, reddish,
glabrous ; 2 lines long. Greenland. Olaffsen, N°
Wlj.
afcr.
neritoi-
deus.
** Imperforated, and ej'ect.
vestiarius. 79* Conic, convex, with a gibbous callous base ; a-
perture somewhat heart-shaped ; very small. Mediter¬
ranean and Asia. Lister, t. 560. f. 45.
labio. 80. Ovate, substriated ; pillar x-toothed. Asia, A-
frica, New Zealand. Lister, t. 584. f. 42.
quadnca- 81. Ovate, with transverse nodulous ribs, and 4 mu-
rinatus. ricated transverse keels; aperture silvery, with the
outer lip double and grooved ; pillar toothed. Medi¬
terranean. Chem. xi. t. 196. f. 1892 and 3.
turbinatus 82. Ovate, smooth, and the whirls convex; outer
lip somewhat double ; pillar obsoletely toothed. Medi¬
terranean. Lister, t. 642. f. 33. and 4.
crassus. * 83. Subovate, thick, coarse, with one tooth on the
pillar, and the base by the inner lip white and flatten¬
ed. Britain. Don. t. 71.
tuber. 84. Depressed; whirls somewhat keeled, and knot¬
ted at the upper and lower margin ; 2 inches diameter.
Mediterranean and South America. Lister, t. 646 f
38*
stnatus. * 85. Conic; aperture obovate ; last whirl angular;
minute. Mediterranean, Falmouth. Don. t. 1 c c.
f. 1.
conulus. * 86. Conic, smooth ; whirls separated by a promi¬
nent line. European seas ; Britain. Chem. v. t. 166
f. 1588 and 9.
*i*yphi- * 87. Conic, livid, smooth, transversely striated *
nus. whirls margined. European and African coasts, shores
of Britain. Don. t. 32.
papdlosus. * 88. Conical, thin, whirls rather convex, with trans¬
verse granulated striae; base slightly convex. Britain
Don. t. 127.
virgineus. 89. Subconical, slightly ventricose, with transverse
rows of granules, and red dots, and a band round the
base of the whirls; base convex. New Zealand
Chem. x. t. 165. f. 1581 and 2.
obeliscus. 90. Conic ; surrounded with numerous rows of white
or green moniliform granulations ; pillar i-toothed ;
O L O G \. Chap. V\
2 inches high. India. Chem. v. t. 160. f. 1510 to
12.
91. Pyramidal, with rosy and white stripes, and virgot^
numerous rows of knots ; base with concentric white
and red circles. India. Lister, t. 631. f. 17.
92. Cinereous, variegated with greenish, whitish,
and reddish ; whirls of the spire tuberculated at the
lower margin. Red sea. Chem. t. 161. f. 1516 and
J7*
93. Thin, pellucid, with alternate chesnut and whitediapham
moniliform belts of granulations ; inch high. New
Zealand. Chem. v. t. 161. f. 1520 and 21.
94. Subconical, with granulated transverse striae;
body broad and marginated at the base, which is con¬
vex ; spire acuminated. New Zealand. Chem. xi. t.
196. f. 1896.
95. Covered with a smooth coat, under which it is ms,
bluish and reddish, shining and iridescent. Southern
ocean. Chem. v. t. 161. f. 1522 and 23.
96. Strite decussated ; grooved within ; tip deep red.
South sea. Schroeter, v. f. 10 and 11.
97. Pyramidal, striated, brownish purple. Southelesm.
sea. Born, vii. t. 2. f. D 1. and D 2.
98. Obtusely pyramidal; spotted with greenish.
South sea. Chem. v. t. 161. f. 1526. niuSt
99. Pyramidal ; striated with white and red. Mo-erythn-
rocco. Lister, t. 621. f. 8. leucus.
100. Red, punctulated ; very minute. Morocco.^daia-
Chem. v. t. 162. f. 1530. fUS'
101. Pyramidal, obliquely grooved, plaited and rib-imbma-
bed; whirls a little prominent at the margin. Southd/f.
American seas. Lister, t. 628. f. 14.
102. Ochraceous ; longitudinally grooved; whirlsawjmic-
transversely striated; lip denticulated. South Xme-nus.
rica and W. Indies. Chem. v. t. 162. f. 1534 and
IS3S-
103. Sea-green, with protuberances and oblique scaly ortos.
plaits ; whirls of the spire transversely striated and
grooved in the middle; concave spines on the lower mar¬
gin of the first whirl. Isle of France. Lister, t. 647.
f. 40.
104. Conical, with oblique plaits on the upper part,gibbtro-
a transverse row of tubercles below, and the margins^,
of the whirls spinous. New Zealand. Chem. x. vig.
23. f. A. B.
* 105. Subconical, transversely striated, and the body‘x/c-sm
whirl transversely flattened in the middle ; aperture
roundish. Barbadoes and Britain. Lister, t. 583. f. 38.
106. Slightly conical, with the spire flattened, and obtusus.
the whirjs marginated ; base convex; aperture roundish.
Chem. xi. t. 196. f. 1894 and 1895.
107. Purple, with plaited tuberculated whirls. Qhtm.purpurak
v. t. 162. f. 1538 and 1539. cens.
108. Sea-green, with numerous rows of tubercles fooA/V.
and oblique undulated plaits ; 4 inches long, as broad,
and covered with a horny lid. Cook’s bay. Chem. v.
t. 163. f. 1540.
109. Pyramidal; white, varied with reddish andmemrith
green; whirls spinous ; pillar emarginated, plaited.
Bourbon and Mauritius islands. Lister, t. 625. f. 11.
110. Pyramidal; white; whirls of the spire longb/e/wfrfl'
tudinally ribbed, with transverse moniliform belts otfi/#,
green granulations ; if inch wide. Indian and South
seas. Chem. v. t. 163. f. 1549 and 1550.
m. Ovate,
C tp* iv.
art "osto- in. Ovate, with undulated ribs and transverse striae;
mi whirls ventricose; 2 inches broad and high. South
sea. Chem. v. t. 165. f. 1562 and 1563.
ill sis. 112. Obtusely pyramidal ; black, with a purple hand
at the base; pillar white. China. Chem. v. t. 165.
f. 1564.
asj113. Obtuse; whirls round, with many rows of tu¬
bercles, grooved and transversely striated ; pillar tooth¬
ed. New Zealand. Chem. v. t. 166. f. 1582.
tei atus. 114. Conic, convex, transversely striated, with ob¬
long square spots disposed in rows ; pillar lip spotted
with black. Mediterranean, Africa. Chem. v. t. 166.
f. 1583.
gr atum. iij. Pyramidal, white, variegated with scarlet ; 2
first whirls very large ; 2 inches high. South seas.
Chem. x. t. 170. f. 1654.
tr itus. 116. Smooth, conic, white with a saffron tip. Born,
t. 1 2. f. 11 and ; 2.
h'nsis. 117' Subconical, with the whirls rounded, and the
summit obtuse ; base slightly convex. Inhabits gardens
in southern climates. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 122. f. 1055
and 1056.
gi Jma- 1.18. Rough, with concatenated globules; base con-
tu vex, with concentric, granulated striae ; lip double¬
toothed. Palmerston island. Chem. x. t. 169. f. 1639.
*** Tapering, with an exserted pillar, and falling on
the side when placed vpon the base.
te 'o- up. Imperforated, striated ; pillars spiral ; 4 inches
P1 '• long. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 624. f. 10.
d( iratus 120. Umbilicated, glabrous; pillar with recurved
twisted plaits. South America. Lister, t. 844. f. 726.
te <dlus. 121. Subconical, turreted and glabrous; pillar lip
with 3 plaits, and the inside of the outer lip smooth.
Barbadoes. Lister, t. 844. f. 72.
ersus. 122. Glabrous, imperforated ; whirls reversed ;
small. Mediterranean. Ency. Meth. p. 496.
P' ’fos- 123. Flat at the base ; finely striated transversely ;
whirls reversed ; inch long. Indian seas. Chem.
ix. part 1. t. 113. f. 966.
u> ’latvs. 124. Flat at the base; longitudinally ribbed ; whirls
reversed. Indian shores. Chem. ix. part 1. t. 113.
• f* 967-
vt''ico- 12j. Cancellated, glabrous at the base ; whirls re¬
versed ; upper ones ventricose ; very small. Indian
sands. Chem. ix. part i. t. 113. f. 968.
'lotus. 126. Aperture nearly square; whirls reversed, and
ribbed on each side ; small. Indian sands. Chem.
m , p. i. t. 113. f. 969.
r atus, 127. Whirls with a triple row of prominent dots;
imperforated ; size of a barleycorn. Southern Europe,
Africa.
'ulus. 128. Imperforated ; longitudinally and obliquely
striated; small. Mediterranean. Lister, t. IC18, f.
hi 8l'
I#* 129. Whirls 3, reversed ; convex, smooth, umbili¬
cated. Chem. ix. t. 113. f. 971.
ra, 4 Gen. 28. Turbo, the Wreath.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax : the shell univalve,
spiral,, solid ; aperture contracted, orbicular, entire.
Species.
* Pillar margin of the aperture dilated and imperfo¬
rated.
4-53
1. Roundish, smooth, very obtuse; above ventn-obtusatus.
cose. North seas. Chem. v. t. 185. f. 1854. a. to f.
2. Ovate, glabrous, obtuse; minute. Mediterra-wcrfiorV/e.?.
nean, America. Gualteri, t. 45. f. F.
* 3. Periwinkle; subovate, acute, striated; \no\\ littoreus.
high; finely striated transversely. Shores of Europe ;
Britain. Don. t. 33. f. 1. and 2. The animal of this
species is frequently eaten.
* 4. Subconical, rather obtuse, with the body whirl tenebrosus
ventricose. Britain. Montagu, t. 20. f. 4.
* 5. Subovate, rather obtuse ; whirls ventricose. ISor-pudis.
way and Britain. Don. t. 33. f. 3.
6. Umbilicated, subovate, acute; surrounded with muricatus.
striae of raised dots; pillar margin a little obtuse; an
inch high. Europe, America. Lister, t. 30. f. 28.
7. Transversely grooved; first whirl black, finelyeethiops.
striated; the rest silvery ; lips bordered with brown.
New Zealand. Chem. v. t. 182. f. 1820 and 21.
8. Ovate, thick, with 6 depressed whirls, oi viKichpunctatus.
the 2 lower are very large, and the spire mucronated;
inside brown. Goree. Favanne, ii. t. 71. f. A 1. and
A 2.
9. Subovate, rather ventricose, transversely ribbed,jV/gos*/,?.
and the margin of the pillar flattish. South Wales.
Montagu, t. 20. f. 2.
* 10. Conical, coarse, with 5 rounded obsoletely stri- crassior.
ated whirls, depressed at the suture, and the body
whirl slightly keeled.
* 11. Conical, acute, and the aperture pear-shaped.
Dorset and Devonshire. Dorset. Cat. t. 18. f. 13.
* 12. Subconical, minute, smooth, with 3 whirls, oifulgidus.
which the body one is large, and the apex small and
obtuse. Pembrokeshire.
13. Brownish, reticulated; whirls surrounded with n/co^or/-
belts ; throat golden. Nicobar islands. Chem. v. t. cus.
182. f. 1822 and 23.
14. Smooth, deep black ; whirls distant, with a \\d\-nigerri-
lowed margin. Southern ocean. Chem. v. t. 185. i.mus,
184(5,
** Imperforate and solid.
* 15. Oblong-ovate; strise decussated and raised withaW*.
dots ; very minute. Shores of Europe, Britain. Don.
t. 2. f. I.
* 16. Subconical, with crowded, cancellated st.x\zz,calathis-
forming punctures by their interstices ; with 6 whirls.
Britain. Montagu, t. 30. f. 5.
*17. Ovate, smooth ; variegated with red and white jpaZ/ws.
minute, transparent, glossy. European seas, shores of
Britain. Don. t. 2. f. 2 to 6.
18. Convex, smooth; aperture somewhat singx\\%x.ptrsonatus
India. Rumphius, t. 19. f. N° 1.
19. Ovate, smooth, glossy ; whirls somewhat angu-petholatus.
lar on the upper part. India, South America. Lis¬
ter, t. 584. f. 39..
20. Ovate, striated, with one stria thicker on cochlus.
back. India. Lister, t. 584. f. 40.
21. Conical-ovate, with two rows of white grannies trochfor-
on the body whirl, and one on each whirl of the spire, mis.
Southern ocean. Chem. v. t. 163. f. 1545 and 6.
22. Snbimperforate, with broad radiated spines, o{stellaris,
which there are 12 on the base of the body whirl.
South sea. Chem. v, t. 164. f. 1552 and 3.
23. Subimperforate, with lacinated spines, of which aculeatus,
there
CONCHO LOGY.
454
CONCHOLOGY. Chap.];
(here are 9 very large, and compressed on the body.
Nicobar islands. Chem. v. t. 164. f. aBl^ 7*
stellatus. 24. Stlbpyramidal, yellowish, with the base flatten¬
ed, and the lower margins of the whirls spinous. Chem.
v. t. 164. f. 1558 and 9.
amiatus. 25. Subimperforate, scabrous, with the summit of
the spire depressed, and a spinous rib round the middle
of the lower whirl; base with concentrical somewhat
granulated striae. Bay of Naples. Lister, t. 608. t.
46. a.
chrysosto- 26. Subovate, wrinkled ; whirls surrounded with 2
tnus. rows of vaulted spines j yellowish, radiated with brown.
India. Chem. v. t. 181. f. I797*
tectum- 27. Ovate $ spines obtuse, depressed j beneath pa-
pei'sicum. pillous. India. Chem. v. t. 163. f. 1543 and 4.
pagodus. 28. Conic; spines obtuse, concatenated j striae pa-
pillous beneath } 3 inches high. India. Lister, t.
644. f. 36*
calcar. 29. Nearly imperforated, depressed; whirls rough j
with compressed hollow spines above. India. Chem.
v. t. 164. f. 1552.
rugosus. 30. Subovate, striated j whirls rugged above. Me¬
diterranean, New Zealand. Lister, t. 647. f. 41.
marmora- 31. Subovate, smooth ; 3 rows of protuberances in
tus. the whirls; beak dilated behind. South America.
Lister, t. 587. f. 46.
sarmaticus 32. Convex, obtuse ; whirls knotty above, and se¬
parated by a canal. Asiatic and African seas. Chem.
v. t. 179. f. 1777.
olearius. 33. Ponderous, convex, obtuse, smooth, Angular.
India. Chem. v. t. 178. f. 1771 and 1772.
cornutus. 34. Whirls and spire round, with decussated striee j
the first with 3 rows of imbricated spines ; a large shell.
China. Chem. v. t. 179. f. 1779 and tySo.
radiatus. 35. Bugged j whirls round, distant, transversely
striated, and armed with small imbricated spines. Bed
sea. Chem. v. t. 180. f. 1788 and 1789.
imperialis. 36. Glabrous, glossy green ; within snowy ; aper¬
ture silvery ; pillar lip callous above $ whirls of the spire
very convex. China. Chem. v. t. 180. f. 1790.
coronatus. 37. Wrinkled; white, with greenish clouds; tip
orange ; whirls crowned with spines and knots ; pillar
produced into a beak. Seas of Malacca. Very rare.
Chem. t. 180. f. 1793.
canaltcu- 38. Grooved and transversely striated ; whirls 6 ;
latus. very convex. India. Chem. v. t. i8r. f. 1794.
setosus. 39. Whirls of the spire cylindrical ; grooved and
transversely striated. India. Chem. v. t. 181. f. I7QC
and 1796.
sparverius 40. Oblong, with broad, smooth striae; yellowish
spotted with brown. India. Chem. v. t. 181. f. 1798.
moltkia- 41. Silvery grey, with transverse orange and yellow
mis. bands ; whirls of moniliform belts of granulations.
Chem. v. t. 181. f. 1799 and 1800.
spengkri- 42. Variegated white and yellowish; whirls round,
anus. transversely striated, and separated by a canal. Indian
ocean. Very rare. Chem. v. t. 181. f. 1801 and 1802.
castaneus. 43. Transversely striated ; chesnut brown, spotted
with white; whirls 5, surrounded with rows of knots.
South America. Don. v. t. 173.
crenulatus 44. Silvery grey, surrounded with many rows of
knots; aperture milk-white within. Chem. v. t. 181.
f. i8ix and 1812.
semicasta- 45. Conical, minute, with 4 or 5 rounded whirls •
tus.
body minutely striated transversely, and the upper part
longitudinally ribbed.
46. Ponderous, slightly depressed; smoothish and^wafs
obliquely wrinkled ; 4 whirls in the spire ; first round ffof,
and larger ; 2 inches broad and high. New Zealand.
Chem. v. t. 182. f. 1815 and 1816.
47. Pellucid, thin and finely annulated ; first whirl joqpyn!
large, the next with a band varied with red and white, cm.
E. Indian seas. Chem. v. t. 182. f. 1817 and 1818.
48. Transversely grooved ; first whirl black, finely cef/hopil
striated ; the rest silvery ; lips bordered with brown.
New Zealand. Chem. v. t. 182. f. 1820.
49. Brownish, reticulated; whirls surrounded with miroifl: |
belts; throat golden. Nicobar islands. Chem. v. t.m.
182. f. 1822 and 1823.
50. Smooth, with compressed roundish whirls; thecidarh ]
first round and very large ; aperture compressed, sil¬
very; pillar a little prominent. India, China. Chem.
v. t. 184. f. 1840 and 1841.
51. Smooth, nearly subimperforated ; roundish, with/rc/fc/«j l
contiguous convex whirls ; pillar thickened. Born, t.
12. f. 23 and 24.
* 52. Minute, subcylindrical, with 4 rounded whirls; w’fm, j
aperture suboval, and a little contracted at the upper
end. Cornwall. Montagu, t. 12. f. 3.
* 53. Conical, minute, glossy, with 6 rounded andp««cls' ]
finely reticulated whirls. West of England. Mon¬
tagu, t. 12. f. 5.
* 54. Conical, minute, with 5 rounded whirls, and &e-armi < \
cussated striae. Salcomb bay, Devon. Montagu, t.
12. f. 4.
* SS’ Conical, minute, smooth, with 5 flattish tr&ns-mifas • \
versely fasciated whirls ; outer lip expanded. Britain, tus.
Montagu, t. 20. f. 6.
* 56. Minute, subturreted, obtuse, smooth, with 5 or nivosi
6 rounded whirls, and the pillar quite smooth and even.
Devonshire.
* 57. Subconical, small, with about 7 flattish whirls, labisst
and slightly ribbed longitudinally ; aperture expanded,
and the outer lip somewhat reflected. Britain and Ire¬
land. Montagu, t. 13. f. 7.
* 58. Conical, small, acuminated, with about 6 smooth
flattish whirls, and the aperture subovate. Britain.
Dorset. Cat. t. 18. f. 12.
* 59. Conical, minute, with 6 glossy ventricose whirls ; ventr
aperture subovate. Britain. Montagu, t. 12. f. 13. j
* 60. Conical, minute, subumbilicated, with four orsubur, «1
five tumid whirls ; aperture completely ovate. Wey-catus j
mouth. Dorset Cat. t. 18. f. 12. b.
* 61. Conical, minute, with 6 flattish slightly striated M
contiguous whirls, and alternate bands of chesnut
brown and horn colour. Britain. Montagu, t. 12. f. 7.
* 62. Conical, minute, acuminated, with 5 flattish
whirls, and interrupted longitudinal yellowish brown
streaks. Montagu, t. 20. f. 8.
* 63. Conical, minute, with 5 or 6 slightly rounded l1,
whirls, which are transversely striated at both ends,
and plain in the middle. Devonshire.
* 64. Opaque; whirls 5, longitudinally ribbed ; aper-fl/W
ture roundish ; not margined. Pembrokeshire coast.
* 65. Opaque, smooth, with 5 whirls. Cornwall.rtf^
Adams in Linn. Tr. iii. t. 13. f. 21. and 22. .1
* 66. Pellucid, white, with 5 reticulated whirls. Pern-ptlk ^
brokeshire coast. Montagu, t. 12. f. 4.
*** Solid
C p. IV.
455
CONCHOLOGY.
*** Solid and perforated.
pii 67. Conic, rounded, smooth j a small tooth near the
umbilicus j inches broad. In most seas. Lister,
t. 640. f. 30.
M losus. 68. Conical, rounded, with the whirls nodulous, and
striated $ umbilicus toothed. W. Indies. Chem. v.
t. 178. f. 1769 and 70.
au ula- 69. Conical, small, rather smooth $ whirls much
ti. rounded ; aperture oval-ear-shaped.
vi ‘us. 70. Minute, conical, and smooth, with 6 rounded
whirls; summit rather obtuse j aperture suborbicular.
Devonshire. Montagu, t. 20. f. 3.
m 'nfas- 71. Subconical, minute, and smooth ; body-whirl
cji $. somewhat keeled at the base ; pillar lip broad, with a
small groove ending in an umbilicus. Cornwall and
Devon. Montagu, t. 20. f. 7.
30 in- 72. Umbilicated, conic, convex, striated and smooth j
« . whirls slightly grooved ; size of a pea. Africa, and
Bay of Naples. Chem. v. t. 177. f. 1756. and 1767*
u datus. 73. Ovate, convex, with longitudinal undulated
streaks ; spire obtuse j mouth silvery. New Zealand.
Martyn, ii. t. 29.
0 rosto- 74. Subovate, with transversely striated lines on the
t> 1 back. India. Chem. v. t. 177. f. 1760. and 1761.
n, rari- 75. Subovate, with smooth, elevated, dorsal lines.
tt n. Indian ocean. Chem. v. t. 177. f. 1762.
d hnus, 76. Umbilicus rough ; whirls, with branched spines.
India. Chem. v. t. 175. f. 1727. to I735*
t pera- 77. Depressed, knotty j an unequally tuberculated
t ridge on the back of the first whirl. Chera. vi. t. 174.
f. 1723. and 1724.
vilus. 78. Whirls convex, and separated by a band, tes-
selated with brown and white j colour of a medlar.
South sea. Chem. v. t. 176. f. 1740. and 1741.
& wlatus 79. Surrounded with knotty rings $ dirty green,
with a reddish tip. Indian and South seas. Chem. v.
t. 176. f. 1744. to 1746.
^ 'uatus. 80. With a keel and row of nodules, transversely
ribbed, and strongly wrinkled obliquely} pillar lip
broad and white ; with a large umbilicus.
<(us. 81. Black, with double, alternate, black, and cine-,
reous moniliform belts of granulations ; pillar i-toothed j
size of a nut. Nicobar islands. Chem. v. t. 177. f.
1754. and 1755. > i
1 tatus. 82. Depressed, orbicular *, white, varied with brown;
lower margin of the pillar denticulated. Chem. v. t.
178. f. 1767, and 1768.
0 ktfw. 83. Dirty green, varied with brown 5 whirls 4, first
large. New Zealand. A large shell. Chem. v. vig.
43. p. 145. f. A. and B.
{ reus. 84. Smooth, roundish, cinereous 5 whirls substriated,
ventricose, flattened at the suture. Born. t. 12. f. 25.
and 26.
0 'Jit> 85. Transversely grooved, green, with blackish lon¬
gitudinal zig-zag stripes $ within margaritaceous. S.
sea. Martyn’s Univ. Conch, ii. t. 70.
vtus. 86. Slightly mucronated, and covered all over with
smooth spines. Chem. v. t. 175. f. 1737 to 1739.
**** Cancellated.
dlus. 87. Umbilicus flattish, spreading $ whirls round,
. with crenated striae.
wg/w, * 88. Umbilicated, somewhat oblong and obtuse, with
4 round and smooth whirls j minute. Fresh water near
the baths in Tuscany. Britain, Don. iii. t. 102.
89. Wentle-trap ; conic j whirls distant, longitudi-5co/am.
nally ribbed. Var. I. perforated with 8 whirls* 2.
Imperforated with 10 whirls j 2 inches long. Barbary,
Coromandel. Martini, iv. t. 152. f. 1426, I427» 143°»
and 143 r.—The wentle-trap is a very rare shell, and
therefore greatly esteemed among collectors. As a
proof of this, in the year 1753, four specimens, which
were disposed of at the sale of Commodore Lisle’s
shells in London, brought 75I. 12s. Two were sold
at 16 guineas each ; one at 18 guineas, and the fourth
at 23I. 2s. The celebrated specimen lately in the pos¬
session of Mr Bullock, London museum, was brought
from Amboyna by the late William Webber of Black-
heath, wfho once refused the sum of 500I. offered for it
by the late Earl of Bute. It is supposed to be the
finest specimen in any cabinet; and was brought at
the sale of the London museum by a niece of Mr Web¬
ber*, in whose possession it now is, for 27I. 10s.
90. Imperforated, turreted, with 10 contiguous, can-pr/'flajpa*
cellated whirls, and longitudinal ribs. Coromandel./fr.
Chem. x. t. 195. f. 1876 and 1877.
* 91. False wentle-trap; taper, not umbilicated ; s\>\Te clathrus.
with longitudinal ribs j whirls smooth, ventricose, and
separated by a deep canal $ from 1 to 3 inches long.
Indian and European seas, Britain, Falmouth, South
Devon. Don. t. 28.
92. Imperforate, turreted, with rounded subconti-c/a<Am/«-
guous whirls, and thin longitudinal crowded ribs. Bri- las.
tain. Linn. Trans, viii. t* 5. f. 1.
93. Imperforate, turreted, with contiguous whirls,
and strong distant longitudinal ribs, ending in a trans¬
verse keel on the body-whirl. W. Indies. Lister, t.
588.1.50. . .
94. Tapering, perforated ; whirls contiguous j smooth, ambtguus.
ribbed. Mediterranean.
95. Taper, subcancellated j whirls 8-ribbed, conti-crenatus.
guous j crenated above. W. Indies. Chem. v. t. 195.
A. f. 1880 and 1881.
96. Taper j striae crowded, longitudinal^ raised *,/acteM.y.
size of a barley-corn. Mediterranean. Ginarmi, t. 6.
f. 55.
* 97. Tnrreted, with the whirls obliquely ribbed, and-
the aperture somewhat angulated at both ends. Eng-
land and Ireland. Montagu, t. 10. f- 2.
* 98. Turreted, with longitudinal straight ribs ; aper- stmillimus
ture subovate. Island of Jura.
* 99. Turreted, minute, Avith 5 or 6 whirls, and dis-parvus.
tant elevated ribs. Britain. Don. t. 90.
* 100. Turreted, minute, subcancellated, with the striatulus.
whirls contiguous, and interrupted by varicose belts.
Britain and Mediterranean. Montagu, t. 10. f. 5.
* 101. Conical, minute, with rounded Avhirls, and reticvlatus
strongly reticulated. Pembrokeshire. Montagu, t.
21. f. I.
* 102. Turreted, small and glossy, Avith contiguous
ribs, and the aperture ovate. Britain and W. Indies.
Montagu, t- 15. f. 8.
* 103. Turreted, small, with continuous undulated
ribs j and the Avhirls someAvhat crenulated at the suture.
Weymouth. Montagu,, t. 15. f. 2.
* 104. Conical, small, Avith oblique ribs ; whirls fen-denticilla*
ticulated.at the suture. Weymouth. Montagu. tus, -
105... .
456
arcuatus.
striatus.
costatus.
unicus.
indistinc-
tus.
uva.
mumia.
alviarea.
mj h'n dr us.
eroccus.
sulcutus.
corneus.
refUxus.
eiegans.
lineina,
labia.
lunuhtus.
ligatus.
foliaccus.
mrugina-
lus.
earinatus.
separa-
tuta.
rtivvUs,
CONCHOLOGY.
105. Turreted, small, with continuous ribs, which
are arched over at the suture. Guernsey.
* 106. Ovate, imperforated, ventricose ; finely stri¬
ated spirally ; 6 lines long. Woods of Europe, Bri¬
tain. Walker, f. 49.
* 107. Subturreted, minute, with the whirls obliquely
ribbed, and transversely striated j aperture with a
thick sulcated rim. Britain. Montagu, t. 10. f. 6.
* 108. Acuminated, minute, with 9 very convex
whirls, and cancellated striae. Sandwich. Montagu,
t. 12. f. 2.
* 1O9. Subcylindrical, minute, with longitudinal ribs,
and punctured transverse striae in their interstices.
no. Ovate, obtuse j whirls contiguous, imbricated,
and longitudinally striated ; inch long. South Ame¬
rica. Gualteri, t. 58. f. D.
111. Subcylindrical, and obliquely ribbed ; aperture
semi-ovate, 2 toothed ; inside tawney. America. Lis¬
ter, t. 588. f. 48.
112. Cylindrical, obtuse at both ends, and obliquely
striated ; aperture semiovate, one tooth *, with a white
inside. St Domingo. Lister, t. 588. f. 49.
113. Subumbilicated, cylindrical, obtuse 5 longitudi¬
nally striated, with contiguous equal whirls. Jamaica.
Lister, t. 21. f. 17.
114. Cylindrical, glabrous, obtuse, of an orange
colour 5 lip marginated. Chem. ix. Part 2. t. 135. f.
I233*
115* Ovate, obtuse, umbilicated } obliquely striated,
and white ; aperture semiovate; and outer lip reflected.
Ceylon. Lister, t. 588. f. 47.
J16. Umbilicated, rounded, rather acute j whirls
round, with decussated striae ; aperture reflected.
117. Umbilicated, convex, a little prominent; whirls
round, substriated ; aperture reflected. S. Europe.
* 118. Ovate, with 5 ventricose whirls, with strong,
transverse, and fine longitudinal striae. Britain and
Italy. Montagu, t. 22. f. 7.
119. Oblong, obtuse, with wrinkled striae; aper¬
ture with a dilated, flat, crenated border; 8 lines long.
Jamaica. Lister, t. 26. f. 24.
120. Oblong, umbilicated, brown, striated with con¬
vex dots ; lip white, dilated; 15 lines long. Jamaica.
Lister, t. 23. f. 23.
121. White, cylindrical, reticulated; aperture re¬
mote.
122. Subumbilicated, nearly globular, acuminated;
aperture tbickish in the margin. Chem, ix. part 2. t«
I 23. f. 1071. to 1074.
l 23. Trochiform, with foliaceous wrinkles, variega¬
ted with white and rose colour; umbilicus large. Chem.
ix. part 2. t. 123. f. 1069. and 70.
124. .Umbilicated, subovate, wrinkled, and the whirls
transversely marginated and striated, Coromandel.
Chem ix. p. 2. t. 123. f. 1075.
125. Rounded, subpyramidal, with 3 keels on each
whirl, and a large spiral umbilicus, Jamaica : land
shell. Lister, L 28. f. 26.
126. Rather smooth, with 3 keels, and the lower end
of the body-whirl detached ; aperture triangular. E.
Indies. Chem. x. t. 163. f. 1589. and go.
127. Depressed, pellucid, white, with three trans¬
versely striated and slightly attached whirls ; umbili¬
cus large. Nicobar islands, Chem. x. t. 165. f, 1387.
and 8, J ' *
Chap. 11
128. Depressed, white, with longitudinal brown zig- hclicoiX I
zag stripes, and the whirls rounded ; umbilicus deep
and wide. Chem. ix. part 2. t. 123. f. 1067. and 8.
***** Turreted.
129. Whirls of the spire imbricated downwards; 4 imbrich
inches long. American islands. Knorr. vi. t. 25. f. 2.
130. Smooth ; whirls imbricated upwards ; 3 inches
long. Tranquebar. Martini, iv. t. 151. f. 1412.
131. With a single prominent, acute, transverseoc/Angt
rib ; 4 inches long. Tranquebar. Lister, t. 591. laris.
132. Whirls with two prominent, acute, transverse fifep/dci ]
ribs ; 3 inches long. Coromandel, Lister, t. 391. f.
57-
I33* M ith the whirls transversely striated, and an
obtuse rib near both extremities of each. Born, t. 12.
f. 8.
134. With the whirls longitudinally wrinkled, anAobsoUtv,
an obtuse rib on each of the sutures. Lister, t. 389.
f- 53-
* 135- Whirls with two prominent, obtuse, distant,two/dw j
transverse ribs ; 2 inches long. Europe, Guinea, shores
of Britain. Lister, t. 392. f. 60.
* 136. Whirls 6, prominent, acutely striated ; from tenure,
2 to 6 inches long. Shores of Europe, Africa and
China; Britain. Lister, t. 391. f. 37.
137. With about 24 rounded whirls, and ten sharpo/r^/ym
ribs on each. China. Chem. x. t. 163. f. 1591. dis.
138. Whirls of the spire flattish, with 7 obtuse striae; wanVfiJ
2 to 3 inches long. S. America, Barbary. Bonanni,
Rec. 3. f. 1 22.
139* With 10 obsolete striae on each whirl. Eu- unguhn
ropean ocean.
140. Umbilicated, glabrous, and yellow, with a keel terdclln
on each whirl. Nicobar. Chem. x. t. 163. f. 1592 and 3.
141. With a prominent marginated suture. Gual-
teri, t. 38. f. L.
142. With about 12 reversed whirls, and two turris*
rows of nodules on each. Island of St Thomas, Chem. thornet, I I
xi. t. 213. f. 3022. a. to d.
* J43* Pellucid; whirls contrary ; sutures subcrena-&>frflf.
ted ; aperture 2-toothed behind ; i-J inch long. Eu¬
rope ; roots of trees, Britain. Chem. ix. part i, t. 3.
f. 3.
* 144. Pellucid; whirls reversed, not crenated ;pumn 1
aperture 3-toothed ; | inch long. Europe, Britain,*
among moss, and in old walls. Linn. Tr. viii. t. 3. f. 2.
145* Pellucid, and the whirls reversed; pillar Wplamiwi
not detached, and furnished with two large teeth. Eu¬
rope and Britain. Montagu, t. 11. f. 4,
146. Opake, longitudinally striated, whirls reversed ; biplifdt' \
pillar hp slightly detached, and furnished with two ap¬
proximated teeth. Europe and Britain. Montagu, t,
11. f. 5.
147. With the whirls reversed, and the base plaitedcorrvp
and wrinkled; aperture with two teeth, Spain, Chem.fw*.
ix. part i, t, u 2. f. 961. and 2.
* 14^’ Opake, striated, and the whirls reversed ; a per- hibiatv ''
ture with two teeth, and a thick dilated white margin.
Near London. Montagu, t. II. f, 6,
149. Slightly striated longitudinally, and of a grey-qtfinqu
ish white colour ; aperture ovate, with 3 teeth. Timce.dental 1
Born, t. 13. f, 9,
* 150. Subcylindrtcal ; smooth, pellucid ; aperture 3- tridtnt
toothed, Italy, Britain, Montagu, t. u. f, 2.
131,
iap. IV. CONCH
{peri. * 151. Conical, turreted, brown, with the aperture sub-
ovate, and 7-toothed. France and Britain. Montagu,
t. 12. f. 12!
scorum * 152. Ovate, obtuse, pellucid, with 6 whirls j aper¬
ture with a white margin, and nearly toothless, Bri¬
tain. Montagu, t. 22. f. 3.
idri- 1 S3' Subcylindrical, and the whirls reversed ; aper-
tf, tore with 4 white teeth. France and Italy. Lister,
t. 40. f. 38.
denta- * 154. Subcylindrical, smooth, with 5 rounded whirls j
. aperture 6-toothed. England. Montagu, t. 12. f. 8.
•tigo. * 155. Oval, with 5 reversed and finely striated
whirls ; aperture subtriangular } slightly marginated,
and toothed. Denmark, Britain. Montagu, t. 12.
f. 6.
■ychium* 156. Conical, polished, and pellucid j aperture mar¬
ginated, with 2 teeth on the inner, and a knob on the
outer lip. Great Britain. Montagu, t. 22. f. D.
riscal- 157. White, and very smooth ; aperture with a flat-
im. tish, concave, obtuse, reflected lip. Mediterranean.
'dtut. * 158. Imperforated, extremely glabrous, and the
aperture ovate. Mediterranean and West of England.
Don. t. 177.
bulatus. * 159. Subulate, extremely glabrous, white, with yel¬
lowish transverse lines, and the aperture ovate. Bri¬
tain. Don. t. 172.
cussatvs* 160. Subulate, decussated, with longitudinal and
very minute transverse striae ; aperture suboval, and
contracted at both ends. Dorsetshire. Montagu, t.
15. f. 7.
****** Depressed.
mttleus. * 161. Flattish, with the whirls annulated, and crest¬
ed on the back. Germany, Switzerland, and Britain.
Montagu, t. 25. f. 5.
{'status. * 162. Flattish above, and umbilicated beneath, with
3 or 4 rounded whirls. France and Britain. Walker,
f. tS.
•pressus. * 163. Minute, depressed, with 4 slightly wrinkled
whirls, and umbilicated beneath. Devonshire. Mon¬
tagu, t. 13. f. S'
rpuloi- * Minute, depressed, with three smooth whirls,-
’*■ and umbilicated beneath. Devonshire. Montagu, t.
21. f. 3.
eltt.7 Gen. 29. Helix, Snail.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax •, shell univalve, spi¬
ral, subdiaphanous, brittle $ aperture conti’acted, se¬
milunar, or roundish.
Species.
* Whirls longitudinally angulated on both sides.
Wabceus 1. Ovate, both edges keel-shaped •, aperture tootlied.
Mountains of Asia, and the Friendly islands. Lister,
j t. 577. f. 31.
ia. 2. Ovate, thick, obliquely striated, and the aperture
5-toothed. Goree. Adanssn, t. 1. f. 4.
** With a carinated margin on the body whirl.
picida. * 3. Umbilicated •, convex on each side j aperture
transverse, margined, ovate j inch in diameter. Rocks,
woods, and hederes in Europe, Britain. Don. t. 39.
f. 2.
Vol. VI. Part II. f
0 L O G Y. 457
4. Subumbilicated, a little depressed $ oh\\qm\y marginata
striated j aperture transverse; 9 lines in diameter.
Jamaica. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 125. f. 1097.
5. Umbilicated, depressed and wrinkled $ whirls re- cicatncosa
versed. Jamaica and China. Chem. ix. p. 1. t. 109.
f- 923-
6. Umbilicated, convex, with the body whirl sexy cornu.
broad, and the summit obtuse j aperture oval-ear¬
shaped, and the outer lip marginated. New Zealand.
Chem. xi. t. 208. f. 2051 and 2052.
7. Subcarinated, umbilicated, convex •, aperture mar-««//«,?-
gined. Trees in Asia. Lister, t. 55. f* 51* caprt.
8. Umbilicated, slightly keeled, white, with the sum- involvulus.
mit mucronated, and the whirls convex and striated j
aperture roundish, and the lip reflected. It is nearly
allied to the above species.
9. Umbilicated, flat above, and the base gibbous j albella.
aperture semi-heart-shaped.
10. Umbilicated, keeled, with the spire flattened,
and the base gibbous ; aperture quadrangular. Lister,
t. 86. f. 86.
11. Umbilicated, slightly keeled, with 6 strongly/'ofwwrfata.
striated whirls *, spire depressed, and base convex.
Denmark and Norway. Lister, t. 1058. f. 11. A.
12. Subcarinated, umbilicated, convex, striated \striatula.
more gibbous beneath j aperture roundish, lunated j
minute. Water-falls of Lombardy. Algiers.
13. Subangular, umbilicated, convex, whirls 6 j urn- algira.
bilicus pervious. Africa. Lister, t. 79. f. 80.
14. Subcarinated, umbilicated, convex, smooth $ \>e-leucas.
neath gibbous ; umbilicus very minute 5 aperture
roundish, lunate. Africa.
15. Perforated, subcarinated, contrary, convex, pale, Icevipes.
with a rufous band, united to a white one ; inch in
diameter. Guinea. Martini, iv. t. 3* 22 and 23.
16. Perforated, depressed, subcarinated j pale with
a rufous band joined to a white one \ whirls striated *,
10 lines across. Tranquebar. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 129.
f, 1149.
17. Subglobular, depressed, rough, imperforated ; twwfctt-
dotted with white ; lip reflected, white. Italy and Por-/ata.
tugal. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 129. f. 1148.
18. Perforated, subglobular, subcarinated j incarnata
7 j lip flesh-coloured 5 6 lines broad. Woods of Den¬
mark and Germany. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 133. f. 1206.
* 19. Umbilicated, very slightly keeled j rather Ae-canUana,
pressed, with 6 striated whirls, and the umbilicus small.
Britain. Montagu, t. 23. f. I.
* 20. Umbilicated, keeled, romewhat depressed, xsiihrufescesis.
6 transversely striated w'hirls, and the umbilicus rather
large. Britain. Montagu, t. 22. f. 2.
* 21. Umbilicated, slightly depressed j somewhat keel-crem/lata.
ed and striated, and the summit brown. France and
Britain. Montagu, t. II. f. 11.
* 22. Subcarinated, umbilicated, flat} above concave jp/aflO/AA,
aperture oblique j ovate and acute on each side. Ponds
and rivers of Europe and Barbary, Britain. Montagu,
t. 25. f. I.
* 23. Carinated downwards, Umbilitated, convex ; fiatcomp/a-
beneath j aperture, semi-heart-shaped. Ponds and rivers nata.
of Europe. Britain. Montagu, t. 25. f. 4.
* 24. Compressed, obtusely keeled j convex on bothjWatta.
sides, with 3 whirls, and the base umbilicated. Bri¬
tain. Montagu, t. 6. f. 6.
25. Subcarinated, imperforated, convex, with an \a-ringenst
3 M verted,
458
plieata.
verted, ringent aperture; Up 4-plaited behind j if
inch wide. India and Brazil. Lister, t. 99. f. 100.
26. Umbilicated, keeled, and rather depressed-j aper¬
ture ear-shaped ; distorted, toothed, and sinuated, with
a prominent marginated lip. E. Indies. Chem. xi. t.
208. f. 2048.
sinuata. 27. Imperforated, subcarinated, reddish brown, with
a white ridge j aperture transverse ; toothed and 3-
plaited behind ; 9 lines in diameter. America. Lis¬
ter, t. 97. f. 98.
lucerna. 28. Imperforated, white ; flattish above ; beneath
3 lines broad.
CONCHOLOGY. Chap. 1\
aperture lunated. Otaheite. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 133.
f. 1209.
*** Umbilicated, and the whirls rounded.
M. 7 /  
gibbous ; aperture transverse, i-toothed ; 1
E. Indies and Jamaica. Lister, t. 96. f.
97-
 7 y tm
lampas. 29. Imperforated, flattish above, beneath gibbous ;
whirls scared. A rare shell. Chem. ix. t. 2g8. f. 2044
and 2045.
caracolla. 30. Imperforated, a little convex on each side, with
a white transverse lip, India and America. Lister,
t. 63. f. 61.
hjehnu- 31. Imperforated, top-shaped, white, with fulvous
chus. bands ; aperture transverse, 2-toothed. Jamaica. Lis¬
ter, t. 90. f. 90.
cepa. _ 32. Subglobular, umbilicated, subcarinated } yellow¬
ish, with a whitvsh band ; aperture transverse, 2-tooth¬
ed, and sinuated behind. Jamaica. Lister, t. 88. f. 89.
unidentata 33. Subumbilicated, slightly keeled, with 6 whirls
enoing in an obtuse summit 5 base convex, with 1 tooth
on the pillar lip, and the outer lip marginated. Ceylon.
Chem. xi. t. 208. f. 2049 and 1050.
cornu- 34. Subcarinated, imperforated, convex j aperture
militare. with a white margin. India and Germany. Chem. ix.
p. 2. t. 129. f. 1142 and 1143.
pellis-ser- 35. Subcarinated, with flame-coloured, red, and white
pentis. bands 5 beneath surrounded with 4 rows of dots j aper¬
ture fringed. Warm parts of S. America. Lister, t.
66. f. 64.
vortex. 36. Elat, thin, concave above ; aperture oval, flat;
3 lines wide. Ponds and rivers of Europe, Britain.
Montagu, t. 25. f, 3.
scabra. 37. Subcarinated, imperforated, ovate, pointed, and
striated. Jamaica. Lister, t. 583. f. 37.
gothica. 38. Convex on each side; horny, with su’bferruginous
bands. Woods of Sweden. Linnteus, p. 1243.
gualter- 39. Imperforated, depressed, with decussated strife-
mna. aperture acute on each side. India. A land species
very rare. Spain. Chem. v. vig. 44. f. a, b and c
turcica. 40. Umbilicated, depressed, rough, with elevated
cots, and the keel crenated ; aperture somewhat quad¬
rangular. Mogadore and Morocco. Chem. xi. t 2^0
f. 2065 antl 2066. ' *
ave/iana. 41. Umbilicated, roundish, thick, with a broad rib-
hke keel on the body whirl, and the spire depressed ;
outer up notched near the upper end. New Zealand
Chem. v. t.188. f. 1919 and 1920.
maculosa. 42. Umbilicated, subcarinated, obliquely striated and
» little depressed ; aperture 1,mated, with a margined
lip. Born, t. 14. f. 15 and 16. 5
punctata. 43. Subumbilicated, subcarinated, aperture trans¬
verse, oblong j hp margined, 3-toothed. Virginia
Lister, t. 93. f. 93. *
annulata. 44. Umbilicated, depressed, white; whirls 4 the
first gibbous and doubly carinated ; aperture ovate • 2
unes in diameter. Schroeter, t. c. f. q0. ?
corrugata 45. Umbilicated, wrinkled, and obliquely striated ;
*46. Above umbilicated, flat, blackish; whirls '{.cornea.
Fresh waters, Europe, Coromandel, Britain. Don.
t. 39. f. 1.
* 47. Concave on each side, flat, whitish; whirls S,spirorbi\
rounded; if line diameter. Stagnant waters, Fiance,
Germany. Britain. Montagu, t. 25. f. 2.
* 48. Flattish, orbicular ; aperture oval ; lip fringed.jWwwJ
Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 127. f. 1124 and 1125.
* 49. Subumbilicated, flat on each side, equal ; aper- contorta\
ture linear, arched ; 1 to 2 lines wide. Stagnant waters
of Europe. Britain. Montagu, t. 25. f. 6.
* 50. Polished, yellowish, above convex, umbilicated ; nitida,
flat beneath, perforated ; 1 to 3 lines in diameter.
Ditches of Denmark and Britain. Montagu, t. 23. f. 4.
* 51. White, umbilicated on each side ;"aperture di- alba.
lated ; I to 2 lines wide. Denmark, aquatic plants.
Montagu, t. 25. f. 7.
* 52. Pellucid, umbilicated above ; striated with dots, simih's.
Ditches in Denmark and Berlin. Martini, Ber. Mae
iv. t. 11. f. 64.
* 53- W ith 4 rounded whirls, rather convex above, crystalli]
and the base largely umbilicated ; aperture nearly or¬
bicular, with a reflected margin. Denmark and Bri¬
tain. Linn. Trans, t. 5. f. 5.
54* mbihcated, ilattish ; aperture oval ; 12 to 16 cornu*
lines in diameter. China. Lister, t. 136. f. 40. arietis.
55* ‘Subimperforate, ovate, conical, with the two last minii7i(t\
whirls placed in the centre of the first; aperture orbi¬
cular. Schroeter, t. 7. f. 18.
* 56. Umbilicated, convex, hispid, diaphanous ; whirls hhpida.
5; aperture roundish, lunated. Woods of Europe.
Britain. Montagu, t. 23. f. 3.
* 57. Subconical, semi-pellucid, with 5 rounded stn-umbiHca
ated whirls, and the umbilicus very large. Britain.
Montagu, t. 13. f. 2.
58. Subumbilicated, somewhat conical, with 6 gU- trochuh\
brous whirls; aperture sublimated, and transversely
compressed. Denmark and Britain. Montagu, t. 11.
f. 9.
59. Umbilicated, somewhat conical, with 5 trans- acukstal
versely striated whirls, and the strias membranaceous
and bristly. Denmark and Britain. Montagu, t. ij.
f. 10.
60. Subglobular, with 4 ventricose smooth whirls ; foewna.
aperture large, and nearly orbicular, and the pillar si¬
nuated. Britain. Montagu, t. 13. f. 6.
61. Subumbilicated, subglobular, glabrous; whirls
above more ventricose ; aperture large, ovate, oblong ;
1 to 5 inches wide. Asia and America. Lister t.
130. f. 30.
62. ^ entricose, nearly globular, wrinkled longitudi-yrcfJ/s-
Rally, and the spire somewhat produced y aperture
ovate-oblong, and umbilicus large. Indian islands.
Lister, t. 125. f. 25.
63* Subumbilicated, subovate, obtuse ; aperturenowef/b.
roundish, semilunar; reddish brown, with obsolete,
paler bands. Woods of Europe, Britain.—This spe¬
cies was a favourite dish among the Homans. It is still
used as an article of food in many parts of Europe, do¬
ing the season of Lent. It was introduced into Eng¬
land
hap. IV*
land by Sir Keneloi Digby, as a cure for consump¬
tion. Don. t. 84.
"jca. 64. Umbilicated, roundish, pointed ; lip margined j
aperture oval. Guadaloupe. Lister, t. 129. f. 29.
tana. 65. Ventricose, very thin, much variegated, and mi¬
nutely striated longitudinally \ aperture patulous and
ovate.
•laris. 66. Conical, subturreted, with fine ventricose al¬
most unconnected whirls, and the aperture ovate.
France and Italy. Chem. ix. t. 128. f. 1139. I*
'ina. 67. Subumbilicated, convex, obtuse ; yellowish, with
a brown band ; from 12 to 18 lines wide. Woods of Ja¬
maica and China. Lister, t. 54. f. 50.
Hanea. 68. Perforated, subglobular, dull chesnut, with a
rufous band united to a white one } whirls 7, striated.
Chem. ix. part 2. t. 131. f. 1177. and 8.
•lulus. 69. Globular, subumbilicated, white ; lip reflected j
whirls 5. Tranquebar. Lister, t. 44. f. 41.
73, 70. Perforated, subglohular, with hollow dots and a
red band j first whirl larger j 8 lines wide. Chem. ix.
p. 2. t. 131. f. II76.
m. 7 1 ■ Depressed, umbilicated, white, with a cut margin.
East Indies. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 130. f. 1166.
■(ina. 72. Umbilicated, nearly globular, with five whirls,
and the base gibbous j outer lip white and reflected.
Tranquebar. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 130. f. H55»
busto- * 73. Umbilicated, convex, pointed j aperture subor-
72, bicular, a little reflected at the rim, brown, with a
single black spiral band j 9J lines wide. Shrubberies
and hedges, Britain. Don. t. 136.
W. 74. Nearly imperforated, globular, pellucid ; ful¬
vous, with a white lip; t to 3 lines wide. Woods of
Denmark. Muller, ii. p. 56.
'stylum. 75. Subimperforated, subglobular, striated ; whirls
7 ; 12 lines in diameter. Jamaica. Lister, t. 62. f.
60.
pilla. 76. Subumbilicated, obtusely pyramidal, wrinkled,
and the summit flat and glabrous •, aperture transverse
and marginated. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 122. f. 1053. and
, I054- . . . .
moeul. 77. Umbilicated, oblong-ovate, white, with decus¬
sated striae, and brown longitudinal stripes ; aperture
contracted at the base. Senegal. Adanson, t. 1. f. 1.
riosa, 78. Subcyclindrical, polished, diaphanous, and white;
aperture semiovate, marginated, and i-toothed. Chem.
ix. p. 2. t. 135. f. 1234.
79. Subimperforated ; white, with rufous lip and
bands; whirls 5 ; 18 lines wide. Muller.
tensa. 80. Subimperforated, subglobular ; pale, immacu¬
late ; aperture large ; whirls 4, distant. Muller.
(ina. 81. Perforated ; globular ; white, with snbinterrupt-
ed red bands ; lip rosy ; 5 to 7J- lines wide. Barbary,
Italy. Montagu, t. 24. f. 1.
‘gala. * 82. Perforated, with a depressed crown ; white,
with rufous bands, and numerous lines; lip white on
each side ; 10 lines wide. Italy, Britain. Montagu,
t. 24. f. 4.
noren- 83. Perforated, globular, polished ; white, with
brown bands ; 15 lines wide. India. Chem. ix. p. ii.
t. 129. f. 1146. and 7.
wi'ia. 84. Umbilicated, convex, slightly depressed ; aper¬
ture rather oblong and margined ; whirls 5 ; first ven¬
tricose ; ii to 13 lines in diameter. Barbary, Europe.
Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 132. f. 1188. and 9.
459
subdepressed, striated, white >striata.
Italy and Saxony. Schroeter, t. 2. f.
* 86. Umbilicated, depressed, yellowish, with a brown erzerfo-
band or bands; 4 to 11 lines wide. Europe, Britain.rt/w.
Lister, t. 78. f. 78.
87. Umbilicated, cinereous; whirls 4; ribs tvzuS-costata.
versely plaited ; aperture circular ; I line wide. High¬
lands of Denmark. Muller.
88. Umbilicated, subdepressed ; aperture circinate
lip white, reflected; whirls 4; 1 line wide. Moist
woods of Denmark. GeofFroy, N° 6. t. 2.
89. Umbilicated, depressed; yellowish, polished ; ce//anc/.
white beneath ; aperture large ; whirls 5 ; 3-J lines
wide. Cellars in Germany. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 127. f.
1129.
90. Umbilicated, depressed on both sides; whirlsoAro/zzto.
obvoluted. Var. 1. Whitish, glabrous, with a triangu¬
lar aperture. 2. Brown, hispid, with a linear aper¬
ture ; 4 to 5 lines wide. Italy. Chem. ix. p. 2. t.
127. f. 1128.
91. Umbilicated, convex; aperture margined, sub-zz/zg-z/AVza.
orbicular, and elongated above ; of the shape of an
apple; 16 lines wide. India. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 12 C.
f. 1098. and 9.
92. Umbilicated, globular; aperture without \>i\\&rfruticuni.
lip ; 74 lines wide. Hedges of Denmark. Chem. ix.
p. 2. t. 133. f. 1203.
93. Subglobular, subumbilicated ; white, with crowd-
ed chesnut bands and blue crown ; lip reflected, white ;
9 line s in diameter. Coromandel. Lister, t. 67. f.
66.
94. Subglobular, subumbilicated ; flesh coloured, and rosacea.
transversely striated ; whirls 5 ; 19 lines wide.
95. Umbilicated, convex, obtuse; whirls 5, round ; zVo/a.
umbilicus wide ; size of a nut. Southern Europe. A
land species. Gmelin.
96. Umbilicated, perforated, convex, obtuse ; whirlslusitanica.
3, round, and yellowish white ; umbilicus spreading ;
size of a small apple. Southern Europe. A land
species. Chem. ix. p. 1. t. 108. f. 913. and 14.
97. Umbilicated, ovate; whirls 3 ; striated; aper-zzia/wzze/-
ture large, ovate, and united to the tip. Rivers otlaris.
Africa. Lister, t. 566. f. 15.
98. Umbilicated, convex; whirls 5, round; umhWi-hispana.
cus thin, perforated ; aperture suborbicular. Southern
Europe.
99. Umbilicated, ovate-oblong; finely striated;/zzforza.
aperture white within.
100. Perforated, ovate, ventricose, and streaked ; ovata.
tip ribbed and rosy ; lip of the same colour ; pillar
white ; whirls 6; 4 inches long. E. Indies. Chem.
ix. p. 2. t. 119. f. 1020.
101. Perforated, ovate, oblong, striated; lip ando&Ajttga
pillar rosy ; whirls 6; aperture oval; 3 inches long.
South America and India. Lister, t. 23, f. 21.
102. Perforated, oblong; white, with longitudinal,/Zozzzzzzea.
rufous bands ; pillar reflected ; straight; 18 to 20 lines
long. Guinea. Lister, t. 578. f. 33.
103. Top-shaped, white with rufous bands; whirlsTJz'/ezzs.
6; aperture transverse, large; 15 lines long. Lister,
t. 16. f. 1 j.
104. Umbilicated, oblong-ovate, thick, with the otaheitana
whirls reversed, and the outer lip emarginated and
3 M 2 white.
CONCHOLOGY.
85. Umbilicated ;
6 lines wide.
20.
460
CONCHOLOGY.
Chap. I\
white. Rivers in the island of Otaheite. Chem. ix. p.
1. t. 112. f. 950. and pjr.
tenuis. * 105. Umbilicated, pellucid, horny, transversely stri¬
ated, and convex ; whirls 6, gradually decreasing j
aperture semilunar j 4 or 5 lines in diameter. Britain,
Schroeter, t. 5. f. 33.
cornu-ve- 106. Depressed, deeply umbilicated. Leaves and
natorium. branches of trees, Senegal. Lister, t. 1055- !• 4*
trifasciala 107. Conic, ovate, white, with 3 brownish bands
in the first whirl j aperture fringed j lip white, dila¬
ted. Tranquebar. A land species. Chem. ix. p. 2.
t. 134. f. 1215.
bontia. 108. Conic, ventricose, perforated, pellucid, with
a black tip •, first whirl with three yellowish bands.
Bengal and Tranquebar. Chem. ix. p. 2. t. 134. f.
1216. and 17.
trochoides 109. Top-shaped, perforated, polished 5 longitudi¬
nally striated j whirls reversed, the first keel-shaped ;
aperture angular. East Indies. Chem. x. t. 173. f.
1686.
lava. no. Subcyclindrical, glabrous, contrary, barred $
pillar yellow; lip slightly reflected; 12 to 16 lines
long; very rare. East Indies. Lister, t. 33. f. 31.
labiosa. Hi. Oblong, polished, white, diaphanous ; whirls 8;
aperture ovate, toothless ; 11 lines long. India. Chem.
ix, p. 2. t. 135. f. 1234.
**** Imperforate, and the whirls rounded.
aarea. 112. Subumbilicated, ovate-oblong, obtuse, smooth,
yellow, with the outer lip white and marginated. W.
Ind ies. Lister, t. 34. f. 33.
recta. 113. Conic, a little pointed ; whitish with a rufous
band and streaks; lip reflected ; whirls \ inches
long. Chem. ix. p. 1. t. no. f. 925. and 6.
interrupla 114. Conic, pointed, white with fulvous streaks;
lip white, reflected; whirls 7; 22 lines long. Chem.
ix. p. 2. t. 134. f. 1213. and 14.
arenaria. 115. Glossy, whitish, thin, longitudinally striated ;
spire contrary, hemispherical ; minute. Coast of Ri¬
mini, Italy. Chem. ix. p. 1. t. 113. f. 972. and 3.
jamaicen- 116. Globular, chesnut-brown, barred with white;
cis. lip fringed, white ; crown obtuse. Jamaica. Lister,
t. 42. f. 40.
rhodia. 117. Subglobular, depressed ; base concave ; aper¬
ture lunated. Rhode island. Chem. ix. p. 2. f. 1179.
ianthina. * 118. Nearly imperforated, roundish, obtuse, dipha-
nous, and very brittle; aperture dilated behind, with
an emarginated lip ; 1 inch broad and high. In most
seas.—The animal which inhabits this shell shines in
the night, and stains the hand with a violet or purple
dye. Asia, Africa, and Ireland. Lister, t. 572. f.
24*
vivipara. * 119. Imperforated, ventricose, subovate, obtuse;
whirls 5 to 6, very convex ; aperture nearly orbicu¬
lar ; 14 inch long. Stagnant waters of Europe. Bri¬
tain. This species is viviparous. Don. t. 87.
angularis 120. Imperforated, greenish ; Whirls 5; spirally
angular; throat wide ; 12 lines long. China. Chem.
ix. p. 2. t. 134. f. 1222. and 3.
fasciata. 121. Ovate, ventricose ; white, with 3 shining red
bands; whirls 5; spire acute; 9 to 15 lines long.
Italy and Saxony. Guinoni, ii. t. 1. f. 6.
dissimilis. * 122, Subovate, pointed, yellowish-white, with a
black lip; whirls 6. Tranquebar. Schroeter, ii. t. 4.
f. 10.
* 123. Perforated, roundish, thin, pellucid, and mark- nemnrc!\
ed with variously coloured transverse bands ; whirls j,
from 9 to n lines wide. Woods of Europe. Britain.
Don. t. 13.
* 124. Garden Snail; imperforated, globular, pale,
with broad, interrupted, brown bands ; lip white ; 7 to
8 lines wide. Gardens' and orchards, Europe, Bri¬
tain. Don. t. 131.—This species is extremely destruc¬
tive to the tender leaves of plants, and fruits. It is
oviparous; the eggs are round, and about the size of
small peas.
125. Imperforated, rather depressed, and white, with c&rtusk
6 whirls. France. Geoffrey, p. 33. t. 2.
126. Imperforated, roundish, smooth ; whitish, with/j/eonm
rufous streaks and bands. Southern parts of Europe.
Lister, t. 1058. f. I and 2.
127. Imperforated, roundish, brown, with a longitu-
dinal white band; whirls 5, round, first large; aper-ma,
ture pure purple ; if inch broad. Ceylon. Lister, t.
IO55. f. 2.
128. Imperforated, depressed, grey, with white scat-foetar,
tered dots ; aperture blackish ; outer lip reflected, and
l-toothed.
129. Imperforated, subovate ; brown striped ; whirlspulla.
4; aperture oblique, margined, whitish ; 2 inches
broad.
130. Imperforated, subglobular, glabrous ; whirlspicta.
4, round, first ventricose, the others depressed ; aper¬
ture lunated. Italy. Chem. ix. part 2. t. 130. f. 1162
and 5.
131. Imperforated, subglobular, finely striated Ion-
gitudinally ; whirls 3, first ventricose ; aperture luna¬
ted ; pillar spiral. St Croix. Chem. ix. part 2. t. 133.
f. 1204 and 5.
132. Imperforated, roundish, and transversely stri- vtrsicoh
ated ; whirls round ; the first ventricose ; aperture
ovate. Born, t. 16. f. 9. and 10.
133. Thin, pellucid, smooth, with 5 or 6 whirls,^#<1,
which are obsoletely wrinkled longitudinally ; aperture
lunated.
134. Rather depressed, transparent, and greenish,
with 3 whirls. France. Geoffroy, p. 38. N° 8. t. 2.
***** Turreted.
135* Thick, transversely striated, brown, and theconsoli-
summit truncated; aperture oval. Surinam. Chem. data.
ix. part 2. t. 136. f. 1258.
136. Imperforated, tapering; spire mutilated, trun-decollato
cated ; whirls 4 to 7, first large; 6 to 15 lines long.
Europe, Asia, and Africa. Lister, t. 17. f. 12.
I37- Smooth, white, with transverse-coloured bands,truncut\
and the summit truncated ; aperture roundish.
138. Thick, longitudinally striated, white, and thecalcaria
spire entire, but rounded at the summit. E. Indies.
Lister, t. 14. f. 9.
139. Of a horn colour, finely striated transversely, cw/wA2 !
and longitudinally plaited ; aperture oval, and the outer
lip acute. E. Indies. In fresh water. Lister, t. 118.
f- *3- ...
14Q. Pointed, cinereous, transversely striated ‘laspcra.
whirls 7 to 8, toothed, marked with red streaks, and
armed
Cap.
.IV. CONCH
armed with sharp spinet j 5 to 8 lines long. Coroman¬
del. Chem. ix. part 2. t. 136. f. 1259. and 60.
\tr catula 141. Ovate, oblong, whirls 5, truncated upwards j
aperture ovate 5 2 to 5 lines long. Greece.
fl( 7, 142. Conic, pointed, white, with a red band j whirls
7 ; aperture ovate, toothless $ 4 lines long. Italy.
Lister, t. 19. f. 14.
ol'ira. * 143. Conic, brown ; whirls 6 ; aperture oval, tooth¬
less 5 snail white ; above dusky, eyes only black.
Hoots of trees, Europe, Britain. Mont. t. 22. f. 5*
| lu ka. * 144. Conic, fulvous, polished ; whirls 5 or 6 ; aper¬
ture toothless j 24 lines long. Moss and wet rotten
wood, Britain. Da Costa, t. 5. f. 18.
Vl v. 145. Grayish, transversely striated 5 whirls nodu¬
lous, and striped with red } pillar lip white. Coro¬
mandel. Martini, Ber. Mag. iv. t. 10. f. 57.
cc ortu- 146. Turbinated, cinereous, nearly imperforated j
ipt ita. crown truncated j whirls 5; aperture circinated.
4 - 147. Subperforated, and a little tapering j whirls y,
n m. aperture ovate 5 minute. Fresh waters. Baster, t.
7* f* 4-
o< 'ict. 148. Subperforated, tapering •, whirls 8 j aperture
roundish 5 4 lines long. America, Europe. Lister,
t. 20. f. 15.
I ha- * 149. Ovate-oblong, somewhat perforated, rather
v sis. pellucid, with 7 whirls j aperture roundish-lunated 5
outer lip slightly reflected. Britain. Montagu, t. II.
f. 3.
j wbens 150. White, with longitudinal elevated striae, and
remote tawny stripes ; pillar sinuated and reflected.
< mnc, 151. Tapering, white, with a fulvous tip ; whirls 7
or 8, contrary, spotted 5 aperture oblong; 27^ lines
long. Guinea and Jamaica. Lister, t. 39. f. 37.
/; 1. 132. Imperforated, ovate, pointed, transversely stri¬
ated j brown, with yellow bands $ band on the first
whirl double, on the rest single. Iceland,
f vea. 133. Subulate, semipellucid, longitudinally plaited j
whirls 10, round j aperture ovate. Born, t. 16. f.
M-
u ulata. 134. Subulate, smooth, finely striated transversely j
whirls about 12, round j aperture ovate j pillar gla¬
brous. Born, t. 16. f. 13.
Cl ata‘ 1S5- Tapering, white, transversely substriated, and
surrounded with a crenelated belt near the suture. Ri¬
vers of India. Chem. ix. part 2. t. 133. f. 1230.
Ci nula. 136. White, tapering, somewhat umbilicated ; first
whirl a little keel-shaped, with a blackish band. Cheni.
ix. part 2. t. 136. f. 1263.
latilis. 137. Tapering, very glabrous, chesnut brown with
with darker spots j throat whitish. Fresh waters, Co¬
romandel. Chem. ix. part 2. t. 133. f. 1243.
u Jla- 138. Imperforated, oblong, white, with longitudinal
red undulations; whirls 6—7, first thrice as large as
the next; inch long. New Holland. Schroeter, t.
10. f. 4.
51 triata.* 159. Subimperforated, oblong, finely striated with
white ; whirls 3 ; first twice as large as the next ; aper¬
ture oval, margined ; £ inch long. Rhone and Britain.
Montagu, t. 11. f. 1.
lk grina.* 160. Ovate, imperforated; whirls 8—9, round, di¬
stant, and equally decreasing; aperture oval; f inch
long. American islands, Britain. Dorset Cat. t. 18.
f. 11.
g’la-
hi ru
ms.
161. Oblong, perforated, whitish, with transverse
3
O L O G Y. 461
brown bands, and the outer lip thickened within. Gua-
daloupe. Lister, t. 8. f. I.
162. Conical, obtuse, longitudinally wrinkled, di- lyonetiana.
storted, and the side opposite the aperture gibbous ;
aperture compressed. E. Indies. Chem. x. t. 3. f. 7.
****** Ovate, and imperforated.
163. Coarse, nearly imperforated, ovate, oblong
whirls 6 ; aperture oblong, lunated. Mauritania.
164. Coarse, oblong, imperforated ; whirls 8; apev-barbara.
ture roundish, lunated ; size of a barley-corn. Al¬
giers.
163. Oblong, imperforated ; whirls toothed, spinous;
10 lines long. Rivers of India. Lister, t. 133. f. 33.
* 166. Imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point; some- stagnalis.
what angular, by several longitudinal wrinkles ; whirls
6 to 7, first ventricose ; aperture oblong, oval ; 2\
inches long. Still waters of Europe, Britain. Don.
t. 31. f. 2.
* 167. Imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point ; spivefragilis.
acute ; whirls 3 to 7 ; aperture oblong, oval ; 11 lines
long. Still waters of Europe, Britain. Martini, Ber.
Mag. iv. t. 9. f. 33.
* 168. Oblong, pointed, brown ; aperture ovate ^palustris,
whirls 3 to 6. Meadows of Europe, Britain. Don.
t. 173. f. 1.
* 169. Imperforate, subovate, rvith 3 or 6 rounded/owaniz.
whirls, and the suture conspicuous; aperture ovate.
Britain. Montagu, t. 16. f. 9.
170. Subconic, horny, with a sharp point; aperture/>r/rgrff.
ovate; 2 to 8 lines long. Stagnant waters of Den¬
mark. Chem. ix. part 2. t. 133. f. 1244.
* 171. Ventricose, diaphanous, with an obtuse pva-glutinosa.
jection ; 2 to 3 whirls ; aperture wide; 2 to 4 lines
long. Denmark, chiefly on the leaves of nymphaea lu-
tea. Marshes at Deal. Montagu, t. 16. f. 3.
* 172. Imperforated, obtuse, ovate, yellow; whirls $,putris.
the first large, the others minute ; aperture ovate ; I
to 8 lines long. Ponds in Europe, Britain. Montagu,
t. 16. f. 3.
173. Conic, white, with transverse rufous lines ; detrita.
whirls 6 ; aperture ovate ; 8£ lines long. Saxony.
Lister, t. 8. f. 2.
* 174. Imperforated, somewhat oblong, pellucid ; 9.-limosa.
perture ovate. Wet meadows of Europe, Sandwich,
river Avon. Montagu, t. 16. f. 4.
173. Ovate-oblong, with the whirls detruncated, and truncatu-
the aperture ovate. Thangelstadt in Saxony. Schro- la.
eter, t. 7. f. 13.
* 176. Imperforated, ovate, obtuse, clouded with tentacula-
brown ; whirls 4 or 3 ; aperture subovate ; 1*—4 lines to.
long. Ponds and still waters of Britain. Don, t. 93.
177. Subconical, with 3 rounded smooth whirls, nn&canalis.
the pillar grooved. Southampton. Montagu, t. 12.
f. 11.
* 178. Suboval, thickish, and of a yellowish orange
colour; aperture spreading and oval. Devonshire.
Montagu, t. 16. f. 6.
* 179. Imperforated, ovate, gibbous, with a depression attr/cw/a-
in the middle of the lip; whirls 3—3,; the first ventri- ria.
cose ; spire acute, short ; aperture much dilated ;
2—13 lines loiig. Ponds of Europe, Britain. Don.
t. 13. f. 1. ...
180. Ovate, smooth ; whitish, with the apex acute, wzz/a.
2—13
462
and the pillar one-plaited. Sicily. Oualterii t. f. N.
N.
(cevigata. * 181. Whirls 2 •, first ventricose ; Hie other minute,
and placed laterally *, pale red, pellucid. Europe, De¬
vonshire. Don. t. 105.
balthica. 182. Imperforated, ovate, pointed ; whirls 4; wrin¬
kles elevated ; aperture ovate, dilated. Shores of the
Baltic.
neritoidea. 183. Imperforated, convex, longitudinally striated ;
aperture roundish. Baltic. Gualteri, t. 64. f. I.
jperspicua. 184. Imperforated, convex, ovate ; without lip ; a-
perture extending to the tip, and exposes the whole
inside. Mediterranean.
haliotoidea* 185. Imperforated, depressed, with waved striae;
aperture oval ; open all the way down ; whirls 4, late¬
ral. Mediterranean, Atlantic, Indian and North seas.
Britain. Montagu, t. 7. f. 6.
ambigua. 186. Subimperforated, convex ; grooves remote,
compressed ; aperture semiorbicular. Mediterranean
sea. Adanson, t. 13. f. 1.
inflata. 187. White, solid, opaque ; first whirl twice as large
as the rest; aperture large, margined. River Unstrut
in Saxony. Schroeter, t. 7. f. 5.
albicans. 188. ^Yhite, opaque, pointed ; aperture oval. Wa¬
ters of Plamburg. Schroeter, t. 7. f. 6.
refianda. 189. Ovate, pointed, subimperforated ; first whirl
vtmtricose, large ; aperture semicircular ; 6 or 7 lines
long. Thinglestadt. Stagnant waters. Schroeter, t.
7. f. 16.
opaca. 190. Ovate, pointed ; whirls 5 ; first large, aperture
ovate, oblong. Hamburgh. Aquatic. Schroeter, t.
7. f. 17.
turbinata. 191. Oblong, imperforated, smooth, pointed; whirls
inflated ; the first larger, the rest gradually decreasing ;
aperture suboval, margined ; 3^ inches long. Danube.
Schroeter, t. 10. B. f. 5.
Keritl. Gen. 30. Nerita, Norite.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax : the shell uni¬
valve spiral, gibbous, flattish at bottom ; aperture
semiorbicular, or semilunar ; pillar lip transversely
truncated, flattish.
Species.
Chap. ];
a flattened lobe. Cape of Good Hope, Barbary, In¬
dian islands. Extremely rare. Schroeter, ii. t. 4.
f. 13.
7. Ovate, glabrous ; umbilicus partly covered ; whirls Twawafti
four or five ; aperture ovate. East and West Indies.
Lister, t. 571. f. 22.
8. Subglobular, solid; tip bluish ; lateritious bands ^ac/fiji
in the throat, and a white one on the beak. Mauritius
island. Rather large. Chem. xi. t. 197. f. 1901 and
1902.
9. Thin, rufous; umbilicus darker, with a wbkerv/o.
border; throat with a reddish band. Mauritius island.
Lister, t. 606. f. 34.
10. Subglobular, with angular tawney lines, zn&fulmbm
flattened lobe ; white or yellowish. Africa, Senegal.
Rare. Chem. v. t. 187. f. 1881.
11. Subglobular, polished very smooth ; base of the on'«m
spire a little wrinkled ; pillar snowy. Eastern seas.
Bay of Naples. Chem. v. t. 188. f. 1898.
12. Subglobular, white, with red spots; lip obtusecn/en's,
and bluish ; umbilicus spiral. Tranquebar. Chem. v.
t. 188. f. 1900 and 1901.
13. WTinkled ; within glabrous ; umbilicus border-n/goMf
ed with white. American islands. Chem. v. t. 188.
f. 1902 and 1903.
14. Subglobular, smooth, light green, brownish with-mroc/l
in; livid at the tip; wrinkled at the angle of the
whirls. Africa. Chem. v. t. 188. f. 1905.^
15. Subglobular; obliquely plaited; spire with ^stdcair] |
whirls, mucronate; umbilicus bifid. Born, t. 17.fi c
and 6.
16. M hite, reticulated with reddish lines, and black-ffrarM
ish at the tip ; umbilicus nearly covered; whirls con-dea.
vex. Chem. v. t. 188. f. 1915 and 1916.
17* Subglobular, brown, with a double white filletvitictcl |
in the middle ; reticulated and denticulated on each
side. Africa. Chem. v. t. 188. f. 1917 and 1918.
* 18. Semitransparent, horn-colour ; whirls prominent ',pallich\
aperture semilunar, and patulous ; umbilicus large;
a small shell. Coasts of Kent and Dorset. Da Costa,
t. 4. f. 4 and 5.
19. Pellucid, thin, oblong, with decussated striae•,papili\
dirty yellow'; whirls 4; aperture suboval; pillar white;
umbilicus half closed. Tranquebar. Chem. v. t. 189.
fi 1939.
CONCHOLOGY.
* Umbilicated.
canrena. 1. Smooth; spire slightly pointed; umbilicus gib¬
bous, and bifid. India, Africa, America. Lister, t.
J60.5.4.
eancellata. 2- YVith decussated striae, and impressed dots; spire
subclavate ; umbilicus gibbous, bifid. American islands.
Lister, t. 566. f. 16.
punctata. 3. Subglobular, whitish, with numerous scattered
yellowish dots, and three transverse rows of reddish,
irregular spots. Mediterranean. Chem. xi. t. 197.
fi 1903 and 4.
glaucina. * 4- Smooth, glossy, faintly wrinkled ; spire rather
obtuse ; umbilicus rather closed by the pillar lip,
which is gibbous and two-coloured ; 2 inches lonu’.
Barbary, Europe, Britain. Don. t. 20. f. 1.
vitellus. 5. Subglobular; umbilicus perforated, equal. In¬
dian ocean. Lister, t. 565. f. 12.
albumen. 6. Convex ; umbilicus somewhat heart-shaped, with
** Imperforate ; and the pillar lip toothless.
20. YV hirls of the spire crowned with spines ; mi-coron<
nute. India, America. Chem. ix. Part 2. t. 124. f.
1083 and 1084.
21. Grooved, with equal, tuberculated ribs; size 01 radi/t 1
a walnut. Indian islands. Chem. v, t. 190. fi 1946
and 1947.
22. Obsoletely striated ; white or pale violet. Red j
sea. Argenville, t. 7. fi M.
* 23. Rugged, spotted, streaked, or mottled with vrlnte
and purplish brown or pink; mouth closed with a
testaceous operculum; 4 lines long. In slow rivers
of Barbary and Europe, Britain. Don. t. 16. f. 2.
* 24. Smooth, with a carious crown; whirls 4 or 5, littori *•
first large ; size of a horse bean. Europe, shores ot
Britain. Common. Don. t. 20. fi 2.
25. Smoothish, horny, or blackish, ending in a very^
fine
Ch >. IV. CONCH
fine point. Still water and warm springs of Europe j
supposed to be only a variety of N. fluviatilis.
^ - 26. Grooves wide and black ; within white ; whirls
leru 3 j I'P smooth, 2-toothed ; 6 lines long. Magdalene
islands. Adanson, t. 13. f. 5.
mcu nata 27. Thin, with decussated striae; tuberculated j
black, with ochraceous spots j subglohular j aperture
margined outwardly. Schroeter, t. 4. f. 16.
28. Thin, pellucid, ovate, polished; dull yellow
varied with black j outer lip acute 5 inner glabrous j
crown prominent. Very rare. Chem. v. t. 193. f.
2019.
*** Imperforate, with the pillar lip toothed.
pii m 29. Smooth, coarse, with an excavated eye-like
small spire j inner lip smooth, crenulated 5 whirls 2,
one large, terminating in an acute tooth j 14—16 lines
long. Rivers of India. Lister, t. 143. f. 37.
Jla :tns. 30. Smooth, yellowish variegated with white, and 3
black bands ; pillar lip two-toothed j outer lip slightly
striated. Nicobar. Chem. x. t. 195. f. 1594 and
1
tin ata. 31. Thin, smooth, undulated, with an obtuse crown *,
outer lip substriated, and toothless j inner one a little
denticulated. India. Chem. v. t. 191. f. 1970 and
I97r*
b® 32. Smooth, roundish, milk-white j whirls with trans¬
verse, parallel, black striaj ; lip fiat; teeth scarcely
visible. Jamaica. Lister, t. 605. f. 31.
h s. 33. Smooth 3 inner lip 2-toothed; size of a pea.
New Zealand. Favanne, ii. t. 10. f. R.
N J. 34. Smooth, green ; inner lip crenulated in the mid¬
dle. Minorca and Jamaica. Chem. ix. Part 2. t.
124. f. 1089.
vi\ lea. 25* Smooth, ovate, inner lip denticulated; 2 to 10
lines long. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 604. f. 24 to
27-
P<> 36. Smooth; crown * obliterated ; lip toothed on
each side ; brown. India, South seas. Lister, t. 600.
f. 17.
37. Subglobular, white, with blackish undulated
l1' • streaks ; pillar-lip toothed and crenulated. E. Indian
seas. Chem. v. t. 193. f. 2016 and 2018.
i1! wa. 38. Subglobular, smooth, thin, of a dull yellowish
colour, with triangular black spots, and the pillar-lip
denticulated. Malabar. Chem. xi. t. 197. f. 1905
and 1906.
39. Subglobular, smooth, with the summit very ob¬
tuse, and the pillar-lip very slightly denticulated. Am-
boyna. Rumphins, t. 22. f. No. 6.
i nmu 4c. Subglobular, smooth, thick, opake, and minutely
striated transversely ; outer lip entire, and pillar lip
slightly wrinkled. Chem. v. t. 192. f. 1985 and 1986.
r n^a> 41. Striated ; lips toothed ; inner one flattish and
_ wrinkled. American islands. Lister, ^595. f. 1.
^a' 42. Striated ; lips slightly toothed ; inner one tu¬
berculated. Cape of Good Hope, Indian ocean. Chem.
p/f v. t. 193. f. 2000. ^
43. Roundish, with transverse crenulated ribs, which
are alternately larger; inner lip plaited above, and tu¬
berculated below. Tranquebar. Lister, t. 598. f. 14.
44* Grooved, transversely striated ; inner lip tooth¬
ed ; ribs 30, unequal. E. Indies. Chem. v. t. 190.
f. 1948 and. 1949.-
k ,
O L O G Y. 463
45. Grooved; 17 to 20 transverse idbs; outer lipplicata.
with 5 or 6 teeth within ; inner convex, wrinkled, with
three long, strong teeth, beside lesser ones. India.
Chem. v. t. 190. f. 1952 and 1953.
46. Grooved, lips toothed ; inner lip with a yellowgrosjtf.
spot, and 3 or 4 teeth ; convex and wrinkled. Mo¬
lucca islands. Chem. v. t. 191. f. 1968 and 1969.
47. With 20 grooves, varied with undulated al-c/zamrp-
ternate black and white rays; lips toothed; inner one/eow.
wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian ocean. Eanda.
Chem. v. t. 192. f. 1988 to 1999.
48. Subglobular, transversely ribbed, and the summit$ff7/a.
obtuse and radiated; lips denticulated. E. Indian seas.
Chem. xi. t. 197. f. 1907 and 1908.
49. Grooves 30; ribs about 30, flattened; undata.
toothed ; inner one wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian
seas. Chem. v. t. 190. f. 1950 and 1951.
50. Grooved, with 15 to 19 ribs; lips toothed ;exuvia.
inner one tuberculated. India. Lister, t. 596. f. 5.
51. Solid, thick, glabrous; undulated with hl&ck maxima.
and yellowish rays ; outer lip toothless ; inner one con¬
cave, 4-toothed. A very large shell. Chem. v. t. J90.
f. 1942. and 1943.
52. Deep black, glabrous, and thinly striated above ; atrala*
both lips white; outer one finely grooved, and slightly
toothed within. Atlantic and South seas. Chem. v. t.
190. f. 1954 and 1955.
53. With 16 white grooves; ribs spotted with white \ asccnsio-
crown a little prominent; outer lip glabrous on each mV.
side ; inner one concave, yellowish and toothed. As¬
cension island ; a large shell. Chem. v. t. 191. f.
1956 and 1957.
54. Mouth and lips white ; whirls round, surround-//«£■«to,
ed with black, parallel striae; outer lip striated within.
Malacca seas. Chem. v. t. 191. f. 1958. and 1959.
55* W hite, radiated with black without ; striaep/ccr.
transverse, rounded, smooth ; inner lip wrinkled and 4-
toothed. Indian seas. Chem. v. t. 191. f. 1964. and
i965*
56. Yellowish within, subglobular, surrounded wilhccwtoto,
thicker striae; interstices snowy; lips white, tooth¬
ed ; outer one crenated without. Nicobar islands.
Chem. v. t. 191. f. 1966 and 1967.
57. With bluish black, red and white square spots, versicolor.
and bands, spotted with red and white ; inner lip stri¬
ated within, and toothed on each side. Antilles islands..
Chem. v. t. 191. f. 1962 and 1963.
58. Pale violet, with a yellowish tip; white within,yrnn/r/co-
with elevated black striae ; lips toothed ; outer one/or.
grooved within ; inner one wrinkled. Red sea. Chem.
v. t. 191. f. 1974 and 1975.
59. Grooved, yellowish within ; crown a little yvo-mallacecn-
minent; outer lip unarmed and crenulated outwardly ;m.
inner lip yellowish, smooth. Malacca.. Chem. v. t.
192. f. 1976.
60. Subglobular, black; white within; grooved andcrm//to-
striated ; lips wrinkled and denticulated. Antilles™/;*,
islands. Chem. v. t. 192. f. 1987.
61. Subglobular, with crowded transverse striae \flammca\
white, with purplish undulated rays ; outer lip grooved
within ; inner lip wrinkled above. W. Indies. Chem.
v. t. 192. f. 1992 and 1993.
62. Subglobular, with crowded transverse striae \fulgurans*
deep black, with ochraceous rays; lips slightly denticu¬
lated ;
464
' ' CONCH
lated j inner one tuberculcited in tlie middle* Amen*
can islands. Cliem. v. t. 192. f. 199^ an(^ I997*
tesselata, 63. Obtuse, transversely striated ; the striae maik-
ed with nearly square bfack and white spots 5 both
lips denticulated ; outer lip slightly striated within,
inner lip with one or two teeth ^ concave, glabrous,
and denticulated beneath. Islands between Africa and
America. Chem. v. t. 192. f. 199^ ani^ I999*
64. Bands alternately white and black $ within
white ; crown much elevated j outer lip acute ^ whirls
4. Fresh waters in Antilles islands. Chem. ix. Part
2. t. 124. f. 1085.
65. Blackish, transversely striated $ the strise spi¬
nous ; inner lip flattish,* smooth, and slightly toothed.
India. Chem. x. t. 169. f. 1642.
turrita.
aculeula.
59
Haliotis.
midee.
tubercu;
lata.
striata.
vat'ia.
Gen. 31. Haliotis, Ear-Shell.
Gen. Char.-—The animal is a Umax : the shell is uni¬
valve, dilated, ear-shaped, with a longitudinal row of
orifices along the surface j spire lateral and nearly
concealed.
Species.
With a longitudinal row of perforations.
crachero-
diL
mar mo-
rata.
asimna.
parva.
bistriata
O L O G Y. - Chap.]';
10. Varied with gray, bluish, and red*, ovate; austrcV
spire prominent, inflated 5 7 to 9 orifices open ; 3 inches
long. New Zealand. Chem. x. t. 166. f. 1604.
11. Ovate, smoothish, solid j varied with white glabra
green j 6 orifices open; 2^ inches long. Bay of
Naples. 'Chem. x. t. 166. 1. 1602.
12. Ovate, with decussated undulated striae; underMrg7K,
side iridescent; 6 orifices open; if inch long. New
Zealand. Chem. x. t. 166. f. 1607 and 1608.
13. Roundish, varied with rosy and white; outerpidche'.
lip crenated; orifices 30, 6 pervious; 7 lines long.me.
South sea islands. Chem. x. t. 166. f. 1605 and 1606.
14. Suborbicular, depressed, wrinkled ; varied with evina.
white, chesnut, and yellowish ; orifices in the middle
pervious. Chem. x. t. 166. f. 1609.
15. Oval, rugged, varied with white and red ; spot-g/gf/ftfl
ted ; inner lip with a very broad margin ; 3 to 7 ori¬
fices open. New Holland. Chem. x. t. 167. f* 1610
and 1611.
16. Ventricose, fulvid brown, with transverse wrink-j'm.
les, and longitudinal, tuberous plaits ; under side
iridescent ; inches long. New Zealand. Ex¬
tremely rare. Chem. x. t. 167* f» 1612 and 1613*
1. Midas’1 ear; roundish, both sides polished; ori¬
fices from 8 to 10 ; 7 to 9 inches long. Indian ocean,
Cape of Good Hope. Lister, t. 613. 1* 5*
* 2. Subovate; outside transversely grooved, rug¬
ged and tuberculated ; wrinkles on the outside undula¬
ted. The inner margin of the shell has a ridge the whole
length, which terminates in one spiral turn at the end.
This ridge is beset with tubercles, the last 6 of which,
or from 6 to 9, are open. The inside is open, con¬
cave, and of a beautiful mother-of-pearl : the length is
from 3 to 4 inches; breadth from 2 to 3. It is found
on the shores in the south of England, after violent
storms. It is common in the island of Guernsey, ad¬
hering to the rocks at the lowest ebb. The fish is eat¬
en by the inhabitants, and the common people adorn
their houses, with the shells, by sticking them on the
outside with plaster. Don. t. 5.
3. Ovate, ferruginous, transversely wrinkled, and
longitudinally striated ; 4 or 5 orifices open. Asia,
Barbary. Schroeter, ii. t. 4. f. 17.
4. Roundish-ovate, nearly smooth, of a bluish black
colour, and the inside iridescent. California. Leach’s
Zool. Misc. i. t. 58.
5. Ovate, longitudinally striated ; larger strise tu-
berculated ; orifices 20 to 30 ; 4 or five open. India.
Lister, t. 612. f. 4.
6. Oval, longitudinally striated, with obsolete trans¬
verse ones ; orifices about 30, 4 or 5 open ; 2 to 4
inches long. Africa, India. Lister, t. 614. f. 4.
7. Asses ear ; smoothish, oblong; margin somewhat
falcated; nerves on the outside elevated ; orifices about
30, 5 to 7 open ; 3 inches long. India. Lister, t.
610. f. I.
8. Ovate, red, with an elevated angle on the belly ;
orifices 30, 4 or 5 open. Africa, India. Favanne, i.
t. 5. f. D.
9. Ovate, greenish, spotted with brown; strice ele¬
vated, double, transverse; 6 orifices open. Africa.
Lister, t. 612. f. 3
** Imperforate.
17. Ovate, imperforated, with prickly ribs ; spire
exserted ; 1 inch long. India. Extremely rare. Chem. ta.
x. t. 166. f. 160c and 1601.
Gen. 32. Patella, Limpet.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a Umax ; the shell univalve,
subconic, shaped like a bason, without spire.
Species.
5o
Patella
* With an internal appendage at the summit.
1. Orbicular, perfoliated outwardly; lip vaulted, eywii <
perpendicular; 1 inch wide. Indian and American
seas. Lister, t. 546. f. 38.
2. Suborbicular, with longitudinal strong elevated
strise, and the summit rather lateral. St Domingo and
Falkland islands. Martini, i. t. 13. f. 117. and 118.
3. Pyramidal, transversely foliaceous, and the sum- tectw
mit central and erect. Batavia. Martini, i. t. 13. f.
125. and 126.
* 4. Subconic, smooth ; lip somewhat lateral. Medi- sinen *
terranean and Indian seas. On oysters in Salcomb-
bay, Devonshire, and Mediterranean. Don. t. 129.
5. Roundish, with radiated grooves, and striated;
crown recurved ; internal cavity ear-shaped, Borneo,
Santa Cruz. Chem. x. t. 168. f. 1628. and 9.
** With an internal transverse partition.
6. Conic, longitudinally plaited ; internal lip lateral. t/W
Tranquebar and Falkland islands. Chem. x. t. 168. wzk-
f. 1626. and 7.
7. Convex, spiral, with longitudinal undulated ribs, troc/^
and the margin crenated. Martini, i. t. 13. f. 135.
8. Ovate, tip subspiral; lip lateral ; size of anerif**
cherry ; inhabitant red. Indian seas. Lister, t. 545.
f. 30.
9. Oval; tip recurved ; lip placed behind and flat-porciW
tened. India and Goree. Lister, t. 545. f. 34.
10. Oval, obliquely recurved behind; lip placed be-fornW
hind
CONCH
hind, and concave. Barbadoes, Mediterranean. Lis¬
ter, t. 545. f. 33. and 35.
(hkata, II. Oval, brown, with prickly striae ; crown recurv¬
ed. American islands. Da Costa, 8. t. f. 2.
^ xnsis. 12. Oval, flat, thin, white, glossy, laniellated on
the outside ; 5 to 6 lines in diameter. Rocks at Goree.
Favanne, i. t. 4. lower fig. D.
e \idula. 13. Oval, flattish, smooth 5 lip semilunar, flat be¬
hind. Mediterranean, Indian ocean. Martini, t. 13.
f. 29. and 30.
*** With the margin angular, or irregularly toothed.
I niosa. 14. Rays unequal, elevated} thicker and obtuse,
on the outside. India. Favanne, t. 2. f. I.
< ha- 15. Angular, with 7 keel-shaped, obtuse ribs. Ja-
i 3. va and Barbadoes. Lister, t. 532. f. 10.
) wda. 16. Ovate, thin, much depressed, with longitudinal
somewhat scaly striae, and the summit acute } margin
irregularly indented. Cerigo. Favanne, ii. t. 2. f.
G. 1.
Im. 17. Ovate, depressed, and very narrow at the end,
with angulated diverging ribs, and the interstices longi¬
tudinally striated. Martini, i. t. 10. f. 87.
gari- 18. Ovate, depressed, with irregular angulated ribs,
?«. and transverse striae ; summit acute, and the margin
angulated and crenated. Patagonia. Martini, i. t.
10. f. 85. A. and B.
bara. 19. Toothed, with 19 elevated, vaulted, and mu-
ricated rays, Falkland islands. Knorr, v. t. 13. f. 5.
mkris 20. Toothed, with elevated, angular, imbricated
striae; 2 inches long. Southern Europe, and Cape of
Good Hope. Lister, t. 536. f. 15.
natina. 21. Angular, with numerous muricated striae; i|
to 3 inches long. Jamaica, southern Europe. Lister,
, t. 534. f. 13.
*ata, * 22. With about 14 obsolete angles, and dilated,
acute, crenated margin ; crown central ; 2 inches high.
Marine rocks of Europe and Irtdia, Britain. Lister,
t. 5. f. 40.
/w. 23. Oval, thick, rather shallow, with broad angu¬
lated ribs, and the margin unequally serrated. Isle of
Cyprus. Martini, i. t. 10. f. 86.
24. Ovate, depressed, with 11 broad and intermedi-
ta. ate narrower ribs ; margin angulated. Jamaica. Mar¬
tini, i. t. 10. f. 84. A. B.
"wa. 25. Oval-oblong, with 7 depressed ribs and inter¬
mediate longitudinal striae ; margin sub-octangular and
crenated. Martini, i. t. 9. f. 78.
ato> 26. Longitudinally ribbed and ornamented with
rays, which are alternately green and black, dotted
with white; margin sub-angular and nearly entire.
New Zealand. Chem. xi. t. 197. and 1914. and 15.
? 'iata. 27. Ovate, depressed, with irregular decussated
striae, and narrow longitudinal grooves ; margin cre¬
nated. Africa and Isle of France, Lister, t. 538. t.
2r.
1 'upon-
*s.
r iata.
' 'dea.
28. Suboval, depressed, thin, with 9 broad rays,
striated and slightly ribbed longitudinally ; margin den¬
ticulated. Shores of Lisbon. Martini, i. t. 8. f. 62.
29. Subovate, slightly striated, and stellated both
inside and out, with white and blackish rays. Nicobar
islands. Chem. xi. t. 197. f. 1916. and 17.
* 30. Crenated, subangular ; striae numerous, un¬
equal ; beneath blue ; blackish on the outside. Me¬
diterranean and Britain. Born, t. 18. f. 2.
Vol. VI. Part II. +
O L O G Y. 465
*31. Very thin and transparent, oblong-oval, quitepellucidd.
smooth, of a pale yellowish horny colour, and nearly
the same inside ; vertex near one end, marked with a
dark purple spot, from which emanate from 3 to 7
dotted lines of bright shining azure blue. Britain, on
the leaves and stalks of Ji/ci. Don. t. 3. f. 1.
32. Conic, tuberculated ; tubercles white, in rows jtubercu*
slightly toothed ; retuse behind. Gmelin. lata.
33. Longitudinally ribbed and striated, with one cochlear.
end contracted like a scoop, and the summit acute;
margin slightly angular. New Zealand. Knorr, ii.
t. 26. f. 3.
34. Oval, subpellucid ; ribs 16 to 20; tuberculated
and foliaceous on the outside ; I to 3 inches long. Shores
of Cyprus. Martini, i. t. 9. f. 79.
35- Angulated, with undulated, blunt, much elevated
ribs, and transversely wrinkled ; summit obtuse. Born,
t. 18. f. 1.
36. Oblong, flattxsh ; bay striated with white; monopis.
within milk-white, w'ith 11 elevated, unequal striae;
crown rounded, white. American islands. Martini,
i. t. 9. f. 80.
37. Suboctangular, thick, depressed, with fine some-a?igulQSa,
what granulated striae, and the spire acute. Provence.
Lister, t. 538. lower figs.
38. Whitish, obtusely pentangular ; margin even*.-pentagona
ted, dilated ; crown obtuse ; bottom reddish. Born,
t. 18. f. 4. and 5.
39. Oval, ochraceous, with elevated black striae;wr/awo-
within silvery, spotted ; crown pointed, white, smooth,groTTMTirt.
bottom with a straw-coloured spot. Martini, i.t. 8.f. 67.
40. Ferruginous, with angular or undulated russetyerrwgrWa
lines and cinereous belts; within milk-white, with ele¬
vated, knotty striae; crown pointed ; margin plaited.
Straits of Magellan. Martini, i. t. 28. f. 66.
41. Thin, pellucid, striated, blackish, with o\i\e crenata.
rays ; within glaucous or cinereous ; crown pointed ;
margin crenated, bottom milk-white. Shores of Africa,
Malaga, Lisbon. Martini, i. t. 8. f. 64. and 5.
42. Ovate, with annular striae ; black with e\evn-lugubris.
ted, unequal striae; margin crenated ; crown and bot¬
tom white. Provence and Cyprus. Martini, i. t. 8. f.
60.
**** With the summit pointed and recurved. .
* 43* Entire, conic, pointed, striated, with a \\odk.eA,ungarica.
revolute crown ; 2 inches high. America, Mediter¬
ranean, and Asiatic seas ; shores of Britain. Don. t.
21. f. 1.
44. Conical, with fine cancellated striae, and the militarts.
summit obliquely recurved ; margin entire. Barbadoes.
Lister, t. 544. f. 32.
45. Subconical, with concentric imbricated wrink-antiquata.
les, and the summit slightly recurved. Barbadoes.
Lister, t. 544. f. 30. and 3 r.
46. With distant strong longitudinal ribs, and tXie cochleata.
summit recurved ; base ovate, and margin sinuated.
South Sea. Chem. xi. t. 197. f. 1919. and 20.
47. Entire; ribs somewhat imbricated; crown cah/ptra.
hooked ; margin sinuated. North America, Martyn*s
Univer. Con. i. t. 18.
48. Convex, with longitudinal striae, which are *\-intorta.
ternately larger, and armed with vaulted scales ; sum¬
mit recurved; base ovate. America and Falkland
islands. Martini* i. t, I2< f. 1I5.
3N
f
49,
466
cassida.
tranque-
barica.
mammila-
ris.
leucopleu-
ra.
tricarina-
ta.
pcctinata.
Jmco’lutea
lute a.
perversa.
lacustris.
oblonga.^
lee vis.
radians.
areolata.
flammea.
indica.
surina-
mensis.
vitelliha.
Icevigata.
punctulata
CONCH
49. Convex, longitudinally ribbed, and striated
transversely, with the summit recurved j base roundish,
and the margin crenated. Isle of I ranee. Martini, i.
t. 12. f. 116.
50. Ovate, thin, pellucid, with fine crowded stride;
chesnut with white scales, within milk-white ; with a
brown spot at the bottom, and azure spot on the crown.
Tranquebar. Lister, t. 530, ^ ^
51. Conical, subpellucid, finely striated longitudi¬
nally, and the summit reflected j base oblong, and the
margin entire. Mediterranean. Lister, t. 537. f. 17.
52. Striated, entire, alternately black and white :
1 inch long. West Indies. Lister, t. 539. f. 22.
53. Substriated, with 3 ribs on the forepart j 21-
inches high. New Zealand. Born, t. 18. f. 6.
54. Entire, ovate, with wrinkled, slightly branched
striae 5 crown nearly central 5 2 inches long. Medi¬
terranean. Einl. ii. t. 5. f'. 3.
55. Convex, oval-oblong, submembranaceous, with
longitudinal striae, which are alternately larger, and
wrinkled transversely;, summit reflected. Born, t. 18.
f. 8.
56. Entire, oval, convex, striated, with a submar¬
ginal, reflected, mucronate crown ; size of a melon seed.
India. Martini, i. t. 17. f. 154. and 5.
57. Oblong, horny, very thin, pellucid, glabrous,
with a ferruginous base. Africa. Martini, i. t. 12.
f. 114. A. and B.
* 58. Entire, oval, membranaceous, with a central,
mucronate, reflected crown ; i^to 2f lines long. Fresh
waters of Europe, Britain. Don. t. 147.
* 59. Membranaceous, brittle, slightly contracted in
the middle, with the summit pointed and obliquely re¬
flected 5 base oblong. Britain and other parts of Eu¬
rope. Don. t. 150.
***** JFith tlte summit obtuse, and the margin
entire.
60. Subconical, smooth, and diverging longitudinal
lines, and the summit nearly marginal} base subovate.
England. Montagu, t. 13. f. 8.
61. Oval, pellucid, much depressed, striated longi¬
tudinally, and radiate with blackish spots. New Zea¬
land. Chem. x. t. 168. f. 1618.
62. Pyramidal, reddish gray, with thin, circular
striae crossed by longitudinal ones ; crown violet. Straits
of Magellan. Martini, i. t. 5. f. 41.
63. Ovate, with fine annulated strjge, reddish grey,
with undulated brown rays ; crown acute, central ;
white in the middle. Falkland islands. Martini, i. t.
5, f. 42.
64. Reddish grey, with radiated striae, glabrous,
narrower on one side j crown acute, smooth, surrounded
with a reddish ring; 3! inches long. India. Mar¬
tini, i. t. 7. f. 49.
65.. Thick, subovate, yellowish, with black rays, and
longitudinal, unequal striae ; and surrounded with knot¬
ty belts ; crown obtuse, smooth, white. Surinam.
Martini, i. t. 7. f. 50.
66. Ovate, yellow; base unequally striated; crown
whitish, obtuse. Martini, i. t. 7. f. 31.
67. Ovate, yellow, within bluish white, with oblique
flattened striae, alternately thicker and thinner; crown
white, smooth, polished. Martini, i. t. 7. f. 34.
68. Rounded, white, with many coloured dots, ra.-
O L O G Chap. 7
diated towards the base, and surrounded with 2 brown
rings. Martini, i. t. 7. f. 53.
69. Roundish, with longitudinal reddish stripes, ra-rofa. u
diated in pairs, and the margin yellowish. W. Indies.
Chem. x. t. 168. f. 1619.
70. Entire, acute, smooth, glabrous. Indian and testua j’
North seas. Martini, i. t. 6. f. 43 to 48. ria.
71. Entire, ovate, striated; crown obtuse, nearlytestudo,.
central ; 14 lines long. Greenland seas. Chem. x. Us.
t. 168. f. 1614 and 1613.
72. Entire, oval, oblong, striated, smooth ; com-co^/jja
pressed on the back ; 14 inches long. India. Lister,
t. 341. f. 23.
73. Conical, elevated, with about ICO narrow \ox\girafra, 1 i
tudinal ribs ; summit obtuse, glabrous, and central. L
Island of Goree. Martini, i. t. 3. f. 34.
74. Entire, conic, with 30 obtuse strise; 3 inches
long. Portugal. Lister, t. 337. f. 20.
73. Conical, convex towards the base, with longitu-jamaik.
dinal striae, and distant transvei-se ridges; base round- sis.
ish. Jamaica. Martini, i. t. 3. f. 37.
76. Oval, entire, striated; black brown radiated5^//^.
with white; within silvery. Friendly islands and New
Zealand. Chem. x. t. 168. f. 1617.
77. Entire, ovate, obtuse, with 39 cinereous, fi\\-fusca.
form, elevated strice. Straits of Magellan. Martini,
i. t. 3. f, 40.
78. Depressed, thick, with remote decussated striaesar/w
towards the base,, and the summit smooth and central ',ensis.
base nearly oval; inside yellow. Surinam. Martini,
i. t. 7. f. 30.
79. Entire, striated, with a submucronate, erect mtaUl
crown ; within white, with a black, heart-shaped spot,
white in the middle ; minute. Mediterranean. Chem.
x. vig. 23. f. c and d.
8q. Entire, oval, subconvex ; brown, with a white erwex.
cross ; 1 inch long. Schroeter, ii. t. 3. f. 7.
81. Entire, conic, compressed, with reticulated veins, reticup.
Mediterranean. Schroeter, ii. t. 3. f. 7.
82. Oval, with crowded longitudinal elevated dotted c<^co.
striae, and the summit acute and erect. Drobach in
Norway. Muller Zook Don. i. t. 12. f. r to 3.
* 83. Oval, very entire, with pale purplish longitudi- virghk-
nal rays, and the summit nearly marginal. Britain and
Norway. Don. t. 21. f. 2.
84. Oblong-oval ; very entire ; finely striated Ion- tessd •
gitudinally, whitish, tesselated with red spots. Nor¬
way. Muller Zool. Don. i. t. T2. f. 6 and 7.
83. Oval-oblong, with minute, somewhat decussated^/ffl.
striae, and the spire nearly marginal. Bay of Drobach
in Norway. Muller Zool. Don. i. t. 24. f. I to 3.
86. Oblong, depressed, with the posterior margin ambh''
rounded, and the anterior truncated ; summit nearly
marginal. New Holland. Chem. xi. t. 197. f. 1918.
87. Entire, oval, pellucid, depressed, striated, horny, ruefe
and radiated with black spots. New Zealand. Chem.
x. t. 168. f. 1618.
88. Entire, roundish, diaphanous; depressed, withumb^'
yellowish rays within ; crown pale yellow ; margin very
acute ; 4 inches long. Indian ocean. Chem. x. t. 169.
f. 1643.
****** JFith a marginal fissure.
* 89. Oval, conic, with reticulated striae ; cleft on thefssui
fore-part ; crown, recurved ; inch long. European
» and
467
I lap. IV.
and Barbary coasts, Devonshire.
109 and 110.
a. 90. Oval, rather depressed, cancellated, with a broad
marginal fissure, and the summit recurved. Falkland
islands. Chem. xi. t. 197. f. 1925 and 1926.
^ raid. 91. Oval, depressed, with crowded longitudinal striae,
and a short marginal fissure. New Zealand. Chem.
xi. t. 197. f. 1929 and 1930.
******* With, a perforated summit.
1 :hind. * 92. Conical, longitudinally striated, and the summit
recurved, with a rhomboidal perforation, extending to¬
wards the anterior margin. Norway and Britain.
Montagu, t. 13. f. 10.
h lula. 93. Oval, gibbous, convex, with reticulated striae ;
margin crenated $ perforation near the posterior mar¬
gin. Mediterranean and Indian seas. Lister, t. 528.
f. 30.
t: ca. * 94. Ovate, convex, reticulated ; crown not much
[elevated $ perforation oblong 5 margin crenulated 5
length \ inch. Foreign specimens 14 inch. European
seas, Sandwich. Don. i. t. 21. f. 3.
< capitta Ovate, cancellated, with the longitudinal ribs
nodulous and alternately smaller j summit somewhat
lateral, and the inner margin entire. Barbadoes. Lis¬
ter, t. 528. f. 5.
i na. 96. Oval, subconical, with elevated, strongly tuber-
culated ribs, and the summit nearly central j margin
crenated. Barbadoes. Lister, t. 528. f. 6.
j corata. 97. A little convex, transversely wrinkled ; brownish,
with straw-coloured rays and spots ; slrioe longitudinal,
and alternately larger and scaly $ if inch long. Bar¬
badoes. Lister, t. 528. f. 7.
1 w- 98. Ovate, compressed, striated j finely annulated,
and radiated with black j bottom milk-white ; perfora¬
tion nearly central. Cape of Good Hope. Martini,
i. t. 11. f. 95.
i 99. Oblong, with longitudinal striae, and the sides
compressed j perforation circular and submarginal.
Chem. xi. t. 197. f. 1922.
5 dlum. 100. Repand on each side, compressed j perforation
radiated with grooves j from 1 to if inch long. Falk¬
land islands. Schroeter, ii. t. 6. f. 11.
* 2' IOI. Ovate, with concentrical elevated belts, and
alternately white and violet longitudinal rays ; perfo¬
ration oval. Magellan straits. Martini, i. t. 11. f. 90.
1 ^0Sa> 102. Ovate, striated, rugged, brown ; perforation
oblong; 2 inches long. Mediterranean and Atlantic.
America. Martini, i. t. 11. f. 91 and 92.
1 ccu^. 103. Subovate, rugged, white radiated with red ;
slightly striated; perforation ovate. Mediterranean.
Lister, t. 529. f. 22.
tJP wyro* 104. Oblong, compressed, unequally striated ; white,
as' with 5 purple, interrupted belts ; greenish white with¬
in ; perforation minute, surrounded on the inside with
a red circle. North America. Martini, i. t. 12. f.
102 and 103.
* oc^s- 105. Ovate-oblong, slightly striated, and the sides
somewhat compressed ; perforation very long, and
widened at the posterior end. Japan. Chem. xi. t.
197. f. 1923 and 1924.
Si
c aliuin. Gen. 33. Dentalium, Tooth-shell.
Gen. C7/ar.-*-The animal a terebella; shell univalve,
tubular, straight or slightly curved, with an undivid¬
ed cavity, open at both ends.
Species.
1. With io ribs, slightly curved and striated; ^elephanti-
inches long. Indian and European seas. Lister, t. num,
547. upper f. I.
2. Straight, doubly or triply striated, and annulated. recta??/.
E. Indies. Martini, i. t. 1. f. 4. A.
3. With 10 ribs, smooth, and slightly curved. In-ttprinum.
dian seas. Martini, i. t. 1. f. 4. B.
4. With 8 ribs and 8 striae, pointed ; green, tippedsta/ata??/.
with white. Sicilian seas. ListerJt. 547. lower fig.
5. With 20 striae, slightly curved, interrupted ; xe,&,dentalis.
tipt, with white. Mediterranean. Rumphius, t. 41.
f. 6.
* 6. Round, slightly curved ; smooth, glossy, taper-eT/ta/A.
ing to a small point; pervious ; if inch long. Indian
and European shores; western coasts of England.
Don. ii. t. 48.
7* Round, slightly curved, interrupted, opaque; J^corneum.
inch long. African ocean. Schroeter, ii. t. 6. f. 16.
8. Round, slightly curved, continued, with crowded,7?o/i’ta;?/.
annular striee ; if inch long. Indian and European
seas. Martini, i. t. 1. f. 3. A.
9. White, smooth, round, slightly curved, with xe-ebttrneum.
mote rings. India. Gmelin.
10. Finely striated, slightly curved; grey, viiihfasciatum.
darker bands ; thickness of a crow quill. Sicily. Mar¬
tini, i. t. I. f. 3. B.
* 11. Subpellucid, subarcuated, tapering to a smallgmfos.
point; pervious, contracting a little towards the larger
end ; white, glossy, and smooth. British channel ;
called by the mariners kake^s tooth. It is frequently
brought up with the sounding line., Montagu, t. 14.
f- >
*12. White, opaque, transversely striated and im- iinperfora^
perforated; minute. Sandwich, Falmouth harbour.ta??/.
Adams’s Microscope, t. 14. f.'8.
* 13. Subcylindrical, arcuated, marked with xegw-trachea.
lar, strong, transverse striae ; aperture round, tapering
to the other extremity, which is closed ; f inch long;
resembles the trachea of an animal. Milton, Devon¬
shire. Rare. Montagu, t. 14. f. 10.
* 14. Round, straightish, smooth, minute; not larger?m«wta??/.
than a bristle. Mediterranean and Britain. pelluci-
15. Horny, flexile, straightish, round and smooth ; dA?//.
2f inches long. North seas. Schroeter, t. 6. f. 17.
*16. Cylindric, arcuated, smooth, glossy, Withoutglabrum.
striae or wrinkles ; aperture orbicular; the other end
closed, rounded ; length one line. Devonshire coast.
Montagu, Test. Brit. p. 497.'
6%
Gen. 34. Serpula, Worm-Shell. Scrpula.
Gen. Char.—-The animal a terebella : shell, univalve,
tubular, generally adhering to other substances ; of¬
ten separated internally by entire divisions at un¬
equal distances.
Species.
1. Suborbicular ; umbilicated ; convex, with t&Ai-stellaris.
ated wrinkles. Greenland, on Sertularia.
2. Regular, oval, loose, glabrous, not larger than seminu*
3N2 alum.
CONCHOLOGY.
Martini, i. t. 12. f.
468
CONCH
incurvata.
planorbis.
cet'eolus.
spirillum.
minuta.
spit'orbis.
a grain of sand. Adriatic and Red seas ; and is some¬
times found fossil. Martini, i. t. 3. f. 22. a. and b.
* 3. Straight, with 3 close whirls at the smaller end j
minute. Sandwich. Walker, t. 12.
4. Orbicular, regular, flat, equal j resembles a round
scale ; adheres to shells.
5. Long, narrow, round, smooth, yellowish ; many
times twisted. America. Martini, i. t. 3. f. 20. E.
* 6. Regular, spiral, orbicular *, whirls round, gra¬
dually decreasing. Found in the ocean, on zoophytes,
on the corallina officinalis from Milton rocks, Devon¬
shire. Martini, i. t. 3. f. 20. C. and D.
y. Regular, spiral, orbicular, with the whirls re¬
versed ; taper, and transversely wrinkled. Britain.
Montagu, p. 505.
* 8. Regular, spiral, orbicular j whirls slightly chan¬
nelled above and inwardly, and diminishing gradually
towards the centre. Found in most seas, adhering to
fuei. Shores of Britain. Don. t. 9.
riquetra.
9. Strong, opaque, irregularly twisted and contort-
intricata.
carinata,.
granulata.
cancellala,
hetero-
stropha.
corrugata,
lucida.
vitrea.
contortu-
plicata.
nebulosa.
goreensis.
glomerata
lumbrica-
lis.
cornea.
arenaria.
afra.
ed; triangular *, -J to 1 inch long. Found in the
ocean, adhering to marine substances, stones, and the
bottoms of ships. Coasts of Britain. Don. t. 95.
* 10. Filiform, rough, and intricately twisted; green¬
ish white, a little rugged and coarse. European and
Indian seas ; shores of Britain, on shells.
*11. Regular, spiral, with the outer whirl rising into
a carinated ridge on the top. Salcombe Bay, De¬
vonshire.
*12. Round, spiral, glomerated; 3 elevated ribs on
the upper side ; size of a coriander seed. North seas,
in masses adhering to shells and stones. Britain.
Don. t. 100.
13. Spiral, glomerated, with three grooves, the lower
interrupted by transverse ribs; aperture 2-toothed.
Greenland seas.
*14. Taper, spiral, with three elevated ribs on the up¬
per side, and the whirls reversed. Devonshire. Mon¬
tagu.
* 15. Regular, spiral, transversely wrinkled, and um-
bilicated. Devonshire.
* 16. Taper, spiral, very smooth and glossy; whirls
reversed. Britain. Linn. Tr. v. t. 1. f. 31.
* 17. Round, regular, spiral, orbicular, wrinkled, with
a thickened aperture. Greenland seas ; shores of Bri¬
tain.
*18. Angular, rugged, and irregularly entwined;
tiansveisely striated; 3 to 4 inches long. European
and American seas, shores of Britain. Martini i. t.
3. f. 24. A.
I9* Thick, wrinkled, and much twisted ; aperture
large and indented. America. Favanne, t. 6. f. 1.
* 20. Round, cancellated, yellow, within horny; 8 to
cy inches long. Goree. Favanne, i. t. 6. f. 812.
21. Round, glomerated, with decussated wrinkles.
European and Atlantic sea. Martini, i. t. 3. f. 23.
22. Round, flexuous, with a spiral, acute tip; trans¬
versely ribbed, and longitudinally wrinkled; 3 to c
inches long. Atlantic and Indian seas, in large masses.
Lister, t. 548. f. 1.
23. Subcylindrical, flexuous ; spiral at the base. A-
merica. Martini, i. t. 2. f. ij.
24. Jointed, entire, distinct, flattish beneath. India
and Africa. Martini, i. t. 3. f. 19. A, B, and C.
25. Substriated, yellowish brown, round, twisted in-
O L O G Y. Chap.
to 3 whirls, with a central tip. Goree. Martini, i. t.
3. f. 20. A. B.
26. Suboctangular, cancellated, and irregularly spi-twAo# -
ral. E. Indies. Martini, i. t. 2. f. 14.
27. Roundish, somewhat spiral, with a longitudinal,
jointed cleft. Indian ocean. Lister, t. 548. f. 2.
28. Angular, muricated, with a longitudinal, suharti- muric(\
culated fissure. Indian ocean. Martini, i. t. 2. f. 8.
29. Subcylindrical, with annular contractions, a.n&annuk\
an obsolete longitudinal fissure. Martini, i. t. 2. f.
10.
30. Conic, spirally twisted, yellowish, with brownor# uc
hands; the middle round and twisted ; aperture orbi-pfig?,
cular. Mauritius island. Chem. xi. t. 211. f. 202 and
203.
31. Round, with decussated striae, slightly wrinkled, tfecwfJj
llexuous, red ; within smooth, white. Barbadoes. Lis¬
ter, t. 547. f. 4.
*32. Round, tapering, curved, wrinkled; 2 to 3vermict 1
inches long. European seas, coasts of Britain. Don./am.
t. 95. The animal which inhabits this shell is of a
bright scarlet colour, and is furnished with elegant
feathered tentacula, from the midst of which arises a
trumpet-shaped tube, and a lesser simple one.
* 33. Taper, subulated, and flexuous, with the larger tubula ,
end detached and ascending. Devonshire and Shet¬
land islands.
34. White, round, subulate, straight, and toothed dentia
at the sides; with a longitudinal glabrous rib in the lata.
middle ; tip glabrous, a little incurved ; \ inch long.
Found in the lepas tintinnabulum. West Indies.
Schroeter, ii. t. 6. f. 18.
35. Watering-pot; round, straight, taper, with aaquan
dilated, radiated, larger extremity; the disc is cover¬
ed with cylindrical pores ; 3 to 5 inches long. Indian
ocean. Lister, t. 548. f. 3.
36. Brown, roundish, striated. Indian ocean, adher-ocrar.
ing to corals. Martini, i. t. 1. f. 9.
37. Smooth, white, the broader part straight, andproto
transversely plaited ; 2 to 4 inches long. Martini, i. dea.
t. 2. f. 18. A and B.
38. Polished, smoothish, with annulated plaits, a \it-proten
tie tapering towards the end ; size of a quill. Indian
and American seas. Martini, i. t. 2. f. 12. A.
39. Somewhat triangular, and a little flexuous, ^aKi.
gradually tapering, violet; within smooth and pale
yellow; aperture white, with undulated striae, and arm¬
ed with a conic tooth ; a foot high, and as thick as the
little finger. Africa and America. Pallas, t. 10. f.
2 to 10.
* 40. Whirls 2, deeply and spirally grooved ; green-sidcat
ish ; minute. Coast of Pembrokeshire, on the roots of
fucus digitalis.
* 41. Suboval, with 2 bends, imperforated; minute.ovalis.
Found at Denbigh.
* 42. Regular, rounded ; margin reflected at the ^per-reflex
ture ; minute. Pembrokeshire sands.
* 43. Regular, rounded, pellucid, with three whirls ; coma
horny. Pembrokeshire coast.
* 44. Semilunar, ventricose, white, opaque, glossy ; Zucon'
minute. Sandwich and Reculver.
* 45. White, opaque, glossy; semilunar and perfo-per/w
rated ; minute. Sandwich. Rare.
* 46. Oval, thin, smooth, pellucid, with milky veins ;ladea
minute.. Sandwich. Very rare.
* 47-
469
tap. IV. CONCH
•na. * 47. Round, striated, grooved, with a narrow neck,
like an oil flask j minute. Sandwich and Sheppey.
rta. * 48. Rounded, margined, with a slender recurved
neck. Sandwich. Rare.
E(h>. Gen. 35. Teredo, Ship-Worm.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a terebella, with two cal¬
careous, hemispherical valves, cut off before, and
two lanceolate ones : the shell tapering, flexuous,
and penetrating wood.
Species.
antea, 1. Taper, snbcylindrical, nearly straight, thick, and
pellucid, with two internal tubes at the summit. In¬
habits the sandy shores of Ceram, one of the Molucca
islands, in shallow water. Rumphius, t. 41. f. II and
E.—This species grows to an immense size ; and has
been found no less than 5 feet 4 inches long, and the
circumference at the base 9 inches, tapering upwards
to 2* inches 5 the colour on the outside is milk-white 5
the inner surface rather of a yellow tinge.
, *2. Ship-worm; shell thin, cylindrical, smooth j more
or less twisted 5 rather obtuse at the tip ; 4 to 6 inches
long. Britain. Don. t. 145.
At the smaller end the shell becomes thick and
strong, and is furnished within with plaits or laminee,
which contract that part, leaving a very small opening.
The anterior valves attached to the head of the animal,
are of a hemispherical form, one half of the front pro¬
jecting in a sharp angle, and somewhat pointed. The
inside of each valve is white, furnished with a long,
flat, curved tooth, projecting inwards, under the hinge,
and a short lateral tooth at the extremity of the hinge,
corresponding in each valve. The margin opposite the
hinge runs to an acute angle, at the point of which, in
each valve, is a small knob, which comes in contact
when the valves are brought togetherl Near the ex¬
tremity of the tail there are two valves, one on each
side ; a little concave on the inside, and rounded at the
end. By their means the extremity of the tube at the
thickened part is closed. These are properly to be
considered as the shell of the animal, because they are
attached to it. The tube, or testaceous sheath, which
lines the hole made in the wood, appears only to be
formed as an apartment, in which the animal may move
with more ease j for it is found that two tubes never
come in immediate contact with each other, although
the fibres of the wood between them are frequently no
thicker than paper. This tube is seldom so long as the
animal *, the internal part of the perforation is usually
not lined with it for the space of 2 inches, and some¬
times more j but the smaller end is always even with
the surface of the timber which is perforated ', but so
Small, as not easily to be discovered, yet it is sufficient
to admit the water, which is regulated by the posterior
valves of the animal.
It is found in the sides and bottom of ships, and even
the strongest oak, which has been some time under wa¬
ter. This testaceous animal was originally a native of
the warmer climates, and was brought to Europe,
where it has been produced, and has proved extremely
destructive to the bottoms of ships, and to works con¬
structed of wood, which remain for some time constant¬
ly under water. It appears, from some piles of solid
O L O G Y.
oak which were examined in the dock-yard of Ply¬
mouth, and which had remained under water for about
four or five years, that the destructive effects of these
animals are very great in that time j for these piles
were found to be greatly perforated, which rendered it
necessary to remove them, and replace them with others.
The bottoms of ships which frequent warm climates, it
is well known, are sheathed with copper, to secure them
from the effects of these destructive animals. But the
method which is adopted about the dock-yards to pre¬
serve the timbers which are constantly under water, is
to cover them with broad-headed nails •, which, by the
effects of the sea water are soon incrusted with a coat¬
ing of rust, which is found to be impenetrable to the
ship-worm.
It has been observed that the teredo nava/is cuts a-
cross the grain of the wood as seldom as possible. Af¬
ter it has penetrated a little way, it turns and conti¬
nues with the grain, till it meets with another shell, or
a knot in the wood. The course which it then takes is
regulated by the nature of the obstruction. If this be
considerable, it makes a short turn back in the form of
a syphon, rather than continue for any distance across
the grain.
3. Solid, cylindrical, undulated 5 7 inches long. In utriculus.
wood. Kemmener, t. 1.
4. Clavated at one end, incurved at the other j nar-data.
rower, obtuse and perforated in the middle j 2 inches
long. Found in the seed-vessels of the xylosteum gra-
natum. Coromandel. Eticy. Meth. t. 167. f. 6 to 16.
64
Gen. 36. SaBELLA, Sand Shell. Sabella.
Gen. Char.—The animal a nereis, with a ringent
mouth, and two thicker tentacula behind the head :
shell tubular, composed of particles of sand, broken,
shells, and vegetable substances, united to a mem¬
brane by a glutinous cement.
Species.
1. Solitary, loose, curved, with lentiform, glossy gva-scruposa.
nulations $ thickness of a swan’s quill. India and A-
merican islands.
2. Solitary, fixed by the base, simple, curved, viithscabra.
radiated, rough granulations. America. Act. Petrop.
1766. t. 9. f. 1 and 2.
* 3. Numerous, parallel tubes, communicating by axialveolata.
aperture, forming in the mass the appearance of honey
combs ; 2 to 3 inches long. European coasts, Britain.
Ellis Corals, t. 36.
* 4. Solitary, subcylindrical, papyraceous, chiefly com-chi'ysodon..
posed of fragments of shells, thickness of a quill; 2 to
6 inches long. European and Indian seas, shores of
Britain. Martini, i. t. 4. f. 29. and 30.
* 5. Straight, conic, composed of minute particles oibelgtca.
sand ; 2 to 3 inches long. European coasts, shores of
Britain. Martini, i. t. 4. f. 37;
6. Brown, with alternate white and black rings $ rartawga-
straight, with a rectangular gibbous extremity; 9 inches A/.
long. Martini, i. t. 4. f. 31.
7. Cylindrical, conic, open ^t both ends; membra- capensis.
naceous; rough, with interrupted, transverse striae.
Cape of Good Hope. Mull. Linn. Naturf. 6. t. 19. f.
6 and 7.
8. Cylindrical, black, smoothish on the outside nigra.
composed
470
C 0 N C H 0 L 0 G Y.
stagnalis.
cornea.
uncinata.
sabulosa.
vegetabilis
ammo*
niaia.
heliciiia.
dimidiate.
fixa.
clavata.
corticalis.
arundina-
cea.
aculeata. *
marsupia-
lis.
norwegica
lumbrica-
tis.
composed of minute particles of sand ; \ inch long.
Rivulets of Thuringia. Schroeter, t. II. f. I.
9. Straight, tapering, open at both ends 5 smooth,
Kith a margined aperture, composed of very minute
particles of sand. Rivers of Thuringia. Schroeter, t.
it.f. 13.
10. Narrow, conic, smooth, straight, cinereous $
with a blackish open tip, composed of very minute par¬
ticles of sand 5 not -*■ inch long. Schroeter, t. II. f. 14.
11. Smooth, round, tapering, with an open hooked
tin ; ^ inch long. Rivers of Thuringia. Schroeter, t.
11. f. D. f. S..
12. Cylindrical, closed at the tip, subclavated, per¬
forated, and composed of larger grains of sand ; not an
inch long* Thuringia and Belgium. Schroeter, t. 11*
f. 4. • .
13. Depressed, composed of fragments of twigs,
stems, and bark, and broken pieces of the tellina cor¬
nea 5 an inch long. Waters of Thuringia. Schroeter,
t. 11. f. 9.
14. Polygono-cylindrical, within smooth, composed
of fragments of cornu ammonis. Rivers. Schroeter,
t. 11. f. 10.
15. Round, within smooth, composed of fragments of
the helix pusilla j an inch long. Stagnant waters of
Thuringia. Schroeter, t. li.f. 11.
16. One part of the shell composed of sand or gra¬
vel, the other thicker, clavated, and composed of frag¬
ments of shells. Waters of Thuringia. Schroeter, t.
11. f. 3* D.
17. Composed of small stones j tapering towards the
tip ', an inch long j affixed to stones in the water, and
open at the side by which it is fixed. Thuringia.
Schroeter, t. II. f. 12.
18. Composed of small stones ; the open end clavat¬
ed, and consisting of larger stones $ solitary. Thurin¬
gia. Schroeter, t. n. f. 2.
19. Composed of pieces of bark, towards the end of
broken stems. Schroeter, t. 11. f. r.
20. Subconic, open at both ends, composed of frag¬
ments of the bark of reeds, placed on each other $ an
inch long. Schroeter, t. 11. f. 6.
21. Composed of small twigs, the points of which
project a little ; an inch long. Thuringia, Britain.
Schroeter, t» II. f. 7.
22. Black j open end cylindrical and narrower, the
other part tinged and ovate 5 2 inches long. Schroeter,
2. t. 6. f. 21.
23. Roundish, open at both ends, brittle, membrana¬
ceous •, composed of very minute grains of sand ; 4
inches long. Norway. Schroeter, 2. p. 591. N° 20.
.24. .Coarse, creeping, fragile, open at both ends;
the animal not furnished with tentacula at the mouth ;
Chap. I1
body prickly, jointed. Deeps of the Greenland seas ;
fixed to stones. Fabr. fn. Groenl. p. 374. N0 369.
25. Cylindrical, composed of capillary, subeylindri- indica,
cal, agglutinated crystals of quartz. Indian ocean.
Abildy Schr. Bell. Naturf. 9. p. 144. t. 4.
* 26. Extremely fragile, cylindrical, composed of pure orr^ar?',)
sand, slightly cemented together, without any internal
membrane ; size of a raven’s quill ; from I to 2 inches
long. Dorsetshire coast. Montagu.
* 27. Long, subcylindric, slender, fragile, composed of subcyliA
fine sand, and minute bits of bi’oken shells, cemented r/r/cc.
together on a fine membrane ; 3 inches long. Salcomb
bay. Montagu.
* 28. Long, slender, gradually tapering to the ktiform\
end, composed of fine fragments of shells, and minute
flat bits of stones, cemented together at their edges ; 3
to 4 inches long. Salcomb bay.— Some have been ob¬
served with a lateral branch near the smaller end, which
is supposed to be a young one. Montagu.
* 29. Small, short, composed of sand and minute bits carta,
of flat stones, agglutinated to a tough membrane ; size
of a crow quill ; an inch long. Inlet near Kings-
bridge. This sabella is gregarious, covering the whole
surface of the shore, appearing like bits of straw co¬
vered with mud. Montagu,
* 30. Short, broad, and very flat, composed of large compm,
fragments of flat, bivalve shells, placed with the con¬
cave side inwards ; I £ inch long. Deeps at Torcross,
Devonshire.
The animals included under the preceding genus,
have for their coverings particles of sand agglutinated
on the external membrane, and resemble rather the
larvae of certain insects, than the testaceous vermes.
The latter form their calcareous integuments entirely
from the secretions of their own surfaces, and are at¬
tached to these by cartilaginous processes, so as to render
them essential and indispensable parts of their struc¬
ture. The coverings of the sabellse seem to be more of
an adventitious nature, and may be considered rather
as serving the purposes of habitations, than as being
organized integrals of the contained animal. This ge¬
nus, therefore, does not come under the class of testa¬
ceous animals ; and indeed is by all physiologists of mo¬
dern times rejected from the arrangement of testaceous
vermes. ^
Number of species included under each order, in theEnnmera
preceding classification.
Multivalves
Bivalves
Univalves
Tetal number of species
exclusive of the sabellae.
99
655
^55
2409
tiou of tb
species.
CHAP. V. OF THE CONSTITUENT PARTS OF SHELLS, &c.
HAVING in the former chapter enumerated, under
each genus, all the species of testaceous animals which
have been hitherto discovered ; and having given the
characteristic marks by which each is distinguished
which marks are derived from the shell or testaceous
covering; vve now propose to inquire what is the na¬
ture of this substance ; in what way it is produced by
the animal, and how it is enlarged as the animal in¬
creases in size. These topics shall be the subject of the
present chapter, which may be conveniently divided
into the following sections. 1. Of the constituent parts
of shells. 2. Of their formation. 3. Of the colours of
shells. 4. Of the formation of the umbilicus and pro¬
tuberances, &c. 5. Of the pearl.
Sect.
/<
lap. V. CONCHOLOGY. 471
; [heCon-
itucut Sect. I. Of the Constituent Parts of Shells.
^C' The nature and component parts of testaceous sub-
[l stances have been particularly investigated by Mr Hat-
m. chett, from whose paper we extract the following ob*
)9* servations.
^ms In liis examination of marine shells, Mr Hatchett
ilidls found, from the nature of the substance of which they
n their are composed, that they might be, arranged in two di-
uponent visions. Under the first are included those which have
ts’ a porcellaneous appearance and enamelled surface, and
exhibit, when broken, something of a fibrous texture.
The other division is distinguished, by having a strong
epidermis or covering, under which is the shell, com¬
posed principally or entirely of mother-of-pearl. To
the first division belong different species of yoluta, cy-
prsea, and others. The second comprehends the oys¬
ter, the river mussel, and some species of haliotis and
67 turbo.
rcellane- Porcellaneous shells.—The shells of this description
which were examined, were different species of volu-
ta and cyprsea. When they were exposed to a red
heat for a quarter of an hour, they crackled, and lost
the colours of their enamelled surface. No apparent
smoke, and no smell, like that of burnt horn or carti¬
lage, were emitted during the process. The figure
remained the same, excepting a few flaws $ and they
became of an opaque white, partially tinged with pale
grey. When they were dissolved in acids, after being
burnt, they deposited a small quantity of animal coal,
which proves that they contain some portion of glu¬
ten. Shells which had not been exposed to the fire,
dissolved with great effervescence in the different acids j
and the solution remained transparent and colourless j
from which it appears, that the proportion of gluten
is small, since it could not be traced in the solution of
the unburnt shells.
In examining the different solutions of shells, whe¬
ther burnt or unburnt, by chemical tests, it was found,
that no trace of phosphate of lime, or of any other
combination of phosphoric acid, existed in these sub¬
stances. And it appeared from many experiments,
that the component parts of porcellaneous shells, are
carbonate of lime, cemented with a very small portion
of animal gluten.
Some species of patella, which were brought from
Madeira, were also subjected to chemical examination,
by the same philosopher. When exposed to a red heat in
a crucible, they emitted a perceptible smell of horn or
feathers j and by farther examination, by solution, the
proportion of carbonic matter deposited appeared to
lie greater, and the proportion of carbonate of lime
less, than what was indicated by the result of the ex¬
periments on porcellaneous shells. When unburnt
shells belonging to the same species, were immersed in
nitric acid very much diluted, the epidermis separated,
and the whole of the carbonate of lime was dissolved.
A gelatinous substance, nearly in a liquid state, remain¬
ed, but it did not retain the figure of the shell, and ex¬
hibited no appearance of a fibrous structure. These
shells, therefore, contain a larger portion of gelatinous
matter than the porcellaneous shells, but the other com-
1 her-of. IH)nent P^t consists entirely of carbonate of lime.
I 1, Shells composed of mother-of-pearl.—Shells of this
2
description, were subjected to similar experiments with Of the Con-
the former. When the common oyster was exposed to stituent
a red heat, the effects w’ere the same as those which ot
, ’ 1 , .1 .1 • Shells, See.
were produced by the same process on the species ^
of patella from Madeira. The solution of the un¬
burnt shell was also similar, excepting only that the
gelatinous part was of a greater consistency. When
the river mussel was burnt in a crucible, it emitted
much smoke, with a strong smell of burnt horn or
cartilage 5 the shell became of a dark grey colour, and
exfoliated. By solution in the acids, the proportion
of carbonic matter separated was greater, and that of
carbonate of lime obtained was less, than from the
other shells on which experiments were made.
When an unburnt shell of this description was im¬
mersed in diluted nitric acid, a rapid solution and ef¬
fervescence took place ; and at the end of two days, the
whole of the carbonate of lime was nearly dissolved.
A series of membi’anes now only remained, of which
the epidermis constituted the first. These membranes
still retained the figure of the shell. The carbonate
of lime was at first readily dissolved, because the acid
came easily in contact with it j but the process became
slower, as it was more difficult for the acid to insinuate
itself between the different membranes of which the
shell is composed. The haliotis iris, and the turbo
olearius, were found to resemble this mussel, except
that the membranaceous parts were more compact and
dense.
When these shells are deprived by an acid of the
carbonate of lime, which gives them their hardness,
they appear to be formed of different membranes, ap¬
plied stratum super stratum. Each membrane is fur¬
nished with a corresponding coat or crust of carbonate
of lime, and it is so situated, that it is always between
every two membranes, beginning with the epidermis,
and ending with the internal membrane, which has
been last formed. The animals which inhabit these
stratified shells, increase their habitation by the addi¬
tion of a stratum of carbonate of lime, which is se¬
cured by a new membrane. And as every additional
stratum exceeds in extent that which was previously
formed, the shell becomes stronger in proportion as it
is enlarged ; and thus the growth and age of the ani¬
mal may be denoted by the number of strata of which
the shell is composed. Similar experiments were made
on pieces of mother-of-pearl as they are imported from
China, and with precisely the same results. They ap-
peared to be composed of the same gelatinous matter and
carbonate of lime. In all the shells of this description
which were immersed in acids, the membranaceous
parts retained the exact figure of the shell, and they
appeared distinctly to be composed of fibres, arranged
in a parallel direction, corresponding to the configura¬
tion of the shell. ^
Pearl.—The constituent parts of pearl appear to be pearf
similar to those of mother-of-pearl. They are compo¬
sed of concentric coats of membrane and carbonate of
lime, and resemble in structure the globular, calcar¬
eous concretions which are known by the name of pu
solithes. The iridescence and undulated appearance of
pearl and mother-of-pearl, evidently depend on their
lamellated structure and semitransparency.
From these experiments it appears, that shells are c0niponc>-
composed of carbonate of lime and gluten. . In some, pai ts,
s as .
47 2
CONCH
Ofthe Con- as in the porcellaneous shells, the proportion of car-
stitaient bonate of lime is great, while that of the animal mat-
Parts of ter small ; and these may be regarded as the begin-
Shells, Sec. njnry 0p (|1e series } while shells that come under the
v description of mother-of-pearl are to be placed at the
other extremity, having a smaller proportion of car¬
bonate of lime, and a greater proportion ol membra¬
naceous substance. In the first the carbonate of lime
is merely cemented by the animal matter ; in the lat¬
ter the carbonate of lime serves to harden the membra¬
naceous substance. But between these two extremes,
in the proportion of carbonate of lime and animal glu¬
ten, of which all testaceous substances are composed,
there are no doubt numerous intermediate gradations,
arising from the nature of the animal to which they
form a covering, its peculiar habits, or mode ot life.
Sect. II. Of the Formation of Shells.
The shell or covering of testaceous animals, has been
considered as in some measure analogous to the bones
of other animals, although its formation and growth are
very different, since it serves as a base or support to
the muscles, which are attached to its internal surface.
The principal use of the shell, however, is to serve as
a covering or defence to the animal.
Testaceous Testaceous animals are not only extremely different
animals in external form, but also in the mode of their produc-
oviparous tion. Some are vivipai'ous, as the most of those which
and vivipa*inhabit bivalve shells, multivalves, and even some of
the univalves j while the others, which form the far
greater proportion, are oviparous. In one point, how¬
ever, they all agree, that whatever be the mode of pro¬
duction, whether from an egg, or directly from the ute¬
rus of the mother, the shell is formed on the body of
the young animal, and is proportioned to its bulk.
Reaumur’s observations which have yet been made, and
investiga- the most elaborate investigation which has hitherto ap-
tion. peared, concerning the formation and developement of
shells, are those of the celebrated Reaumur, which were
published in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for
the year 1709. The same subject has been prosecuted
by other authors, but their results have been nearly
the same as those of this distinguished naturalist. Klein
is almost the only author who has advanced a different
opinion. In his dissertation concerning the formation
of shells, he charges Reaumur with supporting the opi¬
nion, that testaceous animals, when they proceed from
eggs, are not furnished with the shell, but that it is
formed after being hatched. This opinion indeed has
been ascribed to Reaumur by the historian of the acade¬
my, who, in the analysis of his excellent memoir on the
formation of shells, has observed, “ that hitherto the
His opinioncurioHS liave beei? struck with the prodigious variety,
mistaken. ti5e exact regularity of structure, the singular beauty
and splendour of colour of shells j but naturalists have
been less attentive in studying and investigating the
mode of their formation. They seem to have thouoht
that although shells, as well as the covering of crusta-
ceous animals, are bones placed externally to the ani¬
mals which they cover, it was necessary to consider
them as part of their bodies, and to include this inex¬
plicable circumstance under that of the general forma¬
tion of animals, which is incomprehensible to the hu¬
man mind. They have therefore supposed that the
• 3
O L O G Y. , Chap, jj
animal and its shell proceeded from the same egg, and Ofthe (
rvere developed together $ and they have rested satis- nituei
fied in admiring the economy of nature in providing IJarts
so elaborate a covering for so low an order of animals,
But this supposition, although probable, is not found- r'
ed in truth. The animal only, not the shell, is pro¬
duced from the egg. The discovery of this fact is
owing to Reaumur.”
It must seem very extraordinary, that such an error
should have crept into the abstract of the memoir of
this celebrated philosopher, who in the course of it
has clearly expressed a contrary opinion. “ I have fre¬
quently,” says Reaumur, ,l compared the shells of
snails which were just hatched, alrd even with those
which I had taken from the eggs before they were
hatched, with other shells of full grown snails of the
same species, with which I had left only the same
number of whirls of the spire with the small shells, and
then they appeared in all respects the same.” He far¬
ther observes, “ that what has been said with regard
to the increase of shells, renders it unnecessary to en¬
ter into the detail of their original formation 5 for it
is easy to conceive, that when the body of a small
embryo which is one day to fill a large shell, has ar¬
rived at a certain state, in which the different tegu¬
ments in which ft is included have sufficient consistence
to secrete from their pores the peculiar fluid which is
destined to the formation ofthe shell, this fluid may be test:.
deposited on the surface, may thicken, and at last be-ousanir s
come firm and solid. And thus commences the forma-
tion of the shell, in the same way as its increase is con-^
tinued. Snails do not proceed from the egg withoutfore t,e;
being previously furnished with this shell, which then hatched
has one turn and a little more of the spire.
When the eggs of testaceous animals are hatched,
the young appears with its shell already formed, and
according to the observation of Reaumur, it has then
one complete turn of the spire and a little more j but
at that period the shell is extremely thin. It seems
probable that the formation of the shell is posterior to
that of the principal organs of the animal, as the
bones in the foetus of other animals are formed after
the brain and heart.
Reaumur has suspected that the shell is the last Shell la
formed, and if proofs are wanting to establish this fact,forrac^
it is certain that at particular periods, if the eggs of
testaceous animals are opened, the external parts of the
embryo are found already developed, without any ap¬
pearance of the shell. But whatever may be the period
ol the formation of the shell, it may be received as an
established fact, that the animal is furnished with it at
the time it leaves the egg. Leeuwenhoek first ob¬
served this fact with regard to oysters ; the same ob¬
servation was afterwards made by Lister, and extend¬
ed to others, both land and river shells. This observa¬
tion has been confirmed by other naturalists, and parti¬
cularly by Rumphius, Swammerdam, Reaumur, and
Adanson. From the investigations of the latter it ap¬
pears, that although there are many of the marine tes¬
taceous animals which are viviparous, they resemble
those which are oviparous, in being furnished with the
shell when they are separated from the parent. 71
Since then it appears, that the shell of testaceous Two 1‘i
animals is completely formed previous to the develope-0118 o!) j
ment of the animal, and that it may be considered as^1^
an
/
hap. V.
the Con-an essential part of Its organization, let us now Inquire
ituent into the mode by which its growth is effected. Ac-
srts of cording to the decisive experiments of Reaumur, the
^.'enlargement of shells is owing to juxta-position, or suc¬
cessive additions of earthy and animal matter, indepen¬
dent of any organized structure. Klein has supported
a contrary opinion, and supposes that the growth of
shells is effected by intus-susception, or a kind of circu¬
lation. The opinion of Reaumur, however, has most
generally prevailed. Excepting Bonnet, few natural¬
ists have adopted that of Klein ; and it will appear that
this celebrated naturalist was led to entertain this opi¬
nion concerning the mode of the formation of shells,
by the experiments of Herissant on the generation of
bone and shell. From these experiments it was clearly
demonstrated, that shells are composed of two substan¬
ces, the one a membranaceous or animal substance, and
the other an earthy matter j but no such conclusion
can he drawn from them in support of the opinion, that
the shell is a continuation of the body of the animal,
or that it is so closely connected as the bones in the
bodies of other animals ; or even that this connexion
is formed by means of fibres of the ligament which
attaches the animal to its shell: for it has been shown,
that these muscular or ligamentous fibres, in all de¬
scriptions oftestaceous animals, are successively separa¬
ted, in proportion to the increase or enlargement of the
shell. This could not possibly take place, if the evolu¬
tion and formation of the shell, according to the opi¬
nion of Herissant, depended on an internal circulation,
analogous to what happens in the body of the animal.
In this case the vessels which proceed from its body,
having no longer a communication with those which
are supposed to exist in the shell, it would be deprived
of nourishment, and consequently could not increase in
size. And it is found, that this separation takes place
in all shells. It is gradually completed as the growth
^ of the shell advances.
lies or- A body may increase in volume in two different
nzedor ways. Either the particles of which it is composed
tgam- pass through that body by means of circulation, and
undergo certain changes by which they are prepared
to form part of the body ; or the particles of which a
body is composed, may unite with it by juxta-position,
without any previous circulation or preparation within
the body, to the increase of which they are destined.
It is in the first way that the growth of vegetables and
animals is accomplished ; the second is the mode by
which shells receive new additions of matter, and en¬
large in size. The first is the mode of increase pecu¬
liar to living, organized substances ; by the second, ir-
organized substances receive new additions of matter,
and increase in volume. These indeed afford sufficient
characteristic marks for a natural division of bodies in¬
to two classes, namely organized and inorganized sub-
stances.
(Ilnur's experiments of Reaumur have decisively proved,
d- that the growth of shells is owing to the latter mode
^ cf increase. These experiments were made, not only
on sea-shells, but also on land and river shells; on uni¬
valves and bivalves; and, in all, the result was invariably
the same. In conducting these experiments, he inclo¬
sed the shells, on the progress of which he made his
observations, in boxes pierced with small holes, so as
to admit the water, but so small as to prevent the egress
Vol. VI. Part II. +
473
of the animal. These boxes were sunk into the sea, of the Con¬
or the river, and in this way he was enabled to watch stituent
the process of the growth of the shell. Pie first obser- ParU ot
ved, that when the animal which exactly filled its shell., e^*’ ^f'c‘
began to increase its size, the shell in a short time, not
being sufficiently large to cover its whole body, part of
it was naked or unprotected. This part of the animal
must always be towards the opening of the shell, be¬
cause the shell being previously completely filled, it
cannot extend in any other direction. All animals
which inhabit shells of a spiral form, such as the snail
and volute, can only extend at the head, or the opening
of the shell ; whereas the animals in bivalve shells,
such as the mussel and the oyster, may enlarge in their
whole circumference. In all the species of testaceous
animals, it is this part which appears by the increase
of the animal when it enlarges the shell. This increase
takes place, according to Reaumur, by the following
mechanism.
It is a necessary effect of the laws of motion, when ProJe^s of
liquids run in canals, that the small particles of these the f°nua~
fluids, or the small foreign bodies mixed with them,t!ono*
which on account of their figure, or their less degree*1*6,1'
of solidity in proportion to their surface, move slower
than the others, fly off from the centre of motion, and
approach towards the sides of these canals. It even
frequently happens, that these small particles attach
themselves to the internal surface of these canals or
tubes, and form concretions of different degrees of
thickness. It is besides certain, that the fluids which
circulate in these tubes, press against their sides on every
point of their interior surface ; so that if they were
pierced with a number of small holes of sufficient dia¬
meter to give passage to the small particles of matter
floating in these fluids, these particles would be depo¬
sited on the external surface, where a crust would be
formed, similar to that in the inside ; with this differ¬
ence, that it would become thicker and more solid, be¬
ing less exposed to the friction of the fluid, than that
which is deposited in the interior of the tube. Sj
To a similar mechanism Reaumur ascribes the in-Bysecre-
crease of shells. The external surface of that part of don from
the body of the animal which has extended beyondtIie aniim‘!'
the limits of the old shell, is furnished with a great
number of canals, in which circulate the necessary fluids
for the nutrition of the animal. A great many small
particles of a viscid and earthy matter are mixed with
these fluids. Now, as these particles are less fluid than
those of which the liquids themselves are composed,
they approach the sides of the vessels, which are them¬
selves furnished on that side of the external surface of
the body of the animal, with a great number of pores,
which allow them to escape from the vessels, so that
they are deposited on the external surface of these
tubes, or rather in that of the body of the animal it¬
self, which is uncovered by the shell.
Ihese particles of earthy and viscid matter having
reached the surface of the body of the animal, readily
unite with each other, and with the extremity of the
old shell, especially when the excess of moisture is dis¬
sipated ; and thus by their union they compose a Small
solid body, which is the first layer of the new addition.
Other particles of similar matter continuing to escape
in the same way from the excretory vessels of the ani¬
mal, form a second layer under the first; afterwards a
3 O , third
CONCHOLOGY.
474 CONCH
Of the Con. third, and a fourth, or more, till, the new part of the
stituent shell has acquired sufficient consistence and thickness.
Parts of It is, however, observed to continue thinner for a cer-
Sheils, &c. t;me tj)an t|ie former opening, till the increase of
' ' _ v the animal requires another enlargement of its cover-
ing. ... , .
When a testaceous animal is going to enlarge its
shell, as for instance the common snail, the body pro¬
jects from the opening. It is then seen to attach itself
to a wall or some other solid substance, and the portion
of its body which is unprotected by the shell, is soon
covered with the fluids which are excreted from its
surface. The pellicle which they produce when the
fluid dries, is at first thin and elastic, but gradually as¬
sumes more consistence, and becomes at last similar to
the old part of the shell. If in this stage of the pro¬
cess a bit of the shell is broken and removed, without
injuring the body of the snail, the skin of the animal is
soon covered with a fluid, which gradually thickens,
8i and becomes solid. Twenty-four hours after the ope-
Time ne- ration, a fine crust may be observed, which constitutes
cessary to tiie first an(J external layer, for repairing the breach
form shell, was made. At the end of some days this layer
lias become thicker, and in 10 or 12 days, the new
piece of shell which is formed, has acquired the same
thickness as that which was removed. In making this
experiment, certain precautions are necessary, other¬
wise there is some risk of its failure. If, after the bro¬
ken piece of the shell has been removed, and particu¬
larly if the fracture is made near the edge of the open¬
ing, the animal is not supplied with a sufficient quantity
of nourishment, its volume or bulk is soon diminished j
and now finding that what remains of the shell is a
complete covering to its diminished body, no excretion
takes place for the production of a new portion. In
removing snails from a wall to which they had attach¬
ed themselves, for the purpose of observing the progress
of the formation of the shell, some days will elapse af¬
ter they are placed in the box, before the process com¬
mences, because the testaceous matter which had been
already expended after fixing on the wall, must be
fully supplied before any new portion can be again
formed.
This experiment shows clearly, that shells are only
enlarged by receiving new additions of matter, after it
has been excreted from the body of the animal, and
not by mlus-stisception, or a circulation through the
body of the shell itself. If this were the case, the pro¬
duction of new matter to fill up the breach made in
the shell, would first appear all round the edge of
the opening, and forming a kind of callus, similar to
what happens in the reproduction of bony matter in
other animals, it would gradually extend till the whole
breach is filled up. But, on the contrary, this matter
first appears on the body of the animal from which it
has exuded, and the whole extent of the opening is
closed at once by the fluid which has been directly se¬
creted from the surface of the body. Nor can it be
supposed, that the liquid has insensibly exuded from
the shell, and falling on the body of the animal,, is
there collected in sufficient quantity for the formation
of the new piece of shell. This is fully demonstra¬
ted by the two following experiments of the same na¬
turalist.
Steaumur broke several shells of snails; and, hav-
O L O G Y. Chap, n
ing made a very large hole about the middle of tbeoftheC,
shell, and about an equal distance between its summit stituei
and opening, he introduced between the body of the l’art8
animal and its shell, through the hole, a piece 0f ,
skin which was extremely fine, but of a very close tex- 8;! '
ture. He glued this skin to the internal surface of Other e
the shell, so that it shut up accurately the artificial Peumen!
opening which he had made. It must then be obvi-°^eau
ous, that if the reproduction of the piece of shell which mUr'
was removed, depended on the excretion of a fluid
from the shell itself, and not on that which proceeds
from the surface of the animal’s body, the new piece
of shell would be formed on the external surface of the
piece of skin which was introduced j and it is not pos¬
sible that it could be formed between the skin and the
body of tbe animal. But the contrary of this has al¬
ways happened. The new testaceous matter is always
deposited on the internal surface of the skin $ that is,
on the side which is in contact with the animal’s body j
and no matter whatever was deposited on the other
surface. This experiment has been repeated by others,
and has been invariably attended with the same re¬
sult.
The second experiment made by Reaumur is not
less decisive than the first. He took a number of
snails, and broke the shells, so that he diminished the ,
number of the turns of the spire about 4 part. Hav¬
ing in this way rendered the shells too small to cover
the body entirely, they were nearly in the same situa¬
tion as when an increase of the animal’s body requires
an augmentation of the shell. He then took a bit of
skin, as in the former experiment, sufficiently large
for the opening of the shell, and introduced one of its
edges between the body of the animal and the shell,
to the interior surface of which he glued it $ after
which having folded back the other extremity of the
skin on the external surface of the shell, he glued it
in like manner, so that the whole external opening was
completely covered with the skin. The results were
exactly the same as before. The shell grew, the skin
remained in its place, and that part of it which was at¬
tached to the interior surface was fixed between the
new piece and the old shell, which consequently could
not contribute to its formation. Sj
From these experiments, which may be easily repeat-Layev I
ed, it appears that the increase of shells is owing to the j*
secretion of an earthy and viscid animal matter which ^
is prepared in the body of the animal, and which is suc¬
cessively formed by layers from the interior part of the
shell to the external surface. This formation is de¬
termined by the previous enlargement of the animal.
The different strata or layers of which shells are com¬
posed, can be easily demonstrated by exposing them to
the action of fire,, and removing them before their struc¬
ture is entirely destroyed. By this process the animal
matter is consumed, and the earthy substance remains,
exhibiting a laminated structure. The same structure
may be demonstrated, as has been already observed,
in detailing Mr Hatchett’s experiments, by immersing
a shell of the description of mother-of-pearl in a dilu¬
ted acid.. The earthy matter in this case is dissolved
by the acid, and the layers of animal matter which
are interposed, resisting the action of the acid, re¬
main unchanged, and still retain the original figure of
the shell.
It
(ap. V.
0 £ Con- It Is a necessary consequence of the mode in which
uent the shells of snails are increased, that they cannot
tsof enlarge in volume, but by the augmentation of the
S s^cc. £Urns 0f tjie Sp|re> anJ that the length of each turn of
v the shell already formed, remains always the same.
I sof This may be easily put to the test of experiment, by
tl pire reducing the shell of a snail which has reached its full
' !ase^' size to the same number of turns with those of younger
shells of the same species. The two shells do not then
exhibit any other difference than in their thickness ;
and it would be the same, by comparing the youngest
shells, those which have been just separated from the
egg, with the first turns of those of the same species
which have been reduced by breaking them to an
equal diameter. The number of turns or whirls of
which the spire of a shell is composed, increases very
considerably the size of the shell in univalves, and one
turn more or less makes a great difference in their vo¬
lume. According to Reaumur, the diameter of each
turn of the spire is in the snail nearly double that of
the preceding one, and f of that which follows $ but
in many other shells, both marine and river, the last
whirls of the spire, compared with the preceding ones,
greatly exceed this proportion. In some, the external
opening is 12 times greater than the preceding one,
and in others, it is not more than eight times. This
depends entirely on the increase of the animal’s body,
and the proportion of that increase. The growth of
some is lengthwise, and in them the increase of diame¬
ter is proportionally less j while others increase more in
thickness than in length. Those testaceous animals
which have only a few turns in the spire of the shell,
are of this description. To the former belong such as
g, have a greater number of turns in the spire.
:aaimal Those who have adopted the opinion of Klein with
etached regard to the formation of shells, have denied the se-
paration of the animal from the shell, which successive-
iycases ^ takes place near tip 1° univalves. It is indeed
on this circumstance of the connexion of the animal
with the shell, that the truth of this theory depends.
According to it, the animal is attached to the internal
surface of the tip of the shell in univalves, and on this
connexion depend the increase of the shell, and even
the life of the animal. But it is a certain fact, that
the posterior part of the body of the animal is entirely
detached from the tip of the shell and this holds,
not only with regard to all land and sea shells which
have lost the first turns of the spire, and consequently
those of the tip j but also in a great number of other
marine testaceous animals. It seems not only cer¬
tain, but even necessary, that this separation between
the animal and the shell should also take place in bi¬
valve shells, if we take a distinct and rational view of
their growth. Whether this separation is suddenly ef¬
fected, or by a gradual process, which is most probable,
it seems to be sufficiently obvious, by examining the
internal surface of the valves. This is still more
strongly confirmed by sawing univalve shells, particu¬
larly those which are considerably elongated, and have
a great number of turns in the spire, in a direction per¬
pendicular to their axis. In old shells, several of the
first turns of the spire will be found completely filled up
with testaceous matter, so that the tip of the shell has
become quite solid, or at least it will appear to have
been long unoccupied by any part of the body of the
C O N C H O L O G Y. 475
animal. But in transparent shells, as In some species ot'ilie Con-
of helix, it is seen that this attachment does not exist $ stituent
and the H. planorbis can be preserved alive, although
the tip of the spire is broken off.
Shells, See.
Sect. III. Of the Colours of Shells,
S<5
The infinite variety of the colours of shells is one Inquiry cu-
of the most striking parts of their history j and it be-,ious'
comes a curious and interesting object of investigation
to inquire, whether these colours are uniform and con¬
stant in the species, and from what proceed this regu¬
larity and uniformity. The experiments and observa¬
tions of Reaumur will assist us in this investigation.
When a hole is made in a shell, nearly at an equal
distance between its tip and opening, the new piece of
shell which is formed to shut up the hole is usually of
a white colour, and often very different from that of
the rest of the shell. It would appear at first that tire
new piece is of a different nature, and that it is not
formed in the same way as the rest of the shell. To
meet this difficulty, it will be necessary to explain
on what depends the regular variety of the colours
of certain shells : the same experiments which lead to
the discovery of the cause of the one, will serve to un¬
fold the other.
This remarkable variety of colour is in.no shell more Colours va-
remarkable than in the helix nemoralis. The ground ry from
of this shell is white, citron or yellow, or a com-P?rt‘cn*ar
pound of different shades of these colours. DifferentcircUm'
coloured rays are traced on this ground, turning spirallyStaUCeS’
with the shell; in some they are black, in others
brown, and sometimes reddish. The breadth of each
of these rays gradually increases as they approach to
the opening of the shell. It even sometimes happens,
that two of these bands are so much extended in
breadth, that they meet together and form one. Some
individuals have five or six of these bands, while others
have three or four, and even two, and sometimes only
one. Others again have none at all, although of the
same species j and among the individuals which are
marked with coloured bands, they are not always of
the same breadth in the same parts of the shell ; from
which it appears, that no certain specific characters
can be derived from the colour, since it is subject to
so much variety. According to Reaumur, the viscid
and earthy matter of which the shell is composed is secre¬
ted from the surface of the animal’s body j but in certain
places of the surface, particles which produce a different
colour are separated^ and whether this depends on a pe¬
culiar organization of those places, or on the form of the
particles themselves, it appears thatthese particles,either
of a different nature or of a different figure, by uniting,
form bodies which reflect different rays of light; that
is to say, form parts of the shell of different colours. c s
This seems to be a necessary consequence of the Colouring
mode in which the growth of shells is accomplished, matter §e-
The whole external layer of the shell is formed by creted from
the neck of the animal, because it is that part which ^ necA
is nearest to the head, and consequently as the animal
increases in size, that part ceases to be covered with
the old shell. It, therefore, depends on this part of
the animal to extend the shell, and for this purpose it
is sufficient that the neck be furnished with glands for
secreting the different fluids, to form a shell of differ-
3 O 2 ent
476 ' CONCH
Of the Con-ent colours. If, for instance, there are two or three
stituenl glandular bodies which secrete brown or black parti-
S]P]irtS& • ^es’ an^ t*iat t*ieSe g*an(^^ar ,)0^ies are disposed in a
T‘c *’ c'parallel direction to each oilier, while the glands on
the rest of the surface only secrete particles of matter
which reflect the light of a citron colour, the shell
formed by these bodies will have a citron ground, with
black or brown bands, nearly parallel, or which gradu¬
ally approach to each other, and become larger in the
same proportion as the external organs of the animal
89 increase in size.
Proved by Jf n0 such glandular structure, or diflerence in the
experiment.ma^er secreted, could be traced on the neck of the
helix nemoralis, this explanation of the cause of the
variety of colours in shells would appear extremely
probable j but this probability amounts to certainty,
from the actual observation of the existence of this pe-
culiarity of structure and effect. When the helix ne~
rnoralis is deprived of part of its shell, the body ap¬
pears of a white colour, excepting towards the neck,
where the white inclines to yellow, and where besides
there is a number of black or brown bands, equal to
that of the bands on the shell, and arranged in the
same direction. It has been observed, too, that the
individuals which have only one black stripe on the
shell, have only one single black spot on the neck j
and those having four spots on the neck, have four
stripes of the same colour on the shell. These rays
are placed immediately under those of the shell j they
commence at the distance of about a line from the
extremity of the neck, which is itself usually spotted
with black all round. The existence, therefore, of
these excretory organs can no longer he doubted.
The diflerence of colour seems to prove the difference
of structure. But to establish this beyond the possibi¬
lity of doubt, it is only necessary to have recourse to
experiment, by observing what happens in the new
piece of shell which is renewed, in place of that portion
which has been removed ; and if it appear that that
part of the shell which is formed opposite to the black
ravs of the animal, is black, and if that which is
formed between the stripes be of a different colour
from that of the stripes themselves on the rest of the
body, no farther proof can be required. Now, it has
been observed, that that part of the new shell formed
on the neck opposite to the black or brown stripes on
the animal’s body, is itself black or brown, that form¬
ed between the stripes is white or citron, while the rest
of the body is white, but different from that of the
90 neck, when it is of this colour.
Seeming It sometimes happens, that the part of the shell
exception. lias been renewed is of a different colour. This
apparent deviation will appear less difficult to he re¬
conciled to the explanation of the process which has
now been given, if we attend to the circumstance that
the newr shell formed opposite to the neck of the ani¬
mal is never different from that of the old shell, ex¬
cepting that the external surface is extremely rough,
and presents numerous furrows or grooves, in place of
the smoothness and fine polish of the old shell. In this
case, the inequality of surface is occasioned by the mo¬
tion of the animal retiring within its shell, before the
new piece has acquired sufficient consistency and solidi¬
ty 5 and thus the new shell, having contracted on its
surface wrinkles or furrows, the light is very different-
O L O G Y. Chap. r
ly reflected. But there is another cause for this dif-oftire a
ference of colour in these circumstances. When a stinifr
large piece of shell is removed, the first layer which is
formed is usually white. The particles of the fluid ,Sj>eiis
which are necessary for the formation of the shell of Y’M
this colour, seem to be more easily excreted from the
surface of the body than the particles of fluid which
go to the formation of any other colour. It is ob¬
served that the body of the animal is covered with this
fluid, long before there is any appearance of secretion-
about the neck. This liquid is extended to the neck,
and there produces a new layer of white shell j but
as this layer is extremely thin and transparent, it does
not prevent the usual secretion of the colouring matter
at the neck to appear. In this period of the process,
if the animal retire within its shell, the new layer, still
adhering in many points to its body, and not having
acquii'ed sufficient solidity, will be distorted and wrink¬
led •, and not only exhibit that inequality of surface
which generally appears in shells thus formed, but the
arrangement of the stripes or colours will also be de¬
stroyed. # # 9,
It would be a very false conclusion from this account
of the mode of the formation of the stripes which ap-this.
pear on certain species of shells, that the external sur¬
face of all shells should be marked with colours, or
should be uniformly of the same colour ; and that
there should be no shells whose external surface is
marked with different spots, differently arranged, of
an irregular figure, and separated from each other by
unequal intervals. For if it has been -shown, that
these colours are produced on the surface of the shell,
only by means of the secretory organs, situated on the
neck of the animal, it cannot be supposed that the
same effects will follow, unless the animal is placed in
the same circumstances. These secretory organs, there¬
fore, must exist during the entire formation of the
shell, to fuf-nish the same quantity of colouring matter
during the whole of its progress. But if it happen, on jt
the contrary, that these organs undergo any change ; tjie 0, hs
if the pores through which the liquid is poured out to
form a shell or part of a shell of a brown colour, be¬
come too large or too small, or in other respects change
their form, after having poured out a certain quantity
of this fluid ; and that those which furnish the fluid of
which the white part of the shell is composed, are also
changed, it must happen that the shell which is pro¬
duced is marked with different black and white spots,
combined with a degree of irregularity corresponding
to the change on the secretory organs. This will ap¬
pear to be the case, by attending to the changes which
take place in the secretory organs of snails which pro¬
duce coloured shells j for in them it may be observed,
that the colours are distinct and well marked in some,
towards the opening, while they are scarcely percepti¬
ble on the first turn of the spire towards the tip of the
shell j and these changes of colour cannot be supposed
to exist without a corresponding change on the secre¬
tory organs. , ;
The fluidity of the liquid secreted for the formation Ditfer «
of the shell has probably also some effect in the regu-of flfl'‘7
lar distribution of the colours which appear on someint^eti
species. It is easy to imagine that some animals may c<j
secrete a fluid for the formation of the shell, of such a
degree of fluidity as to flow easily from one place to
another,
leCon-another, and thus produce irregular marks on the shell,
went But besides, if there are secretory organs situated on
irtsof t|)e neck of the animal, which prepare fluids of dif-
Is, &c. ferent colours j if the animal moves, or is disturbed by
^ any means, when these fluids are excreted on the sur-
ijt) of face, the colours will appear in a different place from
animal their original distribution, or be mixed and blended to-
PS.1*16 gether, and thus occasion that irregularity which is ob-
served in those parts of shells which have been last pro-
duced, or renewed.
Uj But it will be necessary to have recourse to the first
of these causes, namely to the change of structure in
-wii'li ^,e secretory organs of the neck, to explain the regu-
animal. lar distribution of the round spots, or of those of a
square or rectangular figure, with which certain shells
are marked, and to suppose that those vessels which are
arranged in a square or rectangular manner, which
furnish peculiar fluids, are shut or open at different
periods. It may happen that the developement of a
great part of the animal, occasioned by a more vigor¬
ous growth in certain species than in others, may, in
some cases, be the only cause of those regular spots,
sometimes white on a coloured ground, and sometimes
coloured on a white ground, which the shell exhibits,
if the glands which secrete the colouring matter cor¬
respond in their distribution, to that of the divisions on
the shell, and if they occupy a greater space on the
neck than is usual in other species. In this way may
be accounted for, the regularity of these marks, and
the increase of their size, which is usually proportioned
to that of the turns of the spire, from the consideration
of the secretory organs of the animal enlarging in the
same proportion as the other parts of its body j and their
effects in the formation of the shell corresponding to the
developement of these parts. Hence it follows, that
the largest marks are observed on the external convolu-
96 tions of the shell.
nform- According to Reaumur, the last layer of the shell
a^er which is formed from a fluid secreted from that part of
ite, the surface of the animal’s body which does not reach
the neck, should be white, and this is most generally
the case. In those shells which are internally colour¬
ed, the fluids secreted from the body of the animal
are of the same colour, and they take the place of
those which are usually white, or of a pearly nature, as
is observed in many othex-s. The natui'e of these in¬
ternal layers is always obvious j for if they are not
white, they exhibit everywhere a uniform colour, and
never variegated, like what appears externally. Bv
removing with a file any part of the external surface
of the shell, the layers which appear immediately un¬
der the surface, are those which have been furnished by
the body of the animal, while those on the sux-face it¬
self, usually more variegated than the rest, owe their
formation to the vessels about the neck, and have been
97 formed in the way already described.
^on The growth of shells, being proportioned to that of
Ie‘ the inhabitant, proceeds almost imperceptibly. In
most shells, however, it is easy to distinguish the dif¬
ferent additions which they have received ; for they
are marked on their convex sui’face with different emi¬
nences which are parallel to each other, similar to lines
of different degrees of depth, which give the shell a
fibrous structure. These elevations are called strice^
may be traced through the whole of the shell in bi¬
valves, and in the longitudinal direction of those which Of the Con-
have a spiral form. From the slightest observation of stituent
the manner in which shells are formed, it is easy to see
that they can x'eceive no addition, without leaving, in . ‘ ' ’
a greater or less degree, some trace of these inequali¬
ties $ for every small addition of testaceous matter
which is made, must be attached to the old part of the
shell, which consequently must be more elevated than
the former, whatever be its thickness, when the en¬
largement of the animal requires the formation of the
latter. Tims, the shell will be marked with a great
number of these striae, parallel to each other, which
may be distinctly seen on many different species. pg
Every shell has usually some of these eminences at Growth in-
greater distances, and more elevated than the others. tcnuPte(fl
By these the different periods when the shell ceased to
increase, or rather those when its growth was inter¬
rupted, are marked ; and they have some degree of
analogy with the diff'ei'ent shoots from the branch of a
tree. The heat of summer or the cold of winter inter¬
rupting the growth of the animal, at least among such
as are testaceous, which live on the land, or inhabit
rivei’s in temperate xegions, the shell is not enlarged in
extent during these seasons. It is otherwise, however,
with regard to its thickness, for there is continually
exuded from the body of the animal, small quantities
of fluid, which increase its thickness. Hence it is
when the shell begins to increase in extent, the edge
to which the new portion is cemented, is much thicker 4
than when the growth was gradual and imperceptible,
and consequently the place at which the growth com¬
mences, after a long interruption, is distinguished by a
more elevated ridge, than in the continued pi-ogressive
additions which it receives. The numerous instances
of this inten-uption in the growth of shells, will occur
to the attentive conchologist in the progress of his
researches. We have at present in our possession, a
fine illustration of the same thing, in a specimen ofj^xa^te
murex ramosus. The animal, it would appear from of this,
the original part of the shell, had been for some time in
a sickly or unhealthy state j for it has undergone many
of the changes to which dead shells are subject. It
has lost its enamel j it seems to have undergone some
degree of decomposition, and some species of serpuh.
and other parasitical animals had made it their abode j
but from this sickly state it seems to have recovered,,
and acquired great vigour $ for the next addition
which is made to the shell, is equal to its original hulk.
It is clean, entire, and in perfect preservation, forming
a singular contrast with the old shell. IOO
The place at which shells begin to increase, after Distinguish
the growth has been for some time interrupted, may ed by the
be distinguished by a difference of colour in the stripes
with which the shell is usually marked. In these
places, black or brown stripes exhibit more vivid co¬
lours, and sometimes even little different from those
on the rest of the superior surface of the shell. The
cause of this change is not difficult to trace, if we re¬
collect that the secretory organs which prepare the co¬
louring matter, at least in the helix nemoralis, have
their origin at some distance from the extremity of the
neck, from which we have seen that the first layer of
shell which is traced to the extremity itself, should be
of a different colour from that of the stripes $ but as
the increase of the animal occasions the stripes to be
formed
478 CONCH
Of the Con-formed under tins first shell, during which it is still
stituent very thin, and consequently transparent, it does not
Parts of prevent the shell produced under it, of a black colour,
Snells, &c-to appear so> But when the animal has ceased to
'"u"" v'”r grow for some time, it then increases the thickness of
the shell last formed, so that the shell which is next
produced from the colouring matter, when the animal
begins to grow, being laid on one part of the old shell
much thicker and less transparent, the colour of these
stripes must appear less bright, and therefore different
in those places, from the other parts of the shell,
toi In taking a review of what has been said concerning
Colours ^j)e production of the colours of shells, it must appear
the”tends tliat t^ese rayS °r coloure<1 ^nes are ow‘ng to g^anc*3
abotft the which secrete the colouring fluid, and which are ar-
neck. ranged on the anterior edge of the neck, while the
posterior part furnishes only a fluid of a diflerent co¬
lour, and usually less deep than the .first. By means of
this principle ft is not difficult to account for the ar¬
rangement of the different colours which are so splen¬
didly exhibited among this class of natural objects.
These colours may be reduced to one or more, which
are more vivid on a lighter ground ; to coloured, cir¬
cular bands on a ground of a less vivid colour, or pure
white; to longitudinal lines, round or square spots,
and in a regular, or irregular, zig-zag form. All
these may he easily explained, according to the princi¬
ples which have been laid down, the application of
which, from what has been said, will not, we hope, be
103 found difficult.
Colours of j}ut mot|e) which is the most general in
shells,am the production of the colours of shells, there are cer¬
tain deviations. In that division of shells which is
made by some naturalists, and which is distinguished
by the name of 'porcelain shells, on account of the fine
enamel with which they are covered, there are two
sets of colours, which are disposed in a parallel direc¬
tion to each other. The external range of these co¬
lours is owing to a peculiarity of structure in the animals
which inhabit them, different from that of other testa¬
ceous animals, and to an operation which does not
take place in other shells. In these shells, the colour¬
ing matter seems to be deposited in two different ways,
and at two different periods. In the first process,
when the body of the shell is formed, the colouring
matter is excreted from the glands, in the same way
as in other testaceous animals $ and it is arranged ac¬
cording to the disposition of the glands on the body of
the animals. At this period of the process, the shell is
only of a moderate thickness, and much less than what
it afterwards acquires, when completely formed. On
the external surface of the shell first formed, another
layer is deposited, which is more compact than the
first, in some places thicker, and usually variegated
with different colours. The external surface of the shell
being thus completely covered with this second layer,
the original colours are concealed •, and if the same
shell were examined at different periods of its forma-
An e°ter *‘on> ^ wou^ appear like two distinct species. The
nal layer* °rgans which are employed by the animal in the pro-
formed. duction of this second layer of shell, and set of colours,
are two soft, membranaceous wings, which being pro¬
truded from the opening of the shell, completely cover
the whole of its external, convex surface. These two
wings, which are quite distinct from the glandular
O L O G Y. Chap, i
structure about the neck of the animal, which is situ-Qf the c
ated a little lower, are also provided with glands, stituer
which furnish colouring matter, usually different from Parts <
that which is furnished by the glands of the neck; and^fi8’ 4
it is the upper surface of the wings, which is alone v""
provided with this glandular structure. This surface,
when this part of the animal is protruded from the
shell, and extended over it, comes in contact with the
external surface of the latter. Hence it is, that these
membranaceous organs deposit on the first formed and
coloured layers of the shell, new layers of testaceous
matter, which is differently coloured, and diversified
with entire spots, either circular, or in a waved direc¬
tion, which are sometimes of a more vivid tint than
that of the ground, or white upon a dark ground, or
brown upon a yellow ground; or are composed of
straight lines, or curved, or interlaced with each other,
reddish, brown, yellow or white, on different coloured
grounds, or in dots or points, whose shades and ar¬
rangement are not less diversified. ,04 !
This mode of the formation of the external layer of Proved
porcelain shells, has been proved by the actual observa¬
tion of some naturalists. In some species, a longitudi¬
nal line of a paler colour is observed on the convex sur¬
face of the shell. This is ascribed to the junction of
the two wings of the animal, where a smaller quantity
of colouring matter has been deposited, or where the
shell has been less completely covered with the protrud¬
ed part of the animal. But the existence of this second
layer is still more distinctly proved by mechanical
means. The external layer may be removed by means
of a file, and the shell restored to its original state ; and
then the colours which it first received are brought into
view. This circumstance is still farther demonstra¬
ted by an attentive examination of different species of
shells, and particularly the eyprcea argus. In examin¬
ing this shell, there are observed under the external
layer, which is of a yellow colour, some slight traces of
four transverse bands of a brown colour, which surround
the shell, and which must have been formed previous to
the more superficial yellow layer. By a more minute
examination, it will appear that the circular spots with
which the external yellow layer is marked, have been
posteriorly formed to this layer ; and finally, on the four
turns of the spire forming a slight projection at the base
of the shell, there are some brown, circular spots, which
are quite superficial, and which sometimes include two
turns of the spire, which could not happen if the yel¬
low colour had not been prior in its formation to these
circular spots. If the colouring matter of which these
spots are composed had been deposited at the time that
the difl'erent parts of the spire were formed, one spot
could not have included two turns of the spire at the
same time. ,;
This effect of communicating a new set of colours g]je]i u
to the external surface of the shell, is not the only one come*
which is produced by the membranaceous structure of thick*
the animal which inhabits the porcelain and other shells. (se,
The form of the shell is also changed in a remarkable
manner, a great quantity of testaceous matter being de¬
posited on the surface of the opening, which then as¬
sumes a considerable thickness. The turns of the spire
are incrusted, and sometimes disappear on the outside
of the shell; and wrinkles, furrows, and even tuber¬
cles, which exist on the surface of some species, are also
formed
( ap.
Q eCon-
uent
i ts of
S s, &c'
V.
CONCH
:o5
j :mal
! r re-
d cent
c irs ap-
n
107
CtsOf
I ;oa
1 Is.
e co-
ess,
.formed. The surface of cyprcea pediculus exhibits circu¬
lar strife which did not originally exist, and which owe
their formation to this cause. In other species, the
'surface is marked with projecting points or tubercles,
which are produced in the same manner as the circular
strife of the former, and which also depend on the struc¬
ture of the membranaceous wings of the animal, and
the testaceous substance which is secreted and deposit¬
ed from their surface. Thus, it appears that porcelain
shells, and those of some other species, are formed at
two distinct periods. It is during the second period
of the process that the colour of the complete shell is
formed. In farther illustration of this point, of the for¬
mation of shells of this description at two different pe¬
riods, one or two examples may be given of the differ¬
ence which takes place, when the last layer formed is
removed. In the cyprcea exanthema, the shell is ferru¬
ginous, with whitish round spots and eyes, but when
the outer coat is worn off, it becomes barred or tesse-
lated with brown or blue. The cyprcea arabica, as its
name imports, exhibits characters on its surface, having
some resemblance to Arabic letters. The ground on
which these characters, which are of a brown colour, are
placed, is whitish or bluish j yet when the outer coat
is worn down, the shell is sometimes bluish with brown
bands, or pale with darker angular spots and lines j
brown, mixed with violet, or reddish blue.
But besides the causes which have been mentioned
concerning the production and variety of the colours of
shells, arising from the difference of ssructure in the or¬
gans which secrete the colouring matter, and the chan¬
ges to which these organs are subjected in the growth
of the animal, the effects of light and heat, altogether
independent of the animal itself, are probably very con¬
siderable. Two individuals of the same species, the
one from the Mediterranean or European seas, and the
other from the tropical regions, exhibit very different
shades of colour. The colours of the inhabitant of the
torrid zone are always more bright and vivid than
those of the native of more temperate climates. The
two shells, although similar in form, size, and other
characters, are uniformly different in the intensity of
their colours. These differences, which have led con-
chologists to increase the number of species, obviously
depend on the action of the climate, and particularly of
light, on nourishment, and other circumstances which
have hitherto eluded the observation of naturalists, and
are uniform and constant, as long as the causes which
operate in their production, continue to act. At first
sight it might be supposed that the difference of tem¬
perature is the cause of the difference in the intensity
of colour, in shells produced in different climates. It
might be supposed too, that the different depths at which
shells are found in the ocean,’the medium in which they
live being thus very different, would occasion great di¬
versity in the colour. Near the surface, where the
heat is greatest, if the operation of this cause were con¬
siderable, the colours of shells should be expected to be
most vivid, and as the depth increased, at least to a cer¬
tain extent, the intensity of colour should be diminish¬
ed. But it has been observed in bivalve shells which
are found at great depths, such as some species of oys¬
ter and spondylus, that the lower valve, which is at¬
tached to the rock, is almost always white or colourless,
while the upper valve often exhibits bright and vivid
O L O G Y.
colours ; but this difference cannot be ascribed to the
difl'erence of temperature, for in both valves it must be
the same ; the matter secreted for their formation is
prepared by the same organs, and is deposited in a si¬
milar manner j and indeed they are altogether placed
in the same circumstances, and have been exposed in
their production and growth to the operation of the
same causes, excepting that the upper valve is exposed
to the rays of light, and is therefore coloured, while the
lower valve is removed from the action of this cause,
and is colourless.
The same difference is observed in the valves of 0-
ther shells, which are produced in similar circumstances.
The different species of pliolas which make their abode
in calcareous or coral rocks, and the teredo navalis or
shi p-worm, which pierces wood, and makes it its habi¬
tation, are usually colourless. Those testaceous ani¬
mals too, which live at great depths in the ocean, and
are thus far removed from the influence of light, are
also distinguished by very white colours, or are entire¬
ly white.
479
Of the Con¬
stituent
Parts of
Shells, See.
top
and shells
included in
other bo¬
dies.
Sect. IV. Of the Formation of the Umbilicus, Pro¬
tuberances, Sfc.
We have hitherto considered only the general for¬
mation of shells. In the present section we shall treat
of some other circumstances which produce variations
in their external figure. Such, for instance, is the for¬
mation of the umbilicus, of spines, tubercles, ribs, and
other protuberances. IIO
Umbilicus. Univalve shells, which are furnished with Fourciasses
a regular spire, maybe divided, with regard to theirof sPiral
form, into four classes ; namely, shells having a disc, cy-s^^s*
lindrical shells, turbinated, and ovoid or egg-shaped
shells. These four forms are the most common which
spiral univalve shells assume, and they depend on the
manner in which the turns of the spirfe are applied to
the common axis, and the difference of their arrange¬
ment. They derive their primitive figure from the
small shell while it is yet included in the egg, and pro¬
bably from that of the external organs of the animal,
which is contained in it. But although all univalve
shells may be referred to one or other of these four prin¬
cipal forms, they exhibit a great variety of slighter
shades of difference. Let us now see in what way
it may be cenceeived that the bodies of the animals
which inhabit univalve shells, give them a spiral form.
If we can suppose that from the first production of
these animals, when they begin to be developed, the m
fibres of one part of the body, such as those of the ex- ®vve their
ternal surface, are longer than those of the opposite
surface, it is obvious that the body of the animal con-of tjje aJ1{„
tinuing to increase, according to this original tendency, mal.
will assume a curved form, the concave part of which
will be on that side where the fibres are shortest5 and
if the long fibres on the external surface, and the short
fibres on the internal surface, continue to increase in the
same proportion, this must give the body a spiral form ;
but in this case, the different convolutions of which the
animal is composed, will be in the same plane, and can
only apply to a small number of shells included in the
first division, namely, those which are characterized
with having a disc.
The convolutions of the spire which are described by
the
CONCH OLOGY.
11 2
UmbWious
produced.
113
Formation
of ribs ac¬
counted '
for.
the shell of univalve testaceous animals, and the body
which serves as a mould for these, are disposed in dif¬
ferent planes. Some other cause, therefore, must ope-
,‘rate in producing this deviation. Between the two sur¬
faces of the body of the animal, which is supposed to
be furnished with fibres of different lengths, it is easy
to conceive two other surfaces directly opposite to each
other, an upper and an under surface, each of which is
included between the two preceding surfaces, but of
smaller extent ; and it is easy to conceive farther,
that these two latter surfaces are so formed, that the
fibres of the one are longer than the corresponding and
opposite fibres of the other. According to this struc¬
ture, the body of the animal will tend to that surface
on which the fibres are shortest, and thus describe, du¬
ring its developement, a spiral line in different planes,
in proportion to the difference of tension between the
superior and inferior surface of the body, as well as be¬
tween the lateral surfaces.
The form of the shell depending on the external form
of the body of the animal, the umbilicus which is a. dif¬
ferent cavity from that of the opening of the shell in
which the animal is contained, and which is seen on
the inferior surface of some shells, in the centre of the
convolutions of the spire, depends entirely on the plane
on which the animal has formed the additions to its
shell. If the plane of these convolutions has been di¬
rected round a conical or elliptical axis, and each con¬
volution of the spire be more or less distant towards the
centre of the shell from this hollow point, a shell may
be thus formed, whose umbilicus will be more or less
open, according to the greater or less degree of separa¬
tion which the animal must give to the convolutions of
the spire, corresponding to its structure. An opposite
effect will be observed, if the increase of the convolu¬
tions of the spire is supposed to take place round an
axis which is so small as to permit them to come in
contact with each other. In this case no cavity will
be formed in the centre, no appearance of umbilicus
will be seen. But if we conceive that the animal, in
enlarging itself, turns round a solid of a curved figure,
in place of the conic axis above alluded to, and that
the end of this solid is at the summit of the shell, it is
obvious that an opening or an umbilicus of the shape of
this solid, will be formed in the shell.
Ribs. The longitudinal elevations which are ob¬
served on univalve shells, which run in a transverse di¬
rection to the successive growth of the convolutions of
the spire, have been denominated varices, by Linnaeus,
in allusion to the dilated veins on the bodies of other
animals. They are composed of one or more eleva¬
tions, usually arranged in a line parallel to the axis of
the shell, and sometimes slightly oblique. They con¬
sist of the same substance as that of the rest of the shell,
but are thicker and always more elevated than the sur¬
face of the convolutions of the spire on which they are
placed. To explain the manner in which these eleva¬
tions are formed, we may examine the opening of land
shells which have arrived at the last stage of their
growth. This period is marked in these shells by a
kind of margin of about a line in breadth, which is
sometimes turned outwards, although the rest of the
ehell turns on a regular, spiral line. This reflected
margin never appears in land shells, hut when they
have reached the last period of their growth, and when
Chap.
it is once formed, the animal of some species ceases
afterwards to continue the convolutions of its spire, siitue
Having now arrived at that period of its growth, when farts
it is fit to perform the act of generation, it protrudes ^le^s> }•
itself more frequently from its shell, and each time it 'r'
returns, a viscid fluid which exudes from its neck, is in¬
terrupted and deposited on the external margin of the
shell. The bulk which the anterior parts of the body
have acquired, in consequence of the evolution of the
generative organs which are contained in that part of
the body, causes it to press more strongly than former¬
ly on the edges of the opening of the shell, every time
it protrudes itself, and gradually forces the particles of
testaceous matter which have been recently deposited,
to the external surface, and in a direction quite differ¬
ent from that of the former plane of the spire. A short
time is only requisite for the complete formation of
this elevation ; but after it has been formed, if the ani¬
mal has the power of continuing the spire on the for¬
mer plane, the shell which had arrived at a larger
size will exhibit from time to time, if the same pro¬
cess be repeated, longitudinal projecting ribs, convex
or bent, exactly similar to the external swelling of the
opening of the shell, and analogous to the varices which
are seen on some species of marine shells.
This power of continuing the spire, after the forma- t
tion of the eminence at the opening, is peculiar to sea-sea.sy |
shells. No farther increase, after it is once formed in
land shells takes place. The young of some sea-shells,
as some species of murex, also possess this faculty of
continuing the growth of the shell after the formation
of similar elevations, even from the earliest period of
their existence, and long before it can be supposed that
the organs of generation are evolved. This no doubt
depends on some peculiar structure or organization of
the animal, and particularly on those of the anterior
parts of the body.
Tubercles. Many shells are furnished with tubercles, xuberci
which are produced by the same organs as the rest of produce!
the shell. The fleshy protuberances wdiich are placed in ^sfl
on the external surface of the neck of the animalswav'
which inhabit them, serve as a mould, and according
as there are moi’e or less of these tubercles, while the
animal enlarges the turn of the spire, and increases its
shell so much, there is the same number of protuber¬
ances in the. convolution. These protuberances, while
they remain on that part of the body of the animal on
which they were formed, are hollow, and during the
remaining part of its existence, as the body enlarges,
they are partly hollow, and partly solid, being filled up
with testaceous matter, excreted from the body of the
animal, and then the internal surface of the shell be¬
comes smooth and even.
Spines, and fringed or irregular protuberances, with
which some shells are armed, have, according to all
appearance, the same origin as the other inequalities
on the external surface of shells. They are usually
formed at the end of the dift’erent successive periods of
the growth of the shell. This will be sufficiently ob¬
vious, if we trace the whole series of wrinkles or striae
which run parallel to the circumference of the open¬
ing. Those which arise immediately from the ribs or
varices, are produced by particular organs which sur¬
round the extremity of the neck, and stretch out from
every part of its circumference, secreting a testaceous
matter,
u *f
s. 8tc.
Cap. V. ' CONCH
0 C Con-matter, which partly forms a sheath around them, gra¬
ven* dually increases in thickness, and successively assumes
the form of that part of the body which in some mea¬
sure serves the purpose of a mould. In all the species
of murex, which are furnished with spines, the eleva¬
tions called varices or ribs, as well as the spines with
which they are armed, are placed on the shell at equal
distances 5 and the intermediate parts of the shell, al¬
though frequently grooved or striated, are not furnish¬
ed with spines. This uniform observation, not only
in shells belonging to this genus, but also in almost all
spinous shells, proves, that the spines as well as the
ribs, are to be considered as formed by the margin of
the anterior parts of the body, which is renewed in
the same proportion as the change in the position of
this part of the body takes place. It proves also, that
the formation of shells is entirely owing to the succes¬
sive and regular enlargement of the animal; and that
it increases every time it is displaced from the whole
16
S
d d by
3 r pra-
extent in breadth of the anterior part of the body, the
‘ margin of which only being furnished with long fleshy
? lation
processes or fringed appendices, is in reality the only
part which produces them on the shell at each period
of its increase. In the same way is formed the beak
or prolongation of the shell, which terminates the in¬
ferior extremity in the form of a canal. This canal is
produced in all shells in which it exists, by a cylindri¬
cal organ, susceptible of extension and contraction, and
which, according to some naturalists, is employed by
the animal as a kind of feeler, and occasionally to at¬
tach itself to solid bodies. It excretes and deposits a
testaceous layer which serves it as a kind of sheath, in
a similar manner to the production of spines.
It is easy to explain the formation of the grooves or
)$ and elevated ribs which are found on the outer surface of
? rei, other shells ; while the whole of the internal surface is
smooth and polished. In bivalve shells, which exhibit
this structure, the whole anterior surface of the animal
is grooved or channelled in the same way j and from
this the shell derives its shape and structure. In these
shells it may be observed, that it is only the anterior
margin that is grooved on the internal surface ; be¬
cause, in the progress of the growth of the animal,
that part of the body which presents a smooth, equal
surface has advanced, and nearly filled the whole of
the shell ", and the testaceous matter secreted from this
part of the body being deposited on the grooves, chan¬
nels, or strite, which were formed when the anterior
part of the body occupied that part of the shell, fills
them up completely, and leaves the surface quite smooth
and polished. New additions being made to the shell
as the growth of the animal requires it, the smooth
surface of the body advances forward, and fills up with
its secretions what is now grooved $ while the new part
of the shell which corresponds to that part of the bo¬
dy which has an unequal surface, only presents this
appearance. It is in this way that the ribs or grooves
are formed in different species of ostrea, cardium, and
other bivalve shells,
0 rtion ^Ut ^lfcre's a peculiarity of structure in a species of
low cockle» the white fluted or ribbed cockle, cardium
costatum, which seems more difficult of explanation in
its mode of formation. The ribs of this species are not
only of the usual structure of other species of ribbed or
grooved shells, but are particularly distinguished by
Vol. VII. Part II. t
O L O G Y. 481
having them hollow. The whole number of the ribs of the Cou-
amounts to about 18 on each valve, of which the n ex- stituent
terior ones are of a triangular form, of about three lines ^arts ot
high, and hollowed through their whole length, from
the beak to the margin of the valves. To have a di¬
stinct notion of the formation of these hollow, triangu¬
lar ribs, it is necessary to conceive, that the margin of
the anterior part of the animal is deeply channelled or
grooved ; and when this part of the body is in contact
with the recent shell, the ribs or elevations are formed,
and are then open to the internal surface of the shell •,
but the posterior part of the body being hard and
smooth, never comes in contact with the excavated
part ot the ribs. On the contrary, as the testaceous
matter is excreted from this part of the body, it is de¬
posited on that part of the internal surface of the shell
which it touches, stretches across the deep grooves,
and forms the third and interior side of the triangular
ribs. . n9
Thus it appears, that spines, tubercles, and all and of
other protuberances on the surface of bivalve shells,"tnae’Sic•
owe the peculiarity of their form and shape to the pe¬
culiar structure of different organs situated on the ante¬
rior margin of the body of the animal, and are com¬
posed of the testaceous matter which is excreted by
these organs. The nature of the process is the same
as in univalve shells of a spiral form. The diversity
only appears in the difference of the organs and struc¬
ture of the animals which inhabit different shells. To
a similar process may be ascribed the formation of strife,
of scales, and of various excavations which sometimes
, accompany them.
Sects V. Of the Production of Pearls.
ISO
In treating of the constituent parts of shells, it was Pearl found
observed, that the composition of the pearl appears,'" raollier'
from analysis, to be precisely the same as the mother-
of-pearl, or those shells in which the pearl is usually
found. From this we must conclude, that the pearl,
and the mother-of-pearl, are produced by the same secre¬
tion. It appears, from the observations of naturalists,
and indeed it might have been expected, from the si¬
milarity of composition, that all testaceous animals,
whose shells come under the description of mother-of-
pearl, occasionally produce pearls.
Different opinions have been entertained with regard
to the cause of the formation of this precious produc¬
tion. According to some, it is merely a morbid con¬
cretion, formed within some part of the body of the
animal, or at least within the shell, without any ap¬
parent external injury; while others suppose that it is
only owing to wounds which the shell or the animal, or
both, have received from accidental causes, or from the
action of insects, or some testaceous animal, making
perforations in the shell. It is not improbable that
pearls may be formed in both ways. jjr
Every day’s experience informs us, that similar con-Supposerl
cretions are formed in dift’erent cavities of the bodies1® be ,n<>r*
of other animals ; hut without any obvious cause or ex_ cations'
ternal injury. The formations of such concretions, as, *
for instance, biliary and urinary calculi, producing the
most excruciating disorders in the human body, are too
fatally known. These concretions, no doubt, owe
their origin to the diseased or unhealthy action of the
3 F vessels
4S2
Of the Con¬
stituent
Harts of
She'ls. See,
122
or formed
from ex¬
ternal in¬
jury.
CONCH
vessels secretin" tlie fluids in which they are formed :
By this diseased action producing a superabundance of
the matter which enters into the composition of the
concretion 5 or this matter in the fluid state meeting
with some solid body, which becomes a nucleus, is at¬
tracted by it, and deposited in concentric layers, till
the concretion acquires a larger or smaller size, ac¬
cording to the duration and quantity of the secretion
and deposition. In the same way, it seems extremely
probable the pearl may be frequently formed j the
matter of which it is composed being constantly secreted
by the animal for the production of the new part of
the shell. If then this matter should at any time be
produced in greater quantity than what is necessary to
form the inner layers of the shell, and particularly if it
should meet with a solid particle of any body, it will
be attracted by it, and thus constitute the rudiments of
a pearl, which will receive constant additions of con¬
centric layers, and increase in size in proportion to the
age of the animal and the quantity of matter deposited.
Pearls, it is said, have been found within the body of
tbe animal. If this be true, the pearly matter, in its
passage through the vessels of the body, must have met
with some nucleus, around which the concentric lay¬
ers have been formed. In most cases, however, the
pearl is found loose in the shell, entirely detached from
the animal. It must then have been formed of the
matter which was thrown out of the body ; but it is
not unlikely that pearls are formed both ways, or that
the same pearl may be partly formed within the body
of the animal, and be afterwards excluded, and arrive
at its utmost size, while it remains loose in the shell.
But, according to others, the pearl owes its forma¬
tion to some external injury. The following seems to
be a pretty distinct view of this opinion. When Fau-
jas de St Fond visited Loch Tay, he was led to make
some inquiries concerning the pearl-fishery, which had
been carried on in several parts of the river Tay for
some years. Shells were brought to him ; and in these
shells the fishermen pretended to find pearls, which
they expected to sell at a higher rate, as they were
found in the presence of the traveller. But he informs
us, that they attempted to impose on him, by intro¬
ducing a pearl secretly into the shells as they opened
them. Observing this circumstance, he told them that
he could know at once, by examining the outside of
the shell, before opening it, whether it contained any
pearl. He mentions this to introduce some specula¬
tions concerning its formation. When no perforation
or callosity appeared on the outside, he concluded that
there was no pearl in the shell. The pearl-fish, he
supposes, is attacked by tw;o classes of enemies. One
is what he calls the auger-worm, which penetrates in¬
to the inside near the edge of the valve, by making a
longitudinal passage between the layers of the shell.
The length of the channel is one inch, or one inch
and a half when it doubles back in a line parallel to
the first. At the inner extremity there is a small cir¬
cular portion, formed by the worm in turning round.
These excavations are in the pearly part of the shell.
The pearly juice, extravasating, forms protuberances
in the same direction j and the cylindrical bodies which
are thus formed, may be considered as elongated pearls
O L O G Y.
adhering to the internal surface.
When several worms
Chap.
Oftbe (.
of this kind unite their labours by penetrating near stiujei
each other, the result is a kind of pearly wen with ir- Parts!
regular protuberances. Shells, L
Another sea-worm, which he says belongs to the " r
multivalves, a species of pholas, also attacks tbe pearl
shells. The shell of this species of pholas has a hinge
in the foim of a crooked bill, as he saw in some spe¬
cies of oyster, which lie examined, from the coast of
Guinea. The hole was of the shape of a pear. Pearls
of this shape have been found, and have been held in
great estimation. Observing this circumstance, artifi¬
cial perforations are made in the shell, and this forces
the animal to produce pearls. In some shells brought
from China, this artificial hole has been observed filled
up with brass wire, rivetted on the outside like a nail,
and the inner extremity of the wire was covered with
a well-formed pearl, which seemed as if soldered to its
extremity*. #Tw
Pearls are also produced by another artificial pro-»•
cess. The shell is opened with great care to avoid in¬
juring the animal, and a small portion of the internal
surface of the shell is scraped off. In its place is insert¬
ed a spherical piece of mother-of-pearl, about the size
of a small grain of lead shot. This serves as a nu¬
cleus, on which is deposited the pearly fluid, and in
time forms a pearl. Experiments of this kind have
been made in Finland, and have been repeated in other
countries. ^
A remarkable discovery has been ascribed to Lin-D;SC(ni
naeus respecting the generation of pearls. This was aofLM*
method which he found out, of putting the pearl-mussel
{mya mar gar it ifera^) into a state of producing pearls at
his pleasure. It was some years before the final effect
could take place ; but in five or six years after the
operation, the pearl, it is said, had acquired the size
of a vetch. But it does not seem to be known in what
this operation consisted. Whether it consisted in imi¬
tating the process of insects, by wounding the shell
from the outside, or by following the other process, by
scraping away part of the inner layer 5 nor is it much
known what have been the effects of this operation, or
whether it has turned to any account, or indeed is at
all practised in Sweden or any of the northern states^-
where it must have been originally known. For this
discovery, however, the Swedish naturalist, it is said,
was raised to the rank of nobility, and otherwise libe¬
rally rewarded by the states of the kingdom.
The value which is put on the pearl depends on its
size, colour, shape, and purity. The largest pearls
are always held in the highest estimation, when their
other qualities are in any degree of perfection. The
finest shape of the pearl must be quite globular ; it
must be of a clear brilliant white, smooth and glossy,
and entirely free from spot or stain. Pearls were great¬
ly esteemed and much sought after by the Homans.
Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus, we are inform¬
ed, presented a pearl to Goesar, which was valued at
50,000!. sterling ; and Cleopatra dissolved one, which
is said to have been worth 250,000!. sterling, in vine¬
gar, which she drank at a supper with Mark An-
tony.
CHAP-
CONCHOLOGY.
Cip-
VI.
4S3
(Ji e Ha-
bi ion of    _ _T_
si|i, &c. CHAP. ^ I-
Of the Ha-r-
bitation of
OF THE HABITATION OF TESTACEOUS ANIMALS, ME-
THODS OF FISHING, COLLECTING, &c.
TO the detailed account ivhich we have now given
of the natural history of testaceous animals, and parti¬
cularly of the formation and growth of the shell, vve
have only to add a few observations concerning their
habitation, the methods of fishing, collecting, and pre¬
serving them. These topics shall be the subject of the
following sections.
Sect. I. Of the Habitation of Testaceous Animals.
p i]40I1 Testaceous animals are found on every part of the
e {part surface of the globe. Some are inhabitants of the land,
c e Yvhile others only frequent rivers and lakes, and a third
S and numerous class live in the ocean. From this a classi¬
fication of shells has been formed, and they have been
divided into land, fresh-water, and sea shells. But
whatever difference might exist in the habits and eco¬
nomy of testaceous animals which are produced in
places so different, it affords few marks of discrimina¬
tion for the purpose of classification.
] Shells •^an<^ sbells are spread over the whole surface of the
j nuroe!earth, and although more accessible, are perhaps less
r . known than those which inhabit the ocean. From the
small number of land shells which have been collected,
it would appear at first sight that they are less nume¬
rous than marine shells. This, however, seems not to
be the. case, with regard to the number of species $ and
it is well known, that the number of individuals of land
shells, in some instances, far exceeds that of sea shells.
The sea shells of the Mediterranean have been observed
by naturalists, to be nearly the same from the straits of
Gibraltar to the island of Sicily ; but the land shells of
Languedoc are different from those of Provence, of
Dauphiny, Piedmont, and different parts of Italy.
Some are found in Spain, in Corsica, in Sardinia and
Sicily, which are not to be met with in other places j
and from the great variety and number of land shells,
it seems probable that many of them are yet unknown.
But let us now take a general view of those places of
the world where different testaceous animals are most
frequently found.
, ,”5 It has been already observed, that light and heat have
very considerable influence in adding to the splendour of
bin the the colours of shells. The most beautiful shells are found
'iw. in countries between the tropics, where they are more
immediately subject to the direct rays of the sun, and
a higher temperature. From these causes, the shells
produced in these countries have a lustre and brillian¬
cy, which those of colder climates never possess.
;,:7 The shores of Asia furnish us with the pearl oysters
lid in and scallops in great perfection. About Amboyna are
l* found the most beautiful specimens of the cabbage-shell,
the arrosoir, the ducal mantle, and the coral-oysters, or
echinated oysters. Here also are found a great variety
of extremely beautiful mussels, tellinae, and volutae $
some fine buccinunis, and the shell called the Ethiopian
crown, in its greatest perfection. The dolia, the mu-
rices, and the cassandrce, are also found on these coasts
in great beauty. Mauy elegant snails and screw-shells
are also brought from thence 5 and finally, the scorpion
and spider shells. The Maidive and Philippine islands,
Bengal, and the coast of Malabar, abound with the
most elegant of all the species of snails, and furnish
many other kinds of shells in great abundance and per¬
fection. China abounds in the finest species of porce¬
lain shells, and has also a great variety of beautiful
snails. Japan furnishes us with all the thicker and
larger bivalves j and the isle of Cyprus is famous above
all other parts of the world for the beauty and variety
of the patella or limpet found there. t2S
America affords many very elegant shells, but neither In Ame-
in so great abundance nor beauty as the shores of Asia.rica’
Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we
have beside, from the same place, some good porcelains,
and a very fine species of dolium, ot concha globosa, call¬
ed from this place the Panama purple shell. One of the
most beautiful of the cylinders is also known among our
naturalists under the name of the Panama shell. About
Brasil, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are found mu-
rices and dolia of extreme beauty ; and also a great va¬
riety of porcelains, purpurae, pectens, neritae, bucardiae
or heart-shells, and elegant limpets. The isle of Cay¬
enne affords one of the most beautiful of the buccinum
kind, and the Midas ear is found principally about this
place. Jamaica and the island of Barbadoes have then-
shores covered with porcelain, chamae, and buccina ;
and at St Domingo there are found almost all the same
species of shells that we have from the East Indies ; only
they are less beautiful, and the colours more pale and
dead. The pearl-oyster is found also on this coast, but
smaller than in the Persian gulf. At Martinico there
are found in general the same shells as at St Domingo,
but yet less beautiful. About Canada are found the
violet chamae $ and the lakes of that country abound
with mussels of very elegant pale blue and pale
red colours. Some species of these are remarkably
light and thin; others are very thick and heavy. The
Great Bank of Newfoundland is very barren in shells ;
the principal kind found there are mussels of several
species, some of which are of considerable beauty. A-
bout Carthagena there are many mother-of-pearl shells,
but they are not of so brilliant colours as those of the
Persian gulf. The island of Magellan, at the southern
point of America, furnishes us with a very remarkable
species of mussel called by its name; and several very
elegant species of limpets are found there, particularly
the pyramidal. . _ .129
In Africa, on the coast of Guinea, there is a prodi- ju Africa,
gious quantity of that small species of porcelain which
is used there as money ; and there is another species of
porcelain on the same coast which is all over white :
the women make bracelets of the latter, and the people
of the Levant adorn their hair with them. 1 he coast of
Zanguebar is very rich in shells: w'e find there a vast
variety of the large porcelains, many of them of great
beauty; and the nux mans or sea-nut is very frequent
3 P 2 there.
484
CONCHOLOGY.
Shells
130
Jn the ftte-
diterra-
Bean.
Of the Ha- there. Beside these, and many other shells, there are
bitntion of found on this coast all the species of nautili, many of
Stc- which are very beautiful. The Canary isles abound
with a vast variety of the murices, and some other
good shells; and we have from Madeira great va¬
riety of the echini or sea-eggs, different from those of
the European seas. Several species of mussels are also
common there, and the sea-ears are nowhere more
abundant. The lied sea is beyond all other parts of the
world abundant ia shells: scarcely any kind is want¬
ing there ^ but what we principally have from thence
are the purpurae, porcelains, and echini marini.
The Mediterranean and Northern ocean contain a
great variety of shells, and many of very remarkable ele¬
gance and beauty j they are upon the whole, however,
greatly inferior to those of the East Indies. The Me¬
diterranean abounds much more in shells than the o-
cean. The gulf ofTarentum affords great variety of
purpurfce, of porcelains, nautili, and elegant oysters j the
coasts ot Naples and Sardinia afford also the same, and
with them a vast number of the solens of all the known
species. The island of Sicily is famous for a very ele¬
gant kind of oyster which is entirely white j pinnae ma¬
rine and porcelains are also found in great plenty there,
with tellinae and chamae of many species, and a great
variety of other beautiful shells. Corsica is famous,
beyond all other places, for vast quantities of the pinnae
marinae$ and many other very beautiful shells are found
there. About Syracuse are found the gondola shell,
the alated murex, and a great variety of elegant snails,
with some of the dolia and neritae. The Adriatic sea,
or gulf of Venice, is less furnished with shells than al¬
most any of the seas thereabout. Mussels and oysters
of several species are however found there, and some
of the cordiform or heart shells 5 there are also some
tellinae. About Ancona there are vast numbers of
the pholades buried in stone j and the sea-ears are par¬
ticularly frequent about Puzzoli. [Bonani Recreat.
Ment. et Ocul.').
The ports of Marseilles, Toulon, and Antibes, are
full of pinnae marinse, mussels, tellinae, and chamae.
The coasts of Bretagne afford great numbers of the
conchae anatiferae and pousse-pieds 3 they are found on
old rotten boards, on sea substances, and among clu¬
sters of sponges. The other ports of France, as
Bochelle, Dunkirk, Brest, St Maloes, and others, fur¬
nish oysters excellent for the table, but of the com¬
mon kind, and of no beauty in their shells r great
numbers of mussels are also found there j and the com-
njon tellinae, the onion-peel oysters, the solens, and
conchae anatifeiae, are also frequent there. At Gran¬
ville, in Lower Normandy, there are found very beau¬
tiful pectens, and some of the cordiform or heart-
shells.
Our own English coasts are not the least fruitful in
shells, though they do not produce such elegantly
painted ones as the Indies. About Plymouth are
found oyster*, mussels, and solens, in great abun¬
dance j and there, and on most of our shores, are
numbers of the aures martnae and dentalia, with pec-
tens, which are excellent food 3 and many elegant
species of the chamm and tellinge are fished up in the
sea about Scarborough and other places. Ireland af¬
fords us great numbers of mussels, and some very ele¬
gant scallop-shells in great abundance, and the pholades
131
On the
coast of
France.
*4 Britain,
Chap. \
are frequent on most of our shores. We have also or the j
great variety of the buccina and cochleae, some volu- bitatiw
ta; ; and, on the Guernsey coast, a peculiarly beautiful Shells, j
snail, called thence the Guernsey-snail.
The coasts of Spain and Portugal afford much the of s
same species of shells with the East Indies, but they are and ft!'
of much fainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty, ^al, &c,
There are, according to Tavernier and others, some ri¬
vers in Bavaria in which there are found pearls of a fine
water. About Cadiz there are found very large pinnse
marinse, and some fine buccina. The isles of Majorca
and Minorca afford great variety of extremely elegant
shells. The pinnae marinae are also very numerous
there, and their silk is wrought into gloves, stockings,
and other things. The Baltic affords a great many
beautiful species, but particularly an orange-coloured
peclen, or scallop shell, which is not found in any other
part of the world.
The fresh-water shells are found much more fre-Freshwi
quently, and in much greater plenty than the sea-ter
kinds 5 there is scarce a pond, a ditch, or a river of
fresh water in any part of the world, in which there
are not found vast numbers of these shells with the
fish living in them. All these shells are small, and
they are of very little beauty, being usually of a plain
grayish or brownish colour. Our ditches afford us
chamte, buccina, neritse, and some patellae j but the
Nile, and some other rivers, furnished the ancients with
a species of tellina which was large and eatable, and so
much superior to the common sea tellina in flavour,
that it is commonly known by the name of tellina regia,
“ the royal tellina.” We have a small species of bucci-
num common in our fresh waters, which is very ele¬
gant, and always has its operculum in the manner of
the larger buccina ; a small kind of mussel is also very
common, which is so extremely thin and tender, that it
can hardly be handled without breaking to pieces. The
large fresh-water mussel, commonly called in England
the korse-mussel, mya margarkifera, is too well known
to need a description 3 and the size sufficiently distin¬
guishes it from all other fresh-water shells..
Sect. II. Of the Methods of Fishing and Collecting
Shells*
13?
Land shells are immediately within the reach of the Land
hand of the collector, as well as many sea and river
shells, which inhabit shallow waters, or attach them¬
selves to rocks or marine plants on the shores of the
ocean. Those shells which are at moderate depths in
the sea, are to be collected by dredging. But in what¬
ever way shells are found, those are always to be pre¬
ferred which still contain the living animal 3 for then,
not only some information may be obtained with regard
to its structure and natural history, but the shells them¬
selves are in all their natural beauty, and the full glow ^
of their colours. Those shells too should be preferred,gea ,jitll
which are procured from the deeper parts of the ocean,
because they have then arrived at the largest size, and
are in the greatest perfection. But these are beyond
the reach of man, and are only accidentally found on
the shores after storms, or attached to sea-weeds which
have been torn from the rocks by the agitation of the
waves.
When shells are found with the animal alive ; the
method;
CONCHOLOGY.
PLATE CUT.
L..
• M > t t s
:=r~
Ilfi§i5=
J^th/is/rsd c'oHstnoft' /t? ( Y jhdi/>! JS.?(I
A Wilson Sculp?
CONCHOLOGY.
PLATE ('LIU.
A. Wilson Sculp'
Puilis/ieA by A- Constable <£ i'S£dair 1S20.
Big* by WLArckibald
Publish&fl by A. Constable A C?BdinX 1S2Q.
PLATE CLV.
CONCHO LOGY.
c<v,*#romi
Punished A-CmuuMe. .{ ('? J-'itm '
JAyy *■ lv M'.JrchibaU I'din. *
hap. VI.
CONCHOLOGY.
the Ha- method recommended to destroy it and separate it en- Clyde, and of Loch Ken in Galloway, where it is said
tatien of tirely from the shell, i» to. boil it in water for a very great numbers ot pearls are iished in dry summers, ma-
iclls,&c. short time, and after allowing it to cool gradually, to ny of which sell from one shilling to one guinea. But
-v—' Jay it in cold water till it is cleaned. By this process, the greatest pearl-fishery which has ever been establish-
ethwl of tfie attacl,ment between the shell and animal is de- ed in Scotland, of which there is any record, is that
lling the stroyed, and the latter, which has become hard and of the river Tay, about 30 years ago. The pearl-
liuiijl. contracted, is easily picked out from its covering, mussel is found in every part of this river, from its
The shell, after this treatment, is ready to be placed source in Loch Tay, to its junction with the sea. In
in the cabinet, or to be polished in the way we shall different parts of the river, but particularly in the vi-
presently describe, according to the state in which it cinity of Perth, we are informed, that not less than
is found, or the views of the collector. ii,oool. worth of pearls were sent to London between
eai'i-ihh- As the pearl has been held in high estimation in all the years 1761 and 1764. They were sold from 10s.
•y ages of the world, and as it is an important object of to ll. 16s. per ounce. About this time one pearl was
commerce in many parts of it, the history of the pearl found which weighed 33 grs. This fishery, however,
fishery, or of those shell fish which produce the pearl, as well as the pearl-fishery in the other rivers of Scot-
connot fail to be interesting. . land, seems to be greatly exhausted, and very proba-
i Brilata. In diflerent parts of Britain the pearl-fishery has bly, as it has been supposed, from the improvident
been carried on to a considerable extent j and in some avarice of the undertakers, not allowing the animal to
places it has been reckoned of such value, that go- arrive at that age which seems to be necessary for the
vernment have granted the right of fishing to indivi- production of pearl.
duals by patent. By a grant of this kind, Sir John But the pearl-fishery of the warmer climates, in dif-
Hawkins obtained the privilege of fishing for pearls in ferent places of the East Indies, in the gulf of Persia,
the river Irt in Cumberland j and Buchan of Auch- and the Red sea, and particularly that which is annual-
macoy seems to have held, by a similar right, the sole ly carried on in the bay of Condatchy, in the island of in
privilege of the pearl fishery near the mouth of the ri- Ceylon, is by far the most extensive and most import-
ver Ythan in Aberdeenshire j for it appears that this ant of any in the world. The latter, of which we have
grant was resumed by government in 1633, in the first given a detailed account in the description of Ceylon,
parliament of Charles I. In the same river, at the di- and to which we refer our readers, has been under the
stance of 10 miles from the sea, a successful fishery inspection of government since it fell into the hands of
of pearls has been frequently carried on $ and a the British, as it was under that of the Portuguese and
few years ago, in the river Cluny in the same county, Dutch, its former masters. To the Dutch, it is said,
a Jew employed a number of people to collect the mus- while they were in possession of the island, this fishery
sels which contained them, and some large and valu- brought an annual tribute of 20,000!. To the ac-
able pearls were found. Some years ago, in the river count which has been already given of this fishery, we
Teath in Perthshire, the pearls which were got brought may add the following, from the Asiatic Annual Re-
about tool, sterling to those employed in searching for gister for the year 1800.
them, in the course of one season. It was observed, “ The person who farmed the pearl-fishery at Cey-
that those mussels only which were crooked and distort- Ion, last year, was a Tamu merchant, who for the
ed, yielded pearls. The method which has been prac- privilege of fishing with more than the usual number
tised in this river for fishing the pearl mussel, is the of donies or boats, paid between two and three hun-
following. The fisherman provides himself with an dred thousand Porto Novo pagodas (d), a sum nearly
instrument formed of two iron plates or spoons, having double the usual rent. His excellency the honourable
something of the shape of the mussel. Each of these Mr North, by the last ships from Ceylon, has trans-
is attached to an elastic handle of the same metal, ter- mitted a very minute detail of the fishery in all its
mmating in an open tube, which is fixed to the end of stages, some of which are truly singular and remark-
along wooden handle. The concave sides of the plates able. It appears that the fear of sharks is the cause of
approach other, and are kept in close contact by the a great deal of interruption to the fishery, the divers
elasticity of the handles. With this instrument the fish- being extremely timid and superstitious ; every one of
erman enters the water, and directs his course to those them, even the most expert, entertain a dread of shark*,
places which he supposes are resorted to by the mus- and will not on any account descend until the conjuror
sels. These he discovers with his feet, and having has performed his ceremonies. This prejudice is so
found one, he presses the instrument upon it, the plates deeply rooted in their minds, that the government was
or valves of which, in consequence of the elasticity of obliged to keep two such conjurors in their pay, to re-
the handles, separate, and then grasp it firmly. In move the fears of the divers. The manner of en-
this way he can detach it from the place to which it chanting consists of a number of prayers learned by
adheres, and bring it to the surface of the water. The heart, that nobody, probably not even the conjuror
pearl-mussel is a native of many other of the rivers of himself, understands, which he, standing on the shore,
Scotland, as of the Esk in Forfarshire, where a pearl continues muttering and grumbling from sunrise until
was found of the size of a pistol bullet, and sold for 4I. the boats return. During this period, they are obli-
*terlingj 0f the Devon in Clackmannanshire, the ged to abstain from food and sleep, otherwise their
prayers
140
Cejlon.
(d) Perhaps near ioo,QOol. sterling. The pagoda is from 79. to 8s. 6d. sterling..
486 CONCH
Of the Ha. prayers would be of no avail $ they are, however, al-
bitation of lowed to drink, which privilege they indulge in a high
Shells, &c.t{egree> anti are frequently so giddy as to be rendered
' ~"v very unfit for devotion. Some of these conjurors ac¬
company the divers in their boats, which pleases them
very much, as they have their protectors near at hand.
Nevertheless. I was told, said Mr North, that in one
of the preceding fisheries, a diver lost his leg by a
shark ; and when the head conjuror was called to an
account for the accident, he replied, that an old witch
had just come from the coast, who, from envy and
malice, had caused this disaster by a counter-conjura¬
tion, which made fruitless his skill, and which he was
informed of too late j but he afterwards shewed his
superiority, by enchanting the sharks so effectually,
that, though they appeared to most of the divers, they
were unable to open their mouths. During my stay,
continues Mr North, at Condatchy, no accident of
this kind happened. If a shark is seen, the divers in¬
stantly make a signal, which on perceiving all the
boats return immediately. A diver who trod upon a
hammer oyster, and was somewhat wounded, thought
he was bit by a shark j consequently made the usual
signal, which caused all the boats to return •, for which
mistake he was afterwards punished. The lai’gest and
most perfect pearl taken last season, was about the size
of a small pistol bullet.”
Sect. III. Of the Methods of Polishing Shells.
The art of polishing shells has but lately reached its
present state of perfection ; and as the admiration of
sea shells has become so general, it may be expected
that we should give some instructions in the means of
adding to their natural beauty.
Among the immense variety of shells with which we
are acquainted, some are taken up out of the sea, or
found on its shores, in all their perfection and beauty;
their colours being all disposed by nature upon tbe sur¬
face, and their natural polish superior to any thing that
art could give. Where nature is in herself thus per¬
fect, it were madness to attempt to add any thing to
her charms : but in others, where the beauties are la¬
tent and covered with a coarser outer skin, art is to be
called in ; and the outer veil being taken off, all the
internal beauties appear.
Methods Among the shells which are found naturally polished
employed, are the porcelains, or cowries ; the cassanders ; the do-
lia, or conchfe globosae, or tuns; some buccina, the vo¬
lutes and the cylinders, or olives, or, as they are gene¬
rally though improperly called, the rhombi; excepting
only two or three, as the tiara, the plumb, and the,
butter-tub rhombus, where there is an unpromising
film on the surface, hiding a very great share of beau¬
ty within. Though the generality of the shells of
these genera are taken out of the sea in all their beau-
tv, and in their utmost natural polish, there are seve¬
ral other genera, in which all or most of the species
are taken up naturally rough and foul, and covei'ed
with an epidermis, or coarse outer skin, which is in
many rough and downy or hairy. The tellinse, the
mussels, the cochleae, and many others, are of this
kind. The more nice collectors, as naturalists, insist
upon having all their shells in their native and genuine
2
O L O G Y. Chap.
appearance, as they are found when living at sea ; butof t]ie £
others who make collections, hate the disagreeable bitation
outsides, and will have all such polished. It would be Obeli', &
very advisable, however, for both kinds of collectors to
have the same shells in different specimens both rough
and polished : the naturalist would by this means, be¬
sides knowing the outside of the shell, be better ac¬
quainted with its internal characters than he otherwise
could be ; while those who wish to have them polished,
might compare the beauties of the shell, in its wrought
state, to its coarse appearance as nature gives it. How
many elegancies in this part of the creation must be
wholly lost to us, if it were not for the assistance of an
art of this kind ! Many shells in their native state are
like rough diamonds; and we can form no just idea of
their beauties till they have been polished and wrought
into form. The safest way of removing tbe epidermis
or outer skin from shells, is by a simple process dis¬
covered by our friend William Nicol Esq. Lecturer on
Natural Philosophy. The shell from which the epi¬
dermis is wished to be removed, should be put into a
vessel of water, with a quantity of quicklime, and boiled
for some time. The skin of the common muscle re¬
quires only three hours boiling, while that of the mya
margaritifera, or river mya, requires from twelve to
fourteen hours. When the shells have boiled the pro¬
per time, they should be washed over with diluted mu¬
riatic acid, when the skin may be easily removed by
rubbing it off with the fingers.
Though the art of polishing shells is a very valuable
one, yet it is very dangerous to the shells ; for without
the utmost care, the means used to polish and beautify
a shell often wholly destroy it. When a shell is to be
polished, the first thing to be examined, is whether it
have naturally a smooth surface, or be covered with tu¬
bercles and prominences. 142
A shell which has a smooth surface, and a natural With Id
dull polish, need only be rubbed with the hand, or with1!*®1, |!
a piece of chamoy leather, with some tripoli, or fine
rotten stone, and it will become of a perfectly bright and
fine polish. Emery is not to be used on this occasion,
because it wears away too much of the shell. This
operation requires the hand of an experienced person,
that knows how superficial the work must be, and where
he is to stop ; for in many of these shells the lines are
only on the surface, and the wearing away ever so little
of the shell defaces them. A shell that is rough, foul,
and crusty, or covered with a tartareous coat, must be
left a whole day steeping in hot water: when it has im¬
bibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed with
rough emery on a stick, or with the blade of a knife,
in order to get off the coat. We have found different
kinds of engraving instruments, of much service in re¬
moving the crust and extraneous matter from shells,
particularly tbe parasitic species of shells which ad¬
here to them, such as serpulae and balance. If done
with caution, it will be found by far tbe best mode ;
and indeed, where there are spines, they cannot be
removed by any other means, as, by applying acids, they
are often completely destroyed. After this, it may be
dipped in diluted aquafortis, spirit of salt, or any other
acid; and after remaining a few moments in it, be again
plunged into common water. This will add greatly to
the speed of the work. After this it is to be well
rubbed
p. VI. CONCH
L Ha-rubbed with linen cloths, Impregnated with common
on of soap ; and when by these several means it is made per-
, Sec-fectly clean, the polishing is to be finished with fine
emery and a hair-brush. If after this the shell when
dry appears not to have so good a polish as was desired,
it must be rubbed over with a solution of gum arabic ;
and this will add greatly to its gloss, without doing it
the smallest injury. The gum-water must not be too
thick, and then it gives no sensible coat, only heighten¬
ing the colours. The white of an egg answers this pur¬
pose also very well ; but it is subject to turn yellow.
If the shell has an epidermis, which will by no means
admit the polishing of it, it is to be dipped several times
in diluted aquafortis, that this may be eaten off} and
then the shell is to he polished in the usual way with
putty, fine emery, or tripoli, on the hair of a fine brush.
When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours, the
shell must be steeped in hot water, and after that the
skin worked off by degrees with an old file. This is
the case with several of the cylinders, which have not
the natural polish of the rest.
When a shell is covered with a thick and fatty epi¬
dermis, as is the case with several of the mussels and
tellinae ; in this case aquafortis will do no service, as it
will not touch the skin: then a rough brush and coarse
pu- emery are to be used } and if this does not succeed,
stone, geal-sk^ or> as the workmen call \tijish-skin, andpw-
mice-stone^ are to be employed.
When a shell has a thick crust, which will not give
way to any of these means, the only way left is to
plunge it several times into strong aquafortis, till the
stubborn crust is wholly eroded. The limpets, auris
marina, the helmet-shells, and several other species of
this kind, must have this sort of management; but as
the design is to shew the hidden beauties under the
crust, and not to destroy the natural beauty and polish
of the inside of the shell, the aquafortis must be used in
this manner : A long piece of wax must be provided,
and one end of it made perfectly to cover the whole
mouth of the shell } the other end will then serve as a
handle, and the mouth being stopped by the wax, the
liquor cannot get into the inside to spoil it} then there
must be placed on a table, a vessel full of aquafortis,
44 and another full of common water.
iacids, The shell is to be plunged into the aquafortis } and
after remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken
out, and plunged into the common water. The pro¬
gress the aquafortis makes in eroding the surface is
thus to be carefully observed every time it is taken
out: the point of the shell, and any other tender parts,
are to be covered with wax, to prevent the aquafortis
from eating them away} and if there be any worm-
holes, they also must be stopped up with wax, other¬
wise the aquafortis would soon eat through in those
places. When the repeated dippings into the aqua¬
fortis show that the coat is sufficiently eaten away,
then the shell is to be wrought carefully with fine
emery and a brush ; and when it is polished as high as
can be by this means, it must be wiped clean, and
rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg.
In this sort of work the operator must always have the
caution to wear gloves } otherwise the least touch of
the aquafortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yel-
O L O G Y. 487
low} and often, if it be not regarded, will eat off the or the Ha-
skin and the nails. bitation of
These are the methods to be used with shells which S^e^s> &G*
require but a moderate quantity of the surface to be v " ■'
taken off} but there are others which require to have a
larger quantity removed and to be uncovered deeper ;
this is called entirely scaling a shell. This is done by
means of a horizontal wheel of lead or tin impreg¬
nated with rough emery } and the shell is wrought down
in the same manner in which stones are wrought by the
lapidary. Nothing is more difficult, however, than the
performing this work with nicety: very often shells are
cut down too far by it, and wholly spoiled } and to
avoid this, a coarse vein must be often left standing in
some place, and taken down afterwards with the file,
when the cutting it down at the wheel would have
spoiled the adjacent parts.
Alter the shell is thus cut down to a proper degree,
it is to be polished with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten
stone, with a wooden wheel turned by the same machine
as a leaden one, or by the common method of working
with the hand with the same ingredients. When a
shell is full of tubercles or protuberances which must
be preserved, it is then impossible to use the wheel:
and if the common way of dipping into aquafortis be
attempted, the tubercles being harder than the rest of
the shell, will be corroded before the rest is sufficiently
scaled, and the shell will be spoiled. In this case, in¬
dustry and patience are the only means of efiecting a
polish. A camels hair pencil must be dipped in aqua¬
fortis } and with this the intermediate parts of the shell
must be wetted, leaving the protuberances dry : this is
to be often repeated ; and after a few moments the shell
is always to be plunged into water to stop the erosion
of the acid, which would otherwise eat too deep, and
destroy the beauty of the shell. Whenfj this has suffi¬
ciently taken off the foulness of the shell, it is to be po¬
lished with emery of the finest kind, or with tripoli, by
means of a small stick } or the common polishing-stone
used by the goldsmiths may be used.
This is a very tedious and troublesome thing, espe¬
cially when the echinated oysters and murices, and
some other such shells, are to be wrought: and what is
worst of all is, that when all this labour has been em¬
ployed, the business is not well done } for there still
remain several places which could not be reached by
any instrument, so that the shell must necessarily be
rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg
afterwards, in order to bring out the colours and give
a gloss } in some cases it is even necessary to give a
coat of varnish.
These are the means used by artists to brighten the Some shells
colours and add to the beauty of shells} and the are dis-
changes produced l>y polishing in this manner are so Su|.sc<* by
great, that the shell can scarcely be known afterwards as”’
to be the same it was } and hence we hear of new shells
in the cabinets of collectors, which have no real exis¬
tence as separate species, but are shells well known,
disguised by polishing. To caution the reader against
errors of this kind, it may be proper to add the most re¬
markable species thus usually altered.
The onyx-shell or volute, called the purple or violet-0ny»
tip, which in its natural state is of a simple pale brown, shell.
when
I47
Violet
shelis.
148
Nautilus.
149
.Tonquil-
chama.
IP
The. assess
car shell.
*5i
Dutch me¬
thod of po-
lishing
shells.
C ONCHOLOGY
.when it ra wrought slightly, or polished with just the
superfices taken off, is of a fine bright yellow $ and
when it is eaten away deeper, it appears of a fine milk-
white, with the lower part bluish : it is in this state
that it is called the onyx-shell; and it is preserved in
many cabinets in its rough state, and in its yellow ap¬
pearance, as different species of shells.
The violet shell, so common among the curious, is
a species of porcelain, or common cowry, which does
not appear in that elegance till it has been polish¬
ed 5 and the common sea-ear shows itself in two or
three different forms, as it is more or less deeply
wrought. In its rough state it is dusky and coarse, of
a pale brown on the outside, and pearly within $ when
it is eaten down a little way below the surface, it shows
variegations of black and green ; and when still farther
eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within and
without.
The nautilus, when it is polished down, appears all
over of a fine pearly colour; but when it is eaten
atway but to a small depth, it appears of a fine yellowish
colour with dusky hairs. The burgau, when entirely
cleared of its coat, is of the most beautiful pearl co¬
lour : but when slightly eroded, it appears of a va¬
riegated mixture of green and red j whence it has
been called the parroquet shell. The common helmet-
shell, when wrought, is of the colour of the finest
agate $ and the mussels, in general, though very plain
shells in their common appearance, become very beau¬
tiful when polished, and show large veins of the most
elegant colours. The Persian shell, in its natural state,
is all over white, and covered with tubercles} but when
it has been ground down on a wheel, and polished, it
appears of a gray colour, with spots and veins of a
very bright and highly polished white. The limpets, in
general, become very different, when polished, most of
them showing very elegant colours } among these the
tortoise-shell limpet is the principal } it does not appear
at all of that colour or transparence till it has been
wrought.
That elegant species of shell called the jonquil cha-
ma, which has deceived so many judges of these things
into an opinion of its being a new species, is only a
white chama with a reticulated surface } but when this
is polished, it loses at once its reticular work and its
colour, and becomes perfectly smooth, and of a fine
bright yellow. The violet-coloured chama of New
England, when worked down and polished, is of a fine
milk-white, with a great number of blue veins, dispo¬
sed like the variegations in agates.
The asses-ear shell, or haliotis asinina of Linnseus,
when polished after working it down with the file, be¬
comes extremely glossy, and obtains a fine rose-colour
all about the mouth. These are some of the most fre¬
quent among an endless variety of changes wrought on
shells by polishing} and we find there are many of the
Very greatest beauties of this part of the creation, which
must have been lost but for this method of searching
deep in the substance of the shell for them.
The Dutch are very fond of shells, and are very
nice in their manner of working them : they are under
no restraint, however, in their works; but use the most
Chap. V
violent methods, so as often to destroy all the beauty ofor the v
the shell. They file them down on all sides, and often WtatioiH
take them to the wheel, when it must destroy the very ^hells,;
characters of the species. Nor do they stop here: U“‘V'
but determined to have beauty at any rate, they are
for improving upon nature, and frequently add some
lines and colours with a pencil, afterwards covering
them with a fine coat of varnish, so that they seem the
natural lineations of the shell: the Dutch cabinets are
by these means made very beautiful, but they are by
no means to be regarded as instructors in natural his¬
tory. There are some artificers of this nation who have
a way of covering shells all over with a different tinge
from that which nature gives them ; and the curious
are. often enticed by these tricks to purchase them for
new species.
There is another kind of work bestowed on certain
species of shells, particularly the nautilus; namely, the
engraving on it lines and circles, and figures of stars,
and other things. This is too obvious a work of art
to suffer any one to suppose it natural. Euonani has
figured several of these wrought shells at the end of his
work; but this was applying his labour to very lit¬
tle purpose ; the shells are spoiled as objects of natural
history by it.—They are principally done in the East
Indies. 152 j
Shells are subject to several imperfections; some of 1“?®*
which are natural and others accidental. The natural
defects are the effect of age, or sickness in the fish. Theturaj all
greatest mischief happens to shells by the fish dying inacciden
them. The curious in these things pretend to be al¬
ways able to distinguish a shell taken up with the fish
alive from one found on the shores: they call the first
a living, the second a dead shell ; and say that the co¬
lours are always much fainter in the dead shells. When
the shells have lain long dead on the shores, they are
subject to many injuries, of which the being eaten by
sea-worms is not the least; age renders the finest shells
livid or dead in their colours.
Besides the imperfections arising from age and sick¬
ness in the fish, shells are subject to other deformities,
such as morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts
where there should be none. When the shell is va¬
luable, these faults may be hid, and much added to the
beauty of the specimen, without at all injuring it as
an object of natural history, which should always be the
great end of collecting these things. The cavities may
be filled up with mastic, dissolved in spirit of wine, or
with isinglas: these substances must be either coloured
to the tinge of the shell, or else a pencil dipped in wa¬
ter-colours must finish them up to the resemblance of
the rest; and then the whole shell being rubbed over
with gum-water, or with the white of an egg, scarce
any eye can perceive the artifice ; the same substances
may also be used to repair the battered edge of a shell,
provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And
when the excrescences of a shell are faulty, they are to
be taken down with a fine file. If the lip of a shell be
so battered that it will not admit of repairing by any
cement, the whole must be filed down or ground on the
wheel till it become even.
EXPLANATION
G O N C H O L O G Y.
VI.
t
i
plana-
of the
i»tes.
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.
*481
E* pi agna¬
tion of the
PUtea.
Plate CLII. Multivalve Shells.
Fig. I. Chiton squamosus; c,the margin. From a to the
opposite side is the breadth of the shell. Page 401, N° I.
Fig. 2. Lepas anatifera^ (Anatifa laevis, Lamarck’s
System) ; o, the feelers ; b, the cartilage j 0, the ped¬
uncle or pedicle. Page 403, N° 39.
Fig. 3. Lepas tintinnabulum, (Balanus tintinnabu-
lum, Lamarck) ; o, the operculum, or lid } b, the base.
Pace 403, N° 2.
Fig. 4. Lepas tracheceformis, (Tubicinella balanarum,
Lamarck) ; a, the operculum, or lid $ b, b, the ribs.
Fig. 5. Pholas crispatus. Page 404, N° 11.
Bivalve Shells.
Fig. 6. Mya arenaria; a, projecting tooth j b, b,
the breadth of the shell ; c, cicatrix, or tongue.
Fig. 7. Solen cnsis j a, the ligament *, b, b, length
of the shell ; c, c, the breadth. Page 406, N° 5.
Fig. 8. Tellina virgata; a, primary tooth. Page
406, N° 5.
Fig. 9. Cardhnn oblongum ; a, a, lateral teeth ; b, by
length of the shell ; c, c, breadth. Page 409, N° 27.
Fig. 10. Mactra siultorum; a, triangular tooth j
£>, b, sides ; c, the base *, d, the summit; also one of
the umbones. Page 410, N° 18.
Fig. II. JLonax trunculus; a, the posterior slope j
c, right valve ; d, left valve ; e, crenulated margin ; /,
the hinge. Page 411, N° 5.
Fig. 12. Venus erycina, (Cytherea erycina, La¬
marck) •, c, the umbo j 6, the posterior slope j c, the an¬
terior slope j <f, the muscular impression. Page 412,
N° 21.
Fig. 13. Ai'ca barbata; a, numerous teeth, the
characteristic of the genus area ; bt b, the byssus, or
beard. Page 416, N° 3.
Plate CLIIL—Bivalve Shells continued.
Fig. 1. Spotidylus longispina ; o, c, a, spines. Page
414, N° 8.
Fig. 2. Spondylus plicatus, (Plicatula ramosa, La¬
marck). Page 415> N° 22.
Fig. 3. Mya incequivalvis, (Corbula nucleus, La¬
marck). Page 405, N° 38.
Fig. 4. Area nucleus, (Nucula margaritacea, La¬
marck) ; a, the pit in which the cartilage is fixed. Page
417, N° 42.
Fig. 5. Chama cor, (locardia cor, Lamarck) j a, at
beaks. Page 4i5> N° 1.
Fig. 6. Chama gigas, (Tridacna gigas, Lamarck) j
a, a, scales. Page 415, N° 3.
Fig. 7. Ostrea pleuronectes, (Pecten plenronectus,
Lamarck) $ a, a, ears j b, base $ c, apex $ from b, to
c, is the length of the shell, and the reverse is the
breadth Page 417, N° 6.
Fig. 8. Ostrea lima, (Lima ———, Lamarck) $
a, a, a, ribs. Page 419, N° 53.
Fig. 9. Anomia undulata ; o', the ligament perfora¬
tion. Page 422, N° 21.
VOL. VI. Part II.
Fig. 10. Mytilus edulis. Page 423, N° 16.
Fig. 11. Mytilus discrepans, (Modiola discrepant,
Lamarck). Page 424, N° 31.
Fig. 12. Pinna muricata; a, byssus, or beard, by
which the animal affixes itself to rocks. Page 424, N° 9.
Univalve Shells.
Fig. 13. Conus generalis; a, the apex, or tip of the
spire ; from d, to a, is the spire ; d, d, the body j b,
the base ; c, the outer lip. Page 427, N° II.
Fig. 14. Valuta vespertilio ; a, a, spines. Page 438,
N° 153.
Plate CLIV.—Univalve Shells continued.
Fig. 1. Argonauta tuberculaia i a, a, toothed ridges.
Page 425, N° 2.
Fig. 2. Nautilus suborbiculatus ; a, umbilicus. Page
426, N0 2.
Fig. 3. Nautilus spirula, (Spirula fragilis, La¬
marck) j a, the siphuncle $ b, b, b, partitions of the
chambers. Page 426, N° 16.
Fig. 4. Cyprcea Arabica ; a, a, the aperture ; and
from a to a, is the length of the shell; from b to b, it#
breadth ; the face presented to the observer is the venter
or belly of the shell. Page 431, N° 3.
Fig. 5. Bulla fi cus, (Pyrula ficus, Lamarck). Page
433, N6 19.
Fig. 6. Valuta niitdula, (Tornatella nitidula, La¬
marck). Page 335, N° 46.
Fig. 7. Buccinum areola, (Cassis areola, Lamarck) ;•
a, the pillar lip, much reflected on the columella ; b,
canal, or gutter j c, the outer lip yd, d, rarices. Page
440, N° 20.
Fig. 8. Murex spiralis, (Pyrula spirillus, Lamarck) ;
a, the beak or rostrum. Page 447, N° 73.
Fig. 9. Murex perversus, .(Pyrula perversa, La¬
marck). This is an example of a shell with a reversed
spire. It will be observed the aperture is on the right
side of the shell, in place of the left side.
Fig. 10. Turbo setosus i a, a, a, furrows j b, ribs.
Fig. 11. Turbo nautileus, (Planorbis nautilea, La¬
marck).
Fig. 12. (Stomatella auricula,
Lamarck).
Plate CLV.
Fig. 1. Bulla naucum.
Fig. 2. Bulla aperta, (Bullaea aperta, Lamarck).
Fig. 3. Bulla rivalis.
Fig. 4. Bulla Virginea, (Achatina virginea, La¬
marck).
Fig. 5. Bulla cylindrica, (Volvaria cylindrica).
Fig. 6. Bulla terebellum, (Terebellum, Lamarck).
Fig. 7. Valuta mercatoria, (Columbella, Lamarck),
Page 336, N° 71.
Fig. 8. Valuta papalis, (Mitra pontifica, Lamarck).
Page 438.
Fig. 9. Valuta cruenta, (Ancilla crucnta, Lamarck).
Page 435, N° 32. * ,,
* 3 1 I0-
%
CONCH
482^
Explitna- l?>g« 10. Buccinum xeylanica, (Eburna Zeylanica,
tion of the Lamarck).
, platC5- _ Fig. 11. Buccinvm Persicum, (Purpura Persica,
* Lamarck). Page 441, N° 51.
Fig. 12. Buccinum thersites, (Nassa thersites, La¬
marck). Page 441, N° 43.
Fig. 13. Buccinum viltatum, (Terebra vittata, La¬
marck). Page 443, N° 141.
Fig. 14. Strombus nodosa, (Pterocera nodosa, La¬
marck).
Fig. 15. Murex lineatus, (Clavatula lineata, La¬
marck).
Big. 16. Murex horridus, (Ricinula horrida, La¬
marck).
Fig. 17. Murex semigranosus, (Ceritheum semigra-
nosum, Lamarck).
Fig. 18. Trochus moniliferus.
Fig. 19. Trochus coronuria, (Monodonta coronaria,
Lamarck).
Fig. 20. Turbo scalaris. Variety, rare, (Scalaria
pretiosa, Lamarck).
Inde
O L O G Y.
Fig. 21. Turbo Ktw, (Pupa uva, Lamarck). „
Fig. 22. Turbo laminatus.
Fig. 23. Helix fasciatus, (Bulimus fasciata, La- Tlif
marck). v—y>*
Fig. 24. Helix vivipara,' (Paludina achatina, La¬
marck).
Fig. 25. Helix putris, var. (Lymnaea putris, La¬
marck.)
Fig. 26. Helix ianthina, (lanthina fragilis, La¬
marck).
Fig. 27. Merit a canrena, (Natica canrena, La¬
marck).
Fig. 28. Patella oculus-capri.
Fig. 29. Patella Jissura, (Emarginula cornea, La¬
marck.
Fig. 30. Dentalium elephantinu?7i.
Fig. 3!. Scrpula anguina, (Siliquaria anguina, La¬
marck).
Fig. 32. Teredo navalis.
Fig- 33. Patella aculcata, (Crepedula aculeata, La¬
marck).
INDEX.
II
ACORN-shell, species of,
Adanson, his system of shells,
Amphitrite, generic character of, 13
Ajicients prosecuted the study of shells, 3
Animal gives form to the shell,
method of killing,
AnomIA, species of,
Arca, species of,
Argonauta,
Ark-shell, see Area,
Ascidia, generic character of,
in
*37
421
416
425
i036
B.
alves, terms of, defined,
generic characters of,
ynius, his system of shells,
;cinum, species of,
LLA, species of,
18
22
439
433
Colouring matter, difference of fluidi¬
ty in the,
motion of the ani¬
mal,
of porcelain shells,
affected by light,
Conchology introduction,
importance of,
cultivated by the ancients,
moderns,
Concretions, pearls supposed to be
morbid,
Cone-shell, see Conus,
Conus, species of,
Cowrie, see Cypreea,
Cyprjea, species of,
H.
93
Haliotis, species of,
Helix, species of,
94
102
107
1
K.
Klein, his system of shells, n°IO
opinion of the formation
of shells, 16
L.
121
48
p. 427
n° 49
t>- 431
D.
C.
408
4I5
Cardium, species of,
Chama, species of, p,
Characters, generic, of testaceous ani¬
mals, n° 15
Chiton, species of, p. 401
Classification of shells, n° 20
Clio, generic character of,
Cockle, see Cardium,
Colours of shells vary,
Colouring matter secreted from the
neck,
prove,
seeming exception,
causes of this,
changes in the or¬
gans of,
Da Costa, his system of shells,
D'Argenville, his system of shells
Hentalium, species of,
Dipper, see Bulla,
Donax, species of,
Doris, generic character of,
Dutch method of polishing shells,
p. 14
9
p. 467
n° 5°
Land shells very numerous, IJJ
method of collecting, IJI
Langius, his system of shells,
Layer of shells, last formed, white, ^
Lepas, species of, p, 402
Light, effects of, on shells, n°l0l
Limax, generic character of, !5
J-impet, see Patella, ^
Lister, his system of shells, 1
p. 410
n° 15
25
30
87
F.
88
89
90
91
92
Fishery, pearl,
in Britain,
in Ceylon,
C.
Gaping cockle, see Chama,
Geojfroy, his system of shells,
Grooves, formation of,
Growth of shells,
interrupted,
138
J39
140
35
12
H7
79
98
M-
Mactra, species of,
Moderns, progress of, in conchc
Muller, his system of shells,
Multivalves, terms of, defined,
Murex, species of,
Mussel, see Mytilus,
Mya, species of,
margaritifera yields peai
mother-of-pearl,
Mytilus, species of,
margaritiferus produ
pearls,
N.
IN.
Nautilus, species of,
Nereis, generic character of.
it
st
ill
t/ifi
I| index.
!V NekiTA, species of,
O.
~ nr!tans secreting colouring matter,
enlarge’ • f t^aiZ
OsTREA, species ot, p# ^ 7
Oyster, see Osfrea cduhs, n 37
employed as food, 38
of difl'erent kinds, _ 39
grows on trees in warm cli¬
mates, _ 4°
in Jamaica, ill
the British noted among the
Romans, tb.
retains its superi¬
ority, 40
management of, . 41
liquid of, seen by the micro¬
scope, 4 2
P.
Patella, species of, p. 464
Pfar/, component parts of, n° 70
found in mother-of-pearl shells, 120
supposed to be a morbid con¬
cretion, 121
from external injury, 122
discovery of its formation by
Linnaeus, 123
fishery, *3^
in Britain, 139
in Ceylon, 140
PhoLAS, species of, p. 404
c striata perforates wood ac-
cross the fibre, n° 26
Pilgrims visiting the Holy Land,
wear the scallop, 37
Pinna, species of, p. 424
Polishing shells, n° 141
with leather, 142
pumice-stone, 143
Dutch method, 151
j Porcelain shells, colours of, J02
have an external lay¬
er formed, 103
proved, 104
become thicker, 105
! *•
* Pnor-sheath, see Solen, 26
CONCHOLOGY.
p. 462 Reaumur's investigation of the for¬
mation of shells, n° 72
opinion mistaken, 73
controverted, 76
experiments, 78
Ribs of shells, formation of, 113
only on sea-shells, 114
hollow, 118
S.
Sabella, species of,
Scallop, see Ostrea maxima,
worn by pilgrims,
Sea-ear, see Haliotis,
Sea-iving, see Pinna,
Sepia, generic character of,
Serpula, species of,
Shells, constituent parts of,
porcellaneous,
mother-of-pearl,
formed in the egg,
last formed,
process of their formation,
formed by secretion from the
animal,
time necessary,
layers seen by burning,
growth of, interrupted,
distinguished by co¬
lour,
lower valve colourless,
spiral, four classes,
derive their form from the
animal,
found on every part of the
globe,
land, numerous,
tropical, most beautiful,
sea, methods of fishing.
Ship-worm, natural history of
Snails, see Helix,
Solen, species of,
Species of shells enumerated,
Spines, produced,
Spio, generic character of,
Spires of the shell, turns increased,
p. 469
n° 37
ib.
$9
45
J5
p. 467
n° 66
67
68
74
75
79
80
81
83
98
100
108
no
in
124
125
126
63
66
P- 405
n° 65
116
15
84
Spondylus, species of, p. 414
Sprat's, Bishop, history of the oyster, n° 41
Strice, formation of, 98
Strombus, species of, p. 444
Systems of conchology,
Lister’s,
Langius’s
Breynius’s,
Tournefort’s
D’Argenville’s,
Klein’s
Adanson’s,
Geoffrey’s,
Muller’s
Da Costa’s,
T.
Tellina, species of,
Teredo, species of,
Terebella, generic character of,
Terms explained,
in multivalves,
bivalves,
univalves,
Testaceous animals both oviparous
viviparous,
detached from
shell,
Tethys, generic character of,
Tooth-shell, see Dentalium,
Tournefort's system of shells,
Triton, generic character of,
TrochuS, species of,
Tropical shells most beautiful,
Tubercles on shells, formation of,
Turbo, species of,
U.
Umbilicus, formation, of
Univalves, terms of, defined,
generic character of,
V.
Valve, lower, of shells, colourless,
Venus, species of,
Voluta, species of,
Volute, see Voluta,
W.
Wedge-shell, see Donax,
Whelk, see Buccinum,
Wreath, see Turbo,
*483
n° 4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
M
p. 406
469
n® 15
and
the
16
17
18
19
7i
85
*5
61
8
*5
450
127
116
453
in
1 *9
23
108
p. 411
434
n°5i
n°32
52
56
* P p 2
CONCHYLIAj
CON [
Concilia CONCHYLIA, a general name for all petrified
\\ shells, as limpets, cochleae, nautili, conchas, lepades,
Conclusion,
CONCIATOR, in the glass art, is, for the crystal-
glass, what the founder is at the green-glass houses.
He is the person that weighs and proportions the salt
on ashes and sand •, and works them with a strong fire
till they run into lumps and become white ; and it
the metal be too hard, and consequently brittle, .he
adds salt or ashes, and if too soft, sand ; still mixing
them to a fit temper, which is only known by the
working.
CONCINNOUS INTERVALS, in Music, are such
as are fit for music, next to, and in combination with,
concords j being neither very agreeable nor disagree¬
able in themselves j but having a good effect, as by
their opposition they heighten the more essential prin¬
ciples of pleasure : or as, by their mixture and combi¬
nation with them, they produce a variety necessary
to our being better pleased.
Concinnous System, in Music. A system is said
to be concinnous, or divided concinnously, when its
parts, considered as simple intervals, are concinnous j
and are besides placed in such an order between the
extremes, as that the succession of sounds, from one ex¬
treme to the other, may have an agreeable eftect.
CONCLAMATIO, in antiquity, a shout raised
by those present at burning the dead, before they set
fire to the funeral pile. See Shout. The word was
also applied to the signal given to the Roman soldiers
to decamp, whence the expression conclamare vasa ;
conclamare arma, was a signal for battle. It was
likewise used for a practice of calling to a person de¬
ceased three times by his name •, and when no reply
was returned, they thus expressed his decease, concla-
matum est. Whence the same term was afterwards ap¬
plied to the cessation of the Roman empire.
CONCLAVE, the place in which the cardinals of
the Romish church meet, and are shut up, for the elec¬
tion of a pope.
The conclave is a range of small cells, 10 feet square,
made of wainscot : these are numbered, and drawn
for by lot. They stand in a line along the galleries
and hall of the Vatican, with a small space between
each. Every cell has the arms of the cardinal over it.
The conclave is not fixed to any one determinate place,
for the constitutions of the church allow the cardinals
to make choice of such a place for the conclave as
they think most convenient 5 yet it is generally held in
the Vatican.
The conclave is very strictly guarded by troops 5
neither the cardinals, nor any person shut up in the
conclave, are spoken to, but at the hours allowed of,
and then in Italian or Latin : even the provisions for
the conclave are examined, that no letters be convey¬
ed by that means from the ministers of foreign powers,
or other persons who may have an interest in the elec¬
tion of the pontiff’.
Conclave is also used for the assembly, or meet¬
ing, of the cardinals shut up for the election of a pope.
CONCLUSION, in Logic, the consequences or
judgment drawn from what was asserted in the pre¬
mises , or the previous judgments in reasoning, gain¬
ed from combining the extreme ideas between them¬
selves..
*484 ] CON
CONCOCTION, in Medicine, the change which Concoct! j
the food undergoes in the stomach, &e. to become
chyle. See Chyle.
CONCOMITANT, something that accompanies or
goes along with another.
CONCORD, in Grammar, that part of construc¬
tion called syntax, in which the words of a sentence
agree 5 that is, in which nouns are put in the same
gender, number, and case j and verbs in the same
number and person with nouns and pronouns. See
Grammar.
Concord, in Music, the relation of two sounds that
are always agreeable to the ear, whether applied in
succession or consonance.
Form of Concoiw, in ecclesiastical history, a stan¬
dard hook among the Lutherans, composed at Torgaw,
in 1576, and thence called the book of Torgaw, and
reviewed at Berg by six Lutheran doctors of Germanj,
the principal of whom was James Andrese. This
book contains, in two parts, a system of doctrine, the
subscription of which was a condition of communion,
and a formal and very severe condemnation of all who
differed from the compilers of it, particularly with re¬
spect to the majesty and omnipresence of Christ’s body,
and the real manducation of his flesh and blood in the
eucharist. It was first imposed on the Saxons by Au¬
gustus, and occasioned great opposition and disturbance.
The dispute about it was revived in Switzerland in
1718, when the magistrates of Berne published an order
for adopting it as the rule of fath $ the consequence
of which was a contest, that reduced its credit and au¬
thority.
CONCORDANCE, a dictionary or index to the
Bible, wherein all the leading words, used in the course
of the inspired writings, are ranged alphabetically $
and the various places where they occur referred to •,
to assist in finding out passages and comparing the se*
veral significations of the same word.
Cardinal Hugo de St Charo, is said to have employ¬
ed jQO monks at the same time in compiling a Latin
concordance $ besides which, we have several other
concordances in the same language one, in particu¬
lar, called the concordance of England, compiled by J.
Darlington, of the order of Predicants $ another more
accurate one, by the Jesuit de Zamora.
R. Mordecai Nathan has furnished us with a He¬
brew concordance, first printed at Venice in 1523,
containing all the Hebrew roots branched into their
various significations, and under each signification all
the places in scripture where it occurs : but the best
and most useful Hebrew concordance is that of Bux-
torf, printed at Basil in 1632.
Dr Taylor published, in 1754, a Hebrew concord¬
ance in two volumes folio, adapted to the English
Bible, and disposed after the manner of Buxtorf.
The Greek concordances are only for the New
Testament: indeed we have one of Conr. Kircher’s on
the Old , but this is rather a concordantial dictionary
than a concordance ; containing all the Hebrew words
in an alphabetical order ”, and underneath all the inter¬
pretations or senses the LXX. give them j and in each
interpretation all the places where they occur in that
version.
In 1718, Trommius published his Greek concord¬
ance for the Septuagint at Amsterdam, in two volumes
folio 5
CON
[ *435 ]
CON
or_ folio; anti Schmidius Improving on a similar work of
I j e H. Stephen, has given an excellent Greek concordance
for the New Testament, the best edition of which is
C01 :<lia t)iat of Leipsic, an. 1717.
Calasius, an Italian Cordelier, has given us concord¬
ances of the Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, in two co¬
lumns the first, which is Hebrew, is that of R. Mor-
decai Nathan, word for word, and according to the
order of the books and chapters : in the other column
is a Latin interpretation of each passage of Scripture
quoted by R. Mordecai ; this interpretation is Cala-
sius’s own •, but in the margin he adds that of the
LXX. and the Vulgate, when different from his. The
work is in 4 vols folio, printed at Rome in 1621.
We have several very copious concordances in Eng¬
lish, as Newmann’s, &c. but the last and best esteemed
is that in 4to by Alexander Cruden.
CONCORDANT verses, such as have several
words in common ; but which, by the addition of other
words, convey an opposite, at least a different meaning.
Such are those.
C canis 1 .
LtA , > zn silva
i lupus 3
C venatur 1
\ nutritur j
, . C servat.
et omnia *1 . .
C vastat.
CONCORDAT, in the canon law, denotes a
covenant or agreement concerning some beneficiary
matter, as a resignation, permutation, promotion, or
the like.
The council of Trent, sess. vi. de reform, cap. 4.
speaking of concordats made without the authority
and approbation of the pope, calls them concordias quce
iantum suos obligant auctores, non successores. And
the congregation of cardinals, who have explained this
decree, declares also that a concordat cannot be va¬
lid so as to bind successors, unless confirmed by the
pope.
Concordat is also used, absolutely, among the
French, for an agreement concluded at Bologna in
1516, between Pope Leo X. and Francis I.of France,
for regulating the manner of nominating to benefices.
The concordat serves in lieu of the pragmatic sanc¬
tion, which has been abrogated; or rather, it is the
pragmatic sanction softened and reformed. The con¬
cordat between the pope and the republic of Venice
resembles the former.
There is also a German concordat, made between
the emperor Frederic III. and the princes of Germa¬
ny, in 1448, relating to beneficiary matters, confirmed
by Pope Nicholas V.
CONCORDIA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Mirandola; seated on the river Sechia, 5 miles west of
Mirandola, and 15 miles south-east of Mantua j subject
to the house of Austria. E. Long. 11. 13. N. Lat.
44* 52- . . ‘
Concordia, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Veneti, situated at the confluence of the rivers Roma-
tinus Major and Minor, 31 miles to the west of Aqui-
leia, (Pliny, Ptolemy, Antonine) j a colony surnamed
Julia. Its ruins still go by the name of Concordia.—
Another Concordia (Ptolemy), of Lusitania, to the
north-west of Trajan’s bridge, on the Tagus.—A third
of the Nemetes, in Belgica, on the west side of the
Rhine; a Roman fortress, situated between Brocoma-
gus and Noviomagus. Now Drusenheim, in Alsace.-
E. Long. N. Lat. 48. 40.
2.
Concordia, a Pagan divinity of the Romans. She Concordia
had a temple on the declivity of the Capitol; another
in the Portico of Livia; and a third on Mount Pala¬
tine, built of brass by Cn. Flavius, on account of a
vow made for reconciling the senate and people. She
was pictured with a cup in her right hand ; in her
left was sometimes a sceptre, and sometimes a cornu¬
copia:. Her symbols were two hands joined, as is seen
in a coin of Aurelius Verus, and another of Nero ; also
two serpents twisting about a caduceus. She was ad¬
dressed to promote the peace and union of families and
citizens.
CONGOU, in Botany, a name given by the people
of Guinea to an herb, which is in great esteem among
them for killing that troublesome sort of worm called
the Guinea-worm, that breeds in their flesh. They
bruise the leaves, and mixing them with oil apply
them in form of a cataplasm.
CONCRETE, in the school-philosophy, an assem¬
blage or compound.
Concrete, in Natural Philosophy and Chemistry,
signifies a body made up of different principles, or any
mixed body: thus, soap is a factitious concrete, mix¬
ed together by art ; and antimony is a natural con¬
crete, or a mixed body compounded in the bowels of
the earth.
CONCRETION, the uniting several small particles
of a natural body into sensible masses or concretes,
whereby it becomes so and so figured and determined,
and is endued with such and such properties.
Concretion is also the act whereby soft bodies are
rendered hard : or an insensible motion of the particles
of a fluid or soft body, whereby they come to a consist¬
ence. It is indifferently used for induration, condensa¬
tion, congelation, and coagulation.
CONCUBINAGE sometimes expresses a criminal
or prohibited commerce between the two sexes; in
which sense it comprehends adultery, incest, and simple
fornication.
In its more restrained sense, concubinage is used for
a man’s and a woman’s cohabiting together in the way
of marriage,, without having passed the ceremony
thereof.
Concubinage was anciently tolerated: the Roman
law calls it an allowed custom, licita consuetude. When
this expression occurs in the constitutions of the
Christian emperors, it signifies what we now call a
marriage in conscience.
The concubinage tolerated among the Romans in
the time of the republic, and of the heathen emperors,
was that between persons not capable of contracting
marriage together; nor did they even refuse to let in¬
heritances descend to children which sprung from such
a tolerated cohabitance. Concubinage between such
persons they looked on as a kind of marriage, and even
allowed it several privileges : but then this concubinage
was confined to a single person, and was of perpetual
obligation as much as marriage itself. Hottoman ob¬
serves, that the Roman laws had allowed of concubi¬
nage long before Julius Caesar made that law whereby
every one was allowed to marry as many wives as he
pleased. The emperor Valenlinian, Socrates tells us; .
allowed every man two.
Concubinage is also used for a marriage performed
with less solemnity than the formal marriage: or a
marriage
1
CON [ *486 ] CON
Concubi- roarr>age with a woman of inferior condition, and to
r.age, whom "the husband does not convey his rank or qua-
Concvsbiue. ]ity. Cnjas observes, that the ancient laws allowed a
man to espouse, under the title of concvbme, certain
persons, such as were esteemed unequal to him, on ac¬
count of the want of some qualities requisite to sustain
the full honour of marriage. He adds, that though
concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity
and civil effects j yet was concubine a reputable title,
very different from that of mistress among us. The
commerce was esteemed so lawful, that the concubine
might be accused of adultery in the same manner as a
wife.
This kind of concubinage is still in use in some
countries, particularly in Germany, under the title of a
half marriage, morgengabic marriage, or marriage with
the left-hand ; alluding to the manner of its being con¬
tracted, viz. by the man’s giving the woman his left
hand instead of the right. This is a real marriage, though
without solemnity: the parties are both bound for ever :
though the woman be thus excluded from the common
rights of a wife for want of quality or fortune.
The children of concubines were not reputed either
legitimate or bastards, but natural children, and were
capable only of donations. They were deemed to retain
the low rank of the mother ; and were on this ground
unqualified for inheriting the effects of the father.
CoifcuBlNAGE, in a legal sense, is used as an excep¬
tion against her that sueth for dower, alleging there¬
by, that she was not a wife lawfully married to the
party, in whose lands she seeks to be endowed, but his
concubine.
CONCUBINE, a woman whom a person takes to
cohabit with him, in the manner, and under the cha¬
racter, of a wife, without being authorized thereto by
a legal marriage.
Concubine is also used for a real, legitimate, and
only wife, distinguished by no other circumstance but
a disparity of birth or condition between her and the
husband. Du Cange observes, that one may gather
from several passages in the epistles of the popes, that
they anciently allowed of such concubines. The seven¬
teenth canon of the first council of Toledo declares,
that he who, with a faithful wife, keeps a concubine,
is excommunicated ; but that if the concubine served
him as a wife, so that he had only one woman, under
the title of concubine, he should not be rejected from
communion: which shows that there were legitimate
wives under the title of concubines.
In effect, the Roman laws did not allow a man to
espouse whom he pleased j there was required a kind
of parity, or proportion, between the conditions of the
contracting parties; but a woman of inferior condi¬
tion, who could not be espoused as a wife, might be
kept as a concubine $ and the laws allowed of it, pro¬
vided the man had no other wife.
It is certain the patriarchs had a great number of
wives, and that these did not all hold the same rank ;
some being subaltern to the principal wife ; which
were what we call concubines or half-wives. The Ro¬
mans prohibited a plurality of concubines, and only
had regard to the children issuing from a single con¬
cubine, because she might become a legitimate wife.
Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines 5 the
emperor of China has sometimes two or three thousand
concubines in his palace. Q. Curtius observes, that Concn’
Darius was followed in his army by 365 concubines, n j
all in the equipage of queens. Com !
CONCUPISCENCE, according to divines, an ir-
regular appetite, or lust after carnal things, inherent in
the nature of man ever since the fall.
COND, Con, or Conn, in sea language, signifies to
guide or conduct a ship in her right course. He that
cons her, stands aloft with a compass before him, and
gives the word of direction to the man at the helm
how he is to steer. If the ship go before the wind,
or, as they call it, betwixt the sheets, the word is either
Starboard, or Port the helm ; according as the conder
would have the helm put to the right or left side of
the ship, upon which the ship always goes the contrary
way. If he says, Helm a midship, he would have the
ship to go right before the wind, or directly between
her two sheets. If the ship sail by a wind, or on a
quarter wind, the word is, Aloof, keep your luff, fall
not off, veer no more, keep her to, touch the wind,
have a care of the lee-latch : all which expressions are
of the same import, and imply that the steersman
should keep the ship near the wind. On the contrary,
if he would have her sail move large, or more before
the wind, the word is, Ease the helm, no near, bear
up. If he cries Steady, it means, keep her from go¬
ing in and out, or making yaws (as they call it), how- f
soever she sails, whether large or before a wind : and
when he would have her go just as she does, he cries,
Keep her thus, thus, &c.
CONDAMINE, Charles M. de la, a French
traveller, and man of science. See Supplement.
COND ATE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar¬
morica in Gaul : called Civitas Rhedonum, in the No-
titia j afterwards Redonce; Redonica Regio, the district.
Hence the modern name Rennes, in Brittany. W.
Long. 1. 45. Lat. 48. 5. Another Condate of Britain
(Antonine) ; now thought to be Congleton in York¬
shire } others say in Lancashire.
CONDE, Lewis de Bourbon, Prince of, was
born at Paris Sept. 7. 1621. He was styled Duke d’En-
guien, till he succeeded to the title of Prince of Conde
by his father’s death in 1646. As he was of a tender
and delicate constitution, the prince sent him to the
castle of Montrond in Berry, that he might breathe a
more pure and salutary air. Here he was educated in
his infancy by some experienced and prudent citi¬
zens wives, When he was of a proper age, the
prince took upon himself the task of governor, and
appointed for his assistant M. de la Boussieres, a pri¬
vate gentleman, a man of honour, fidelity, and good
nature, and who made it a rule to observe inviolably
the orders that were given him. Two Jesuits distin¬
guished for their genius and knowledge were also
given him for preceptors. He formed him a house¬
hold of 15 or 20 officers, all men of the greatest virtue
and discretion.
With these attendants the duke d’Enguien went to
settle at Bourges, where he frequented the college of
Jesuits. Here, besides the ordinary studies, he was
taught ancient and modern history, mathematics, geo¬
graphy, declamation $ also riding and dancing, in
which last he soon excelled. He made such a surpri¬
sing progress, that before the age of 13 he defended
in public some questions in philosophy with incredible
applause.
CON [ 489 ] CON
r [e,' applause. At bis return from Montrond, be bad for
u- —' bis tutor M. de Merille j a man deeply versed in the
knowledge of common law, of ancient and modern
laws, of the holy scriptures, and of the mathematics.
Under bis direction the duke went through that new
course with prodigious success. He acquired a criti¬
cal taste in the arts and sciences, which he retained all
his life 5 he never suffered a day to pass without de¬
dicating two or three hours at least to reading j his
thirst for knowledge was universal, and he endeavour¬
ed to search every thing to the bottom. His chief in¬
clination, however, lay towards the military art; and
at the age of 18 he obtained permission to make his
first campaign as a volunteer in the army commanded
by M. de la Meilleraye. This campaign was unfortu¬
nate ; and the duke d’Enguien was only a witness of
the marshal’s imprudence and disgrace. Nevertheless,
in this campaign he laid the foundation of that renown
which made him afterwards considered as the greatest
general of his age.
On his return to Paris, the duke waited upon Car¬
dinal Richelieu at Ruel. The minister was so pleased
with his conversation, that he soon after made pro¬
posals of an alliance with the prince of Conde, by
marrying the duke d’Enguien to Claire Clemence
de Maille Breza, the cardinal’s niece. The duke
consented to this match out of obedience to his fa¬
ther ; but the force he put upon himself by yield¬
ing to it was so great, that he fell dangerously ill. It
was long before he got the better of his distemper j
but at length he not only recovered, but became so
strong as afterwards to bear the greatest fatigues with
ease.
The duke made two more campaigns as a volun¬
teer ; the one under the marshal de la Meilleraye, the
other in the. army of Louis XIII. which conquered
Roussillon. In 1643, at the age of 22, he obtained
from the king, at the persuasion of Cardinal Maiarin,
the command of the army destined to cover Cham¬
pagne and Picardy 5 which command was confirmed
to him after the king’s death by the queen regent,
Anne of Austria, to whose interest he was strongly
devoted. In this station, though he had never been
present at any battle, he soon gave such a specimen of
his abilities as crowned him with glory. The Spa¬
niards, who threatened France with an invasion, were
defeated by him at Rocroi $ and this signal victory
made him from that time considered as the guardian
genius of his country. He next formed the project
of besieging Thionville, and proposed it to the coun¬
cil of regency. They consented with fear and dis¬
trust j but the duke carried it into execution with
such skill, activity, and courage, that he became justly
the subject of general admiratmn. In two months
time Thionville surrendered. At length, having co¬
vered Alsace and Lorrain from the enterprises of the
Imperialists, the duke returned to Paris, where he ob¬
tained the government of Champagne, and of the city
of Stenai.
The three following years were little more than a
series of military operations. The three battles of
Fribourg, in which the duke d’Enguien triumphed
over Veit Marshal Count de Mercy, the greatest gene¬
ral in all Germany; the taking of Philipsbourg, and a
great number of other places, which rendered him
VOL. VI. Part II. f
master of the palatinate, and of the whole course of Conde.
the Rhine j the victory of Nortlingue, by which he re-'——v—
venged the viscount duTurenne’s defeat at Mariendalj
the siege and conquest of Dunkirk ; the good and bad
success of his arms in Catalonia, where, though he was
forced to raise the siege of Lerida, he kept the Spa¬
niards in awe, and cut to pieces their rear guard ; these
are the principal events which distinguish the campaigns
of 1644, 1645, and 1646.
The victories of the duke d’Enguien, his great re¬
putation and esteem with the people, began now to
give umbrage to Mazarin. The cardinal’s dislike to
him appeared on the death of the duke de Breze, ad¬
miral of France. The prince of Conde earnestly de¬
manded for his son the duke de Breze’s places. But
Mazarin, afraid of increasing the wealth and power
of a prince, whom his victories and the love and con¬
fidence of the people and the army had already ren¬
dered too formidable to him, evaded his request, by
persuading the queen to take the admiralty to herself.
On the death of his father, the minister’s dislike to the
young prince of Conde became still more apparent.
By the minister’s persuasion he had accepted of the
command of the army in Catalonia ; but, on his arrival
at Barcelona, he found neither troops, money, artille¬
ry, provisions, nor ammunition. Enraged at this de¬
ception, he vented his resentment in bitter complaints
and severe threats: but by the resources that he found
in this dilemma, the prince added new lustre to his
glory.
The campaign of 1648 was as glorious to Conde as
those which preceded it had been. To disconcert at
once the projects of the archduke Leopold, thej prince
resolved to attack him even in the heart of the Low
Countries j and notwithstanding the considerable dif¬
ficulties which he had to surmount, he besieged the
important city of Ypres, and took it in sight of all the
enemy’s forces.
Notwithstanding this success, Conde saw himself at
the point of experiencing the greatest reverse of for¬
tune. His army was a prey to scarcity, to naked¬
ness, contagious distempers, and desertion. For eight
months it received no supply from the minister, but half
a muster. Every thing was supplied by the prince
himself; he lavished his money, and borrowed more
to supply his troops. When it was represented to
him that he was in danger of ruining himself by such
an enormous expence, he replied, that “ since he every
day ventured his life for the service of his country, he
could very well sacrifice his fortune to it. Let but the
government exist (added he), and I shall want for no¬
thing.”
The French army having been reinforced by 4000
of the troops of Weimar, Conde attacked the Spa¬
niards advantageously encamped near Lens, and gained
a complete victory over them, which disabled them
from attempting any thing more, and even from sup¬
porting themselves. Afterwards he besieged Furnes,
the garrison of which, 500 men, surrendered themselves
prisoners of war. But the prince was wounded there
in the trenches by a musket-shot above the right hip ;
and the contusion was so great, that he was forced to
submit to several incisions.
The French court, animated with the victory at
Lens, thought this a proper time to take vengeance
3 Q on
1
CON [ 490 ] CON
Co:ide. on the factions which for some time had violently
—v~—* agitated the kingdom j and accordingly imprisoned
Broussel and Blancmenil, two of the principal leaders
of the country party. This vigorous proceeding, how¬
ever, occasioned a general revolt. Two hundred thou¬
sand men took arms in Paris, barricaded the streets,
invested the palais-royal, and demanded the prisoners.
It was necessary to release them ; but from that time
the regal authority was annihilated; the queen was
exposed to a thousand insults, and Mazarin dared no
longer venture out of the palais-royal. In this em¬
barrassment the queen recalled the prince of Conde,
as the only one from whom she could hope for sup¬
port. He retired to Ruel, whither the regent had
gone with the young king and Mazarin. Anne of
Austria proposed to him the reducing of Paris by force
of arms: but he calmed the resentments of that prin¬
cess ; and instead of being accessory to her vengeance,
he directed all his views to pacify the kingdom, and
at length brought about an accommodation between
the parties, who desired it with equal ardour. But
new incidents soon rekindled the combustion. The
treachery of Mazarin, and the artifices of the leaders
of the country party, occasioned new cabals and fresh
troubles. Conde was caressed by the leaders of both
parties j but at last, enraged at the arrogance of the
malecontents, who every day formed new pretensions,
he took part openly with the court, though he thought
it ungrateful, and protected the minister, though he
did not esteem him.
The royal family, the duke of Orleans, Conde, and
Mazarin, left Paris privately in the night between the
5th and 6th of January 1646, and went to St Ger¬
mains. The parliament sent deputies to learn from
the queen herself the reasons of her departure, and
to beg her to name the citizens whom she suspected,
that they might be tried. Mazarin had the impru¬
dence to dismiss them withont any answer. Exaspe¬
rated at this, the people again took up arms in order
to defend themselves against the enterprises of the
court, who had determined to block up and to starve
the capital, in order to suppress the party of malecon¬
tents. With 7000 or 8000 men, the broken relics of
the last campaign, the prince of Conde formed a design
of reducing above 500,000 intrenched behind walls.
Pie had neither money nor magazines ; he saw himself
in the depth ot a most severe winter; nevertheless he
triumphed over Paris, and this great success completed
his glory. It did him so much the more honour,
as during the siege he constantly defeated the troops
of the malecontents; he prevailed on the army that
marched to their assistance under Turenne, to aban¬
don that general; he stopped the progress of the duke
de Longueville, who had caused an insurrection in
Normandy ; and got the start of the Spaniards, who
were advancing to give him battle.
Condi de Betz, coadjutor of Paris, and afterwards
cardinal, was the life and soul of the revolters, and
directed all their motions. He had taken Catiline
for his model; and was equally intrepid and capable
of the greatest actions ; of an exalted genius, but go¬
verned by his ambition. He distinguished his hatred
to Mazarin by arming the malecontents ; and he him¬
self raised at his own expence a regiment which he
called the regiment of Corinth; as soon as this corps
took the field during the blockade of Paris, it was de- Condd
feated and dispersed. This check was called the first ——y-
to the Corinthians. The peace was signed at St Ger¬
mains ; but neither party carried its point, and scarce
any one but Conde acquired glory by this war. After
the conclusion of the treaty, the prince repaired to the
capital, and traversed all the streets in his coach alone.
All persons of any consequence paid their compli¬
ments to him, and the parliament sent a solemn depu¬
tation to thank him for the peace to which he had so
powerfully contributed. The people, however, made
loud complaints on account of the king’s absence (for
the court was not yet returned to Paris), and the
malecontents gave reason to apprehend a new insurrec¬
tion. Conde encouraged the king and queen to re¬
turn ; and at length brought them to Paris, amidst the
acclamations and blessings of the public.
The important service which Conde had just done
the court entitled him to the acknowledgments of the
queen, and especially of Mazarin; but the dark soul
of that cardinal only remembered it to punish a too
fortunate and too powerful protector. Pie privately
swore the prince’s destruction ; at least that he should
give the whole kingdom a pattern of submission and
dependence on his will. However, not to excite the
public indignation, he still kept up appearances with
the prince, while he secretly spread about him disgusts,
suspicions, snares of every kind, and the most heinous
calumnies. The ungrateful minister deceived the
prince by making him the most flattering proposals;
and with the most alluring promises, which he always
found means to avoid fulfilling. P’he enraged prince
despised the minister, and treated him with disdain.
After this they were reconciled again only to be again
at variance. Each of them in their turn courted the
country party, in order to make it subservient to their
designs. At last Mazarin thought of an expedient,
which but too effectually answered his purpose, of ma¬
king an irreconcileable quarrel between that party
and the prince. Among the malecontents, the mar¬
quis de la Boulaie, a man of an infamous character,
had obtained the confidence of the party by false ap¬
pearances of hatred to the cardinal, but secretly kept
up a correspondence with him. It is pretended that
he made him an offer of privately killing Conde.
Mazarin was charmed with the proposal; yet he only
required Boulaie to exhibit all the proofs of an assassi¬
nation, and to act in such a manner that every thing
might concur to render the country party suspected of
that crime. He was punctually obeyed; the coach
was stopped ; some pistols were fired at it, by which
two of the footmen were dangerously wounded ; and
after that shameful exploit, la Boulaie took refuge in
the hotel of the duke of Beaufort, who was the hero
of the party, in order no doubt to countenance the
prince’s suspicion of the malecontents. Luckily Conde
was not in his coach when it was stopped ; the car¬
dinal had spread the report of his intended assassina¬
tion; and in concert with the queen and the prince
he had prevailed to have the coach sent away empty,
to prove the reality of the attempt. Mazarin counter¬
feited a zeal for the prince’s life; he furiously declaim¬
ed against the malecontents, who, he pretended, had
made an attempt on a life so precious to the state ; and
he inflamed Conde’s resentment against the duke of
Beaufort
CON - [ 491 ] CON
( (]e Beaufort and the coadjutor, whom he supposed to
u. ' be the authors of this heinous outrage. The prince
was so strongly prejudiced, that he refused to hear
them when they appeared before him to justify them¬
selves. He demanded justice against them of the king :
he formally accused them before the parliament, and
remained inflexible in spite of the pains which the
leaders of the party took to demonstrate to him that
he had been imposed upon. However, the affair was
brought before the parliament 5 the accused defended
themselves, and the coadjutor, who had discovered
the cardinal’s secret, unmasked him so well, that the
prince agreed to a private negotiation with the male-
contents ; he required nothing more than the coad¬
jutor’s leaving Paris, but with the rank of ambassador
to Rome or Vienna. That prelate would have con¬
sented to it, to satisfy Conde, if Mazarin, some days
after, had not given him the choice of any recom¬
pense, in order to engage his concurrence in the
prince’s destruction. Affairs were now in such a dan¬
gerous situation, that the cardinal saw clearly it was
necessary to hasten to the winding up of the plot.
Master of the queen’s mind, which he guided as he
pleased 5 and sure of having inflamed against Conde
all the resentment of the malecontents j he sought and
obtained, by means of the duchess Chevreuse, the sup¬
port of that powerful faction, which connected itself
the more readily with him, in hopes that the prince’s
fall would soon enable it to crush without difficulty the
cardinal himself. The coadjutor had private confer¬
ences with the queen and the minister. Conde had
notice of it $ and in order to discover if it were true,
he endeavoured to surprise it from Mazarin’s own
mouth. “ Cardinal (said he, one day), it is publicly
reported that you have nightly meetings with the co¬
adjutor, disguised like a trooper.” He accompanied
this speech with a quick and penetrating look: but
the cardinal, who was a perfect master of dissimulation,
answered him in such a free, artless-like manner, that
he entirely removed Conde’s apprehension; and he
slighted the information he had received, of the plot
forming against him.
Mazarin wanted nothing but the support of the duke
of Orleans j and at last found means, by the duchess of
Chevreuse, to inflame the jealousy of that fickle and
inconstant prince, and to engage him to consent to the
imprisonment of Conde. Having thus united all par¬
ties, and fearing no other obstacle, this ungrateful and
perfidious minister made preparations for privately ar¬
resting the prince j the order for it was signed January
18. 1650. Conde having that day repaired as usual
to the palais-royal, to assist at council with the prince
of Conti and the duke of Longueville, the queen gave
orders to arrest them all three, and to convey them with¬
out any noise to the castle of Vincennes. She was in¬
stantly obeyed, and the princes were strictly guarded
in that prison.
In this unexpected reverse of fortune, the fortitude
and greatness of Conde’s mind appeared only the more
remarkable. Confined with the other two princes in
the tower of Vincennes, where neither supper, furni¬
ture, nor beds, were provided, he contented himself
with two new laid eggs, and threw himself in his
clothes, on a truss of straw, where he slept 12 hours
without waking. He still retained his cheerfulness,
and dedicated the greatest part of his time to reading; Conte,
the rest to conversation, playing at battle-door and —y——.
shattle-cock, to bodily exercises, and the cultivation of
flowers.
Mazarin triumphed at the disgrace of the princes,
proscribed all those who were attached to Conde, and
behaved in the most insolent and arbitrary manner.
The prince’s friends, however, notwithstanding their
being strictly watched, found means to keep up a punc¬
tual correspondence with him. They made various at¬
tempts to release him : they raised troops, in particu¬
lar, the dukes of Bouillon and Rochefoucault, and the
viscount de Turenne. The princess of Conde engaged
the province of Guienne to declare in his favour ; she
made war, in order to force the court to release him ;
at length the partizans of the prince signed a treaty
with the Spaniards, to labour in concert for his en¬
largement. But all those efforts would, perhaps, have
been ineffectual, if other more powerful resources had
not been employed,
In that gallant and warlike age, every thing was
managed by the passions and intrigues of five or six
women, who possessed the confidence of the leaders of
the state, and of the various parties. The princess of
Mantua, wife to one of the sons of the elector Pala¬
tine, king of Bohemia, principally directed the coun¬
sels in the party of the princes. She found means to
reconcile the duke of Orleans, the coadjutor, and the
malecontents, with the friends of the prince, and united
their efforts against the cardinal. The parliament, on
the other side, loudly demanded the release of the pri¬
soners. All the orders of the state united in soliciting
it, insomuch that the queen was at last prevailed on to
give her consent. At this news, Mazarin was so con¬
founded, that he fled in the disguise of a trooper, and
arrived at the gates of Richlieu, where a body of horse
waited for him. The parliament, informed by the
queen of his flight, thundered forth an arret, by which
he was obliged to leave the kingdom, with his family
and foreign servants, in the space of 15 days, under
the penalty of being exposed to a criminal prosecu¬
tion. The queen desired to follow him with the king;
but the nobles and burghers invested the palais-royal,
and prevented the execution of this project, which
would have kindled a civil war. Mazarin, therefore,
perceiving that it was impossible for the queen to join
him, determined to go himself to restore the princes to
their liberty, and to get the start of the deputies who
were coming to acquaint them with it. On his arrival
at Havre, he informed the princes that they were free;
lie entreated Conde’s friendship ; and was so abject as
to prostrate himself at the feet of him whom he had so
basely oppressed. Conde gave him a polite reception,
and spoke to him in a free and cheerful tone ; but
tired with the mean submissions which the cardinal
lavished upon him, he left him without making any
promise, and set out on his return to Paris, which he
entered as it were in triumph, amidst the acclamations
of all orders of men, and the demonstrations of a most
sincere and general joy.
After this a civil war ensued, in which the prince
of Conde sided with the malecontents. Being pressed
by the king’s army, he retired into the suburbs of
St Anthony, where he behaved with the utmost bra¬
very ; when, the citizens opened their gates and. re-
3 Q 2 ceived
CON [ 492 ] CON
Comic ceived liim in; and a peace ensued soon after. His
|l hatred of the cardinal, however, made him quit Pa-
Comlemeg. rjs> an{| take refuge among the Spaniards, who made
v him generalissimo of their forces 5 and he took Ro-
croi. The peace of the Pyrenees restored him to
his country ; and he again signalized himself at the
head of the king’s armies. Being afflicted with the
gout, he refused the command of the army in 1676,
and retired to Chantilly, where he was as much
esteemed for the virtues of peace, as he had been be¬
fore for his military talents. He died in 1686, at Fon-
tainbleau.
Conde, a town of the French Netherlands, in the
department of the North, with the title of a principali¬
ty, and has 5000 inhabitants. It is one of the strong¬
est towns in this country, and seated near the con¬
fluence of the rivers Haisne and Scheldt. It was ta¬
ken by the allies in 1793, and retaken by the French
in 1794. Its name by the convention was changed to
Nord Libre. E. Long. 3. 39. N. Lat. 50. 27.
Conde, a town of France, in the department of
Calvados, which carries on a considerable trade j seat¬
ed on the river Nereau, 15 miles west of Paris. W.
Long. o. 37. N. Lat. 48. 50.
CONDEMNATION, the act of giving judgment,
passing or pronouncing sentence against a person, who
is thus subjected to some penalty or punishment, either
in respect of life, reputation, or fortune.
CONDENSATION, the act whereby a body is
rendered more dense, compact, and heavy. The word
is commonly applied to the conversion of vapour into
water, by distillation, or naturally in the clouds. The
way in which vapour commonly condenses, is by the
application of some cold substance. On touching it,
the vapour parts with its heat which it had before ab¬
sorbed j and on doing so, it immediately loses the pro¬
per characteristics of vapour, and becomes water. But
though this is the most common and usual way in which
we observe vapour to be condensed, nature certainly pro¬
ceeds after another method j since we often observe the
vapours most plentifully condensed when the weather
is really warmer than at other times. See the articles
Cloud, Evaporation, &c.
CONDENSER, a pneumatic engine, or syringe,
with which a greater quantity of air may be crowded
into a given space ; so that sometimes ten atmospheres,
or ten times as much air as there is at the same time in
the same space, under the usual pressure, may be thrown
in by means of it, and its egress prevented by valves
properly disposed.
It consists of a bras's cylinder, wherein is a moveable
piston j which being drawn out, the air rushes into the
cylinder through a hole provided on purpose j and
when the piston is again forced into the cylinder, the
air is driven into the receiver through an orifice, fur¬
nished with a valve to hinder its getting out.
The receiver or vessel containing the condensed air,
should be made very strong, to bear the force of the air’s
spring thus increased j for which reason they are general¬
ly made of brass j its orifice is fitted with a female screw
to receive the male screw at the end of the condenser.
Condenser of Electricity, an apparatus for collect¬
ing small quantities of the electric fluid. This instru¬
ment was invented by Volta, and is described in the 72d
vol. of the Phil. Trans. See Electricity,
A
CONDILLAC, Etienne Bonnot de, an eminent Con
French writer on metaphysics. See Supplement.
CONDITION, in the civil law, a cause of obliga-
tion stipulated as an article of a treaty or a contract j
or in a donation of a testament, legacy, &c. in which
last case a donee does not lose his donative if it be char¬
ged with any dishonest or impossible conditions.
CONDITIONAL, something not absolute, but
subject to conditions.
Conditional Conjunctions, in Grammar, are those
which serve to make propositions conditional $ as $
unless, provided, &c.
Conditional Propositions, in Logic, such as consist
of two parts connected together by a conditional par¬
ticle.
Conditional Syllogism, a syllogism where the ma¬
jor is a conditional proposition. Thus,
If there is a God, he ought to be worshipped.
But there is a God $
Therefore he ought to be worshipped.
CONDIVICNUM, in Ancient Geography, the ca¬
pital of the Namnetes, in Armorica. Now Nantes in
Brittany, on the Loire, from its name Civitas Namne-
tum. W. Long. I. 30. Lat. 47. 15.
CONDOM, a town of Gascony in France, capital
of the Condomois, with a bishop’s see. It is but a
poor place, and the trade is very small. It is seat¬
ed on the river Gelisse, in E. Long. o. 22. N. Lat.
44-
CONDOR, or Contor. See Vulture, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
CONDORCET, John-Antony Nicholas Cari-
TAT, marquis of, a French writer, and political cha¬
racter of considerable eminence, descended from an an¬
cient family from the principality of Orange, and born
at Ribemont in Picardy, in 1743. He received his
education at the college of Navarre, where he was
distinguished at an early period of life for his strong
attachment to the study of physics and mathematics.
On his entrance into public life, he established a friend¬
ly intercourse with Voltaire, D’Alembert, and other
literary characters, who professed opinions analogous to
his own, and formed a very powerful party among the
French literati, whose united efforts to propagate their
ideas of religion and politics, have been applauded or
condemned, according to the principles of their dif¬
ferent judges. Condorcet first attracted the attention
of the public as a mathematician, obtaining their ap¬
probation for his treatise on integral calculations,
which he composed at the age of 22. In the year
1767, his solution of the problem of the Three Bodies
made its appearance, and in the following year the
first part of his “ Essays on Analysis.” In the year
1769 he was received a member of the Academy of Sci¬
ences, the memoirs of which were greatly enriched by
him with different papers on the most abstruse branches
of mathematical science. His justly merited reputation
pointed him out as a fit person to co-operate with
D’Alembert and Bossut, in assisting M. Turgot, that
celebrated minister and able financier, with arithmeti¬
cal calculations. In the mean time he laboured inde-
fatigably in the study of politics and metaphysics, and
defended, in an anonymous publication, the sect of
philosophers to which he had attached himself, from
an
CON [ 493 ] CON
C Jorcet. an attack made upon them in the Trois Siecles ; and
t. v-—- replied to M. Necker’s essay on Corn Laws. He was
appointed secretary to the Academy of Sciences in the
year 1773, when he employed much of his time in
writing eulogies on such of its deceased members as
Fontenelle had passed over in silence. Like D’Alem¬
bert and some others, Condorcet having united in him¬
self the characters of an elegant writer and a man of
profound research, was admitted into the French aca¬
demy in 1783, when he pronounced an oration on the
influence of philosophy, which was ordered to be print¬
ed. From the time of D’Alembert’s death, which
happened this year, he filled the station of secretary to
that academy, rendering his name conspicuous by the
publication of eulogies on different eminent characters.
His panegyric on D’Alembert, to whom he was most
sincerely attached, is a very elaborate performance, not¬
withstanding of which it is esteemed by judges as a
candid account of the genuine merits of that great phi¬
losopher. His encomium bestowed on that very able
mathematician Euler, furnished him with a favourable
opportunity of giving a circumstantial account of the
specific improvements and inventions conferred on a
peculiar branch of science by the labours of an indivi¬
dual j a talent in a biographical writer which Condor¬
cet appears to have possessed in an eminent degree.
His eulogy on the minister Turgot was read with avi¬
dity, and admired by all those who approved of Tur¬
got’s plans of government and system of finance. In
the year 1787 he gave the public his “ Life of Vol¬
taire,” which was highly elaborate, and replete with
lofty panegyric, on the merits of which mankind were
consequently much divided, according to their senti¬
ments of that author’s philosophy. The last of his bio¬
graphical works was an eulogy on the celebrated
Dr Franklin, published in 1790, all of which will be
read with some degree of prejudice by those who
are inimical to the school of philosophy to which he
belonged.
The memorable event of the French revolution,
which the writings of Condorcet and his associates un¬
questionably accelerated, naturally interested his feel¬
ings, and called forth his exertions. But the conduct
of the political parties and their leaders, during this
tumultuous period, is painted in colours so diametrically
opposite to each other, that a proper estimate of it is
scarcely possible. In this part of Condorcet’s life,
therefore, we must confine ourselves to such facts as
are universally acknowledged, leaving it to our readers
to draw inferences for themselves.
At an early period he employed his talents to pro¬
mote these reforms, (for such they appeared in his
judgment) which were to pave the way to a new
order of things. A work entitled La Bibliotheque
de VHomme Public, to contain an analysis of the
writings of the most eminent politicians, was chiefly
conducted by him, as was also a newspaper called
La Chroniquc de Paris, filled with declamation against
royalty. He had likewise a share in the Journal de
Paris, a paper conducted on similar principles. About
the time when the unfortunate king fled to Varennes
he proposed a paper called Le Republicain, the ob¬
vious intention of which is clearly deducible from its
title. He was an indefatigable member of the Jaco¬
bin club, and spoke frequently, though not forcibly,
in it. He was chosen a representative for Paris when Condorcct.
the constituent assembly was dissolved, and follorved the >
general political course of the Brissotine party. A
plan for public instruction was now to exercise his abi¬
lities, which he finished in two elaborate memoirs, al¬
lowed to contain some exalted and enlarged ideas, but
perhaps rather extensive to be reduced to practice.
He was likewise author of the manifesto addressed to
the European powers by the people of France, on the
approach of a war. He wrote a letter of expostulation
to the king while he was president of the assembly,
which some have considered as by far too severe, and
destitute of that ceremony to which the sovereign was
entitled. When the king was insulted by the popu¬
lace at the Thuilleries, in being offered the red cap, it
is said that he vindicated their proceedings. We are
also informed, that while he was degrading royalty in
this manner, he was secretly soliciting the office of tutor
to the dauphin ; a proposition which the king utterly
rejected, on account of his avowed infidelity. Attempts
have been made to fix upon his character the most
abominable ingratitude, by making him accessory to
the murder of the duke de la Rochefoucault, to whom
he was under the strongest obligations, and from whose
family he had received a most accomplished wife with
a fortune 5 but we sincerely hope that this calumny
entirely originated from the malevolence of party
spirit. When the trial of the king came to be agitated,
Condorcet gave it as his opinion that he could not be
brought to judgment in a legal manner ; yet it must
be confessed that his conduct in regard to the sentence,
was rather of an ambiguous nature, and betrayed that
timidity and want of resolution which formed the most
prominent features of his political career. The judge¬
ment of Madame Roland concerning the moral consti¬
tution of this wonderful man has all the air of impar¬
tiality. “ The genius of Condorcet,” says that lady,
“ is equal to the comprehension of the greatest truths 5
but he has no other characteristic besides fear. It may
be said of his understanding, combined with his person,
that it is a fine essence absorbed in cotton. The timi¬
dity which forms the basis of his character, and which
he displays even in company, does not result from
his frame alone, but seems to be inherent in his soul,
and his talents furnish him with no means of subduing
it. Thus, after having deduced a principle or demon¬
strated a fact in the assembly, he would give a vote
decidedly opposite, overawed by the thunder of the tri¬
bunes, armed with insults, and lavish of menaces. The
properest place for him was the secretaryship of the
academy. Such men should be employed to write,
but never permitted to act.” The Gironde party,
after the execution of the king, employed him to frame
a new constitution, the plan of which was presented to
the convention, and obtained their approbation. It
was not thus esteemed by the people at large 5 and it
has, perhaps not without reason, been considered as
“ a mass of metaphysical absurdities.” During the
violent struggle between the Gironde and Mountain
parties, Condorcet took no decided part with either,
which seems to have been owing to the native timidity
of his mind, and his abhorrence of the state of public
a flairs. He was not comprehended among tbe number
of those who were sacrificed with their leader Brissot j
but having employed his pen against the victorious par¬
ty*
CON [ 494 ] CON
Condorcftt. ty, lie fell under the invincible displeasure of that in-
1—-y'—human, blood-thirsty tyrant Robespierre, who issued
a decree of accusation against him in July 1793’ -^e
found means to effect his escape from the arrest, and
during nine months concealed himself in Paris. Dread¬
ing at length that the tyrant would order a domiciliary
visit for the purpose of discovering the place of his re¬
treat, he passed through the barriers without being ta¬
ken notice of, and went to the house of a person in
whom he could confide, on the plain of Mont-Rouge,
who unfortunately for Condorcet was at that time in
the metropolis. Pie was of consequence under the ne¬
cessity of passing two dreary nights in the open fields,
a melancholy prey to hunger and cold. On the third
day he obtained an interview with his friend, who un¬
happily durst not venture to afford him shelter under
his roof, so that he was once more compelled to wander
in the fields. Worn out at length by hunger and fa¬
tigue, and life being no longer supportable without
sustenance, he applied at a public house for an ome¬
lette, which he devoured with greediness. His cada¬
verous appearance and uncommonly keen appetite,
roused the suspicion of a municipal officer who happen¬
ed to be present, and by whom he was interrogated.
The ambiguity and hesitation which characterized his
answers, made the officer conclude that it would be
proper to apprehend him. He was accordingly con¬
signed to a dungeon, to be next day conducted to
Paris, but his melancholy fate rendered such a measure
unnecessary. He wras found dead in the morning j and
as it was generally understood that he constantly car¬
ried with him a dose of poison, to this cause his melan¬
choly exit was very properly ascribed. Thus termina¬
ted the career of Condorcet on the 28th of March,
1794, who for many years sustained a brilliant and ho¬
nourable reputation in the republic of letters. His man¬
ners were replete with urbanity, and as well qualified
to please in company as could be expected in a man
who was conceived as destitute of a heart. He was
certainly blessed with domestic felicity, and had one
daughter by his wife. Soon after his death appeared his
“ Sketch of a Historical Draught of the Progress of
the Human Mind,” a methodical performance, and
evincing the profoundest research, in which he strongly
recommends his favourite idea of gradually bringing
human nature to a state of perfection, by considering
what man has been, now is, and may be. This treatise
will no doubt be viewed by some as rather fanciful j but
it is clearly the effort of a very superior genius, and
must be peculiarly interesting to the feeling man, when
it is known that it was composed while its author was
in circumstances of danger and distress. The idea
of man’s progressive advancement towards perfection
and happiness, inspired him with consolation under his
complicated misfortunes. Besides the works which we
have enumerated in this sketch of his life, he published
“ Letters to the King of Prussia,” with whom he kept
up a correspondence, as well as with Catherine em¬
press of Russia. A treatise on calculation, and an ele¬
mentary treatise on arithmetic, were left behind him
in manuscript. Although he was an enemy to reveal¬
ed religion, he was certainly a man of virtue and inte¬
grity ; yet all his philosophy could never inspire him
with that heroic fortitude and contempt of death in a
3
just cause, for which the sincere votaries of Christianity Condorce
have ever been conspicuous. II
CONDORMIENTES, in church history, religious ,
sectaries, who take their name from lying all together,
men and women, young and old. They arose in the
13th century, near Cologne, where they are said to
have worshipped an image of Lucifer, and to have re¬
ceived answers and oracles from him.
CONDRIEU, a town of Lyonnois in France, re¬
markable for its excellent wines. It is seated at the
foot of a hill near the river Rhone. E. Long. 4. 33
N. Lat. 45. 28.
CQNDRUSH, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Belgica, originally Germans, dwelling about the
Maese. Their country is now called Condrot<z,y in
the bishopric of Liege, between Luxemburgh and the
Maese.
CONDUCTOR, in Surgery, an instrument which
serves to conduct the knife in the operation of cut¬
ting for the stone, and in laying up sinuses and fistu¬
las.
Conductors, in electrical experiments, are those
bodies that receive and communicate electricity j and
those that repel it are called non-conductors. See E-
LECTRICITY.
CONDUIT, a canal or pipe for the conveyance of
water, or other fluid.
There are several subterraneous conduits through
which the waters pass that form springs. Artificial
conduits for water are made of lead, stone, cast-iron,
potter’s earth, timber, &c.
CONDYLOID and Coronoid processes. See
Anatomy Index.
CONDYLONA, in Medicine, a tubercle, or cal¬
lous eminence, which arises in the folds of the anus ; or
rather a swelling or hardening of the wrinkles of that
part.
CONDYLUS, a name given by anatomists to a
knot in any of the joints, formed by the epiphysis of a
bone.
CONE, in Geometry, a solid figure, having a circle
for its base, and its top terminated in a point or vertex.
See Conic Sections.
Melting Cone, in Chemistry, is a hollow cone form¬
ed of copper or brass, with a handle, and with a flat
bottom adjoining to the apex of the cone, upon which
it is intended to rest. Its use is to receive a mass of
one or more metals melted together, and cast into it.
This mass, when cold, may be easily shaken out of the
vessel, from its figure. Also, if a melted mass consist-
ino- of two or more metals, or other substances not com-
bined together, be poured into this vessel, the conical
figure facilitates the separation of these substances ac¬
cording to their respective densities. The cone ought
to be well heated before the melted mass is thrown
into it j that it may not contain any moisture, which
would occasion a dangerous explosion. It ought also
to be greased internally with tallow, to prevent the ad¬
hesion of the fluid matter.
Cone of Rays, in Optics, includes all the several rays
which fall from any radiant point upon the surface of a
glass.
Cone. See Conus, Botany Index.
Cone-Shell. See Conus, Conchology Index.
CONESSI,
C essi
CON [ 495 ]
CONESSI, a sort of bark of a tree, which grows on any proof,
j the Coromandel coast in the East Indies. It is recom-
ssion. mended in a letter to Dr Monro, in the Medical Es-
~~~J gays, as a specific in diarrhoeas. It is to be finely pul¬
verized, and made into an electuary with syrup of
oranges. The bark should be fresh, and the electuary
new made every day, or second day, otherwise it loses
its austere and grateful bitterness on the palate, and its
proper effects on the intestines.
CONFARREATION, a ceremony among the an¬
cient Romans, used in the marriage of persons whose
children were destined for the honour of the priest¬
hood.
Confarreation was the most sacred of the three
modes of contracting marriage among that people j
and consisted, according to Servius, in this, that the
pontifex maximus and jlamen dialis joined and con¬
tracted the man and woman, by making them eat of the
same cake of salted bread j whence the term fai', sig¬
nifying meal or jlour.
Ulpian says, it consisted in the offering up of some
pure wheaten bread •, rehearsing withal a certain
formula, in presence of ten witnesses. Dionysius Hali-
carnasseus adds, that the husband and wife did eat of
the same wheaten bread, and threw part on the victims.
CONFECTION, in Pharmacy, signifies, in gene¬
ral, any thing prepared wTith sugar •, in particular it
imports something preserved, especially dry substances.
It also signifies a liquid or soft electuary, of which
there are various sorts directed in dispensatories. See
Pharmacy.
CONFECTOR, among the ancient Romans, a sort
of gladiator, hired to fight in the amphitheatre against
beasts j thence also denominated bestiarius.
The confectores were thus called a conficiendis bestiis,
from their despatching and killing beasts.
The Greeks called them q. d. daring,
rash, desperate ; whence the Latins borrowed the ap¬
pellations parabolani and parabolarii. The Christians
were sometimes condemned to this sort of combat.
CONFECTS, a denomination given to fruits, flow¬
ers, herbs, roots, &c. when boiled or prepared with
sugar or honey, to dispose them to keep, and render
them more agreeable to the taste.
CONFEDERACY, in Law, is when two or more
persons combine to do any damage to another, or to
commit any unlawful act. Confederacy is punishable,
though nothing be put in execution : but then it must
have these four incidents ; I. That it be declared by
some matter of prosecution, as by making of bonds or
promises to one another 5 2. That it be malicious, as for
unjust revenge; 3. That it be false, i. e. against the inno¬
cent ; and, lastly, That it be out of court voluntary.
Confederation of the Rhine, a league formed a-
mong the smaller German slates in 1805, under the
protection of France. See Supplement.
CONFERVA. See Botany Index.
CONFESSION, in a civil sense, a declaration or
acknowledgment of some truth, though against the
interest of the party who makes it; whether it be in
a court of justice or out of it. It is a maxim, that
in civil matters, the confession is never to be divided,
but always taken entire. A criminal is never condemned
on his simple confession, without other collateral proofs;
nor is a voluntary extrajudicial confession admitted as
CON
A person is not admitted to accuse him¬
self, according to that rule in law, Non auditur perire
volens. See Arraignment.
Confession, among divines, the verbal acknow¬
ledgment which a Christian makes of his sins.
Among the Jews it was the custom, on the annual
feast of expiation, for the high-priest to make confes¬
sion of sins to God in the name of the whole people:
besides this general confession, the Jews were enjoined,
if their sins were a breach of the first table of the law,
to make confession of them to God; but violations of
the second table were to be acknowledged to their bre¬
thren. The confessions of the primitive Christians
were all voluntax-y, and not imposed on them by any
laws of the church ; yet private confession was not only
allowed, but encouraged.
The Romish church requires confession not only as a
duty, but has advanced it to the dignity of a sacra¬
ment : this confession is made to the priest, and is pri¬
vate and auricular; and the priest is not to reveal
them under pain of the highest punishment.
Confession of Faith, a list of the several articles
of belief in any church.
CONFESSIONAL, or Confessionary, a place in
churches under the great altar, where the bodies of de¬
ceased saints, martyrs, and confessors, were deposited.
This word is also used by the Romanists for a desk in
the church where the confessor takes the confessions of
the penitents.
CONFESSOR, a Christian who has made a solemn
and resolute profession of the faith, and has endured tor¬
ments in its defence. A mere saint is called a confes¬
sor, to distinguish him from the roll of dignified saints ;
such as apostles, martyrs, &c. In ecclesiastical history,
we frequently find the word confessors used for mar¬
tyrs : in after-times it was confined to those who, after
having been tormented by the tyrants, were permitted
to live and die in peace. And at last it was also used
for those who, after having lived a good life, died
under an opinion of sanctity. According to St Cy¬
prian, he who presented himself to torture, or even to
martyrdom, without being called to it, was not called
a confessor but a professor: and if any out of a want of
courage abandoned his country, and became a volun¬
tary exile for the sake of the faith, he was called ex-
terris.
Confessor is also a priest in the Romish church,
who has a power to hear sinners in the sacrament of
penance, and to give them absolution. The church
calls him in Latin confessarins, to distinguish him from
confessor, which is a name consecrated to saints. The
confessors of the kings of France, from the time of
Henry IV. have been constantly Jesuits : before him
the Dominicans and Cordeliers shared the office be¬
tween them. The confessors of the house of Austria
have also, ordinarily, been Dominicans and Cordeliers ;
but the later emperors have all taken Jesuits.
CONFIGURATION, the outward figure which
bounds bodies, and gives them their external appear¬
ance ; being that which, in a great measure, constitutes
the specific difference between bodies.
CONFIRMATION, in a general sense, the act of
ratifying or rendering a title, claim, report, or the like,
more sure and indisputable.
Confirmation, in Law, a conveyance of an estate,
or
Confession
CON [ 496 ] CON
Coafintia- or right in esse, from one man to another, whereby a
voidable estate is made sure and unavoidable, or a par¬
ticular estate is increased, or a possession made perfect.
Confirmation, in Theology, the ceremony of lay¬
ing on of hands, for the conveyance of the Holy
Ghost.
The antiquity of this ceremony is, by all ancient
writers, carried as high as the apostles, and founded
upon their example and practice. In the primitive
church, it used to be given the Christians immediately
after baptism, if the bishop happened to be present at
the solemnity. Among the Greeks, and throughout
the East, it still accompanies baptism $ but the Roma¬
nists make it a distinct independent sacrament. Seven
years is the stated time for confirmation ; however,
they are sometimes confirmed before, and sometimes
after, that age. The person to be confirmed has a
godfather and godmother appointed him, as in baptism.
The order of confirmation in the church of England
does not determine the precise age of the persons to be
confirmed.
CONFISCATION, in Law, the adjudication of
goods or effects to the public treasury j as the bodies
and effects of criminals, traitors, &c.
CONFLAGRATION, the general burning of a
city or other considerable place.
This word is commonly applied to that grand pe¬
riod or catastrophe of our world, when the face of na¬
ture is to be changed by fire, as formerly it was by
water. The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonists, Epi¬
cureans, and Stoics, appear to have had a notion of
the conflagration ; though whence they should derive
it, unless from the sacred books, is difficult to con¬
ceive ; except, perhaps, from the Phoenicians, who
themselves had it from the Jews. Seneca says ex¬
pressly, Tempus advenerit quo sidera siderihus incur¬
rent, et omni flagrante materia uno igne, quicquid nunc
ex deposito lucet, ardebit. This general dissolution the
Stoics call vnev^umt, eepyrosis. Mention of the con¬
flagration is also made in the books of the Sibyls, So¬
phocles, Hystaspes, Ovid, Lucan, &c. Dr Burnet,
after F. Tachard and others, relates that the Siamese
believe that the earth will at last be parched up with
heat; the mountains melted down ; the earth’s whole
surface reduced to a level, and then consumed with
fire. And the Bramins of Siam do not only hold
that the world shall be destroyed by fire, but also
that a new earth shall be made out of the cinders of
the old.
Various are the sentiments of authors on the subject
of the conflagration j the cause whence it is to arise,
and the effects it is to produce. Divines ordinarily
account for it metaphysically; and will have it take
its rise from a miracle, as a fire from heaven. Phi¬
losophers contend for its being produced from natural
causes $ and will have it effected according to the laws
of mechanics. Some think an eruption of the central
fire sufficient for the purpose, and add, that this may
be occasioned several ways, viz. either by having its
intensity increased ; which again may be effected ei¬
ther by being driven into less space by the encroach¬
ments of the superficial cold, or by an increase of the
inflammability of the fuel whereon it is fed 5 or by
having the resistance of the imprisoning earth weak¬
ened, which may happen either from the diminu¬
tion of its matter, by the consumption of its central Conflagra-
parts, or by weakening the cohesion of the constitu- tion
ent part of the mass by the excess or the defect of U .
moisture. Others look for the cause of the conflagra- t Qn “Clu^
tion in the atmosphere, and suppose, that some of the
meteors there engendered in unusual quantities, and
exploded with unusual vehemence, from the concur¬
rence of various circumstances, may effect it, with¬
out seeking any further. The astrologers account for
it from a conjunction of all the planets in the sign
Cancer; as the deluge, say they, was occasioned by
their conjunction in Capricorn. Lastly, others have
recourse to a still more effectual and flaming machine,
and conclude the world is to undergo its conflagration
from the near approach of a comet in its return from
the sun.
CONFLUENT, among physicians, &c. an appella¬
tion given to that kind of Small-pox wherein the pu¬
stules run into each other.
CONFLUENTES, in Ancient Geography, a place
at the confluence of the Rhine and Moselle, supposed
to be one of the 50 forts erected by Drusus on the
Rhine, in Gallia Belgica : Now Coblentz, a town of
Triers. E. Long. 7. 15. N. Lat. 50. 30.
CONFORMATION,‘the particular consistence and
texture of the parts of any body, and their disposition
to compose a whole.
Conformation, in Medicine, that make and con¬
struction of the human body which is peculiar to
every individual. Hence a mala conformatio, signifies
some fault in the first rudiments; whereby a person
comes into the world crooked, or with some of the
viscera or cavities unduly framed or proportioned.
Many are subject to incurable asthmas, from a too
small capacity of the thorax, and the like vicious con¬
formations.
CONFORMITY, in the schools, is the congruency
or relation of agreement between one thing and ano¬
ther ; as between the measure and the thing measured,
the object and the understanding, the thing and the
division thereof, &c.
CONFRONTATION, the act of bringing two
persons in presence of each other, to discover the truth
of some fact which they relate differently.
The word is chiefly used in criminal matters, where
the witnesses are confronted with the accused, the
accused with one another, or the witnesses with one
another.
CONFUCIUS, or Cong-Fu-tse, the most eminent,
and most justly venerated of all the philosophers of
China, a descendant of the imperial family of the dy¬
nasty of Chang, was born in the kingdom of Lu, now
called the province of Chang-tong, about 550 years
before the commencement of the Christian era. This
makes him to have been cotemporary with Pythagoras
and Solon, and prior to the days of Socrates. He gave
striking proofs of very uncommon talents at an early
period of life, which were cultivated and improved
with great assiduity under the tuition of the ablest
masters. Scarcely had he attained to the years ot
maturity, when he evinced himself acquainted with all
the literature of that period, possessing, in particular, a
comprehensive knowledge of the canonical and classical
books, ascribed to the legislators Yao and Chun, which
the Chinese emphatically denominate the Jive volumes
as
*
CON [ 497 ] CON
uci«' as coni'a‘n'rig ^ie essence of all their sciences and mura-
^ lity. Nature had bestowed upon him a most amiable
temper, and his moral deportment was altogether un¬
exceptionable. He acquired a distinguished reputation
for humility, sincerity, the government of his appetites,
a disinterested heart, and a sovereign contempt of
wealth. These rare qualities pointed him out as a pro¬
per person to fill offices of importance and trust in the
government of his country, which he did with honour
to himself and advantage to the empire. These public
stations afforded him excellent opportunities of estima¬
ting with accuracy the true state of morals among his
countrymen, which at this time were dissolute and vi¬
cious in the extreme. He conceived the godlike idea
of attempting a general reformation both in morals and
in politics, and his efforts for some time were attended
with such remarkable effects, that he inspired his coun¬
trymen with a just veneration for his excellent charac¬
ter, and gratitude for his exertions, being raised to a
station of the last importance in the kingdom of Lu.
H ere his counsels and advice were productive of the
most beneficial consequences, in establishing good or¬
der, the due exercise of justice, concord, and decorum,
through the whole kingdom. As it thus very natural¬
ly became an object of admiration, so, likewise, neigh¬
bouring princes beheld with envy its growing happi¬
ness and prosperity *, to destroy which they contrived
a fatal and effectual expedient. The king of Tsi being
apprehensive, that if the king of Lu continued to be
directed by the wisdom and sound policy of Confucius,
he would soon become by far too powerful, sent him
and his nobility a present of the most beautiful young
women, trained up fx-om their infancy in all the arts of
seduction, who were but too successful in plunging the
whole court into voluptuousness and dissipation. This
demolished, in a short time, the whole of that beautiful
fabric which had been erected by Confucius. Finding
it a hopeless attempt to stem the universal torrent of
corruption and depravity, he resolved to exert his ta¬
lents in some distant kingdom, in the philanthropic
cause of moral reformation, in hopes of better success.
But he had the mortification to discover, that vice was
everywhere triumphant, while virtue, that darling of
his soul, was compelled to hide her head. This in¬
duced him to adopt the more humble, although
not the less interesting employment of a teacher of
youth, in which he made great and rapid progress.
About 600 of his scholars wei'e sent into different
parts of the empire, to carry on his favourite work of
moral reformation. Among his disciples, 72 were re¬
markably distinguished above the rest for their mental
acquisitions, and 10 others were deemed superior, even
to these, as having a thorough comprehension of their
master’s whole system. These were divided by him in¬
to four classes : the first being destined to the study of
the moral virtues j the second to the arts of logic and
public speaking ; the third class studied jurisprudence
and the duties of the civil magistrate ; and public speak¬
ing, or the delivery of popular discourses on moral
topics. Indefatigable, however, as his laboui'S were,
the task was too mighty to be accomplished by human
exertions. During his last illness, he declared to his
pupils, that the grief of his mind occasioned by the
profligacy of human nature was become insupportable $
and with a melancholy voice, he exclaimed “ Immense
"Vol. VI. Part II. f
mountain, how art thou fallen ! The grand machine is Confucius,
demolished, and the wise and the virtuous are no more.-y——»
The kings will not follow my maxims : I am no long¬
er useful on earth 5 it is, therefore, time that I should
quit it.” On uttering these words he was seized with
a lethargy, which brought him to the gi’ave. He fi¬
nished his honourable career in the y2d year of his age,
in his native kingdom, to which he had returned in
company with his disciples. It is frequently the fate
of illustrious characters, never to be properly valued
till they are cut oft by death 5 which was the case with
Confucius. The whole empire of China bewailed the
loss of him, and expected innumerable edifices to pex--
petuate his memory, adorned with such honourable in-
sci'iptions as the following: “ To the great master;”
“To the chief doctor;” “To the saint;” “To the
wise king of literature ;” “ To the instructor of em¬
perors and kings.” All his descendants, even to
the present day, enjoy the honourable title and of¬
fice of mandarins, and are exempted from the pay¬
ment of taxes to the emperor, as well as the princes of
the blood. The man who applies for the title of doctor,
must previously have made a present to a mandarin de¬
scended in a direct line from Confucius. The writings
of this great man are esteemed by the Chinese as of
the highest authority, next to the five volumes, to which
he modestly acknowledges himself to have been much
indebted. His works are, I. The Tay-hio; “ The Grand
Science, or School of Adults,” chiefly intended for the
information of princes and magistrates, recommending
the duties of self-government, and uniform obedience
to the laws of right reason. 2. The Chotrg-yong, or
“ Immutable Medium,” in which he shews its impor¬
tance in the government of the passions by a variety of
examples, and points out the method of arriving at per¬
fection in virtue. 3. Lting-yv, or moral and sententious
discoui'ses, which exhibit a lively picture of the opinions,
conduct, and maxims of Confucius and his followers.
4. Meng-tsi, the book of Mencius, which derived its
name from one of that gieat philosopher’s disciples.
These are all deservedly esteemed by the Chinese, be¬
ing held next in importance to the five volumes. 5. The
Hyau-king, or dissertation on the duty and respect
which children owe their parents ; and, 6. The Syan-
hyo, or science fer children, being a judicious collection
of moral sentences from ancient and modern writers.
If a fair and impartial estimate of the religion of
Confucius be made, it cannot, be viewed in any other
light than as uncorrupted deism, although he has some¬
times been accused of befriending and secretly propa¬
gating atheistical sentiments ; but such an accusation is
as cruel as it is unjust, since the purity of his moral pi'e-
cepts, and the acknowledged rectitude of his whole de¬
portment, ai'e utterly incompatible with such a supposi¬
tion. He considered the Tyen or Deity as the purest
and most perfect essence, principle and source of all
things in the boundless universe ; who is absolutely in¬
dependent, omnipotent, the governor and guardian of
every thing ; possessed of infinite wisdom which nothing
can deceive; holy, without partiality, of unlimited
goodness and justice. We are at a loss to form any
adequate opinion of his sentiments x'elative to the soul
of man and the doctrine of futurity, having no well au¬
thenticated data, on which to proceed. His morality is
in many instances superior to that of Greece and Rome,
3 R and
*4
CON [ 458 ] CON
Confucius, anti yields to none upon earth, except to that of divine
Confusion. revelation. The religion of Confucius, notwithstand-
1 jng estimation in which he is held, is adopted as a
model hy none of his countrymen, the literati except¬
ed. Their prevailing system is a medley of pagan
idolatry and the fabulous superstition of the Indians,
introduced into China by Fo, in the first century of the
Christian era.
CONFUSION, in a general sense, is opposed to or¬
der, in a pertubation whereof confusion consists : e. gr.
when things prior in nature do not precede, or posterior
do not follow, &e.
In a logical sense, confusion is opposed to distinctness
or perspicuity: and may happen either in words, as
when miscontrived or misapplied; or in ideas, as when
the idea of any thing presents something along with it,
which does not properly belong to that thing. See
Idea and Notion.
In a physical sense, confusion is a sort of union or
mixture by mere contiguity. Such is that between
fluids of contrary nature, as oil and vinegar, &cc.
Confusion, in Scots Law, is a method of suspending
and extinguishing obligations. For the illustration ot
this, see Law Index.
Confusion of Tongues, in the history of mankind, is
a memorable event, which happened in the one hundred
and first year according to the Hebrew chronology,
and the four hundred and first year by the Samaritan,
after the flood, at the overthrow of Babel ; and which
was providentially brought about in order to facilitate
the dispersion of mankind and the population of the
earth. Until this period there had been one common
language, which formed a bond of union that prevented
the separation of mankind into distinct nations; and
some have supposed, that the tower of Babel was erect¬
ed as a kind of fortress, by which the people intended
to defend themselves against that separation which
Noab had projected.
There has been a considerable difference of opinion
as to the nature of this confusion, and the manner in
which it was effected. Some learned men, prepossessed
with the notion that all the different idioms now in the
world did at first arise from one original language to
which they may be reduced, and that the variety
among them is no more than must naturally have hap¬
pened in a long course of time by the mere separation
of the builders of Babel, have maintained, that there
were no new languages formed at the confusion ; but,
that this event was accomplished by creating a misun¬
derstanding and variance among the builders, without
any immediate influence on their languages. But this
opinion, advanced by Le Clerc, &c. seems to be di¬
rectly contrary to the obvious meaning of the word
rreur, shapha, “ lip,” used by the sacred historian.—
Others have imagined, that this was brought about by
a temporary confusion of their speech, or rather of their
apprehensions, causing them, whilst they continued to¬
gether and spoke the same language, te understand the
words differently. Scaliger is of this opinion. Others,
again, account for this event by the privation of all
language, and by supposing that mankind were under a
necessity of associating together, and of imposing new
names on things by common consent. Another opi¬
nion ascribes the confusion to such an indistinct remem¬
brance of the original language which they spoke be-
3
fore, as made them speak it very differently ; so that Confuskii
by the various inflexions, terminations, and pronun- v—
ciations of divers dialects, they could no more under¬
stand one another, than they who understand Latin
can understand those who speak French, Italian, or
Spanish, though all these languages arise out of it.
This opinion is adopted by Casaubon, and by Bishop
Patrick in his Commentary in loc. and is certainly much
more probable than either of the former. And Mr
Shuckford maintains, that the confusion arose from
small beginnings, by the invention of new words in ei¬
ther of the three families of Shem, Ham, and Japhet,
which might contribute to separate them from one ano¬
ther : and that in each family new differences of speech
might gradually arise, so that each of these families
went on to divide and subdivide among themselves.
Others, again, as Mr Jos. Mede and Dr Wotton, &c.
not satisfied with either of the foregoing methods of
accounting for the diversity of languages among man¬
kind, have recourse to an extraordinary interposition
of divine power, by which new languages were framed
and communicated to different families by a superna¬
tural infusion or inspiration ; which languages have been
the roots and originals from which the several dialects
that are, or have been, or will be spoken, as long as
this earth shall last, have arisen, and to which they
may with ease be reduced. As to the number of lan¬
guages thus introduced, many opinions have been
adopted. If there were no more than there were na¬
tions or heads of nations, then the number would be
seven for Japhet, four for Ham, and five for Shem;
but if there were as many as there were families, which
is the more probable opinion, their number cannot be
certainly assigned. However, the Hebrews fancy they
were 70, because the descendants from the sons of
Noah, enumerated Genesis x. were just so many. Al¬
lowing, then, the languages of the chief families to
have been fundamentally different from each other, the
sub-languages and dialects within each branch would
probably have had a mutual affinity, greater or less as
they settled nearer or farther from each other. But
whichsoever of these hypotheses is adopted, the pri¬
mary object of the confusion at Babel was the separa¬
tion and dispersion of mankind.
Dr Bryant, in the third volume of his Analysis of
Ancient Mythology, has advanced a singular hypothe¬
sis, both with respect to the confusion of tongues and
the dispersion. He supposes that the confusion of lan¬
guage was local and partial, and limited to Babel only.
By STTKnba. Gen. xi. I. and 8. which our translators
render the whole earth, he understands every region;
and by the same words in ver. 9. the whole region or
province. This confusion was occasioned, as he sup¬
poses, by a labial failure ; so that the people could not
articulate. Thus their speech was confounded, but not
altei’ed ; for as soon as they separated, they recovered
their true tenor of pronunciation, and the language of
the earth continued for some ages nearly the same.
The interviews between the Hebrews and other na¬
tions recorded in Scripture, were conducted without
an interpreter ; and he farther observes, that the vari¬
ous languages which subsist at this day retain sufficient
relation to show, that they were once dialects from the •
same matrix, and that their variety was the, effect of
time. See Dispersion.
CONFUTATION,
CON [ 499 ] CON
Co tation CONFUTATION, in Rhetoric, &c. a part of an
| oration, wherein the orator seconds his own arguments
C ?eIa- and strengthens his cause, by refelling and destroying
u | ' . the opposite arguments of the antagonist. This is done
by denying what is apparently false, by detecting some
flaw in the reasoning of the adverse party, by granting
their argument, and showing its invalidity, or retorting
it upon the adversary.
CONGE, in the French law, a license or permis¬
sion, granted by a superior to an inferior, which gives
him a dispensation from some duty to which he was
before obliged. A woman cannot obligate herself
without the congS or license of her husband $ a monk
cannot go out of his convent, without the congt of his
superiors.
Conge' (Relive, in ecclesiastical policy, the king’s
permission royal to a dean and chapter in the time of
a vacancy, to chose a bishop ; or to an abbey, or priory,
of his own foundation, to choose their abbot or prior.
The king of England, as sovereign patron of all
archbishoprics, bishoprics, and other ecclesiastical be¬
nefices, had of ancient time free appointment of all
ecclesiastical dignities, whensoever they chanced to be
void ; investing them first per bacculum et annulum,
and afterwards by his letters patent j and in course of
time he made the election over to others, under cer¬
tain forms and limitations, as that they should at eve¬
ry vacation, before they choose, demand the king’s
Conge d’elire, and after the election crave his royal as¬
sent, &c.
Conge', in Architecture, a mould in form of a
quarter round, or a cavetto, which serves to separate
two members from one another ; such as that which
joins the shaft of the column to the cincture, called al¬
so apophyge.
Conges are also rings or ferrels formerly used in the
extremities of wooden pillars, to keep them from split¬
ting, afterwards imitated in stone-work.
CONGELATION, signifies the passing of any body
from a fluid to a solid state : so that the term is thus
applicable to metals when they resume their solid form
after being heated, to water when it freezes, to wax,
spermaceti, &c. when they become solid after having
been rendered fluid by heat j and in general to all pro¬
cesses, where the whole substance of the fluid is con¬
verted into a solid : but it differs from crystallization $
because in the latter process, though the salt passes
from a fluid to a solid state, a considerable quantity of
liquid is always left, so that the term congelation is
never applied in this case.
The process of congelation in all cases depends upon,
or at least is accompanied with, the emission of heat, as
has been evinced by experiments made not only on wa-
i ter, but on spermaceti, wax, &c.: for in all of these,
w'ay* though the thermometer immersed in them while fluid
^aa C011tinued to descend gradually till a certain period,
ision of was as constantly observed to remain stationary,
. or even to ascend while the congelation went on. See
Chemistry.
It is not known whether all kinds of fluids are natu¬
rally capable of congelation or not ; though we are
4 certain that there are very great differences among
gda- t^em in this respect. The most difficult of all those of
of which the congelation has been actually ascertained is
Silver, quicksilver. This was long thought capable of resist¬
ing any degree of cold whatever •, and it is only within Congela-
a few years that its congelation by artificial means was tion.
known, and still more lately that some climates were
found to be so severe as to congeal this fluid by the cold
of the atmosphere. 3
The congelation of quicksilver was first ascertained Esperi-
by M. Joseph Adam Braun, professor of philosophy atnients of
Petersburg. He had been employed in making ther- ®raun-
mometrical experiments, not with a view to make the
discovery he actually did, but to see how many degrees
of cold he could produce. An excellent opportunity
for this occurred on the 14th of December 1759, when
the mercury stood naturally at —34, which is now
known to be only five or six degrees above its point of
congelation. M. Braun, having determined to avail
himself of this great degree of natural cold, prepared a
freezing mixture of nitric acid and pounded ice, by
means of which his thermometer was reduced to -—69,
Part of the quicksilver had now really congealed $ yet
so far was M. Braun from entertaining any suspicion of
the truth, that he had almost desisted from farther at¬
tempts, being satisfied with having so far exceeded all
the philosophers who went before him. Animated,
however, by the hopes of producing a still greater de¬
gree of cold, he renewed the experiment; but having
expended all his pounded ice, he was obliged to sub¬
stitute snow in its place. With this fresh mixture the
mercury sunk to —100, 240, and 3520. He then
supposed that the thermometer was broken ; but on
taking it out to observe whether it was so or not, he
found the quicksilver fixed, and continuing so for ra
minutes. On repeating the same experiment with an¬
other thermometer which had been graduated no lower
than -—-120, all the mercury sunk into the ball, and
became solid as before, not beginning to reascend till
after a still longer interval of time. Hence the pro¬
fessor concluded that the quicksilver was really frozen,
and prepared for making a decisive experiment. This
was accomplished on the 25th of the same month, and
the bulb of the thermometer broken as soon as the me¬
tal was congealed. The mercury was now converted
into a solid and shining metallic mass, which extended
under the strokes of a pestle, in hardness rather in¬
ferior to lead, and yielding a dull sound like that me¬
tal. Professor iEpinus made similar experiments at
the same time, employing both thermometers and tubes
of a larger bore : in which last he remarked, that the
quicksilver fell sensibly on being frozen, assuming a
concave surface, and likewise that the congealed pieces
sunk in fluid mercury.
The fact being thus established, and fluidity no
longer to be considered as an essential property of
quicksilver, M. Braun communicated an account of
his experiments to the Petersburgh Academy, on the
6th of September 1760 ; of which a large extract was
inserted in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. Hi.
p. 156. Five years afterwards he published another
treatise on the same subject, under the title of Supple¬
ment to his former dissertation. In this he declared,
that, since his former publication, he had never suffer¬
ed any winter to elapse without repeating the experi¬
ment of congealing quicksilver, and never failed of
success when the natural cold was of a sufficient
strength for the purpose. This degree of natural cold
he supposes to be —-io of Fahrenheit, though some
3 It 2 commencement
CON
[ 5oo ]
CON
Cangela- commencement of the congelation might he perceived
tion. when the temperature of the air was as high as + 2.
V'The results of all liis experiments were, that with the
above-mentioned frigorilic mixtures, and once with
rectified spirits and snow, when the natural cold was at
28°, he congealed the quicksilver, and discovered that
it is a real metal w’hich melts with a very small de¬
gree of heat. Not perceiving, however, the necessary
consequence of its great contraction in freezing, he, in
this work, as well as in the former, confounded its
point of congelation with that of its greatest contrac¬
tion in freezing, and thus marked the former a great
deal too low 5 though the point of congelation was very
uncertain according to him, various difficulties having
occurred to his attempts of finding the greatest point
of contraction while freezing.
4 The experiments of M. Braun were not repeated
meifbacdf”* t>y any person till the year 1774, when Mr John Fre¬
deric Blumenbach, then a student of physic at Got¬
tingen, performed them to more advantage than it ap¬
pears M. Braun had ever done. He was encouraged
to make the attempt by the excessive cold of the win¬
ter that year. “ I put (says he), at five in the even¬
ing of January nth, three drachms of quicksilver into
a small sugar-glass, and covered it with a mixture of
snow and Egyptian sal-ammoniac. This mixture was
put loose into the glass, so that the quicksilver lay per¬
fectly free, being only covered with it as by pieces
of ice ■, the whole, together with the glass, weighed
somewhat above an ounce. It was hung out at a
window in such a position as to expose it freely to
the north-west; and two drachms more of sal-ammo¬
niac mixed with the snow on which it stood. The
snow and sal-ammoniac, in the open air, soon froze
into a mass like ice; no sensible change, however, ap¬
peared in the quicksilver that evening; but at one in
the morning it was found frozen solid. It had divided
into two large and four smaller pieces; one of the
former was hemispherical, the other cylindrical, each
seemingly rather above a drachm in weight; the four
small bits might amount to half a scruple. They were
all with their flat side frozen hard to the glass, and no¬
where immediately touched by the mixture ; their co¬
lour was a dull pale white with a bluish cast, like zinc,
very different from the natural appearance of quicksil¬
ver. Next morning, about eleven o’clock, I found that
the larger hemisphere began to melt, perhaps because
it was most exposed to the air, and not so near as the
others to the sal-ammoniac mixture which lay be¬
neath. In this state it resembled an amalgam, sinking
on that side to which the glass was inclined: but with¬
out quitting the surface of the glass, to which it was
yet firmly congealed; the five other pieces had not
yet undergone any alteration, but remained frozen hard.
Toward eight o’clock the cylindrical piece began to
soften in the same manner, and the other four soon
followed. About eight they fell from the surface of
the glass, and divided into many fluid shining globules,
which were soon lost in the interstices of the frozen
mixture, and reunited in part at the bottom, being
now exactly like common quicksilver.” At the time
this experiment was made, the thermometer stood at
■—io° in the open air.
The circumstances attending this experiment are still
unaccountable; for, in the first place, the natural cold Con^ck. '1
was scarcely sufficient, along with that of the artificial tion
mixture, which produces 3 2° more, to have congealed'T’** '
the quicksilver ; which yet appears to have been very
effectually done, by the length of time it continued
solid. 2. It is not easy to account for the length of
time required for congealing the quicksilver in this ex¬
periment, since other frigorific mixtures begin to act
almost immediately; and, 3. There was not at last
even the appearance of action, which consists in a so¬
lution of the snow, and not in its freezing into a mass.
“ The whole experiment (says I)r Blagden*) remains* Phil,
involved in such obscurity, that some persons have sup-
posed the quicksilver itself was not frozen, but onlyTO*'‘“'
covered over with ice; to which opinion, however,
there are great objections. It is worthy of remark,
that Gottingen, though situated in the same latitude as
London, and enjoying a temperate climate in general,
becomes subject at times to a great severity of cold.
This of nth of January 1774 is one instance: I find
others there where the thermometer sunk to —12°,
—i6°,or—190; and at Cattlenburg, a small town about
two German miles distant, to—30°. By watching such
extraordinary occasions, experiments on the freezing
of quicksilver might easily be performed in many
places, where the possibility of them is at present lit¬
tle suspected. The cold observed at Glasgow in 1780
would have been fully sufficient for that purpose.”
In consequence of the publication of M. Braun’s
Experiments, the Iloyal Society desired their late se¬
cretary Dr Maty to make the necessary application to
the Hudson’s Bay Company, in order to repeat the
experiment in that country. Mr Hutchins, who was
then at London, and going out with a commission as
governor of Albany fort, offered to undertake the ex¬
periments, and executed them very completely, freezing
quicksilver twice in the months of January and Fe¬
bruary 1775. The account of his success was read
before the Iloyal Society at the commencement of the
severest winter that had been known for many years in
Europe ; and at this time the experiment was repeated
by two gentlemen of different countries. One was
Dr Lambert Bicker, secretary to the Batavian society
at Rotterdam; who, on the 28th of January 1776, at
eight in the morning, made an experiment to try how
low he could bring the thermometer by artificial cold,
the temperature of the atmosphere being then -|-20»
He could not however, bring it lower than —940, at
which point it stood immoveable; and on breaking
the thermometer, part of the quicksilver was found to
have lost its fluidity, aud was thickened to the [con¬
sistence of an amalgam. It fell out of the tube in
Uttle bits, which bore to be flattened by pressure, with¬
out running into globules like the inner fluid part.
The experiment was repeated next day, when the
thermometer stood at -J-8°, but the mercury would not
then descend below—8o°; and as the thermometer
was not broken, it could not be known whether the
mercury had congealed or not. All that could be in¬
ferred from these experiments therefore was, that the
congealing point of mercury was not below —940 of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. The other who attempt¬
ed the congelation of this fluid was the late Dr An¬
thony Fothergill; but it could not be determined
whether
2
C( ela-
Dr ach’s
dir ions
for iking
lh< cperi-
6
A trains
w n-
m led by
A ^ayeii-
di
CON [50
wlietlier he succeeded or not. An account of his ex¬
periments is inserted in the Philosophical Transactions,
vo!. Ixvi.
No other attempts were made to congeal quicksilver
until the year 1781, when Mr Hutchins resumed the
subject with great success, insomuch that from his ex¬
periments the freezing point of mercury is now almost
as well settled as that of water. Preceding philoso¬
phers, indeed, had not been altogether inattentive to
this subject. Professor Braun himself had taken great
pains to investigate it j but for want of paying the re¬
quisite attention to the diflerence betwixt the contrac¬
tion of the fluid mercury by cold, and that of the
congealing metal by freezing, he could determine no¬
thing certain concerning it. Others declared it as
their opinion, that nothing certain could be determi¬
ned by merely freezing mercury in a thermometer
filled with that fluid. Mr Cavendish and Dr Black
first suggested the proper method of obviating the dif¬
ficulties on this subject. Dr Black, in a letter to Mr
Hutchins, dated October 5. 1779, gave the following
directions for making the experiment with accuracy *.
“ Provide a few wide and short tubes of thin glass,
sealed at one end and open at the other : the wideness
of these tubes may be from half to three quarters of
an inch, and the length of them about three inches.
Put an inch or an inch and a half depth of mercury
into one of these tubes, and plunging the bulb of the
thermometer into the mercury, set the tube with the
mercury and the thermometer in it into a freezing mix¬
ture, which should be made for this purpose in a com¬
mon tumbler or water glass: and, N. B. in making a
freezing mixture with snow and nitric acid, the quan¬
tity of the acid should never be so great as to dissolve
the whole of the snow, and only enough to reduce
it to the consistence of panada. When the mer¬
cury in the wide tube is thus set in the freezing
mixture, it must be stirred gently and frequently with
the bulb of the thermometer; and if the cold be suf¬
ficiently strong, it will congeal by becoming thick
like an amalgam. As soon as this is observed, the
thermometer should be examined without lifting it out
of the congealing mercury; and I have no doubt that
in every experiment thus made, with the same mer¬
cury, the instrument will always point to the same
degree, provided it has been made and graduated with
accuracy.
The apparatus recommended by Mr Cavendish, and
which Mr Hutchins made use of, consisted of a small
mercurial thermometer, the bulb of which reaches
about 24- inches below the scale, and was inclosed in
a glass cylinder swelled at the bottom into a ball, which
when used was filled with quicksilver, so that the bulb
of the thermometer was entirely covered with it. If
this cylinder be immersed in a freezing mixture till
great part of the quicksilver in it is frozen, it is evi¬
dent that the degree shown at that time by the inclo¬
sed thermometer is the precise point at which mercury
freezes; for as in this case the ball of the thermome¬
ter must be surrounded for some time with quicksilver,
part of which is actually frozen, it seems impossible
that the thermometer should be sensibly above that
point; and while any of the quicksilver in the cylin¬
der remains fluid, it is impossible that it should sink
i ] CON
sensibly below it. The diameter of the bulb of the
thermometer was rather less than a quarter of an inch,
that of the swelled part of the cylinder two-thirds ; '
and as it was easy to keep the thermometer constantly
in the middle of the cylinder, the thickness of quick¬
silver betwixt it and the glass could never be much less
than the sixth part of an inch. The bulb of the ther¬
mometer was purposely made as small as it conveniently
could, in order to leave a sufficient space between it and
the cylinder, without making the swelled part larger
than necessary, which would have caused more difficulty
in freezing the mercury in it.
The first experiment with this apparatus was made
on the 15th of December 1781 ; the thermometer had
stood the evening before at —180. A bottle of spiri-
tus nitri fortis was put on the house-top, in order to
cool it to the same temperature. The thermome¬
ters made use of had been hung up in the open air for
three weeks to compare their scales. On the morn¬
ing of the experiment they were about 230 below
O. In making it, the thermometer of the appa¬
ratus was suspended in the bulb of the cylinder by
means of some red worsted wound about the upper
part of its stem, to a sufficient thickness to fill the up¬
per part of its orifice j and a space of near half an
inch was left empty between the quicksilver and worst¬
ed.
The apparatus was placed in the open air, on the top
of the fort, with only a few deer skins sewed together
for a shelter j the snow lay 18 inches deep on the
works, and the apparatus was stuck into the snow, in
order to bring it the sooner to the temperature of the
air. The instruments were afterwards placed in three
fresh freezing mixtures, in hopes of being able by their
means to produce a greater degree of cold, but with¬
out effect; nor was any greater cold produced by add¬
ing more nitric acid. The mercury, however, was very
completely frozen, that in the thermometer descending
to 448°. On plunging the mercury into the freezing
mixture, it descended in less than one minute to 40°
below o.
The second experiment was made the day follow¬
ing; and the same quantity of quicksilver employed
that had been used in the former. As too small a
quantity of the freezing mixture, however, had been
originally made, it was necessary to add more during
the operation of congelation ; by which means the
spirit of nitre, in pouring it upon the snow, sometimes
touched the bulb of the thermometer, and instantly
raised it much higher; nor did the mercury ever de¬
scend below 206°, which was not half as far as it had
done the day before, though the temperature of the
atmosphere had been this day at -—340 before the
commencement of the operation. That in the appa¬
ratus, however, sunk to —95®. The apparatus was
taken out of the mixture for half a minute, in order
to examine whether the mercury was perfectly congeal¬
ed or not, and during that time, it showed no sign of
liquefaction.
The third experiment was made the same day, and
with the freezing mixture used in the last. By it the
point of congelation was determined to be not below
40°.
The fourth experiment was made January 7th 1782.;
and
Congela¬
tion.
CON
[ 502 ]
CON
ami in it he observed, that the mercury in the appara¬
tus thermometer, after standing at 42 and 41 §- tor a
considerable time, fell to 77, not gradually, but at once
as a weight falls.
In the fifth experiment the weather was excessively
severe, so that it ought to have frozen the metal in the
open air j but this did not then happen.
At the time of making the sixth experiment, the
quicksilver in the open air stood at 44 below O j and
Mr Hutchins resolved to make use of this opportunity
to observe how far it was possible to make it descend
by means of cold, observing the degrees at the same
time with a spirit thermometer made by Nairne and
Blount, with which he had been furnished by the
lioyal Society in 1774. In this, however, he did not
succeed; for the mercury never fell below 43^> nor
the standard 48. It stood at 27^ at the beginning
of the experiment. The reason ol this was supposed
to be, that the atmosphere was too cold for making
this kind of experiment, by reason of its freezing the
thread of quicksilver in the stem of the thermometer,
so that it became incapable of contraction along with
that in the bulb. In other experiments, though the
metal in the bulb became solid, yet that in the stem
always remained fluid ; and thus was enabled to sub¬
side to a great degree by the diminution of bulk in
the solid mercury. That this was really the case, ap¬
peared from the quicksilver falling at once from —86
to —434, when the cold of the freezing mixture di¬
minished, and the temperature of the air becoming
about the same time somewhat milder, melted the con¬
gealed part in the stem, which thus had liberty to de¬
scend to that point.
In this experiment, also, the mixtures were made in
double quantity to those of the former ; these being
only in common tumblers, but the mixtures for this
experiment in pint basons. It was observed that they
liquefied faster than in other experiments. He had usu¬
ally made them of the consistence of pap ; but though
he added snow at different times, it had very little
effect in augmenting the cold, but rather decreased it.
The congealed piece of the metal fell to the bottom, as
might naturally have been expected from its great con¬
traction in becoming solid.
From this experiment Mr Hutchins concluded, that
the nearer the temperature of the atmosphere ap¬
proached to the congealing point of mercury (so that
a great degree of cold might be communicated to the
bulb of a thermometer, and yet the quicksilver in the
tube remain fluid), he might make the experiment of
ascertaining the greatest contraction of mercury to
more advantage. With this view he made another ex¬
periment, when the temperature of some of his ther¬
mometers stood as low as —370: and after an hour’s
attendance, he perceived the mercury had fallen to
1367 ; but the thermometer unluckily was broken,
and its bulb thrown away with the mixture. Profes¬
sor Braun had likewise observed, that his thermometers
were always broken when the mercury descended be¬
low 600.
The eighth experiment was made with a view to
try whether quicksilver would congeal when in con¬
tact with the freezing mixture. For this purpose, he
did not use the apparatus provided for other experi¬
ments, but filled a gallipot made of flint stone (as be- Congdi
ing thinner than the common sort), containing about tion.
an ounce, half full of quicksilver, into which he in- 't*-
serted a mercurial thermometer, employing another
as an index. Thus he hoped to determine exactly
when the quicksilver was congealed, as he had free
access to it at all times, which was not the case when
it was inclosed in the cylindrical glass, the worsted
wound round the tube of the thermometer to exclude
the air being equally effectual in excluding any instru¬
ment from being introduced to touch the quicksilver.
He then made a kind of skewer, with a flat blunt
point, of dried cedar-wood, on account of its lightness,
which he found would remain in the gelatinous freez¬
ing mixture at any depth he chose ; but, when insert¬
ed into the quicksilver, the great difference betwixt
the specific gravity of it and that ponderous fluid, made
it always rebound upward ; and by the degree of resist¬
ance, he could always know whether it proceeded from
fluid or solid metal. At this time, however, the ex¬
periment did not SHeceed ; but, at another trial, hav¬
ing employed about -Jths of a pound of metal, and let
it remain a considerable time immersed in the same
mixture which had just now been supposed to fail, he
found that part of it was congealed ; and, on pouring
off the fluid part, no less than two-thirds remained fixed
at the bottom. 7
The last experiment which has been published con- Mr Care
cerning the congelation of quicksilver by means ofdls,lsest
snow, is that of Mr Cavendish, and of which he givespen
an account in the Phil. Transact, vol. Ixxiii. p. 325.
Here, speaking of the cold of freezing mixtures, he
says, “ There is the utmost reason to think that Mr
Hutchins would have obtained a greater degree of cold
by using a weaker nitrous acid than he did. I found
(says he) by adding snow gradually to some of this
acid, that the addition of a small quantity produced
heat instead of cold ; and it was not until so much was
added as to increase the heat Irom 28 to 51°, that
the addition of more snow began to produce cold; the
quantity of snow required for this purpose being pret¬
ty exactly one quarter of the weight ot the spirit of
nitre ; and the heat of the snow, and air of the room,
as well as of the acid, being 28°. The reason of this
is, that a great deal of heat is produced by mixing wa¬
ter with spirit of nitre ; and the stronger the spirit is,
the greater is the heat produced. Now it appears,
from this experiment, that before the acid was di¬
luted, the beat produced by its union with the wa¬
ter formed from the melting snow, was greater than
the cold produced by the same ; and it was not un¬
til it was diluted by the addition of one quarter of
its weight of that substance, that the cold, generated
by the latter cause, began to exceed the heat generated
by the former. From what has been said, it is evi¬
dent, that a freezing mixture made with undiluted
acid will not begin to generate cold until so much
snow is dissolved as to increase its heat from 28 to 510;
so that no greater cold will be produced than would
be obtained by mixing the diluted acid heated to 510
with snow of the heat' of 28°. This method of add¬
ing snow gradually is much the best way I know ot
finding what strength it ought to be of, in order to
produce the greatest effect possible. By means of this
acid
CON [ 503 ] CON
;]a. acid diluted in the above-mentioned proportion, I froze
n. quicksilver in the thermometer called G (a) by Mr
'’“-'Hutchins, on the 26th of February 1782. I did not
indeed break the thermometer to examine the state of
the quicksilver therein j for, as it sunk to—no0, it
certainly must have been in part frozen ; but immedi¬
ately took it out, and put the spirit thermometer in
its room, in order to find the cold of the mixture. It
sunk only to —30° ; but by making allowance of the
spirit in the tube being not so cold as that in the ball,
it appears, that if it had not been for this cause, it
would have sunk to ,—350 (b) ; which is 6° below the
point of freezing, and is within one degree of as great
a cold as that produced by Mr Hutchins.
“ In this experiment the thermometer G sunk very
rapidly ; and as far as I could perceive, without stop¬
ping at any intermediate point till it came to the above-
mentioned degree of —no0, where it stuck. The
materials used in making the mixture were previously
cooled, by means of salt and snow, to near o 5 and
the temperature of the air was between 20° and 250 ;
the quantity of acid used was 4^ oz. $ and the glass in
which the mixture was made, was surrounded with
wool, and placed in a wooden box, to prevent its losing
its cold so fast as it would otherwise have done. Some
weeks before this I made a freezing mixture with some
spirit of nitre much stronger than that used in the fore¬
going experiment, though not quite so strong as the un¬
diluted acid, in which the cold was less intense by 4J0.
It is true the temper of the air was much less cold,
namely 350, but the spirit of nitre was at least as cold,
and the snow not much less so.
“ The cold produced by mixing sulphuric acid, pro¬
perly diluted with snow, is not so great as that produ¬
ced by spirit\of nitre, though it does not differ from it
by so much as 8°; for a freezing mixture prepared
with diluted sulphuric acid, whose specific gravity, at
6o° of heat, was 1,5642, sunk in the thermometer G
to —37°, the experiment being tried at the same time,
and with the same precautions as the foregoing. It
was previously found, by adding snow gradually to some
of this acid, as was done by the nitrous acid, that it was
a little, but not much stronger, than it ought to be, in
order to produce the greatest effect.”1
The experiment made by Mr Walker, in which he
congealed quicksilver by means of nitric acid and
Glauber’s salt, without any snow, concludes the histo¬
ry of the artificial congelation of mercury. It now
remains that we say something of the congelation of it
by the natural cold of the atmosphere.
’|a- JDr Blagden, from whose paper in the Philosophical
tio f Transactions, vol. Ixxiii. this account is taken, observes,
P diver that it was not till near the year 1730 that thermo-
R taral meters were made with any degree of accuracy j and
in four or five years after this, the first observations
were made which prove the freezing of quicksilver.
On the accession of the empress Anne Ivanouna to the
throne of Russia, three professors of the Imperial
academy were chosen to explore and describe the dif¬
ferent parts of her Asiatic dominions, and to inquire Congela-
into the communication betwixt Asia and America. tion.
These were Dr John George Gmelin, in the depart- —y——
ment of natural history and chemistry j M. Gerard
Frederic Muller, as general historiographer; and M.
Louis de I’Isle de la Croyere, for the department of
astronomy ; draughtsmen and other proper assistants
being appointed to attend them. They departed from
Petersburg!! in 1733 ; and such as survived did not re¬
turn till ten years after. The thermometrical observa¬
tions were communicated by Professor Gmelin, who
first published them in his Flora Sibirica, and after¬
wards more fully in the Journal of his Travels. An ab¬
stract of them was likewise inserted in the Petersburgh
Commentaries for the years 1756 and 1765, taken,
after the professor’s death, from his original dispatches
in possession of the Imperial academy.
In the winter of 1734 and J735, Mr Gmelin being
at Yeneseisk in 58^-° N. Lat. and 920 E. Long, from
Greenwich, first observed such a descent of the mercu¬
ry, as we know must have been attended with conge- 9
lation. “ Here (says he) we first experienced the Excessive
truth of what various travellers have related with re-co'^of^i_
spect to the extreme cold of Siberia; for, about the^”**
middle of December, such severe weather set in, as we
were sure had never been known in our time at Pe¬
tersburgh. The air seemed as if it were frozen, with
the appearance of a fog, which did not suffer the smoke
to ascend as it issued from the chimneys. Birds
fell down out of the air as dead, and froze immediate¬
ly, unless they were brought into a warm room.
Whenever the door was opened, a fog suddenly form¬
ed round it. During the day, short as it was, parhe¬
lia and haloes round the sun were frequently seen ; and
in the night mock-moons, and haloes about the moon.
Finally, our thermometer, not subject to the same de¬
ception as the senses, left us no doubt of the excessive
cold ; for the quicksilver in it was reduced on the 15th
of January O. S. to —120° of Fahrenheit’s scale, low¬
er than it had ever hitherto ^been observed in na¬
ture.”
The next instance of congelation happened at Ya¬
kutsk, in N. Lat. 62. and E. Long. 130. The wea¬
ther here was unusually mild for the climate, yet the
thennometer fell to —720; and one person informed
the professor by a note, that the mercury in his baro¬
meter was frozen. He hastened immediately to his
house to behold such a surprising phenomenon ; but
though he was witness to the fact, the prejudice he en¬
tertained against the possibility of the congelation,
would not allow him to believe it. “ Not feeling
(says he), by the way, the same effects of cold as I
had experienced at other times in less distances, I be¬
gan before my arrival, to entertain suspicions about
the congelation of his quicksilver. In fact, I saw that
it did not continue in one column, but was divided in
different places as into little cylinders, which ap¬
peared frozen ; and, in some of these divisions between
the quicksilver, I perceived like the appearance of frozen
moisture.
(a) This was a small mercurial thermometer, made by Nairne and Blount, on an Ivory scale, divided at
every five degrees, and reaching from 2150 above to 250° below the cipher.
(b) This is to be understood of a spirit thermometer, whose —29°r=:4G* of Fahrenheit’s mercurial.
CON [ 504 ] CON
Consela- moisture. It immediately occurred to me, that the
ton. mercury might have been cleaned with vinegar and
ga]^ an{j noj. sufficiently dried. The person acknow¬
ledged it had been purified in that manner. This same
quicksilver, taken out of the barometer, and well
dried, would not freeze again, though exposed to a
much greater degree of cold, as shown by the thermo-
meter.”
Another set of observations, in the course of which
the mercury frequently congealed, were made by Pro¬
fessor Gmelin at Kirenga fort in 57I- N. Lat. 108.
E. Long. ; his thermometer, at different times, stand¬
ing at—1080, —86°, —ioo°, —1130, and many 0-
ther intermediate degrees. This happened in the win¬
ter of 1737 and 1738. On the 27th of November,
after the thermometer had been standing for two days
at —46°, he found it sunk at noon to 1080. Suspect¬
ing some mistake, after he had noted down the obser¬
vation, he instantly ran back, and found it at 102°;
but ascending with such rapidity, that in the space of
half an hour it had risen to —190. This phenome¬
non, which appeared so surprising, undoubtedly de¬
pended on the expansion of the mercury frozen in the
bulb of the thermometer, and which now melting,
forced upwards the small thread in the stem.
A similar appearance was observed at the same fort
a few days after •, and on the 29th of December, O. S.
he found the mercury, which had been standing at
—40° in the morning, sunk to —ioo° at four in the
afternoon. At this time, he says, he “ saw some air
in the thermometer separating the quicksilver for the
space of about six degrees.” He had taken notice of
a similar appearance the preceding evening, excepting
that the 02V, as he supposed it to be, was not then col¬
lected into one place, but lay scattered in several.
These appearances undoubtedly proceeded from a
congelation of the mercury, though the prejudice en¬
tertained against the possibility of this phenomenon
would not allow the professor even to inquire into it at
all. Several other observations were made j some of
which were lost, and the rest contain no farther infor¬
mation.
The second instance where a natural congelation of
mercury has certainly been observed, is recorded in the
Transactions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm. The weather, in January 1760, was re¬
markably cold in Lapland ; so that on the 5th of that
month, the thermometers fell to —76°, —128°, or
lower on the 23d and following days they fell to
—.58°, —790, —920, and below —238° entirely into
the ball. This was observed at Tornea, Sombio, Ja-
kasierf, and Utsioki, four places in Lapland, situated
between the 65th and 78th degrees of N. Lat. and the
21st and 28th of E. Long. The person who observed
them was M. Andrew Hellant, who makes the fol¬
lowing remarks, of themselves sufficient to show
that the quicksilver was frozen. “ During the cold
weather at Sombio (says he), as it was clear sunshine,
though scarcely the whole body of the sun appeared
above the low woods that covered our horizon, I took
a thermometer which was hanging before in the shade,
and exposed it to the rising sun about eleven in the
forenoon, to see whether when that luminary was so
low, it would have any effect upon the instrument.
But to my great surprise, upon looking at it about
noon, I found that the mercury had entirely subsided Congela. I
into the ball, though it w7as standing as high as —6x° tion.
at 11 o’clock, and the scale reached down to 238° be- '■"""■'r-' ■
low o.” On bringing the instrument near a fire, it
presently rose to its usual height; and the reason of its
subsiding before was its being somewhat warmed by
the rays of the sun ; which, feeble as they were, had
yet sufficient power to melt the small thread of con¬
gealed mercury in the stem of the thermometer, and
allow it to subside along with the rest. Mr Hellant,
however, so little understood the nature of this pheno¬
menon, that he frequently attempted to repeat it by
bringing the thermometer near a fire, when the cold
was only a few degrees below the freezing point of
water, but could never succeed until it fell to —58°,
or lower, that is, until the cold was sufficiently intense
to congeal the metal. The only seeming difficulty in j
his whole account is, that when the mercury had sub¬
sided entirely into the ball of the thermometer, a va¬
cuum or empty spot appeared, which run round the
cavity like an air bubble, on turning the instrument;
but this proceeded from a partial liquefaction of the
mercury, which must necessarily melt first on the out¬
side, and thus exhibit the appearance just mentioned. I0
The most remarkable congelation of mercury, which Remark-
has ever yet been observed, was that related by Dr able expe
Peter Simon Pallas, who had been sent bv the empress™1’^
of Russia, with some other gentlemen, on an expedition |
similar to that of Dr Gmelin. He did not, however,
spend the winters in which he was in Siberia in the
coldest parts of that country; that is, about the middle
of the northern part. Twice indeed he resided at
Krasnoyarsk, in N. Lat. 56^°, E. Long. 930 ; where,
in the year 1772, he had an opportunity of observing
the phenomenon we speak of. “ The winter (says
he) set in early this year, and was felt with uncommon
severity in December. On the 6th and 7th of that
month happened the greatest cold I have ever experi¬
enced in Siberia ; the air was calm at (he time, and
seemingly thickened ; so that, though the sky was in
other respects clear, the sun appeared as through a
fog. I had only one small thermometer left, in which
the scale went no low7er than —70 ; and on the 6th in
the morning, I remarked that the quicksilver in it
sunk into the ball, except some small columns which
stuck fast in the tube. When the ball of the thermo¬
meter, as it hung in the open air, w7as warmed by
being touched with the finger, the quicksilver rose;
and it could plainly be seen that the solid columns
stuck and resisted a good while, and were at length
pushed upward with a sort of violence. In the mean
time I placed upon the gallery, on the north side of ' | 1
my house, about a quarter of a pound of clean and dry
quicksilver in an open bowl. Writhin an hour I found
the edges and surface of it frozen solid, and some mi¬
nutes afterwards the whole was condensed by the natu¬
ral cold into a soft mass very much like tin. W7hile
the inner part was still fluid, the frozen surface exhi¬
bited a great variety of branched wrinkles ; but in ge¬
neral it remained pretty smooth in freezing, as did al¬
so a larger quantity which I afterwards exposed to the
cold. The congealed mercury was more flexible than
lead; and on being bent short, it was found more
brittle than tin ; and when hammered out thin, it
seemed somewhat granulated. If the hammer had not
been
CON
[ 5°5 ]
CON
i igela- been perfectly cooled, the quicksilver melted away un¬
ion- der it in drops ; and the same thing happened when
*■ v the metal was touched with the finger, by which also
the finger was immediately benumbed. In our warm
room it thawed on its surface gradually, by drops, like
wax on the fire, and did not melt all at one. When
the frozen mass was broken to pieces in the cold, the
fragments adhered to each other and to the bowl on
which they lay. Although the frost seemed to abate
a little towards night, yet the congealed quicksilver
remained unaltered, and the experiment with the ther¬
mometer could still be repeated. On the 7th of De¬
cember, I had an opportunity of making the same ob¬
servations all day j but some hours after sunset, a north¬
west wind sprung up, which raised the thermometer to
—46°, when the mass of quicksilver began to melt.”
1 , Eller- In the beginning of the year 1780 M. Von Elter-
lt 3 erpe-lein, of Vytegra, a town of Russia, in N. Lat. 61. E.
r' nt< Long. 36. froze quicksilver by natural cold ; of which
lie gives the following account. “ On the 4th of Ja¬
nuary 1780, the cold having increased to —34* that
evening at Vytegra, I exposed to the open air three
ounces of very pure quicksilver in a china tea-cup, co¬
vered with paper pierced full of holes. Next day, at
eight in the morning, I found it solid, and looking
like a piece of cast lead, with a considerable depression
in the middle. On attempting to loosen it in the cup,
my knife raised shavings from it as if it had been lead,
which remained sticking up ; and at length the metal
separated from the bottom of the cup in one mass. I
then took it in my hand to try if it would bend $ it
was stiff like glue, and broke into two pieces ; but my
fingers immediately lost all feeling, and could scarcely
be restored in an hour and a half by rubbing with
snow. At eight o’clock a thermometer, made by Mr
Lexmann of the academy, stood at —570 j by half
after nine it was risen to —40° $ and then the two
pieces of mercury which lay in the cup had lost so
much of their hardness, that they could no longer be
broken, or cut into shavings, but resembled a thick
amalgam, which, though it became fluid when pressed
by the fingers, immediately afterwards resumed the
consistence of pap. With the thermometer at —390,
the quicksilver became fluid. The cold was never less
on the ^th than —28°, and by nine in the evening it
had increased again to —33°-”
An instance of the natural congelation of quicksilver
also occurred in Jemtland, one of the provinces of
Sweden, on the 1st of January 1782 *, and, lastly, on
the 26th of the same month, Mr Hutchins observed
*3 the same effect of the cold at Hudson’s hay. “ The
* 2ri- subject of this curious phenomenon (says he), was
j ^/^quicksilver put into a common two-ounce phial, and
corked. The phial was about a third part full, and
had constantly been standing by the thermometer for a
month past. At eight o’clock this morning I observ¬
ed it was frozen rather more than a quarter of an inch
thick round the sides and bottom of the phial, the
middle part continuing fluid. As this was a certain
method of finding the point of congelation, I intro¬
duced a mercurial and a spirit thermometer into the
fluid part, after breaking off the top of the phial, and
they rose directly and became stationary $ the former
at 40° or 4o4°> the latter at 2^°, both below the ci¬
pher. Having taken these out, I put in two others,
Vol. VI. Part II. f
G a mercurial one formerly described, and a spirit Con gel a-
thermometer ; the former of which became stationary
at 40° and the latter at 30°. I then decanted the fluid v
quicksilver, to examine the internal surface of the fro¬
zen metal, which proved very uneven, with many ra¬
dii going across, some of which resembled pin-heads.
Urgent business called me away an hour. On my re¬
turn I found a small portion only had liquefied in my
absence. I then broke the phial entirely, and with a
hammer repeatedly struck the quicksilver. It beat out
flat, yielded a deadish sound, and became fluid in less
than a minute afterwards. It may be worth remark¬
ing, that the quicksilver in one of the thermometers,
which had sunk to very near 500, and was then at
444, very readily ran up and down the tube by eleva¬
ting either end of the instrument.”
These are all the well authenticated accounts of the
congelation of mercury by the natural cold of the at¬
mosphere. Some others have been published $ hut be¬
ing either less important, or not so well authenticated,
we forbear to mention them. A very considerable con¬
firmation is obtained from the above history, of the
theory of congelation delivered by Dr Black, and
which is fully explained under the article Chemistry.
On Mr Hutchins’s experiments, and on congelation
in general, Mr Cavendish makes many valuable re¬
marks ; the substance of which is as follows : 2I
“ If a vessel of water, with a thermometer in it, be Mr Caven.
exposed to the cold, the thermometer will sink several dish’s re¬
degrees below the freezing point, especially if the ^va. nia1^3 0,1
ter be covered up so as to be defended from the vvind,tjon
and care taken not to agitate it; and then on drop¬
ping in a bit of ice, or on mere agitation, spiculee of
ice shoot suddenly through the water, and the inclo¬
sed thermometer rises quickly to the freezing point,
where it remains stationary.” In a note he says, that
though in conformity to the common opinion he has
allowed that “ mere agitation may set the water a
freezing, yet some experiments lately made by Dr
Blagden seem to show, that it has not much, if any,
effect of that kind, otherwise than by bringing the
water in coutact with some substance colder than it¬
self. Though in general also the ice shoots rapidly,
and the inclosed thermometer rises very quick*; yet
he once observed it to rise very slowly, taking up not
less than half a minute, before it ascended to the
freezing point; but in this experiment the water was
cooled not more than one or two degrees below freez¬
ing, and it should seem, that the more the water is
cooled below the freezing point, the more rapidly the
ice shoots and the inclosed thermometer rises.”
Mr Cavendish then observes, that from the fore¬
going experiments we learn that water is capable of be¬
ing cooled considerably below the freezing point, with¬
out any congelation taking place; and that, as soon as
by any means a small part of it is made to freeze, the
ice spreads rapidly through the whole of the wa¬
ter. The cause of this rise of the thermometer is,
that all, or almost all bodies, by changing from a fluid
to a solid state, or from the state of an elastic to that
of an unelastic fluid, generate heat; and that cold is
produced by the contrary process. Thus all the cir¬
cumstances of the phenomenon may be perfectly well
explained; for, as soon as any part of the water free¬
zes, heat will be generated thereby in consequence of
3 S the
CON [ 506 ] CON
Congda- the above-mentioned law, so that the new formed ice
t i-'on- and remaining water will be warmed, and must con-
v_'' tinue to receive heat by the freezing of fresh portions
of water, till it is heated exactly to the freezing point,
unless the water could become quite solid before a suf¬
ficient quantity of heat was generated to raise it to
that point, which is not the case : and it is evident,
that it cannot be heated above the freezing point : for
as soon as it comes thereto, no more water will freeze,
and consequently no more heat will be generated.—
The reason why the ice spreads all over the water, in¬
stead of forming a solid lump in one part, is, that, as
soon as any small portion of ice is formed, the water
in contact with it will be so much warmed as to be pre¬
vented from freezing, but the water at a little distance
from it will still be below the freezing point, and will
consequently begin to freeze.
“ Were it not for this generation of heat, the whole
of any quantity of water would freeze as soon as the
process of congelation began ; and in like manner the
cold is generated by the melting of ice ; which is the
cause of the long time required to thaw ice and snow.
It was formerly found that, by adding snow to warm
water, and stirring it about until all was melted, the
water was as much cooled as it would have been by
the addition of the same quantity of water rather
more than 150° colder than the snow $ or, in other
words, somewhat more than 1500 of cold are genera¬
ted by the thawing of the snow j and there is great
reason to believe that just as much heat is produced by
the freezing of water. The cold generated in the ex¬
periment just mentioned was the same whether ice or
22 snow was used.
On metals « ^ thermometer kept in melted tin or lead till
^inning to become solid, remains perfectly stationary from
turn solid, tbe time the metal begins to harden round the sides of
the pot till it is entirely solid: but it cannot be per¬
ceived at all to sink below that point, and rise up to
it when the metal begins to harden. It is not unlike¬
ly, however, that the great difference of heat between
the air and melted metal might prevent this effect from
taking place $ so that though it was not perceived in
these experiments, it is not unlikely that those metals,
as well as water and quicksilver, may bear being cool¬
ed a little below the freezing or hardening point (for
the hardening of melted metals, and freezing of water,
seems exactly the same process), without beginning to
lose their fluidity.
“ The experiments of Mr Hutchins prove, that
quicksilver contracts or diminishes in bulk by freezing,
and that the very low degrees to which the thermo¬
meters have been made to sink, is owing to this con¬
traction, and not to the cold having been in any de¬
gree equal to that shown by the thermometer. In the
fourth experiment, one of the thermometers sunk to
450°, though it appeared by the spirit thermome¬
ters, that the cold of the mixture was not more than
flve or six degrees below the point of freezing quick- Congda.
silver. In the first experiment also, it sunk to 448° tion.
at a time when the cold of the mixture was only 2^°
below that point 5 so that it appears that the contrac¬
tion of quicksilver by freezing must be at least equal
to its expansion by 404 degrees of heat (c). This,
however, is not the whole contraction that it suffers j
for it appears, by an extract fiom a meteorological
journal kept by Mr Hutchins at Albany fort, that his
thermometer once sunk to 490° below o j though it
was known by a spirit thermometer that the cold
scarcely exceeded the point of freezing quicksilver.
There are two experiments also of Professor Braun,
in which the thermometer sunk to 544 and 556° be¬
low o j which is the greatest descent he ever ob¬
served without the ball being cracked. It is not
indeed known how cold his mixtures were ; but from
Mr Hutchins’s experiments, there is great reason to
think they could not be many degrees below 40°. If
so, the contraction which quicksilver suffers in freezing,
is not much less than its expansion by 500° or 510° of
heat, that is, almost ^'-g- of its whole bulk ; and in all
probability is never much more than that, though it
is probable that this contraction is not always deter¬
minate; for a considerable variation may frequently
be observed in the specific gravity of the same piece of
metal cast different times over j and almost all cast me¬
tals become heavier by hammering. Mr Cavendish ob-Vanahon
served, that on casting the same piece of tin three of the der
times over, its density varied from 7.252 to 7.294, shyofnie
though there was great reason to think that no hoi-tals
lows were left in it, and that only a small part of this-^gDtCa‘
difference could proceed from the error of the experi¬
ment. This variation of density is as much as is pro¬
duced in quicksilver by an alteration of 66° of heat:
and it is not unlikely, that the descent of a thermome¬
ter, on account of the contraction of the quicksilver in
its ball by freezing, may vary as much in different
trials, though the whole mass of quicksilver is frozen
without any vacuities. ^
“ The cold produced by mixing spirit of nitre Of freezii
with snow' is entirely owing to the melting of the>r xtures
snow. Now, in all probability, there is a certain de¬
gree of cold, in which the spirit of nitre, so far from
dissolving snow, will yield part of its own water, and
suffer that to freeze, as is the case with solutions of
common salt 5 so that if the cold of the materials be¬
fore mixing is equal to this, no additional cold can be
produced. If the cold of the materials is less, some
increase of cold will be produced j but the total cold
will be less than in the former case, since the additional
cold cannot be generated without some of the snow
being dissolved, and thereby weakening the acid, and
making it less able to dissolve more snow $ but yet the
less the cold of the materials is, the greater will be the
additional cold produced. This is conformable to Mr
Hutchins’s experiments; for in the fifth experiment,
in
(c) The numbers here given are those shown by tbe thermometer without any correction ; but if a proper al¬
lowance is made for the error of that instrument, it will appear, that the true contraction was 250 less than here
set down j and from the manner in which thermometers have been usually adjusted, it is likely that in the 5th
experiment of Mr Hutchins, as well as in those of Professor Braun, the contraction might equally fall short of
that by observation. ' .
CON C 507 ] CON
< i<rela- in winch the cold of the materials was —40 , the ad-
ion. ditional cold produced Was only 50. In the first expe-
w v—^ riment, in which the cold of the materials was only
—230, an addition of at least 190 of cold was obtained;
and by mixing some of the same spirit of nitre with
snow in this climate, when the heat of the materials
was +26°, Mr Cavendish was able to sink the thermo¬
meter to —29°, so that an addition of 55 degrees of
cold was produced.
“ It is remarkable that in none of Mr Hutchins’s
experiments the cold of the mixture was more than 6°
of the spirit thermometer below the freezing point of
quicksilver ; which is so little, that it might incline
one to think that the spirit of nitre used by him was
weak. This, however, was not the case : as its spe¬
cific gravity at 58° of heat was 1,4923. It was able
to dissolve  its weight of marble, and contained
1.42
very little mixture of sulphuric or muriatic acid ; as
well as could be judged from an examination of it, it
was as little phlogisticated as acid of that strength
usually is.”
C ?eja. Acids, especially those of the mineral kind, power-
t of sul- fully resist congelation. There is, however, a peculi-
p icacid. arity with regard to that of vitriol. M. Chaptal, a
foreign chemist, observed, that it condensed by the
cold of the atmosphere, and the crystals began to melt
only at -j-700 of his thermometer; which, if Reau¬
mur’s, corresponds to about 470 of Fahrenheit. The
crystals were unctuous from the melting acid, and they
felt warmer than the neighbouring bodies : the form
was that of a prism of six sides, flatted and terminated
by a pyramid of six sides ; but the pyramid appeared
on one end only ; on the other, the crystal was lost in
the general mass. The pyramid resulted from an as¬
semblage of six isosceles triangles; the oil, when the
crystal was melted, was of a yellowish black; on re¬
distilling it in a proper apparatus, no peculiar gas came
over. M. Chaptal repeated his experiments with the
highly concentrated acid, but found that it did not
freeze; that the density of the acid which he thought
froze most easily was to the oil, of the usual strength
for sale, as from 63 and 65 to 66; and the necessary
degree of cold about 19° of Fahrenheit. Sulphuric
acid once melted will not crystallize again with the
same degree of cold.
In the experiments which had been made on the
freezing of sulphuric acid, Mr Cavendish found some
uncertainty in determining the point at which it
freezes most readily; neither could he determine
whether the cold n* cessary for congelation does not
increase without any limitation in proportion to the
strength of the acid. A new set of experiments
] , was therefore made by Mr Keir to determine this
< eri. point. He had observed, after a severe frost at the
•its. end of the year 1784 and beginning of 1785, that
some sulphuric acid, contained in a corked phial, had
congealed, while other bottles containing the same,
some stronger and some weaker, retained their fluidity.
As the congelation was naturally imputed to the ex¬
tremity of the cold, he wras afterwards surprised to
find, when the frost ceased, that the acid remained
congealed for many days, when the temperature of the
atmosphere was sometimes above 40° of Fahrenheit;
and when the congealed acid was brought into a warm
room on purpose to thaw it, a thermometer placed in Congela-
contact with it during its thawing, continued stationary lion,
at 450. Hence he concluded, that the freezing and l—-'y——
thawing point of this acid was nearly at 450 ; and ac¬
cordingly, on exposing the liquor which had been thaw¬
ed to the air at the temperature of 30°, the congelation
again took place in a few hours. From the circum¬
stance of other parcels of the same acid, but of different
strengths, remaining fluid, though they had been ex¬
posed to a much greater degree of cold, he was led to
believe that there must be some certain strength at which
the acid is more disposed to congeal than at any other.
The specific gravity of the acid which had frozen was
to that of water nearly as 1800 to IOOO, and that of
the stronger acid which had not frozen was as 1846
to 1000, which is the common density of that usually
sold in England ; and there was not the least differ¬
ence, excepting in point of strength, between the acid
which had frozen and that which had not; Mr Keir
having taken the acid some weeks before with his own
hands from the bottle which contained the latter, and
diluted it with water, till it became of the specific gra¬
vity of 1800.
To render the experiment complete, Mr Keir im¬
mersed several acids of different strengths in melting-
snow, instead of exposing them to the air; the tem¬
perature of which was variable, whereas that of melt¬
ing snow was certain and invariable. Those which
would not freeze in melting snow were afterwards im¬
mersed in a mixture of common salt, snow, and wa¬
ter ; the temperature of which, though not so con¬
stant and determinate as that of melting snow, gene¬
rally remained for several hours at 180, and was some¬
times several degrees lower. The intention of adding
water to the snow and salt was to lessen the intensity
of the cold of this mixture, and to render it more
permanent than if the snow and salt alone were mixed.
The acids which had frozen in melting snow were five
in number ; which being thawed and brought to the
temperature of 6o°, were found on examination to
have the following specific gravities, viz. 1^6, I7^4>
1780, 1778, 1775- Those which had not congealed
with the melting snow, but which did so with the
mixture of snow, salt, and water, were found, when
brought to the temperature of 6o°, to he of the fol¬
lowing specific gravities, viz. 1814, 1810, 1804, I794»
1790, 1770, 1759, 1750. Those which remained,
and would freeze neither in melting snow nor in the
mixture of snow, salt, and water, were of the gra¬
vities 1864, 1839, 1815, 1745, 1720, 1700, 1610,
1551. From the first of these it appears, that the
medium density of the acids which froze with the na¬
tural cold was 1780 ; and from the second, that at the
densities of 1790 and 1770 the acid had been incapa¬
ble of freezing with that degree of cold. Hence it
follows, that 1780 is nearly the degree of strength of
easiest freezing, and that an increase or diminution oi
that density equal to ,^th of the whole, renders the
acid incapable of freezing with the cold of melting
snow, though this cold is something above the freezing
point of the most congealable acid. From the second
it appears, that by applying a more intense cold, viz.
that produced by a mixture of snow, salt, and water,
the limits of the densities of acids capable of congela¬
tion were extended to about -j-Ta^h above or below the
3 S 2 point
CON [5»8] CON
Conirda- point of easiest freezing: ami tliere seems little reason
lion. to doubt, that, by greater augmentations of cold, these
' limits may be further extended ; but in what ratio these
augmentations and extensions proceed, cannot be de¬
termined, without many observations made in difierent
temperatures.
“ But (says Mr Keir) though it is probable that
the most concentrated acids may be frozen, provided
the cold be sufficiently intense, yet there seems reason
to believe, that some of the congelations which have
been observed in highly concentrated acids, have been
' effected in consequence of the density oi these acids
being reduced nearly to the point of easy freezing by
their having absorbed moisture from the air : for the
Duke d’Ayen and M. de Morveau exposed their acids
to the air in cups or open vessels $ and the latter even
acquaints us, that on examining the specific, gravity
of the acid which had frozen, he found it to that of
water as 129 to 74-, which density being less than
that ol easiest freezing, proves that the acid he em¬
ployed, and which he had previously concentrated,
had been actually weakened during the experiment.
I have several times exposed concentrated sulphuric
acid in open vessels in frosty weather j and I have
sometimes, but not always, observed a congelation to
take place. Upon separating the congealed part, and
on examining the specific gravity of the latter after it
had thawed, I found that it had been reduced to the
point of easiest freezing. When" the congealed acid
was kept longer exposed it gradually thawed, even
when the cold of the air increased j the reason of which
is not to be imputed to the heat produced by the
moisture of the air mixing with the acid, but principal¬
ly to the diminution below the point of easiest freez¬
ing, which was occasioned by the continued absorption
of moisture from the air, and which rendered the acid
incapable of continuing frozen without a great increase
of cold.
“ It appears, then, that the concentration of M. de
Morveau’s acid, at the time of its congelation, from
which circumstance Mr Cavendish infers generally that
sulphuric acid freezes more easily as it is more dense,
is not a true premise : and that therefore the inference,
though justly deduced, is invalid. On the contrary,
there seems every reason to believe, that as the density
of the acids increases beyond the point of easiest freez¬
ing, the facility of the congelation diminishes; at
least to as great density as we have ever been able to
obtain sulphuric acid : for if it were possible to divest
it entirely of water, it would probably assume a solid
form in any temperature of the air.
“ The crystallization of sulphuric acid is more or
less distinct, according to the slowness of the forma¬
tion of the crystals and other favourable circumstances.
Sometimes they are very large, distinctly shaped, and
hard. Their shape is like those of the common mi¬
neral alkali and selenite spar, but with angles difierent
in dimensions from either of these. They are solid,
consisting of ten faces •, of which the two largest are
equal, parallel, and opposite to each other j and are
oblique-angled parallelograms or rhomboids, whose
angles are, as near as could be measured, of 105 and
75 degrees. Between these rhomboidal faces are
placed eight of the form of trapeziums y and thus each
2
crystal may be supposed to be compounded of two Conge!
equal and similar frustums of pyramids joined together tiou
by their rhomboidal bases. They always sunk in the
fluid acid to the bottom of the vessel, which showed
that their density was increased by congelation. It
was attempted to determine their specific gravity by
adding to this fluid some concentrated acid, which
should make them float in the liquor, the examination
of whose specific gravity should ascertain that of the
floating crystals j but they were found to sink even in
the most concentrated acid, and were consequently den.-
ser. Some of the congealable acid previously brought
to the freezing temperature was then poured into a
graduated narrow cylindrical glass, up to a certain
mark, which indicated a space equal to that occupied
by 200 grains of water. The glass was placed in a
mixture of snow, salt, and water ; and when the acid
was frozen, a mark was made on the part of the glass
to which it had sunk. Having thawed the acid and
emptied the glass, it was filled with water to the mark
to which it had sunk by freezing: and it was then found
that 15 grains more of water were required to raise it
to the mark expressing 200 grains j which shows, that
the diminution of bulk sustained by the acid in freezing
had been equal to —— of the whole. Computing from
I3>3
this datum, we should estimate the specific gravity ef
the congealed acid to have been 1924 j but as it evi¬
dently contained a great number of bubbles, its real
specific gravity must have been considerably greater
than the above calculation, and cannot easily be deter¬
mined on account of these bubbles. By way of com¬
parison, Mr Keir observed the alteration of bulk which
water contained in the same cylindrical vessel would
suffer by freezing: and found that its expansion was
equal to about -j^lh of its bulk. The water had been
previously boiled, but nevertheless contained a great
number of air bubbles; so that in this respect there is
a considerable difference between the congelations of
water and sulphuric acid ; though perhaps it may
arise principally from the hubbies of elastic fluid
being in greater proportion in the one than the
other.
“ Greater cold is produced by mixing snow or
pounded ice with the congealed than with the fluid
sulphuric acid, though the quantity is not yet deter¬
mined. The greatest cold produced by Mr M‘Nab at
Hudson’s Bay, was effected by mixing snow with a
sulphuric acid which had been previously congealed j
and to this circumstance Mr Cavendish imputes the
intensity of the cold, as the liqqefaction both of the
acid and the snow had concurred in producing the
same- effect; while in mixing fluid acids with snow,
the thawing of the snow is probably the only produc¬
tive cause.
“ To compare the times requisite for the liquefac¬
tions of ice and of congealed sulphuric acid, two equal
and similar glasses were filled, one with the congealable
sulphuric acid, the other with water; and after having
immersed them in a freezing mixture, till both were
congealed and reduced to the temperature of 28°, the
glasses were withdrawn, wiped dry, and placed in a
room where the thermometer stood at 62°. The ice
thawed in 40 minutes, and the acid in 95 $ at the
CON [ 509 ] CON
(jL .Ia. end of which time the thermometer, which stood near
tkll:. the glasses, had risen to 64°. Hence it appears that
“iV —J tj)e congealed acid requires more than twice the time
for its liquefaction that ice does, though it cannot
thence he fairly inferred, that the cold generated by
the liquefaction of the ice and of congealed acid are in
I the above proportions of the times, from the following
considerations, viz. that as, during the liquefaction of
the ice, its temperature remains stationary at 32°, and
during the liquefaction of the acid, its temperature re¬
mains about 440 or 450, it appears, that the ice being
considerably colder than the acid, will take, the heat
from the contiguous air much faster. By this experi¬
ment, however, we know that a considerable quantity
of cold is generated by the liquefaction of the acid
and hence it appears probable, that in producing cold
artificially, by mixing snow with acids in very cold
temperatures, it would probably be useful to employ a
sulphuric acid of the proper density for congelation,
and to freeze it previously to its mixture with snow. It
must not, however, be imagined, that the cold gene¬
rated by the mixture of these two frozen substances is
nearly equal to the sums of the colds generated by the
separate liquefactions of the congealed acid and ice,
when singly exposed to a thawing temperature ; for the
mixture resulting from the liquefaction, consisting of
sulphuric acid and the water of the snow, appears from
the generation of heat which occurs from the mixture
of these ingredients in a fluid state, to be subject to dif¬
ferent laws than those which rule either of the ingre¬
dients separately.
I “ The sulphuric acid, like water and other fluids, is
capable of retaining its fluidity when cooled consider¬
ably below its freezing point. A phial containing
some congealable sulphuric acid being placed in a mix¬
ture of salt, snow, and water, a thermometer was soon
afterwards immersed in it while the acid was yet fluid,
on which it quickly sunk from 50 to 290. On moving
the thermometer in the fluid, to make it acquire the
exact temperature, the mercury was observed suddenly
to rise } and on looking at the acid, numberless small
crystals were observed floating in it, which had been
suddenly formed. The degree to which the mercury
then rose was 46J0 } and at another time, while the
acid was freezing, it stood at 450.,,
From these experiments our author infers, £ 1. That
sulphuric acid has a point of easiest Ireezing, and
that this is when the specific gravity is to that of water
as 1780 to 1000. 2. That the greater or less dispo¬
sition to congelation does not depend on any other-
circumstance than the strength of the acid. 3* That
the freezing and thawing degree of the most congeal¬
able acid is about 45*°^ Fahrenheit’s scale.. It is,
however, to be observed, that this degree is inferred
from the temperature indicated by the thermometers
immersed in the freezing and thawing acids ; but the
congelation of the fluid acid could never be accom¬
plished without exposing it to a greater degree of cold,
either by exposing it to the air in frosty weather 01 to
the cold of melting snow. 4- I-'i^-6 wnter, this acid
possesses the property of retaining its fluidity when
cooled several degrees below the freezing point 5 and
of rising suddenly to it when its congelation is pro¬
moted by agitation, or by contact even with a warmer
thermometer. 5. That, like water and other congeal- Congda-
able fluids, sulphuric acid generates cold by its lique- tion
faction, and heat during its congelation, though the l!
quantity of this heat and cold remains to be deter- C°nScsi‘on’
mined by future experiments. 6. That the acid, by
congelation, when the circumstances for distinct cry¬
stallization are favourable, assumes a regular cry¬
stalline form, a considerable solidity and hardness,
and a density much greater than it possessed in its fluid
state.”
Besides this species of congelation, sulphuric acid
is subject to another, probably the same described by
Basil Valentine and some of the other chemists. This
is effected in the ordinary temperature of the air, even
in summer •, and according to Mr Keir*, is peculiar * p/ji/.
to that species of sulphuric acid which is distilled from Trans.
green vitriol, and which is possessed of a smoking qua-vo’- 3xxv*b
lity in a high degree j “ for not only the authors (says*1' 2
Mr Keir) by whom this congelation has been obser¬
ved, have given this description of the acid employed,
but also the late experiments of Mr Dolfuss, seem to
show that this smoking quality is essential to the phe¬
nomenon : for neither the acid obtained from vitriol,
when deprived by rectification of its smoking quality,
nor the English sulphuric acid, which is known to be
obtained by burning sulphur, and which does not smoke,
were found by his trials to be susceptible of this species
of congelation. It may, however, be worth the at¬
tention of those chemists who have an opportunity of
seeing this icy sulphuric acid, as it is called, to observe
more accurately than has yet been done, the freezing
temperature and the density of the congealable acids j
and to examine whether the density of this smoking
acid also is connected with the glacial property. It
seems also further deserving of investigation, whether
there be not some analogy between the congelation of
the smoking sulphuric acid and the very curious cry¬
stallization which Dr Priestley observed in a concen¬
trated sulphuric acid saturated with nitrous acid va¬
pours ; and whether this smoking quality does not pro¬
ceed from some marine or other volatile acid, which
may be contained in the martial vitriol whence the sul¬
phuric acid is obtained.”
Mr Keir also observes, that M. Cornatter has effect¬
ed the crystallization of sulphuric acid, by distilling it
with nitrous acid and charcoal j and we can add from
our own experience, that a crystallization instantly
takes place on allowing the fumes of the nitrous and
sulphuric acids to mix together; and this, whether the
former be procured from martial vitriol or sulphur, and
whether it be in a phlogisticated state or not, concen¬
tration in both acids is here the only requisite. See
Cold, Supplement.
CONGER, in Zoology. See Murtena, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
CONGERIES, a Latin word, sometimes used in
our language for a collection or heap ol several parti¬
cles of bodies united into one mass or aggregate.
CONGESTION, in Medicine, a mass or collection
of humours, crowded together and hardened in any
part of the body, and there forming a preternatural
tumour. . .
Congestion is effected by little and little ; in which
it differs from defluxion, which is more sudden.
J CONGIARIUM,
cle,
CON [ 5io ]
Congiarium CONGIARIUM, CONGtARV, among medalists, a 1484
II gift or donative represented on a medal. The word
. comes from the Latin congius; because the first pre¬
sents made to the people of Rome consisted in wine
and oil, which were measured out to them in congii.
The congiary was properly a present made by the em¬
perors to the people of Rome. Those made to the
soldiers were not called congiaries, but donatives. The
legend on medals representing cowgznr/e.y, is
or Liberalitas. Tiberius gave a congiary of three hun¬
dred pieces of money to each citizen : Caligula twice
gave three hundred sesterces a-head : Nero, whose con-
giaries are the first that we find represented on medals,
gave four hundred.
CONGIUS, a liquid measure of the ancient Romans,
containing the eighth part of the amphora, or the fourth
of the urna, or six sextarii. The congins in English
measure contains 2,070,676 solid inches ; that is, seven
pints, 4,942 solid inches.
CONGLOBATE gland. See Anatomy Index.
CONGLOMERATE gland. See Anatomy
Index.
Conglomerate Flowers, are those growing on a
branching foot-stalk, to which they are irregularly
but closely connected. This mode of inflorescence, as
Linnaeus terms it, is opposed to that in which the
flowers are irregularly and loosely supported on their
* See Pam-f00t_sta]ks, hence termed a diffuse panicle*. The
term is exemplified in several of the grasses, particu¬
larly in some species of the poa, fescue grass, and
agrostis.
CONGLUTINATION, the glueing or fastening
any two bodies together by the intromission of a third,
whose parts are unctuous and tenacious, in the nature
of glue. See Glue.
CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
north by the river Zair, or Zarah, which divides it
from Loango ; on the south by the river Danda, which
separates it from Angola j on the east by the king¬
doms of Fungono and Metamba, and the burnt moun¬
tains of the sun, those of crystal or salt-petre, and sil¬
ver, or (according to Anthony Cavazzi, a travel¬
ler into those parts) by the mountains of Coanza, Ber-
bela, and the great mountains of Chilandria or Aqui-
londa j and on the west by that part of the Atlantic
ocean called the Ethiopia sea, or the sea of Congo. Ac¬
cording to these limits, Congo Proper extends about
three degrees from north to south j lying between the
line and 180 S. Lat. 5 but widens in its breadth inland,
by the course of the river Zair, which runs winding
above two degrees more to the north. Its length from
east to west is very uncertain, as no observations have
been taken of the exact situation of those mountains
2 which bound it.
History un- The history of this kingdom affords but few interest-
fabulous8111 ing PartIcul.ars* Before its discovery by the Portu¬
guese, the history is altogether uncertain and fabulous,
as the inhabitants were totally unacquainted with let¬
ters and learning. So little were they acquainted with
chronology, that it is said they did not even distinguish
between day and night; much less could they compute
their time by moons or years •, and therefore could re-
member past transactions only by saying they happen¬
ed in such a king’s reign.
The country was discovered by the Portuguese in
3
Extent.
CON
The discoverer tvas named Diego Cam, an ex- Con. J
pert and bold soldier. He was very well received by v—y /
the natives, and sent some of his men with presents 3«
to the king; but they being detained by unexpected
accidents beyond the promised time of their return, vjie(f ]
Cam was obliged to sail away without them, and tookthePoJ
with him four young Congoese, as hostages for thegnese. 1
safety of his countrymen. These he taught the Por¬
tuguese language, in which they made such progress
that King John was highly pleased, and sent them back
next year to Congo with rich presents; charging them
to exhort their monarch, in his name, to become a con¬
vert to the Christian religion, and to permit it to be
propagated through his dominions. A firm alliance
was concluded between the two monarchs, which con¬
tinues to this day, though not without some interrup¬
tions, to which the Portuguese themselves have given
occasion more than the natives.
Any particular account we have of this kingdom, Cavaz 1
rests almost entirely on the credit of Anthony Cavaz-accom [I
zi, the traveller above mentioned. He was a capu-^0US° 1
chin friar, a native of the duchy of Modena, and was
sent missionary into those parts de propaganda fide, in
the year 1654, and arrived at Congo the same year.
During his stay there, his zeal to make converts made
him travel through all these different kingdoms ; and
the credit he gained, as well as the great employments
he was entrusted with, gave him an opportunity of in¬
forming himself of every thing relating to them with
great exactness. The extent and situation, however,
he could not possibly ascertain, for want of instruments;
nor hath this defect been since supplied. AccordingExtein
to him the dominions of Congo extended a great dealsenedpn
further eastward and southwards before the introduc-1*16'n f
tion of Christianity than afterwards; a great number
of the states that were under the Congoese monarchs,ty.
either as subjects, or tributary, having withdrawn
their allegiance out of dislike to them on that account.
Not content with opposing the officers and troops
that came annually to raise the tribute imposed by
the king, they made such frequent and powerful in¬
cursions into his dominions, that they obliged him to
draw his forces nearer the centre of Congo to pre¬
vent an invasion ; by which means the kingdom, from
an extent of 600 leagues, was reduced to less than one
half.
Congo Proper being situated within the torrid zone, Recoil
is liable to excessive heats : as it lies on the southernthec!«i
side of the equinoctial, the seasons are of course oppo-an(*s'
site to ours. They reckon only two principal seasons,sons‘
the summer and winter; the former begins in October,
and continues till February or March ; during which
time the sun’s rays dart with such force, that the at¬
mosphere appears to an European to be in a flame.
The excessive heat, however, is mitigated by the equal
length of the days and nights, as well as by the winds,
breezes, rains, and dews. The winter takes up the
other part of the year ; and is said by the natives to
be proportionably cold, though to an European it would
appear hot. These two seasons they divide into six
lesser ones, viz. Massanza, Neasu, Ecundi, Quitombo,
Quibiso, and Quibangala.
Massanza begins with the month of October, which
is the beginning of their spring. The rains begin to
fall at that time, and continue during the next two,
and
CON [5
and sometimes three, months. When this happens, the
low lands are commonly overflowed with extraordinary
floods, and all their corn carried ofi’. A disaster of
this kind is commonly followed by a famine ; for the
lazy inhabitants take no care to lay up any provisions,
although such misfortunes happen very frequently.
This first season they reckon commences at the time
the plants begin to spring.
The second season, Neasu, begins about the end of
January, when the produce of their lands has arrived
at its full height, and wants but a few days of being ri¬
pened for harvest. This first crop is no sooner gather¬
ed in, than they sow their fields afresh, their land com¬
monly yielding them two harvests.
The third and fourth seasons, called Ecundi and
Quitombo, are frequently blended together towards
the middle of March, when the more gentle rains
begin to fall, and continue till the month of
May. These two seasons are distinguished by the
greater or lesser quantity of rain that falls during that
interval. During the rest of the time, the air is
either very clear, hot, and dry j or the clouds being
overcharged with electric matter, burst out into the
most terrible thunders and lightnings, without yield¬
ing the least drop of rain, though they seem loaded
with it.
The two last, viz. the Quibiso and Quibangala,
make up their short winter, which consists not in frost
or snow, but in dry blasting winds, which strip the
earth of all its verdure, till the next Massanza begins
to restore them to their former bloom.
They now divide their year into twelve lunar
months, and begin it in September. They have also
weeks consisting of four days only, the last of which
is their sabbath ; and on it they religiously abstain from
every kind of work. This practice, the compilers of
the Universal History conjecture to have arisen from
the extreme laziness for which this people, and indeed
all the African nations, are so remarkable. To this
shameful indolence also is to be ascribed the little pro¬
duce they reap from their lands, while the Portuguese
settled among them, who are at more pains in the cul¬
tivation of theirs, enjoy all manner of plenty. The
natives, however, had rather run the risk of the most
terrible famines, than be at the tenth part of the labour
they see the Portuguese take. They seem to think it
below them to use any other exercises than those of
dancing, leaping, hunting, shooting, &c. $ the rest of
their time they spend in smoking, and downright idle¬
ness, committing the laborious part of their household
affairs to their slaves, or, in want of them, to their
wives. Nothing is more common than to see these poor
creatures toiling in the fields and woods with a child
tied to their backs, and fainting under their excessive
labour and heavy burdens, or (which is still worse)
hunger and thirst. What is yet more surprisingly
shameful is, that though they have plenty of domestic
animals, which they might easily make use of for cul¬
tivating their grounds, and for other laborious services,
and though they see the Portuguese do it every day to
great advantage; yet they will rather see their tender
females sink under their toil and labour, than be at the
trouble of breeding up any of these useful creatures to
their assistance.
The ground produces variety of grain, but no corn
[i ] CON
or rice except what is cultivated by the Portuguese. Congo.
Their maize, or Indian wheat, grows very strong, and v " ''
is well laden. This being well ground, they make into , s
bread, or boil with water into a kind of pap. Of this
they have four kinds ; one of which, resembling what Congo,
we call French wheat, is produced in plenty, and makes
some amends for the want of industry in the people.
They cultivate also a variety of the pease and bean
kind $ but what they chiefly live upon, as most suit¬
able to tbeir lazy disposition, is a kind of nut like our
filberts, which fall to the ground of themselves, and
are to be found everywhere •, every nut that falls to
the ground producing a new shrub next year. They
have scarcely any fruit trees but what have been brought
hither by the Portuguese. They have various sorts
of palm-trees, useful both by their fruit, leaves, and
their juice, which is easily converted into wine j also
by affording a kind of oil with which they dress their
victuals, though the Europeans use it only to burn in
their lamps. They have also a vast number of plants
and shrubs, which it would be impossible to describe
or enumerate. Wheat is the only thing that the
ground will not produce. It pushes forth, indeed, the:
straw and the ear; the former of which grows high
enough, we are told, to hide a man on horseback, but
the latter is empty, without one grain fit for use.
Father Labat, however, who had lived a considerable
time in some of the American islands, where he had
observed the same thing, tells us, that he had the cu¬
riosity to examine those ears more carefully, and had
found some few grains $ and that, having sowed them
afresh, they produced very long ears full of large
heavy grain. Whence he conjectures, that if the Por¬
tuguese had tried the same experiment in their African
settlements, it might perhaps have been attended with
the same success. 9
In the low lands the grass grows so high, rank, Hazardous
and thick, that it becomes one of the most dangerous dwelling,
receptacles for wild beasts, serpents, and other venom¬
ous insects: on this account travelling is exceeding¬
ly hazardous, as there are few beaten roads in the
whole country, and travellers are obliged to march
over it, through vast plains, in continual danger of be¬
ing devoured or stung to death j to say nothing of
the manifold diseases produced by the unwholesome
dews with which the grass is covered during some part
of the day. The only method of guarding against all
these evils effectually, is by setting fire to the grass
in the hot weather, when it is quite parched by the
heat of the sun : but even this cannot be done with¬
out the greatest danger ; because both the wild beasts
and venomous reptiles being roused out of their
places of retirement, will fly furiously at those who
happen to be in the way. In this case there is no pos¬
sibility of escaping, but by climbing up the highest
trees, or defending one’s self with fire arms or other
weapons. In such emergencies, the natives have a
much better chance than the Europeans; the former
being able to climb trees with surprising swiftness j
while the latter must be assisted with rope-ladders,
which they commonly cause their blacks to carry about
with them, and to go up and fasten to one of the-
branches. _ 10
The flowers are here exceedingly beautiful and nn-Great va-
merous. Almost every field and grove yields a much ricty
nobler flowers*
CON [5
Congo, nooler prospect than the European gardens can boast
*——y—notwithstanding the pains bestowed on their culti¬
vation. The flowers are remarkable, not only for
the prodigious variety of their colours, but the vast
quantity of heads which grow upon one stalk. In
the day-time, indeed, they seem to have lost their na¬
tural fragrancy; that being in some measure exhaled
by the heat of the sun : but this is amply compensated
after its setting, and more especially a little before its
rising, when their sweetness is again condensed, and
revived by the coldness and dews of the night, after
which they exhale their various refreshing scents in a
much higher degree than ours. The lilies, which there
grow naturally in the fields, valleys, and woods, excel
those of our gardens, not only in their extreme white¬
ness, but much more in a delightful fragrancy, without
offending the head, as the European lilies do by their
faintish sweetness. The tulips which there grow wild,
though generally called Persic, have something so sur¬
prisingly charming in the variety and combination of
their colours, that they dazzle the .eyes of an intense
beholder: neither do their flowers grow; singly as
with us, but ten or twelve upon one stalk ; and with
this double advantage, that they diffuse a very revi¬
ving and agreeable sweetness, and continue much long¬
er in their full bloom. Of the same nature are their
tuberoses, hyacinths, and other native flowers ; which
spring up in vast groups of 100 and 200 from one
root, though somewhat smaller than ours ; some of
them finely variegated, jjnd all of them yielding an
agreeable smell. The roses, jessamines, and other
exotics brought hither from Europe or America, come
up likewise in great perfection, but require a con¬
stant supply of water, and diligent attendance, to
prevent them from degenerating. The American
jessamine, in particular, instead of single flowers, will
grow up by dozens in a hunch ; some of them of an
exquisite white, and others of the colour of the most
ri vivid fire.
Animals of A vast variety of animals of different kinds are
kimirent ^oun<^ *n ^ie kingdom of Congo; the chief of which
is the elephant. This creature is mostly found in the
province of Bamba, which abounds with woods, pas¬
ture, and plenty of water j the elephants delighting
much to bathe themselves during the heat of the day.
They commonly go in troops of an hundred or more 5
and some of them are of such a monstrous size, that
we are told the print of their hoof hath measured
four, nay seven spans in diameter. From the hair of
their tails, and that of some other animals, the na¬
tives, especially the women, weave themselves col¬
lars, bracelets, girdles, &c. with variety of devices
and figures, which denote their quality ; and are in
such esteem, that the hair of two elephants tails is
sufficient to buy a slave. The reason of this is, that
the natives have not the art of taming them, but are
obliged to send some of the bravest and stoutest men
to hunt them in the woods j which is not done with¬
out great labour and danger, they being here ex¬
ceedingly fierce. The most common wav of hunting
them js by digging deep holes in the ground, the top
of which they cover with branches and leaves, as is
practised in most parts of Asia.
Lions, leopards, tigers, wolves, and other beasts of
prey, abound here in great plenty, and do much da-
2 ] CON
mage. Here are also a vast variety of monkeys of all CofLj
sizes and shapes. The zebra, well known for its ex-v—
treme beauty and swiftness, is also met with in this coun¬
try. They have also a variety of buffaloes and wild
asses; hut the dante seems to be an animal peculiar to
this kingdom. It is shaped and coloured much like an
ox, though not so large. Its skin is commonly bought
by the Portuguese, and sent into Germany to he tan-
ned and made into targets, which are then called dantes.
The natives make use of their raw hides dried to
make their shields ; which are so tough that no arrow
or dart can pierce them ; and they are also large enough
to cover the whole body. The creature is vastly swift;
and when wounded, will follow the scent or smoke of
the gunpowder with such fury, that the hunter is ob¬
liged to climb up a tree with all possible speed ; and
this retreat he always takes care to secure before he
ventures to fire. The wounded beast finding its enemy
out of its reach, stays for him at the foot of the tree,
and will not stir from it : of which the hunter taking
the advantage, dispatches it with repeated shots. The
forests of Congo also swarm with wild dogs, who, like
the wolves, prey upon the tame cattle, and are so
fierce Ihat they will attack armed men. Their teeth
are exceeding keen and sharp ; they never bark, but
make a dreadful howling when famished or in pursuit
of their prey. l: I
This country also abounds with all the different Birds.JB
kinds of birds that are to be found in other warm cli¬
mates. One sort, which they call birds of music, is
greatly esteemed, insomuch that persons of the highest
rank have from time immemorial taken the greatest
delight in keeping them in cages and aviaries for the
sake of their surprising melody. On the other hand, as
the Congoese are superstitious to the last degree, there
are several kinds of birds which they look upon as
ominous, and are so terrified at the sight or hearing of
them, that if they were going to enter upon ever so
momentous an expedition, if they were met in coun¬
cil, or going to engage an enemy with ever so great
an advantage, the flight or cry of such birds would
throw them into a general panic, and disperse them in
the utmost haste and confusion. The most dreadful of
the ominous kinds are the crows, ravens, bats, and owls.
The great owl is the most terrible of all, and to him they
give the name of kariam pcmba, by which words they
likewise denote the devil.
Fish of different kinds abound on the coasts of Con¬
go in great numbers ; hut the inland parts are infested
with such numbers of serpents, scorpions, and other
venomous insects, as are perhaps sufficient to overba¬
lance every natural advantage w'e have yet mentioned. j 1
The most pernicious and dangerous kinds are the ants; Ants \ r
of which they reckon no less than six several species ofdaBSe ^
different colours and sizes ; all of them formidable on
account of their prodigious numbers, and the mischief
they do not only to the fruits of the earth, hut to men
and beasts ; whom they will surround in the night-time,
and devour even to the very hone. It is a common
practice, we are told, to condemn persons guilty of
some atrocious crimes to be stripped naked, tied hanff
and foot, and thrown into a hole where these insects
swarm ; where they are sure to be devoured by them
in less than 24 hours to the very hones. But crimi¬
nals are not the only persons who are in danger from
the
G ° N [ S
,njo. tlie jaws of these little devouring insects. People may
V—be attacked by them, as we have already hinted, in the
night-time, and while they are sleeping in their beds.
This obliges the natives to be careful where they lie
down, and to kindle a small fire, or at least to have a
circle of burning hot embers round their beds. This
caution is still more necessary in the country villages
and hamlets, where persons are otherwise in danger of
being attacked by millions of them in the dead of the
night. In such a case the only expedient to save one’s
seif is to jump up as soon as one feels the bite, to brush
them oft' with all possible speed, and then at once to set
the house on fire. The danger is still greater in tra¬
velling through the country, where a person is often
obliged to take up his lodging on the bare ground •, and
may be overtaken during the heat of the day with such
profound sleep, as not to be awakened by these dimi¬
nutive animals till they have made their way through
the skin j and in such a case nothing will prevent their
devouring a man alive, though there were ever so many
hands to assist him : in such incredible quantities do
these creatures abound, notwithstanding the great num¬
bers of monkeys who are continually ferreting the ants
out of their retreats, and feed upon them with the ut¬
most avidity. This can only be ascribed to the natural
lazines's and indolence of the inhabitants ; which is such,
that they not only neglect to rid their land of them by
proper cultivation, but will suffer their houses, nay,
even their very churches, to be undermined by them.
Another kind of these destructive vermin lie so thick
upon the paths and highways, that a person cannot walk
without treading upon, and having his legs and thighs
almost devoured by them. A third sort, of a white and
red colour, but very small, will gnaw their way through
the hardest wood, penetrate into a strong chest, and in
a little while devour all the clothes, linen, and every
thing that is in it. A fourth sort, small and black,
leave a most intolerable stench upon every thing they
touch or crawl over, whether clothes or household-stuff,
which are not easily sweetened again j or if they pass
over victuals, they are entirely spoiled. A fifth sort
harbour chiefly on the leaves and branches of trees j
and if a man chance to climb up thither to save himself
from a wild beast, he is so tormented by them, that no¬
thing hut the fear of the jaws of the one could make
him endure the stings of the other. A sixth sort is of
the flying kind j and is probably one of the former kinds,
that live wholly under ground, till nature furnishes them
with wings. After this, they rise in such swarms as
darken the air, and would make terrible havock among
all kinds of vegetables, did not the natives come
out against them in whole companies, and by dint of
flaps, and other flat w'eapon«, knock them down by my¬
riads, and then laying them in heaps, set fire to their
wings, which half broils them for food. Amidst all this
variety of pernicious insects, however, they have one
species of a more friendly and profitable kind, viz. the
industrious bee, which furnishes the inhabitants with
honey and wax in such plenty, that there is scarce a hol¬
low tree, cleft of a rock, or chop of the earth, in which
their combs are not found in great quantities.
With respect to the populousness of the kingdom of
Congo, some authors, writing either from mere conjec¬
ture, or at best precarious inferences, have represented
it as thinly peopled. The accounts of the missionaries
Vol. VI. Part II. t
3 ] CON
and Portuguese, however, are directly opposite to Con^o.
these. They found the country for the most part co- y-—'
vered with towns and villages, and these swarming with
inhabitants; the cities well filled with people, parti¬
cularly the metropolis, which is said to contain above
30,000 souls. The provinces, though not equally po¬
pulous, yet in the whole make up such an amount as
plainly proves, that what is wanting in the one is am¬
ply made up by the other. We are told that the duchy
of Bamba is still able to raise 200,000 fighting men,
and w'as formerly in a condition to raise double that
number ; and that the army of the king of Congo, in
the year 1665, consisted of 900,000 fighting men, who
were attended by an infinite number of women, child¬
ren, and slaves. The numbers of the Congoese will
appear the more credible, when we consider the ex¬
treme fecundity of their women. In some villages, if
the missionaries are to be credited, the number of
children is so great, that a father will part with one
or two, for any commodity lie wants, or even for some
trifling bauble he fancies. There can be no doubt,
however, that these accounts are greatly exaggerated.
Captain Tuckey, in his recent expedition up the Congo
river, found the villages very small, and the country
thinly inhabited. He found scarcely any trace of the
labours of the Romish missionaries, though they were
long established in the country. r.
There is scarcely a nation on earth that have a higher Congoese
opinion of themselves or their country than the Con-have a high
goese, or that is more hardened against all conviction Opb‘ion of
to the contrary, from reason, experience, or the most1 em S"
impartial comparison with other countries in Europe or
Asia. Indeed it is impossible they should think other¬
wise, when it is one of the fundamentals of their belief,
that the rest of the world was the work of angels, but that
the kingdom of Congo, in its full and ancient extent, was
the handywork of the Supreme Architect; and must of
course have vast prerogatives and advantages over all
others. When told of the magnificence of the European
and Asiatic courts, their immense revenues, the gran¬
deur of their palaces and edifices, the richness and hap¬
piness of their subjects, the great progress they have
made in the arts and sciences to which their country is
wholly a stranger, they coolly answer, that all this comes
vastly short of the dignity and splendour of the kings and
kingdom of Congo ; and that there can he but one Congo
in the world, to the happiness of whose monarch and
people all the rest were created to contribute, and to
whose treasury the sea and rivers pay their constant tri¬
bute of zimbis (or shells, which are their current coin) ;
whilst other princes must condescend to enrich them¬
selves by digging through rocks and mountains, to come
at the excrements of the earth, so they style gold and
silver which are in such request among other nations.
Accordingly, they imagine, that the nations which come
to traffic with them, are forced to that servile employ- i(.
ment by their poverty and the badness of their coun-Their sloth,
try, rather than induced to it by luxury or avarice ; pride, &c.
whilst they themselves can indulge their natural indo¬
lence or sloth, though attended with the most pinching
poverty, rather than disgrace the dignity of their blood
by the least effort of industry, which, how laudable
and beneficial soever, is looked upon by them as only
a lesser degree of slavery. But though they generally
esteem it so much below their dignity to apply to any
3 T useful
CON [ s
Congo, useful work, they think it no disgrace to beg or steal.
' With respect to the first, they are said to be the most
shameless and importunate beggars in the world. They
will take no denial, spare no crouching, lying, prayers,
to obtain what they rvant, nor curses and ill language
when sent away without it. With regard to the last,
they deem no theft unlawful or scandalous, except it
be committed in a private manner, without the know¬
ledge of the person wronged. It is esteemed a piece
of bravery and gallantry to wrench any thing from
another by violence j and this kind of theft is so com¬
mon, not only among the vulgar, but also among the
great ones, that they make no scruple, in their travels
from place to place, to seize not only upon all the pro¬
visions they meet with in towns and villages, but upon
every thing else that falls in their way. These vio¬
lences oblige the poor people to conceal the few valu¬
ables they have, in some secret place out of the know¬
ledge and reach of those harpies; and they think them¬
selves well off if they can escape a severe bastinading, or
other cruel usage, frequently inflicted upon them, in or-
j ^ der to make them discover the place of their concealment.
CoBipled- The complexion of the natives, both men and wo-
on, charac- men, is black, though not in the same degree ; some
ter, cu- being of a much deeper black than others. Their
stoms,8tc. jiajr jg an(j fineiy curled ; some have it also of a
dark sandy colour : their eyes are mostly of a fine
lively black ; but some are of a dark sea-colour. They
have neither flat noses nor thick lips like the Nubians
and other negroes. Their stature is mostly of the
middle size ; and, excepting their black complexion,
they much resemble the Portuguese. In their temper,
they are mistrustful, envious, jealous, and treacherous ;
and where they once take a distaste or affront, will
spare no pains, and stick at no means, however base,
to be avenged of, and crush their enemy under their
feet. There is no such thing among them as natural
affection. A husband, if a Heathen, may take as
many wives as he pleases ; and if a Christian, may have
any number 01 concubines, whom he may divorce at
pleasure, and even sell them though with child. So
little regard have they for their children, that there is
scarce one among them who will not sell a son or a
daughter, or perhaps both, for a piece of cloth, a col¬
lar or girdle of coral or beads, and often for a bottle of
wine or brandy.
Religion* . The religion of the Congoese in many parts is down-
& right idolatry, accompanied with the most ridiculous
superstitions, and the most absurd and detestable rites
invented by their gangas or priests ; and even in those
parts where Christianity is professed, it is so darkened
by superstitions of one kind or other, that we may
justly question whethdf the people are any gainers by
the exchange.
Govera- The government of this kingdom is monarchical,
aieat. and as despotic as any in Asia or Africa. The kings
are the sole proprietors of all the lands within their
dominions ; and these they can dispose of to whom
they please, upon condition they pay a certain tribute
out of them : upon failure of the payment of which
or any other neglect, they turn them out. Even the
princes of the blood are subjected to the same law ; so
that there is no person of any rank or quality what¬
ever that can bequeath a foot of land to his heirs or
successors; and when these owners under the crown
14 ] CON
die, the lands immediately return to it again, whether Coi
they were in their possession, or had been left to ever Cong^
so many tenants under them ; so that it entirely de- ti'ii
pends on the prince whether these lands shall be con-^
tinued in the same, or be disposed into other hands.
The Portuguese, however, since their settling in these
parts, have prevailed upon the monarchs to permit the
heirs and successors to continue in the quiet possession
of such lands, in order to avoid the confusions, or even
rebellions, which the alienation and deprival of them
frequently occasioned, and to oblige the tenants of them
to pay their tribute more exactly and readily than they
did before.
St Salvador is the chief place of trade in this coun- Comr
try belonging to the Portuguese and other Europeans.
There were formerly about 4000 of them settled here,
who traded with most parts of the kingdom ; but their
number is now diminished. The chief commodities
they bring hither are either the product of Brazil or
European manufactures. The former consist chiefly
of grains, fruits, plants, &c.; the latter of Turkey
carpets, English cloth, and other stuffs ; copper, brass
vessels, some kinds of blue earthen wares, rings, and
ornaments of gold, silver, and other baser metals ; coral,
glass-beads, bugles, and other trinkets ; light stuffs
made of cotton, woollen, and linen, for clothing ; and
a great variety of tools and other utensils. In return
for these they carry off a great number of slaves, amount¬
ing to 15,000 or 16,000 annually, as we have already
observed. Formerly they used also to carry away ele¬
phants teeth, furs, and other commodities of the coun¬
try; but those branches of commerce are now greatly
decayed, and the slave-trade is what the Portuguese
merchants principally depend on.
Congo, a term applied to tea of the second quality.
CONGREGATION, an assembly of several eccle¬
siastics, united so as to constitute a body.
The term is principally used for assemblies of cardi¬
nals appointed by the pope, and distributed into seve¬
ral chambers,, for the discharge of certain functions j
and jurisdictions, after the manner of our offices and
courts. The first is the congregation of the holy of¬
fice, or the inquisition : the second, that of jurisdic- I
tion over bishops and regulars ; the third, that of coun- I
cils ; this has power to interpret the council of Trent:
the fourth, that of customs, ceremonies, precedencies,
canonizations, called the congregation of rites: the fifth,
that of St Peter’s fabric, which takes cognizance of
all causes relating to piety and charity, part whereof
is due to the church of St Peter : the sixth, that of '
waters, rivers, roads : the seventh, of fountains and
streets : the eighth, that of the index, which examines !
the books to be printed or corrected : the ninth, that
of the council of state, fdr the management of the
territories belonging to the pope and church (see |
Camerlingo) : the tenth, de bono regimine * of which
two last the cardinal nephew is chief: the eleventh, !
that of money: the twelfth, that of bishops, wherein ’
those who are to be promoted to bishoprics in Italy 1
are examined ; this is held before the pope the tbir- r
teenth, that of consistorial matters ; the chief whereof I
is the cardinal dean : the fourteenth, a congregation
for propagating the faith (see College) : and the 1
fifteenth, that of ecclesiastical immunity, for settling
suits against churchmen. There is also a congrega- '■
tion
CON [5
re<ra. t’100 alms, which takes care of every thing that re-
"foa0 lates to the subsistence of Rome and the state of the
fl church.
ugreve. CONGREGATION is also used for a company or so-
ciety of religious cantoned out of this or that order j
and making, as it were, an inferior order, or a subdi¬
vision of the order itself. Such are the congregations
of the oratory, and those of Cluny, &c. among the
Benedictines.
The word is also used for assemblies of pious persons
in manner of fraternities, frequent among the Jesuits,
in honour of the Virgin, &c. It is likewise applied to
the audience in a church, particularly as consisting of
the inhabitants of the same parish.
CONGREGATIONALTSTS, in church history,
a sect of Protestants who reject all church-government,
except that of a single congregation under the direc¬
tion of one pastor.
CONGRESS, in political affairs, an assembly of
commissioners, envoys, deputies, &c. from several
courts, meeting to concert matters for their common
good.
Congress, in America, is the assembly of delegates
from the United States. See America.
Congress, in a judicial sense, the trial made by
appointment of a judge before surgeons and matrons, in
order to prove whether or not a man be impotent, be¬
fore sentence is passed for the dissolution of a marriage
solicited upon such a complaint.
Neither the civil nor canon law makes any mention
of the trial of virility by congress. It had its origin
in France from the boldness ot a young fellow, who, in
open court, having been hard pressed by his wife, de¬
manded the congress. The judge, surprised with the
novelty of the demand, found it could not be denied,
as being the surest evidence that the case could admit
of. In time it became a branch in the French juris¬
prudence, and was authorized by decreets and arrets. It
obtained for about 12c years ; and was annulled by an
arret of parliament in 1677, as being found precarious j
some having failed under the experiment out of mere
modesty and shame, which is found to have the same
effect with actual impotency.
CONGREVE, William, a younger brother of an
ancient family in Staffordshire. His father was employ¬
ed in the stewardship of the great estate of the earl of
Burlington in Ireland, where he resided many years ;
and our author was born there in 1672. Mr Congreve
entered into the Middle-Temple when he came to Eng¬
land, and began to study the law 5 but his bias was
toward polite literature and poetry. His first perfor¬
mance was a novel entitled, Incognita, or Love and
Duty reconciled. He soon after began his comedy of
the Old Bachelor; which was the amusement of some
leisure hours during a slow recovery from a fit of illness
soon after his return to England ; yet was in itself so
perfect, that Mr Dryden, on its being shown to him,
declared he had never in his life seen such a first play.
When brought on the stage in 1693, it met with such
universal approbation, that Mr Conp'eve, though he
was but 19 years old at the time of his writing it, be¬
came now considered as a prop to the declining stage,
and a rising genius in dramatic poetry. The next year
he produced the Double-Dealer ; which, for what rea¬
son is not so obvious, did not meet with so much success
5 ] CON
as the former. The merit of his first play, however, Con
had obtained him the favour and patronage of Lord ——
Halifax, and some peculiar mark of distinction from
Queen Mary ; on whose death, which happened in the
close of this year, he wrote a very elegant elegiac pa¬
storal. In 1695, when Betterton opened the new
house in Lincoln’s Inn Fields, Mr Congreve joining
with him, gave him his comedy oi Love for Love; with
which the company opened their campaign, and which
met with such success, that they immediately offered
the author a share in the management of the house, on
condition of his furnishing them with one play yearly.
This offer he accepted •, but whether through indo¬
lence, or that correctness which he looked upon as ne¬
cessary to his works, his Mourning Bride did not come
out till 1697, nor his Way of the World till two years
after that. The indifferent success this last mentioned
play, though an exceeding good one, met with from
the public, completed that disgust to the theatre,
which a long contest with Jeremy Collier, who had
attacked the immoralities of the English stage, and
more especially some of his pieces, had begun, and he
determined never more to write for the stage. How¬
ever, though he quitted dramatic writing, he did not
lay down the pen entirely ; but occasionally wrote
many little pieces both in prose and verse, all of which
stand on the records of literary fame. It is very pos¬
sible, however, that he might not so soon have given
way to this disgust, had not the easiness of his circum¬
stances rendered any subservience to the opinions
and caprice of the town absolutely unnecessary to him.
For his abilities having very early in life raised him to
the acquaintance of the earl of Halifax, who was
then the Mecaenas of the age *, that nobleman, desirous
of raising so promising a genius above the necessity of
too hasty productions, made him one of the commis¬
sioners for licensing hackney-coaches •, or, according to
Coxeter, a commissioner of the wine-license. He soon
after bestowed on him a place in the pipe-office ; and
not long after gave him a post in the customs worth
600I. per annum. In the year I71^» wa3 appoint¬
ed secretary of Jamaica ; so that the whole of his in¬
come towards the latter part of his life was upwards of
1200I. a-year.
The greatest part of the last 20 years of his life
was spent in ease and retirement j and he either did
not, or affected not to give himself any trouble about
reputation. Yet some part of that conduct might pro¬
ceed from a degree of pride ; to which purpose, T.
Cibber, in his Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. p. 93. re¬
lates the following anecdote of him : “ When the ce¬
lebrated Voltaire was in England, he waited upon Mr
Congreve, and passed some compliments upon the me¬
rit and reputation of his works. Congreve thanked
him} but at the same time told that ingenious fo¬
reigner, that he did not choose to be considered as an
author, but only as a private gentleman, and in that
light expected to be visited. Voltaire answered, that
if he had never been any thing but a private gentle¬
man, in all probability he had never been troubled with
that visit.” He observes, in his own account of the
transaction, that he was not a little disgusted with so
unseasonable a piece of vanity.
Towards the close of his life he was much afflicted
with the gout; and making a tour to Bath for the be-
6 3Ta nefit
CON [Si6] CON
Congreve, nefit of the waters, was unfortunately overturned in
t ongniity. his chariot: by which, if is supposed, he got some
inward bruise, as he ever after complained of a pain
in his side ; and, on his return to London, continu¬
ed gradually declining in his health, till the 19th of
January 1729, when he died, aged 57; and, on the
26th following, was buried in Westminster Abbey,
the pall being supported by persons of the first di¬
stinction. ,
CONGRUITY, a suitableness or relation of agree¬
ment between things.
The terms congruity and propriety are not applicable
to any single object: they imply a plurality, and ob¬
viously signify a particular relation between different
objects. Thus we currently say, that a decent garb is
suitable or proper for a judge $ modest behaviour for a
young woman j and a lofty style for an epic poem :
and on the other hand, that it is unsuitable or incon¬
gruous to see a little woman sunk in an overgrown far¬
thingale, a coat richly embroidered covering coarse and
dirty linen, a mean subject in an elevated style, an ele¬
vated subject in a mean style, a first minister darning
his wife’s stocking, or a reverend prelate in lawn sleeves
dancing a hornpipe.
The perception we have of this relation, which
seems peculiar to man, cannot proceed from any other
cause, but from a sense of congruity or propriety ; for,
supposing us destitute of that sense, the terms would
be to us unintelligible.
It is a matter of experience, that congruity or pro¬
priety, wherever perceived, is agreeable j and that in¬
congruity, or impropriety, wherever perceived, is dis¬
agreeable. The only difficulty is, to ascertain what are
the particular objects that in conjunction suggest these
relations ; for there are many objects that do not: the
sea, for example, viewed in conjunction with a pic¬
ture, or a man viewed in conjunction with a moun¬
tain, suggest not either congruity or incongruity. It
seems natural to infer, what will be found true by in¬
duction, that we never perceive congruity or incon¬
gruity but among things that are connected together
by some relation ; such as a man and his actions, a
principal and his accessories, a subject and its orna¬
ments. We are indeed so framed by nature, as, among
things so connected, to require a certain suitableness
or correspondence, termed congruity ox propriety i and
to be displeased when we find the opposite relation of
incongruity or impropriety.
If things connected be the subject of congruity, it
is reasonable before hand to expect, that a degree of
congruity should be required proportioned to the de¬
gree of the connexion. And upon examination we
find this to hold in fact: where the relation is inti¬
mate, as between a cause and its effect, a whole and
its parts, we require the strictest congruity ; but
where the relation is slight, or accidental, as' amon«-
things jumbled together in the same place, we require
little or no congruity : the strictest propriety is re¬
quired in behaviour and manner of living j because a
man is connected with these by the relation of cause
and effect : the relation between an edifice and the
ground it stands upon, is of the most intimate kind :
and therefore the situation of a great house ought to be
lofty j its relation to neighbouring hills, rivers, plains
being that of propinquity only, demands but a small
3
share of congruity ; among members of the same club,
the congruity ought to be considerable, as well as
among things placed for show in the same niche:
among passengers in a stage coach, we require very lit¬
tle congruity ; and less still at a public spectacle.
Congruity is so nearly allied to beauty, as com¬
monly to be held a species of it j and yet they differ
so essentially as never to coincide: beauty, like colour,
is placed upon a single subject j congruity upon a plu¬
rality : further, a thing beautiful in itself, may, with
relation to other things, produce the strongest sense of
incongruity.
Congruity and propriety are commonly reckoned
synonymous terms ; but they are distinguishable, and
the precise meaning of each must be ascertained. Con¬
gruity is the genus of which propriety is a species ; for
we call noiWmg propriety, but that congruity or suita¬
bleness which ought to subsist between sensible beings
and their thoughts, words, and actions.
In order to give a full view of these secondary rela¬
tions, we shall trace them through some of the most
considerable primary relations. The relation of a part
to the whole, being extremely intimate, demands the
utmost degree of cougruity j even the slightest deviation
is disgustful.
Examples of congruity and incongruity are furnish¬
ed in plenty by the relation between a subject and its
ornaments. A literary performance intended merely
for amusement, is susceptible of much ornament, as
well as a music-room or a play-house j for in gaiety,
the mind hath a peculiar relish for show and decora¬
tion. The most gorgeous apparel, however improper
in tragedy, is not unsuitable to opera actors ; the truth
is, an opera, in its preseut form, is a mighty fine
thing ; but as it deviates from nature in its capital cir¬
cumstances, we look not lor nature or propriety in
those which are accessory. On the other hand, a serious
and important subject admits not much ornament : nor
a subject that of itself is extremely beautiful : and a
subject that fills the mind with its loftiness and gran¬
deur, appears best in a dress altogether plain.
To a person of a mean appearance, gorgeous apparel
is unsuitable ; which, besides the incongruity, has a bad
effect j for by contrast it shows the meanness of appear¬
ance in the strongest light. Sweetness of look and
manner requires simplicity of dress, joined with the
greatest elegance. A stately and majestic air requires
sumptuous apparel, which ought not to be gaudy, nor
crowded with little ornaments. A woman of consum¬
mate beauty can bear to be highly adorned, and yet
shows best in a plain dress :
       -For loveliness
Needs not the foreign aid of ornament,
But is, when unadorn’d, adorn’d the most.
Thomson's Autumn^ 208.
Congruity regulates not only the quantity of orna¬
ment, but also the kind. The ornaments that em¬
bellish a dancing room ought to be all of them gay.
No picture is proper for a church but what has reli¬
gion for its subject. All the ornaments upon a shield
opght to relate to war} and Virgil, with great judge¬
ment, confines the carvings upon the shield of AEneas
to the military history of the Romans : but this beau¬
ty is overlooked by Homer j for the bulk of the sculp¬
ture
CON [51
L frajty ture upon the shield of xlchilles, is of the arts of peace
L in general, and of joy and festivity in particular: the
author of Telemachus betrays the same inattention, in
describing that young hero.
In judging of propriety with regard to ornaments,
we must attend, not only to the nature of the subject
that is to be adorned, but also to the circumstances in
which it is placed $ the ornaments that are proper for
a ball, will appear not altogether so decent at public
worship; and the same person ought to dress differently
for a marriage feast and for a burial.
Nothing is more intimately related to a man, than
his sentiments, words, and actions ; arid therefore we
require here the strictest conformity. When we lind
what we thus require, we have a lively sense of pro¬
priety : when w’e find the contrary, our sense of im¬
propriety is not less lively. Hence the universal dis¬
taste of affectation, which consists in making a show of
greater delicacy and refinement than is suited either to
the character or circumstance of the person.
Congruity and propriety, wherever perceived, ap¬
pear agreeable; and every agreeable object produces
in the mind a pleasant emotion : incongruity and im¬
propriety, on the other hand, are disagreeable; and
of course produce painful emotions. These emo¬
tions, whether pleasant or painful, sometimes vanish
without any consequence; but more frequently oc¬
casion other emotions, which we proceed to exem-
pw'y*
When any slight incongruity is perceived in an ac¬
cidental combination of persons or things, as of pas¬
sengers in a stage-coach, or of individuals dining at
au ordinary ; the painful emotion of incongruity, after
a momentai’y existence, vanisheth without producing
any effect. But this is not the case of propriety and
impropriety : voluntary acts, whether words or deeds,
are imputed to the author; when proper we reward
him with our esteem ; when improper, we punish him
with our contempt. Let us suppose, for example, a
generous action suited to the character of the author,
which raises in him and in every spectator the pleasant
emotion of propriety ; this emotion generates in the
author both self-esteem and joy, the former when he
considers his relation to the action, and the latter when
he considers the good opinion that others will entertain
of him : the same emotion of propriety produceth in
the spectators esteem for the author of the action ; and
when they think of themselves, it also produceth, by
means of contrast, an emotion of humility. To disco¬
ver the effects of an unsuitable action, we must invert
each of these circumstances : the painful emotion of im¬
propriety generates in the author of the action both
humility and shame; the former when he considers
his relation to the action, and the latter when he con¬
siders what others will think of him : the same emo¬
tion of impropriety producetli in the spectators con¬
tempt for the author of the action ; and it also pro -
duceth, by means of contrast, when they think of
themselves, an emotion of self-esteem. Here then are
many different emotions, derived from the same action,
considered in different views by different persons ; a
machine provided with many springs, and not a little
complicated. Propriety of action, it would seem, is
a chief favourite of nature, when such care and soli¬
citude is bestowed upon it. It is not left to our
7 ] CON
own choice; but, like justice, is required at our Gongruity.
hands; and, like justice, is enforced by natural re- N--—v—'
wards and punishments: a man cannot, with impunity,
do any tiling unbecoming or improper; lie suffers the
chastisement of contempt inflicted by others, and of
shame inflicted by himself. An apparatus so compli¬
cated, and so singular, ought to rouse our attention:
for nature doth nothing in vain ; and we may con¬
clude with great certainty, that this curious branch of
the human constitution is intended for some valuable
purpose.
A gross impropriety is punished with contempt and
indignation, which are vented against the offender by
corresponding external expressions; nor is even the
slightest impropriety suffered to pass without some de¬
gree of contempt. But there are improprieties, of
the slighter kind, that provoke laughter: of which,
we have examples without end, in the blunders and
absurdities of our own species : such improprieties re¬
ceive a different punishment, as will appear by what
follows. The emotions of contempt and of laughter
occasioned by an impropriety of this kind, uniting in¬
timately in the mind of the spectator, are expressed
externally by a peculiar sort of laugh, termed a laugh
of derision or scorn. An impropriety that thus moves
not only contempt, but laughter, is distinguished by
the epithet of ridiculous; and a laugh of derision or
scorn is the punishment provided for it by nature. Nor
ought it to escape observation, that we are so fond of
inflicting this punishment, as sometimes to exert it even
against creatures of an inferior species ; witness a tur¬
key-cock swelling with pride, and strutting with dis¬
played feathers; a ridiculous object, which in a gay
mood is apt to provoke a laugh of derision.
We must not expect that these difl’erent improprie¬
ties are separated by distinct boundaries ; for improprie¬
ties from the slightest to the most gross, from the most
risible to the most serious, there are degrees without
end. Hence it is, that in viewing some unbecoming
actions, too risible for anger, and too serious for deri¬
sion, the spectator feels a sort of mixt emotion, partaking
both of derision and of anger; which accounts for an
expx-ession, common with respect to the impropriety of
some actions, that we know not whether to laugh or be
angry.
It cannot fail to be observed, that in the case of a
risible impropriety, which is always slight, the contempt
we have for the offender is extremely faint, though
derision, its gratiftcation, is extremely pleasant. This
disproportion between a passion and its gx-atifxoation,
seems not confoi’mable to the analogy of nature. In
looking about for a solution, we must reflect upon
what is laid down above, that an improper action not
only moves our contempt for the author, but also, by
means of contrast, swells the good opinion we have of
ourselves. This contributes, more than any other ar¬
ticle, to the pleasure we have in ridiculing follies and
absurdities; and accordingly, it is well known, that
they who put the greatest value upon themselves are
the most pi’one to laugh at others. Pride, which is a
vivid passion, pleasant in itself, and not less so in its
gratification, would singly be sufficient to account lor
the pleasure of ridicule, without borx-owing any aid
fi’oin contempt. Hence appears the reason of a noted
observation, That we are the most disposed to ridicule
the
G O N [ 5
Congruity. tlie blunders and absurdities of others, when we are in
' high spirits ; for in high spirits, self-conceit displays it¬
self with more than ordinary vigour.
With regard to the final causes of congruity and im¬
propriety ; one regarding congruity, is pretty obvious,
that the sense of congruity, as one principle of the fine
arts, contributes in a remarkable degree to our enter¬
tainment. Congruity, indeed, with respect to quantity
coincides with proportion : when the parts of a build¬
ing are nicely adjusted to each other, it may be said
indifferently, that it is agreeable by the congruity of its
parts, or by the proportion of its parts. But propriety,
which regards voluntary agents only, can never be the
same with proportion, a very long nose is dispropor-
tioned, but cannot be termed improper. In some in¬
stances, it is true, impropriety coincides with dispro¬
portion in the same subject, but never in the same re¬
spect ; for example, a very little man buckled to along
toledo : considering the man and the sword with respect
to size, we perceive a disproportion $ considering the
sword as the choice of the man, we perceive an impro¬
priety.
'I he sense of impropriety with respect to mistakes,
blunders, and absurdities, is happily contrived for the
good of mankind. In the spectators, it is productive
of mirth and laughter, excellent recreation in an inter¬
val from business. But this is a trifle in respect of what
follows. It is painful to be the subject of ridicule j and
to punish with ridicule the man who is guilty of an ab¬
surdity, tends to put him more upon his guard in time
coming. Thus even the most innocent blunder is not
committed with impunity $ because, were errors licen¬
sed where they do not hurt, inattention would grow in¬
to a habit, and be the occasion of much hurt.
The final cause of propriety as to moral duties, is
of all the most illustrious. To have a just notion of
it, the moral duties that respect others must be distin¬
guished from those that respect ourselves. Fidelity,
gratitude, and the forbearing injury, are examples of
the first sort j temperance, modesty, firmness of mind,
are examples of the other j the former are made duties
by the sense of justice ; the latter by the sense of pro¬
priety. Here is a final cause of the sense of pro¬
priety, that must rouse our attention. It is undoubt¬
edly the interest of every man, to suit his behaviour
to the dignity of his nature, and to the station allotted
him by Providence; for such rational conduct con¬
tributes 111 every respect to happiness, by preserving
health, by procuring plenty, by gaining the esteem of
others, and, which of all is the greatest blessing by
gaining a justly-founded self-esteem. But in a matter
so essential to our well-being, even self-interest is not
relied on ; the powerful authority of duty is superadd-
ed to the motive of interest. The God of nature, in
all things essential to our happiness, hath observed one
uniform method ; to keep us steady in our conduct, he
8 ] CON
hath fortified us with natural laws and principles, Congruj
which prevent many aberrations, that would daily hap- Coni ’
pen were we totally surrendered to so fallible a guide as 1
human reason. Propriety cannot rightly be considered
in another light, than as the natural law that regulates
our conduct with respect to ourselves ; as justice is the
natural law that regulates our conduct with respect to
others. We call propriety a law, not less than justice ;
because both are equally rules of conduct that ought
to be obeyed : propriety includes this obligation ; for
to say an action is proper, is, in other words, to say,
that it ought to be performed ; and to say it is impro¬
per, is, in other w'ords, to say that it ought to be for¬
borne. It is this very character of ought and should
that makes justice a law to us ; and the same charac¬
ter is applicable to propriety, though perhaps more
faintly than to justice ; but the difference is in degree
only, not in kind ; and we ought, without hesitation
or reluctance, to submit equally to the government of
both.
But it must, in the next place, be observed, that to
the sense of propriety, as well as of justice, are annexed
the sanctions of rewards and punishments ; which evi¬
dently prove the one to be a law as well as the other.
The satisfaction a man hath in doing his duty, joined
with the esteem and good will of others, is the reward
that belongs to both equally. The punishments also,
though not the same, are nearly allied ; and differ in
degree more than in quality. Disobedience to the law
of justice, is punished with remorse ; disobedience to
the law of propriety, with shame, which is remorse in
a lower degree. Every transgression of the law of ju¬
stice raises indignation in the beholder; and so doth
every flagrant transgression of the law of propriety.
Slighter improprieties receive a milder punishment :
they are always rebuked with some degree of con¬
tempt and frequently with derision. In general, it is
true that the rewards and punishments annexed to the
sense of propriety, are slighter in degree than those
annexed to the sense of justice : which is wisely or¬
dered, because duty to others is still more essential to
society than duty to ourselves ; for society could not
subsist a moment were individuals not protected from
the headlong and turbulent passion of their neigh¬
bours.
CONI, a strong town of Italy in Piedmont, and ca¬
pital of a territory of that name, with a good citadel.
The town being divided into two factions, it surrender¬
ed to the French in 1641 ; but was restored to the duke
of Savoy soon after. It is seated at the confluence of
the rivers Gresse and Sture. Its trade is considerable,
being the repository of all merchandise from Turin and
Nice, designed for Lombardy, Switzerland, and Ger¬
many. It contains about 10,000 people besides the gar¬
rison. It was taken by the French in April 1796.
E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat. 44. 30.
CONIC
[ 5i9 J
CONIC SECTIONS.
INTRODUCTION.
IN treating of so considerable a branch of the mathe¬
matical sciences as the Conic Sections, it would be
improper to pass over in total silence the history of
those remarkable curves. But this topic will not require
any long detail. None of the works of the more
early Greek geometers have reached our time j nor
have we any work of antiquity professedly written on
the subject of our inquiry. Our curiosity must there¬
fore rest satisfied with the knowledge of a few inci¬
dental notices and facts, gleaned from different au¬
thors.
The discovery of the conic sections seems to have
originated in the school of Plato, in which geometry
was highly respected, and much cultivated. It is
probable that the followers of - hat philosopher were
led to the discovery of these curves, and to the inves-
& tigation of many of their properties, in seeking to re¬
solve the two famous problems of the duplication of
the cube, and the trisection of an angle, for which the
artifices of the ordinary or plane geometry were in¬
sufficient. Two solutions of the former problem, by
the help of the conic sections, are preserved by Euto-
\In Arch, etas*, and are attributed by him to Mencec/imus, the
ii.de scholar of Eudoxus, who lived not much posterior to
P etCyl.Plato: and this circumstance, added to a
Ibid. feHr Words in an epigram ©f Eratosthenes -f, has been
thought sufficient authority, by some authors, to ascribe
the honour of the discovery of the conic sections to
Mencechmus. We may at least infer that, at this epoch,
geometers had made some progress in developing the
properties of these curves.
The writings of Archimedes that have reached us
explicitly shew, that the geometers before his time
had advanced a great length in investigating the pro¬
perties of the conic sections. This author expressly
mentions many principal propositions to have been de¬
monstrated by preceding writers $ and he often refers
to properties of the conic sections, as truths commonly
divulged, and known to mathematicians. His own
discoveries in this branch of science are worthy of the
most profound and inventive genius of antiquity. In
the quadrature of the parabola he gave the first, and
the most remarkable instance that has yet been disco¬
vered, of the exact equality of a curvilineal to a recti¬
lineal space. He determined the proportion of the
elliptic spaces to the circle j and he invented many
propositions respecting the mensuration of the solids
formed by the revolution of the conic sections about
their axes.
It is chiefly from the writings of Apollonius of
Perga, a town in Pamphylia, on the subject of the
conic sections, that we know how far the ancient ma¬
thematicians carried their speculations concerning these
curves. Apollonius flourished under Ptolemy Philopa-
tor, about forty years later than Archimedes. He
formed his taste for geometry, and acquired that supe¬
rior skill in the science to which he is indebted for his
fame, in the school of Alexandria, under the succes¬
sors of Euclid. Besides his great work on the conic
sections, he was the author of many smaller treatises,
relating chiefly to the geometrical analysis, the origi¬
nals of which have all perished, and are only known to
modern mathematicians by the account given of them
by Pappus of Alexandria, in the seventh book of his
Mathematical Collections.
The work of Apollonius on the conic sections,
written in eight books, was held in such high estima¬
tion by the ancients, as to procure for him the name
of the Great Geometer. The first four books of this
treatise only have come down to us in the original
Greek. It is the purpose of these four books, as we are
informed in the prefatory epistle to Eudemus, to de¬
liver the elements of the science j and in this part of
his labour, the author claims no farther merit than
that of having collected, amplified, and reduced to
order, the discoveries of preceding mathematicians.
One improvement introduced by Apollonius is too re¬
markable to be passed over without notice. The geo¬
meters who preceded him derived each curve from a
right cone, which they conceived to be cut by a plane
perpendicular to its slant side. It will readily be per¬
ceived, from what is shewn in the first section of the
fourth part of the following treatise, that the section
would be a parabola when the vertical angle of the
cone was a right angle j an ellipse when it was acute j
and a hyperbola when it was obtuse. Thus each
curve was derived from a difl'erent sort of cone. Apol¬
lonius was the first to shew that all the curves are pro¬
duced* from any sort of cone, whether right or oblique,
according to the different inclinations of the cutting
phane. This fact is one remarkable instance of the
adherence of the mind to its first conceptions, and of
the slowness and difficulty with which it generalizes.
The original of the first four books of the treatise
of Apollonius is lost 5 nor is it easy to ascertain in what
age it disappeared. In the year 1658 Borelli disco¬
vered at Florence an Arabic manuscript, entitled
Apollonii Pergcei Conicorum Libri Octo. By the libe¬
rality of the Duke of Tuscany he was permitted to
carry the manuscript to Rome, and, with the aid of an
Arabic scholar, Abraham Ecchellensis, he published in
1661 a Latin translation of it. The manuscript, al¬
though from its title it was expected to be a complete
translation of all the eight books, was yet found to
contain only the first seven books: and it is remark¬
able, that another manuscript, brought from the east
by Golius, the learned professor of Leyden, so early as
1664, as well as a third, of which Pavius published a
translation in 1669, fiave th® same defect: all the
three manuscripts agreeing in the want of the eighth
book, we may now consider that part ol the work of
Apollonius as irrecoverably lost. Fortunately, in the
Collectiones Mathematicce of Pappus, in whose tiine the
entire treatise of Apollonius was extant, there is pre¬
served
520
Plate
CXVI.
fig- r.
C 0 N I C S E C T I 0 N S. Par I,
served some account of the subjects treated in each
book, and all the Lemmata required in the investiga¬
tions of the propositions they contain. Dr Dailey,
who in 1710 gave a correct edition of the Conics of
Apollonius, guided in his researches by the lights de¬
rived from Pappus, has restored the eighth book with
so much ability as to leave little room to regret the
original.
The four last books of the Conics of Apollonius,
containing the higher or more recondite parts of the
science, are generally supposed to be the fruit of the
author’s own researches ; and they do much honour to
the geometrical skill and invention of the Great Geo¬
meter. Even in our times the whole treatise must be
regarded as a very extensive, if not a complete work
on the conic sections. Modern mathematicians make
important applications of these curves, with which the
ancients were unacquainted ; and they have been thus
led to consider the subject in particular points of view,
suited to their purposes $ but they have made few dis¬
coveries, of which there are not some traces to be
found in the work of the illustrious ancient.
The geometers who followed Apollonius seem to
have contented themselves with the humble task of
commenting on his treatise, and of rendering it of
more easy access to the bulk of mathematicians. Till
about the middle of the 16th century, the history of
this branch of mathematical science presents nothing
remarkable. The study of it was then revived j and
since that time this part of mathematics has been more
cultivated, or has been illustrated by a greater variety
of ingenious writings.
Among the ancients, the study of the conic sections
was a subject of pure intellectual speculation. The
applications of the properties of these curves in natural
philosophy have, in modern times, given to this part
of the mathematics a degree of importance that it did
not formerly possess. That which, in former times,
might be considered as interesting only to the learned
' theorist and profound mathematician, is now a necessary
attainment to him who would not be ignorant of those
discoveries in nature, that do the greatest honour to the
present age.
It is curious to remark the progress of discovery,
and the connexion that subsists between the difierent
branches of human knowledge 5 and it excites some de¬
gree of admiration to reflect, that the astronomical
discoveries of Kepler, and the sublime theory of Neivton,
depend on the seemingly barren speculations of Greek
geometers concerning the sections of the cone.
Apollonius, and all the writers on conic sections be¬
fore Dr Wallis, derived the elementary properties of
the curves from the nature of the cone. In the second
part of his treatise De Sectionibus Conicis, published in
1665, Dr Wallis laid aside the consideration of the
cone, deriving the properties of the curves from a de¬
scription in piano. Since his time authors have been
much divided as to the best method of defining those
curves, and demonstrating their elementary properties j
many of them preferring that of the ancient geometers,
while others, and some of great note, have followed the
example of Dr Wallis.
In support of the innovation made by Dr Wallis, it
is urged, that in the ancient manner of treating the co¬
nic sections, young students are perplexed, and discou¬
raged by the previous matter to be learnt respecting the
generation and properties of the cone ; and that they
find it no easy matter to conceive steadily, and to un¬
derstand diagrams rendered confused by lines drawn in
different planes : all which difficulties are avoided by
defining the curves in piano from one of their essential
properties. It is not our intention particularly to dis¬
cuss this point ; and we have only to add, that, in the
following treatise, we have chosen to deduce the pro¬
perties of the conic sections from their description in
piano, as better adapted to the nature of a work design¬
ed for general readers,
A geometrical treatise on the conic sections must
necessarily be founded upon the elements of geometry.
As Euclid's Elements of Geometry are generally stu¬
died, and in every one’s hands, we have chosen to re¬
fer to it in the demonstrations. The edition we have
used is that published by Professor Playfair of Edin¬
burgh. Although the references are made to Euclid’s
Elements, yet they will also apply to the treatise on
Geometry given in this Work j for a table is there
given, indicating the particular proposition of our trea¬
tise that corresponds to each of the most material pro¬
positions in Euclid’s Elements.
The references are to be thus understood: (20. 1. E.)
means the 20th prop, of the 1st book of Euclid's Ele¬
ments : (2 cor. 20. 6. E.) means the 2d corollary to
the 20th prop, of the sixth book of the same work ;
and so of others. Again, (7.) means the seventh propo¬
sition of that PART of the following treatise in which
such reference happens to occur : (cor. 1.) means the
corollary to the first proposition : (2 cor. 3.) means the
2d corollary to the third propo* ition, &c.—such refe¬
rences being all made to the propositions in the division
of the treatise in which they are found.
PART I. OF THE PARABOLA.
Definitions.
I. If a straight line BC, and a point without it F,
be given by position in a plane, and a point D be sup¬
posed to move in such a manner that DF, its distance
from the given point, is equal to DB, its distance
from the given line, the point D will describe a line
DAD, called a Parabola.
Corollary. The line DF, DB, may become
greater than any given line j therefore the parabola
extends to a greater distance from the point F, and the
line BC, than any that can be assigned.
II. The straight line BC, which is given by posi¬
tion, is called the Directrix of the Parabola.
III. The given point F is called the Focus.
IV. A straight line perpendicular to the directrix,
terminated at one extremity by the parabola, and pro¬
duced indefinitely within it, is called a Diameter.
V. The point in which a diameter meets the para¬
bola is called its Vertex.
VI. The
'art I.
CONIC SECTIONS.
521
VI. The diameter which passes through the focus
arabola. is called the Axis of the parabola > and the vertex of
—v—5 the axis is called the Priticipal Vertex.
Cor. A perpendicular drawn from the focus to the
directrix is bisected at the vertex of the axis.
VII. A straight line terminated both ways by the
parabola, and bisected by a diameter, is called an Or-
dmate to that diameter.
VIII. The segment of a diameter between its ver¬
tex, and an ordinate, is called an Absciss.
IX. A straight line quadruple the distance between
the vertex of a diameter and the directrix, is called the
Parameter) also the Lotus Rectum of that diameter.
X. A straight line meeting the parabola only in one
point, and which everywhere else falls without it, is
said to touch the parabola at that point, and is called a
Tangent to the parabola.
Proposition I.
The distance of any point without the parabola
from the focus is greater than its distance from
the directrix ; and the distance of any point
within the parabola from the focus is less than
its distance from the directrix.
J. LeT DA(/ be a parabola, of which F is the focus,
GC the directrix, and P a point without the curve,
that is, on the same side of the curve with the directrix j
PF, a line drawn to the focus, will be greater than
PG, a perpendicular to the directrix. For, as PF must
necessarily cut the curve, let D be the point of inter¬
section \ draw DB perpendicular to the directrix, and
join PB. Because D is a point in the parabola,
DBr=DF (Definition I.), therefore PF—PD4.DB ;
but PD-f-DB is greater than PB (20. I. E.), and
therefore still greater than PG (19. 1. E.), therefore
PF is greater than PG.
Again, let Q be a point within the parabola, QF,
a line drawn to the focus, is less than QB, a perpen¬
dicular to the directrix. The perpendicular QB ne¬
cessarily cuts the curve ; let D be the point of inter¬
section ; join DF. Then DF-DB (Def. 1.), and
QD+DFrrQB j but QF is less than QD-{-DF,
therefore QF is less than QB.
Corollary. A point is without or within the pa¬
rabola, according as its distance from the focus is great¬
er or less than its distance from the directrix.
Prop. II.
Every straight line perpendicular to the directrix
meets the parabola, and every diameter falls
wholly within it.
%*• Let the straight line BQ be perpendicular to the
directrix at B, BQ shall meet the parabola. Draw
BF to the focus, and make the angle BFP equal to
FBQ ; then, because QBC is a right angle, QBI
and PFB are each less than a right angle, therefore
QB and PF intersect each other ; let D be the point
of intersection, then DB—DF (5. 1. E.) ; therefore,
D is a point in the parabola. Again, the diameter
DQ falls wholly within the parabola ; for take Q any
point in the diameter, and draw FQ to the focus,
Vol. VI. Part II. f
then QB or QD-fDF is greater than QF, therefore
Q is within the parabola (Cor. 1.).
Cor. The parabola continually recedes from the
axis, and a point may be found in the curve that shall
be at a greater distance from the axis than any assign¬
ed line.
Of the
Parabola.
Prop. III.
The straight line which bisects the angle contain¬
ed by two straight lines drawn from any point
in the parabola, the one to the focus, and the
other perpendicular to the directrix, is a tan¬
gent to the curve in that point.
Let D be any point in the curve j let DF be Fig. 3.
drawn to the focus, and DB perpendicular to the di¬
rectrix j the straight line DE, which bisects the angle
FDB, is a tangent to the curve. Join BF meeting
DE in I, take H any other point in DE, join HF,
LIB, and draw HG perpendicular to the directrix.
Because DFrzDB, and DI is common to the triangles
DFI, DBI, and the angles FDI, BDI, are equal,
these triangles are equal, and FI=IB, and hence
FH=:HB (4. I. E.) : but HB is greater than HG
(19. 1. E.) j therefore the distance of the point H from
the focus is greater than its distance from the directrix,
hence that point is without the parabola (Cor. 1.),
and therefore HDI is a tangent to the curve at D
(Def. 10.).
CoR. I. There cannot be more than one tangent to Fig. 4’
the parabola at the same point. For let any other
line DK, except a diameter, be drawn through D •,
draw FK perpendicular to DK ; on D for a centre,
with a radius equal to DB, or DF, describe a circle,
cutting FK in N j draw NL parallel to the axis,
meeting DK in L, and join FL. Then FKrrKN
(3. 3. E.) and therefore FLrzLN. Now BD being
perpendicular to the directrix, the circle FEN touches
the directrix at B (16. 3. E.) j and hence N, any
other point in the circumference, is without the di¬
rectrix, and on the same side of it as the parabola, ^ ^
therefore the point L is nearer to the focus than to the
directrix, and consequently is within the parabola.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the axis at its vertex is
a tangent to the curve. Let AM be perpendicular to
the axis at the vertex A, then RS, the distance of any
point in AM from the directrix, is equal to CA, that
is, to AF, and therefore is less than RF, the distance
of the same point from the focus.
Cor. 3. A straight line drawn from the focus of a
parabola perpendicular to a tangent, and produced to
meet the directrix, is bisected by the tangent. For it
has been shewn that FB, which is perpendicular to the
tangent DI, is bisected at I.
Cor. 4. A tangent to the parabola makes equal pjV. ^
angles with the diameter which passes through the
point of contact, and a straight line draivn from that
point to the focus. For BD being produced to Q,
DQ is a diameter, and the angle HDQ is equal to
BDE, that is, to EDF.
Cor. 5. The axis is the only diameter which is per¬
pendicular to a tangent at its vertex. For the angle
HDQ, or BDE, is the half of BDF, and therefore
less than a right angle, except when BD and DF lie
3 U in
522
Of the in a straight line, which happens when D falls at the
Parabola, vertex.
' v ' Scholium.
From the property of tangents to the parabola demon¬
strated in Cor. 4. the point F takes the name of the
Focus. For rays of light proceeding parallel to the
axis of a parabola, and falling upon a polished surface
whose figure is that produced by the revolution of the
parabola about its axis, are reflected to the focus.
Prop. IV.
A straight line drawn from the focus of a para¬
bola to the intersection of two tangents to the
curve, will make equal angles with straight lines
drawn from the focus to the points of contact.
Fig. 5. Let HP, lAp be tangents to a parabola at the
points ¥, p ; let a straight line be drawn from H, their
intersection, to F the focus, and let FP, Fjp be drawn
to the points of contact, the lines PF and p F make
equal angles with HF.
Draw PK, pk perpendicular to the directrix ; join
HK, H&, join also FK, F k, meeting the tangents in
G and g. The triangles FPH, KPH have PF equal
to PK, and PH common to both, also the angle FPH
equal to KPH (3.), therefore FH is equal to KH,
and the angle HFP is equal to the angle HKP. In
like manner it may be shewn that FH is equal to &H,
and that the angle HFjo is equal to the angle H kp ;
therefore HK is equal to H &, and hence the angle
HK k is equal to H A: K : now the angles PK A, A K
are right angles, therefore the angle HKP is equal to
HA p ; but these angles have been shewn to be equal
to HFP and HFja respectively, therefore the lines
PF and pY make equal angles with HF.
Prop. V.
Two tangents to a parabola, which are limited by
their mutual intersection and the points in which
they touch the curve, are to each other recipro¬
cally as the sines of the angles they contain with
straight lines drawn from the points of contact
to the focus.
Fig. 6. Let HP, Hp, which intersect each other at H, be
tangents to a parabola at the points P, jp; and let PF,
jp F be drawn to the focus : then
HP : Up :: sine H p F : sine HPF.
Join HF ; and in FP take FQ equal to Fp, and join
HQ ; then, the angles at F being equal (4.), the tri¬
angles HFQ, HFp are equal, therefore HQ is equal
to Hp, and the angle HQF is equal to H^ F. Now,
in the triangle HPQ,
HP : HQ :: sine HQP or sine HQF : sine HPF (by
Trigon.)
therefore HP : Hp :: sine Up F : sine HPF.
Prop. VI.
Any straight line terminated both ways by a para¬
bola, and parallel to a tangent, is bisected by
the diameter that passes through the point of
contact; or is an ordinate to that diameter.
Part 1.
The straight line D d, terminated by the parabola, of ^
and parallel to the tangent HPA, is bisected at E by PE Para!
the diameter that passes through P the point of contact. '"T”*" J
Let KD, K c?, tangents at the points D, d, meet the
tangent at the vertex in H and h; draw DL, d l, pa¬
rallel to EP, meeting H ^ in L and /, and draw DF,
d F, PF to the focus.
Because H h is parallel to D r/,
HD : hdv. KD : K d.
But KD, K d being tangents to the parabola,
Sine Ar/F : sine HDF :: KD : K^ (5.),
Therefore, sine h dY : sine HDF :: HD : hd;
Now sine APF : sine h dY v. h d : A P (5.),
Therefore, (23.5.E.) sine APF: sine HDF :: HD : AP;
but sine HPF, or sine A PF : sine HDF :: HD ; HP,
therefore the ratio of HD to A P is the same as that of
HD to HP, wherefore HP=P A.
Again, because the angles HDF and h dY are re¬
spectively equal to HDL and A J/, (3.)
DH \ dh w sine h dl: sine HDL,
Now HL : DH :: sine HDL : sine HLD, or sine hid
(by Trigon.)
therefore (23.5.E.)HL:t/A:: sine AJ/: sineA/J :: hi: dh,
wherefore HL, and hi, have the same ratio to dh, hence
YYL—hl; and since it has been shewn that HPrrPA,
it follows that LPrrP/, and therefore DE=EA'.
Cor. 1. Straight lines which touch a parabola at the
extremities of an ordinate to a diameter intersect each
other in that diameter. For D d and H A being simi¬
larly divided at E and P, the straight line which joins
the points E, P, will pass through K the vertex of the
triangle DK d.
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a diameter is parallel to
a tangent at its vertex. For, if not, let a tangent be
drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the diameter drawn
through the point of contact would bisect the ordinate,
and thus the same line would be bisected in two differ¬
ent points, which is absurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the same diameter are
parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A straight line that bisects two parallel
chords, and terminates in the curve, is a diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to the axis are perpendicular
to it, and no other diameter is perpendicular to its ordi¬
nates. This is evident from 2 cor. and 5 cor. to Prop.
III.
Cor. 6. Hence the axis divides the parabola into
two parts which are similar to each other.
Prop. VII.
If a tangent to any point in a parabola meet a dia¬
meter, and from the point of contact an ordi¬
nate be drawn to that diameter, the segment of
the diameter between the vertex and the tan¬
gent is equal to the segment between the vertex
and the ordinate.
Let DK, a tangent to the curve at D, meet the Fig..;
diameter EP in K, and let DE</be an ordinate to that
diameter, PK is equal to PE.
Through P, the vertex of the diameter, draw the tan¬
gent PH, meeting KD in H > draw DL parallel to
EP, meeting PH in L, and draw DF, PF to the fo¬
cus : then
CONIC SECTIONS.
PH
’art I.
Of the
Parabola.
CONIC
PH : HD :: sine HDF : sine HPF (5.)
But the angle HDF is equal to HDL, and HPF is
equal to HPK (3.), that is (because of the parallel
lines DL, PK) to HLD, therefore
PH : HD :: sine HDL : sine HLD :: HL : HD,
wherefore PH=HL, and consequently PK=DL;
but PL is parallel to DE, by last proposition, and
therefore DL=PE, therefore PK=PE.
Prop. VIII.
If an ordinate to any diameter pass through the
focus, the absciss is equal to one-fourth of the
parameter of that diameter, and the ordinate is
equal to the whole parameter.
Let DE d, a straight line passing through the fo¬
cus, be an ordinate to the diameter PE 5 the absciss
PE is equal to £ the parameter, and the ordinate T)d
is equal to the whole parameter of the diameter PE.
Let DK, PI be tangents at D and P j let DK
meet the diameter in K $ draw PF to the focus, and
DL parallel to EP. The angles KPI, IPF being
equal (3.), and PI parallel to EF (2 cor. 6.), the
angles PEF, PFE are also equal (29. 1. E.), and
PE=PF=r^ the parameter (Def. 9. and Def. 1.).
Again, the angle KDE is equal to LDK (3.), and
therefore equal to DKE ; consequently ED is equal
to EK, or to twice EP (7.) : therefore D J is equal
to 4 EP, or to 4 PF, that is, to the parameter of the
diameter.
Prop. IX.
SECTIONS.
meter PN j draw PG a tangent to the curve
vertex of the diameter, and complete the
grams PEHG, PNKI ; then PG, PI are equal to
EH, NK, and GH, IK to PE, PN, respectively
therefore HE* : KN* :: PE : PN.
523
at the
parallelo-
Of the
Parabola,
Prop. X.
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of a pa¬
rabola, the rectangle under the absciss and the
parameter of the diameter is equal to the square
of the semi-ordinate.
Let HBA be an ordinate to the diameter PK, the Fig. S.
rectangle contained by PB and the parameter of the
diameter is equal to the square of HB, the semi-ordi-
nate.
Let DEd be that ordinate to the diameter which
passes through the focus. The semi-ordinates DE, Ef/
are each hall of the parameter, and the absciss EP is
one-fourth of the parameter (8.),
Therefore D d : DE :: DE : PE,
and D d • PE=DE*,
But Def-PE: Dd-PB, or PE: PB :: DE*: HB* (cor. 9.),
Therefore Def-PBrrHB*.
Scholium.
It was on account of the equality of the square of
the semi-ordinate to a rectangle contained by the pa¬
rameter of the diameter and the absciss, that Apollo¬
nius called the curve line to which the property be¬
longed a Parabola.
If any two diameters of a parabola be produced
to meet a tangent to the curve, the segments
of the diameters between their vertices and the
tangent are to one another as the squares of the
segments of the tangent intercepted between
each diameter and the point of contact.
fig- 9- Let QH, RK, any two diameters, be produced to
meet PI, a tangent to the curve at P, in the points G,
1} then
HG : KI :: PGa: PI*.
Let PN, a semi-ordinate to the diameter HQ, meet
KR in O, and let PR, a semi-ordinate to the diame¬
ter KO, meet HN in R; from H draw parallels to
NO and QR, meeting KR in L and M, thus HL is
a tangent to the curve, and HM a semi-ordinate to
XR.
Now KI=KR, and KL=KM (7.)
Therefore, by subtraction, LI=MRrrHQ,
But LO=HN=HG (7.)
Therefore by addition, 10=:GQ.
The triangles PGN, PIO, are similar, as also PGQ,
PIR, ’
Therefore GN : 10, or 2 GH : 10 :: PG : PI,
And GQ : IR, or 10 : 2IK :: PG : PI,’
Hence, taking the rectangles of the corresponding
• terms,
2GH • 10 : 210 • IK :: PG*: PI*
Therefore GH : IK PG* : PI*
Hg-10. Cor. The squares of semi-ordinates, and of ordinates
to any diameter, are to one another as their correspond¬
ing abscisses. Let HE^, KN& be ordinates to the dia-
Prop. XI.
A straight line drawn from the focus of a para¬
bola, perpendicular to a tangent, is a mean pro¬
portional between the straight line drawn from
the focus to the point of contact, and one-fourth
the parameter of the axis.
Let FB be a perpendicular from the focus upon Fig. ir.
the tangent PB, and FP a straight line drawn to the
point of contrct} let A be the principal vertex, and
therefore FA equal to one-fourth of the parameter of
the axis j IB is a mean proportional between FP and
FA.
Produce FB and FA to meet the directrix in D
and C, and join AB. The lines FC, FD are bisected
at A and B (3 cor. 3.), therefore (2. 6. E.) AB is
parallel to CD, or perpendicular to CF, and conse¬
quently a tangent to the curve at A (2 cor. 3.) ; now
BP is a tangent at P, therefore the angle AFB is
equal to BFP (4.), and since the angles FAB, FBP
are right angles, the triangles FAB, FBP are equian¬
gular ) hence
FP : FB :: FB : FA.
Cor. i. The common intersection of a tangent, and
a perpendicular from the focus to the tangent, is in a
straight line touching the parabola at its vertex.
Cor. 2. If PH be drawn perpendicular to the tan¬
gent meeting the axis in H, and HK be drawn perpen¬
dicular to PF, PK shall be equal to half the parameter
of the axis. For the triangles HPK, FBP are mani¬
festly equiangular, therefore
HP ; PK :: PF : FB :: FB : FA :: FD : FC,f
3 U 2 But
5 24
CONIC SECTIONS.
Par [,
Of the But if PD be joined, the line PD is evidently per-
Parabola. pendicular to the directrix (3.)» therefore the figure
V,“—'v HPDF is a parallelogram, and HPz=:FD, therefore
PK=rC=half the parameter of the axis.
Prop. XIII. Problem.
The directrix and focus of a parabola being given
by position, to describe the parabola.
Oft
Parat) ,
Prop. XII.
If an ordinate and absciss of a parabola be com¬
pleted into a parallelogram, the area of the
parabola, included between the ordinate and
the curve, is two thirds of the parallelo¬
gram.
Fig- n. Let AN be any diameter of a parabola, and PQ
an ordinate to that diameter. Let BC be drawn
through A, parallel to PQ, and let PB, QC be
drawn parallel to NA ; the area comprehended by the
curve line PAQ and ordinate PQ is two thirds of the
parallelogram PBCQ. Join PA, QA, and draw the
tangents PT, QT, meeting the diameter NA in T,
and BC in E and G ; through E and G draw the
diameters EFD, GHK, which will bisect PA, QA
in D and K, (i cor. 6.) and through F and H, the
vertices, draw the tangents B.L, MV $ join PF, AF,
also QH, AH. Because NA—AT (7.) and there¬
fore PQ=2 EG, the triangle PAQ is double the tri¬
angle ETG. For the same reason the triangles
PFA, QHA are double the triangles BEL, VGM
respectively, therefore the inscribed figure PFAHQ is
double the external figure TRLMV. If diameters were
drawn through the points R, L, M, V, and straight
lines were drawn joining the vertices of every two adja¬
cent diameters, also tangents at the vertices of the dia¬
meters which pass through the points R, L, M, V, there
■would thus be inscribed in the parabola a new figure
which would have the same base PQ, as the former,
but the number of the remaining sides double that of
the former j and corresponding to it there would be a
new external figure formed by the tangents at the
vertices of the diameters, but still the same proportion
between the two figures would hold, or the former
would be double the latter, and this would evidently
be the case, if the operation of inscribing and circum¬
scribing a new figure were repeated continually. Now
it is evident that by thus inscribing continually the
number of sides of the inscribed figure, it approaches
nearer and nearer to the area of the parabola, which is
its limit; also that the external figure approaches to
the area contained by the two tangents TP, TQ and
the parabolic arch PAQ, which space is its limit ;
and since the limits of any two quantities which have
a constant ratio must have the same proportion to each
other as the quantities themselves, the area contained
by the parabolic arch PAQ and the ordinate PQ must
be double the area contained by the same arch and the
two tangents TP, TQ, and therefore must be two
thirds of the area of the triangle TPQ, which
triangle is evidently equal to the parallelogram
PBCQ,
First Method. Fy Mechanical Description.
Let AB be the given directrix, and F the focus. Fig 1
Place the edge of the ruler ABKH along the directrix
AB, and keep it fixed in that position. Let LCG be
another ruler of such a form that the part LC may
slide along AB the edge of the fixed ruler ABKH,
and the part CG may have its edge CD constantly
perpendicular to AB. Let GDF be a string of the
same length as GC the edge of the moveable ruler j
let one end of the string be fixed at F, and the other
fastened to G, a point in the moveable ruler. By
means of the pin D let the string be stretched, so
that the part of it between G and D may be applied
close to the edge of the moveable ruler, while, at the
same time, the ruler slides along AB the edge of the
fixed ruler; the pin D will thus be constrained to
move along CG the edge of the ruler, and its point
will trace upon the plane in which the directrix and
focus are situated a curve line DE, which is the para¬
bola required. For the string GDF being equal in
length to GDC, if GD be taken from both, there re¬
mains DF equal to DC ; that is, the distance of the
moving point D from the focus is equal to its distance
from the directrix, therefore the point D describes a
parabola.
Second Method. By finding any number of points
in the curve.
Through the focus F draw EFC perpendicnlar to the Fig. 1
directrix, and EC will be the axis. Draw any straight
line HEA parallel to the directrix, meeting the axis in
E any point below the vertex j and on F as a centre,
with a radius equal to CE, describe a circle cutting
FLh in D and d; these will be points in the parabola
required, as is sufficiently evident.
Prop. XIV. Problem.
A parabola being given by position, to find its
directrix and focus.
Let DPd be the given parabola; draw any two pjg, i
parallel chords DJ, Ee, and bisect them at El and K }
join KH, meeting the parabola in P, the straight line
PHK is the diameter (4 cor. 6.) the point Pis its ver¬
tex, and Dr/, Ee, are ordinates to it. In HP produ¬
ced take PL equal to one fourth part of a third pro¬
portional to PH and HD, and draw LN perpendicu¬
lar to PL, the line LN will evidently be the directrix
(10. & Def. 9.). Draw PM parallel to the ordinates
to the diameter PK, then PM will be a tangent to the
curve at P (2 cor. 6.). Draw LM perpendicular to
PM, and take MFzrML, and the point F will be the
focus of the parabola (3 cor. 3.).
PART
CONIC SECTIONS,
525
irt II*
PART XI. OP THE ELLIPSE.
Definitions.
I. If two points F and ybe given in a plane, and a
point D be conceived to move around them in such a
manner that Dy-f-DF, the sum of its distances from
them, is always the same, the point D will describe
upon the plane a line AB ab, which is called an
Ellipse.
II. The given points F,yare called the Foci of the
ellipse.
III. The point C, which bisects the straight line
between the foci, is called the Centre.
IV. The distance of either focus from the centre is
called the Excentricity.
V. A straight line passing through the centre, and
terminated both ways by the ellipse, is called a Dia¬
meter.
VI. The extremities of a diameter are called its
Vertices.
VII. The diameter which passes through the foci is
called the Transverse Axis, also the Greater Axis.
VIII. The diameter which is perpendicular to the
transverse axis is called the Conjugate Axis, also the
Lesser Axis.
IX. Any straight line not passing through the
centre, but terminated both ways by the ellipse, and
bisected by a diameter, is called an Ordinate to that
diameter.
X. Each of the segments of a diameter intercept¬
ed between its vertices and an ordinate, is called an
Absciss.
XI. A straight line which meets the ellipse in one
point only, and everywhere else falls without it, is said
to touch the ellipse in that point, and is called a Tan¬
gent to the ellipse.
Prop. I.
If from any point in an ellipse two straight lines
be drawn to the foci, their sum is equal to the
transverse axis.
Let AB a & be an ellipse, of which F, f are the
foci, and A a the transverse axis j let D be any point
in the curve, and DF, D f lines drawn to the foci,
Dyq-DF—A a,
Because A, a are the points in the ellipse,
Ay+AFrraF-fff y(Def. 1.)
therefore Fyq-2AF=Faf>
Hence 2AF=r2 af, and XY=zaJ\
and Ay+AF=A fX.af=X a.
But D and A being points in the ellipse,
Dy-fDF=Ay+AF,
therefore Dyq-DFzrA o.
Cor. 1. The sum of two straight lines drawn from
» point without the ellipse to the foci is greater than
the transverse axis. And the sum of two straight lines
drawn from a point within the ellipse to the foci is less
than the transverse axis.
Let PF, P / be drawn from a point without the el-Fig. 17.
lipse to the foci •, let Py meet the ellipse in D ; join
FD', then P/'q-PF is greater than Dyq-DF (21.
I. E.), that is, than A a. Again, let QF, Q y be
drawn from a point within the ellipse, let Q/ meet
the curve in D, and join FD 5 Qyq-QF is less than
Dyq-DF (21. I. E.), that is, than A a.
Cor. 2. A point is without or within the ellipse, ac¬
cording as the sum of two lines drawn from it to the
foci is greater or less than the transverse axis.
Cor. 3. The transverse axis is bisected in the centre.
Let C be the centre, then CFrrCf (Def. 3.), and
¥A—f a, therefore CArrCtf.
Cor. 4. The distance of either extremity of the
conjugate axis from either of the foci is equal to half
the transverse axis. Let B be the conjugate axis ;
join ¥ b, fb. Because CF=C f, and C 6 is common
to the triangles CF b, Cfb, also the angles at C are
right angles, these triangles are equal ; hence F b—Jb,
and since F b^rbf-h- o, F b=zAC.
Cor. 5. The conjugate axis is bisected in the cen¬
tre. Join fb,f B. By the last corollary Rf—bf,
therefore the anglesy BC,y C are equal *, now fC is
common to the tringles f CB, f C b, and the angles at
C are right angles, therefore (26. I. E.) CBzzC A
Prop. II.
Every diameter of an ellipse is bisected in the
centre.
Let Pbe a diameter, it is bisected in C. For ifpjg. is.
C 79 be not equal to CP, take CQ equal to CP, and
from the points P, p, Q draw lines to F, f the foci.
The triangles FCP,yCQ, having ¥C—Cf, PCzzCQ,
and the angles at C equal, are in all respects equal,
therefore FP=yQ; in like manner it appears that
yP=FQ, therefore FQ-fyQ is equal to FP-}-yP,
or, (Def. 1.), to Fp+fp, which is absurd (21. I. E.),
therefore CP=C p.
Cor. 1. Every diameter meets the ellipse in two
points only.
Cor. 2. Every diameter divides the ellipse into two
parts which are equal 4nd similar, the like parts of the
curve being at opposite extremities of the diameter.
Prop III.
The square of half the conjugate axis of an ellipse
is equal to the rectangle contained by the seg¬
ments into which the transverse axis is divided
by either focus.
Draw a straight line from y either of the foci, tof'S- I7'
B, either of the extremities of the conjugate axis.
Then BC*q-Cy*=By3=C a3 (4 cor. 1.),
But because A o is bisected at C,
C a*—Af'fa-\-Cf%,
therefore BC*q-Cy*=Ay’yaq-Cy *,
and BC’=Ay-ya..
Prop.
CONIC SECTIONS.
Prop. IV.
The straight line which bisects the angle adjacent
to that which is contained by two straight lines
drawn from any point in the ellipse to the foci
is a tangent to the curve in that point.
Scholium.
Prop. V.
The tangents at the vertices of any diameter of an
ellipse are parallel.
:
Fig. Let D be any point in the curve j let DF, F)/ be
straight lines drawn to the foci, the straight line DE
which bisects the angle_/"DG adjacent toy'Dt, is a
tangent to the curve at 1).
Take H any other point in X)E, take DGzziy,
and join H/, HE, HG, /G j let /G meet HE in L
Because D/=DG, and HI is common to the triangles
H/I, BGI and the angles ,/HI, GHI are equal,
these triangles are equal, and / I~IG, and hence
/H—HG (4. 1. E.), so that GH+/H=FH+GH5
hut FH-f-HG is greater than FG, that is, greater
than FB-}-/B or Aa, therefore FH-j-/’H is greater
than Aa, hence the point H is without the ellipse
(2 cor. 1.), and therefore BHI is a tangent to the
curve at B (Bef. 11.).
Cor. 1. There cannot be more than one tangent at
the same point. For B is such a point in the line
BE that-the sum of BF, B/j the distances of that
point from the foci, is evidently less than the sum of
HF, Hyj the distances of H any other point in that
line } and if another line KBL be drawn through
B, there is in like manner a point K in that line,
which will be different from B, such that the sum of
FK,/K is less than the sum of the distances of any
other point in KL, and therefore less than FB+^/B j
therefore the point K will be within the ellipse
(2 cor. 1.), and the line KL will cut the curve.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the transverse axis at
either of its extremities is a tangent to the curve.
The demonstration is the same as for the proposition,
if it be considered that when B falls at either extre-
inity of the axis, the point I falls also at the extremity
of the axis, and thus the tangent BE, which is al¬
ways perpendicular to fl, is perpendicular to the
axis.
Cor. 3. A perpendicular to the conjugate axis at
either of its extremities is a tangent to the curve. For
the perpendicular evidently bisects the angle adjacent
to that which is contained by lines drawn from the ex¬
tremity to the foci.
Cor. 4. A tangent to the ellipse makes equal
angles with straight lines drawn from the point of
contact to the foci. For the angle /BE being equal
to GBE, is also equal to FBM, which is vertical to
GBE.
Let Py> be a diameter, HPK, h p k tangents at its Fig. j$.
vertices ; draw straight lines from P and p to F and f
the foci. The triangles FCP,/C/>, having YCzzJ'c,
CPrrCp (2), and the angles at C equal, are in all
respects equal j and because the angle FPC is equal to
Ypf, FP is parallel to fp (27. I. E.) 5 therefore P/
is equal and parallel to 7? F (33. I. E.), thus FP//> is
a parallelogram, of which the opposite angles P and p
are equal (34. 1. E.). Now the angles FPH, f p h
are evidently half the supplements of these angles
(4 cor. 4.), therefore the angles FPH,/p A, and hence
CPH, Qjp h are also equal, and consequently HP is
parallel to h p.
Cor. I. If tangents be drawn to an ellipse at the
vertices of a diameter, straight lines drawn from either
focus to the points of contact make equal angles
with these tangents. For the angle F o A is equal to
FPH.
Cor. 2. The axes of an ellipse are the only diame¬
ters which are perpendicular to tangents at their ver¬
tices. For let Py> be any other diameter, then PF
andy^F are necessarily unequal, and therefore the angles
F p P, FPp are also unequal ; to these add the equal
angles ¥p k, FPH, and the angles Cp k, CPH are
unequal, therefore neither of them can be a right angle
(29. I. E.).
Prop. VI.
A straight line drawn from either focus of an
ellipse to the intersection of two tangents to
the curve, will make equal angles with straight
lines drawn from the same focus to the points
of contact.
From the property of the ellipse, which forms this
last corollary, the points F and/ take the name of
Foci. For writers on optics shew that if a polished
surface be formed, whose figure is that produced by the
revolution of an ellipse about its transverse axis, rays
of light which flow from one focus, and fall upon that
surface, are reflected to the other focus, so that if a lu¬
minous point be placed in one focus, there is formed by
reflection an image of it in the other focus.
Let HP, Hp be tangents to an ellipse at thep;g<20|
points P, p; let a straight line be drawn from H,
their intersection, to F, either of the foci, and let
FP, Ft> be drawn to the points of contact, the lines
PF and p F make equal angles with HF.
Braw P/ pf to the other focus; in FP, F p pro¬
duced take PKrrP/ and pk—pf; join HK, HA:, and
let fYL,fk be drawn, meeting the tangents at G and
g. The triangles /PH, KPH, have P/:r:PK, by
construction, and PH common to both, also the angle
/PH equal to KPH (4.), therefore /H is equal to
KH. In like manner it may be shewn that/H is
equal to A:H, therefore HK is equal to HA:,* now
FK is equal to F k, for each is equal to FP-f-P/ or
Fp-\-pf that is, to the transverse axis; therefore the
triangles FKH, F A: H are in all respects equal, and
hence the angle KFH is equal to k FH j therefore
PF and p F make equal angles with HF.
Prop. VII.
Two tangents to an ellipse, which are limited by
their mutual intersection, and the points in
which
CONIC SECTIONS.
pit II.
which they touch the curve, are to each other
3 ps«. reciprocally as the sines of the angles they con-
*■' tain with straight lines drawn from the points of
contact to either focus.
Fij u Let the straight lines HP, Hp, which intersect each
other at H, be tangents to an ellipse at the points Yp,
and let PF, p¥ be drawn to either focus j then
HP : Up :: sine H^F : sine HPF.
Join HF, and in FP take FQ equal to Yp, and join
HQ; then the angles at F being equal (6.) the tri¬
angles HFQ, HF/> are equal, therefore HQ is equal
to Ho, and the angle HQF is equal to H/jF. Now,
in the triangle HPQ,
527
Of tho
Ellipse.
HP : HQ :: sine HQP or sine HQF : sine HPF (Trigon.)
therefore HP : Yip :: sine HpF : sine HPF.
Lemma.
Let KL/ be a triangle, having its base L / bisected
at />, and let H h, any straight line parallel to
the base, and terminated by the sides, be bi¬
sected at P ; then P, py the points of bisection,
and K, the vertex of the triangle, are in the
same straight line, and that line bisects D^/, any
other line parallel to the base.
F 22. Complete the parallelograms KHPM, KL^N. The
triangles KH^, KL/ being similar, and HA, L/ simi¬
larly divided at P and py
KH : KL :: HA : L/ :: HP : ~Lp,
hence the parallelograms KHPM, KL^N are similar.
Now they have a common angle at K, therefore they
are about the same diameter, that is, the points K, P, p
are in the same straight line (26. 6. F..).
Next, let Y)d meet K/> in E, then
HP : HE (:: KP : KE) :: PA : Yd,
therefore HE is equal to Drf.
Prop. VIII.
Any straight line not passing through the centre,
but terminated both ways by an ellipse, and
parallel to a tangent, is bisected by the diame¬
ter that passes through the point of contact; or
is an ordinate to that diameter.
F 33. The straight line Df/, terminated by the ellipse,
and parallel to the tangent HPA, is bisected at E, by
Yp, the diameter that passes through the point of con¬
tact.
Let ~Lpl he a tangent at the other extremity of the
diameter, and let KH, Ktf, tangents at the points B, d,
meet the parallel tangents, HPA, Yp l in the points
H, L, A, /, and draw HF, </F, PF, F to either fo¬
cus. Because HA is parallel to Y)d,
HB : hd :: KB : Kd.
But, KH, KeZ being tangents to the ellipse,
Sine 7idF : sine HHF :: KH : KJ (7.)
therefore sine hdF : sine HBL :: HH : hd.,
Now, sine APF : sine hdY :: hd : AP (7.)
therefore (23. 5. E.) sine APF : HHF :: HI) : HP;
bat sine HPF or sine APF : sine HHF :: HH : HP,
therefore the ratio of HH to AP is the same a,s that of
HH to HP, wherefore PH=PA. In the same man¬
ner it may be demonstrated that pY—p /, therefore
(Lemma) the diameter p P when produced passes
through K, and bisects H d, which is parallel to II A
or L /, at E.
Cor I. Straight lines which touch an ellipse at the
extremities of an ordinate to any diameter intersect
each other in that diameter.
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a diameter is parallel to
a tangent at its vertex. For if not, let a tangent be
drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the diameter
drawn through the point of contact would bisect the
ordinate, and thus the same line would be bisected in
two different points, which is absurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the same diameter are
parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A straight line that bisects two parallel
chords and terminates in the curve is a diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to either axis are perpendi¬
cular to that axis ; and no other diameter is perpendi¬
cular to its ordinates. This follows evidently from
2 and 3 cor. to prop. 4. and 2 cor. to prop. 5.
Cor. 6. Hence each axis divides the ellipse into
two parts which are similar and equal.
Prop. IX.
If a tangent to an ellipse meet a diameter, and
from the point of contact an ordinate be drawn
to that diameter, the semi-diameter will be a
mean proportional between the segments of the
diameter intercepted between the centre and the
ordinate, and between the centre and the tan-
gent.
Let HK, a tangent to the curve at H, meet the Fi,r> 24>
diameter pY, produced in K, and let BEc/ be au ordi¬
nate to that diameter.
Then CE : CP :: CP : CK.
Through P and p, the vertices of the diameter, draw
the tangents PH and pY, meeting KH in H and L ;
these tangents are parallel to each other (5.) and to
HE, the ordinate, by the last proposition. Braw PF,
pY, HF to either of the foci. Then
HH : PH :: sine HPF : sine HHF") ,
and HL pY sine Yp F : sine LHF j
Now the angles HPF, YpY are equal (cor. 5.) and
the sine of HHF is the same as that of LHF, therelore
HH : PH :: HL : pY,
and by alternation,
HH : HL :: PH : pY;
therefore, because of the parallel lipes PH, EH, plj,
EP \Yp\: PK : p K.
Take
528
Of the
Ellipse.
CONIC
Take CG=CE, then by division
, EG : EP :: Yp : PK,
and taking the halves of the antecedents,
CE : EP :: CP : PK >
hence, by composition, CE : CP :: CP : CK.
Ellip
SECTIONS. Part
Cor. i. The rectangle contained by PE and Ej) is Oft
equal to the rectangle contained by KE and CE.
For PC*=KC CE=KE-EC4.EC» (3. 2. E.)
also PC^PE-E/7+EC* (5. 2. E.)
therefore KE-EC + EC2=PE-Ep+EC%
and KE-EC=PE-Ep.
Cor. 2. The rectangle contained by
PK and Kp is equal to the rectangle contained by KE and KC.
For KC1—PK'K^-fCP1 (6. 2. E.)
also KC,=EK-KC-f-EC-KC=EK-KC + CP* (1. 2. E. and by the prop.)
therefore PK'K^-b^^*—KKtKE"f'C^a>
and PK’KprzEK’KC.
Prop. X.
If a diameter of an ellipse be parallel to the ordi¬
nates to another diameter, the latter diameter
shall be parallel to the ordinates to the former.
Fig. 24, Let Pp, a diameter of an ellipse, be parallel toDEJ
any ordinate to the diameter Q^, the diameter Qq shall
be parallel to the ordinates to the diameter Pp.
Draw the diameter t/CG through one extremity of
the ordinate d D, and join G and D, the other extre¬
mity, meeting P^j in H. Because dG is bisected at
C, and CH is parallel to d D, the line DG is bisected
at H, therefore DG is an ordinate to the diameter P/>.
And because d G and d D are bisected at C and E,
the diameter Q</ is parallel to DG (2. 6. E.) there¬
fore Q q is parallel to any ordinate to the diameter P/>.
Definitions.
XII. Two diameters are said to be conjugate to one
another when each is parallel to the ordinates to the
other diameter.
Cor. Diameters which are conjugate to one ano¬
ther are parallel to tangents at the vertices of each
other.
XIII. A third proportional to any diameter and its
conjugate is called the Parameter, also the Latus rec¬
tum of that diameter.
Prop. XI.
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of an
ellipse, the rectangle under the abscisses of the
diameter will be to the square of the semi-ordi-
dinate as the square of the diameter to the square
of its conjugate.
Fig- 25. Let DEJ be an ordinate to the diameter Pp, and
let Qy be its conjugate, then
PE’Ep : DE* :: P^* : Q^*.
Let KDL a tangent at D meet the diameter in K,
and its conjugate in L; draw DG parallel to Yp, meet¬
ing Qy in G. Because CP is a mean proportional
between CE and CK (9.)
CP2 : CE* :: CK : CE (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
and by division CP* : PE'Ep :: CK : KE.
But, because ED is parallel to CL,
CK ; KE :: CL : DE or CG,
and because CQ is a mean proportional between CG
and CL (9,)
CL : CG :: CQ* : CG* or ED* •,
therefore CP* : PE'Ey? :: CQ* : DE*,
and by inversion and alternation,
PE Ep : DE* ?: CP* : CQ* :: Yp\: Qy*.
Cor. 1. The squares of semi-ordinates and of ordi¬
nates to any diameter of an ellipse are to one another
as the rectangles contained by the corresponding ab¬
scisses.
Cor. 2. The ordinates to any diameter, which in¬
tercept equal segments of that diameter from the cen¬
tre, are equal to one another, and, conversely, equal or¬
dinates intercept equal segments of the diameter from
the centre.
Cor. 3. If a circle be described upon ha, either of^'S-2
the axes of an ellipse, as a diameter, and DE, d e, any
two semi-ordinates to the axes meet the circle in H and
h, DE shall be to Je as HE to he. For
DE* \ dP \x AE-E a : he.ea :: HE* : he2,
therefore DE \ d e :: HE : h e.
Cor. 4. If a circle be described upon ha the trans¬
verse axis as a diameter, and DE, any ordinate to the
axis, be produced to meet the circle in H, HE shall
be to DE as the transverse axis A a to the conjugate
axis BA For, produce the conjugate axis to meet the
circle in K, then, by last corollary,
HE : DE :: KC, or AC : BC :: Aa : B A
Cor. 5. And if HE be divided at D, so that HE
is to DE, as the transverse axis to the conjugate axis,
D is a point in the ellipse, and DE a semi-ordinate to
the axis A a.
Prop. XII.
The transverse axis of an ellipse is the greatest of
all its diameters, and the conjugate axis is the
least of all its diameters.
Let ha be the transverse axis, B3 tire conjugate pig. •
axis, and CD any semidiameter. Draw DE perpendi¬
cular to ha, and DL perpendicular to BA
Because Ao* : BZ>* :: AE'Eo : DE* (11.)
and Aa* is greater than BA,
therefore AE’Ea is greater than DE* *,
and AE-Ea-f EC* is greater than DE*-j-EC2,
that is, AC* is greater than DC*,
therefore, AC is greater than DC.
By
f :t ir.
CONIC SECTIONS.
529
f the By the same manner of reasoning it may be shewn that
llipse. because is less than Aa%
BL • + is less than DL2-j-CL*j
that is, BC* is less than DC*,
and BC less than DC.
Prop. XIII.
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of an
ellipse, the rectangle under the abscisses of the
diameter is to the square of the semi-ordinate
as the diameter to its parameter.
*7* Let DE be a semi-ordinate to the diameter P/>, let
PG be the parameter of the diameter, and Qg' the con¬
jugate diameter. By the definition of the parameter
(Def. 13.)
Yp : Qy :: Qg- : PG,
therefore P/5 : PG :: P/>2 : Qg* (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But P/7* : Qg* :: PE • Ejy : DE*, (n.)
therefore PE • E/j : DE* :: P/j : PG.
Cor. Let the parameter PG be perpendicular to
the diameter Yp; join pG, and from E draw EM pa¬
rallel to PG, meeting/7G in M. The square of DE,
the semi-ordinate, is equal to the rectangle contained
by PE and EM.
For PE • E/7 : DE* :: Yp : PG,
and Yp : PG :: Yp : EM :: PE • Yp : PE’ EM,
therefore DE*=rPE • EM.
Scholium.
If the rectangles PGL/7, HGKM be completed, it
will appear that the square of ED is equal to the rect¬
angle MP, which rectangle is less than the rectangle
K.P, contained by the absciss PE and parameter PG,
by a rectangle KH similar and similarly situated to
LP, the rectangle contained by the diameter and para¬
meter. It was on account of the deficiency of the square
of the ordinate from the rectangle contained by the
absciss and parameter that Apollonius called the curve
line to which the property belonged an Ellipse.
Prop. XIV.
If from the vertices of two conjugate diameters of
an ellipse there be drawn ordinates to any third
diameter, the square of the segment of that di¬
ameter intercepted between either ordinate and
the centre is equal to the rectangle contained
by the segments between the other ordinate and
the vertices of the same diameter.
Of the
Ellipse.
Let P/j, Qg be two conjugate diameters, and PE, Eig. 28.
QG semi-ordinates to any third diameter Rr, then
CG*=RE • E r, and CE*=RG • Gr.
D raw the tangents PH, QK meeting R r in H and
K. The rectangles HC * CE and KC • CG are equal,
for each is equal CR* (9.), therefore
HC : CK :: CG : CE,
But the triangles HPC, CQK are evidently similar
(cor. def. 12.) 5 and PE being parallel to QG, their bases
CH, KC are similarly divided at E and G, therefore
HC : CK :: HE : CG
wherefore CG : CE :: HE : CG,
consequently CG*=CE • EHz=:(i cor. 9.) RE * Yr.
In like manner it may be shewn that CE*=rRG • G r.
Cor. I. Let Ss be the diameter that is conjugate
to R r, then R r is to S.? as CG to PE, or as CE to
QG.
For R r3 : S 6* :: RE • E r, or CG* : PE*,
therefore Rr : Ss :: CG : PE.
In like manner Rr : Ss :: CE : QG.
Cor. 2. The sum of the squares of CE, CG, the
segments of the diameter to which the semi-ordinates
PE, QG are drawn, is equal to the square of CR the
semi-diameter.
For CE*-f-CG*=:CE*-fRE • EG=CR*.
Cor. 3. The sum of the squares of any two conju¬
gate diameters is equal to the sum of the squares of the
axes.
Let R r, S ^ be the axes, and P/j, Q g any two con¬
jugate diameters j draw PE, QG perpendicular to Rr,
and PL, QM perpendicular to S^. Then
CE*-f CG*=CR*, and CM* + CL3, or GQ*-f PE*=CS* j
therefore CE* -f-PE*-f C G2+GQ*=CR2 -f CS*,
that is (47. 1. E.), CP* -}- CQ*zrCR* -j- CS*,
therefore P/>*-f Q g*=R r-J-S s*.
Prop. XV.
If four straight lines be drawn touching an ellipse
at the vertices of any two conjugate diameters,
the parallelogram formed by these lines is equal
to the rectangle contained by the transverse and
conjugate axis.
!“• Let Yp, Qg be any two conjugate diameters, a pa¬
rallelogram DEGH formed by tangents to the curve
at their vertices is equal to the rectangle contained by
Act, B £ the two axes.
Produce A. a, one of the axes, to meet the tangent
PE in K, join QK, and draw PL, QM perpendicular
to A a.
Vol. VI. Part II. +
Because CK : CA :: CA : CL (9.)
and CA : CB :: CL : QM (1 cor. 14.)
ex aeq. CK : CB :: CA : QM,
therefore CK * QM=CB • CA.
But C • QMrrtwice trian. CKQrrparal. CPEQ, there¬
fore the parallelogram CPEQrrCB • CA,
and taking the quadruples of these, the parallelogram
DEGH is equal to the rectangle contained by A a and
B6.
Prop. XVI.
If two tangents at the vertices of any diameter of pIalei
an ellipse meet a third tangent, the rectangle CLVIII.
contained by their segments between the points
3 ^ of
530
Of the
Ellipse.
CONIC S
of contact, and the points of intersection, is
equal to the square of the semi-diameter to
which they are parallel. And the rectangle
contained by the segments of the third tangent
between its points of contact and the parallel
tangents, is equal to the square of the semi¬
diameter to which it is parallel.
Fig. 30. Let PH, p h tangents at the vertices of a diame¬
ter Vp meet HI) h, a tangent to a curve at any point
D, in H and h ; let CQ be the semi-diameter to which
the tangents PH, p h are parallel, and CR that to
which H h is parallel, then,
PH -i^CQ2, and DH • DA=CR*.
If the tangent HD/z be parallel to Pjp the propo¬
sition is manifest. If it is not parallel, let it meet the
semi-diameters CP, CQ, in L and K. Draw DE,
RM parallel to CQ, and DG parallel to CP.
Because LP • Lp=LE * LC (2 cor. 9.),
LP : LE :: LC : Lp,
hence, and because of the parallels PH, ED, CK,^? h,
PH: ED:: CK :/>£,
wherefore PH • p /zzrED * CK,
but ED • CK=CG • CK=CQ2 (9.)
therefore PH • p /z=CQa.
Again the triangles LED, CMR are evidently simi¬
lar, Land LE, LD similarly divided at H and P, also
at h and />,
therefore PE : HD :: (LE : LD :: ) CM : CR,
also E : A D :: (LE : LD :: ) CM : CR,
hence, taking the rectangles of the corresponding terms,
PE • ^ E : HD • /zD :: CM*: CR*.
But if CD be joined, the points D and R are evidently
the vertices of two conjugate diameters (cor. Def. 12.)
and therefore PE ' p Ezz:CM2 (14.)
therefore HD • /zD=CR*.
Cor. The rectangle contained by LD and DK, the
segments ot a tangent intercepted between D the point
ol contact and Pjo, Q^, any two conjugate diameters, is
equal to the square ot CR, the semi-diameter to which
the tangent is parallel.
Let the parallel tangents PH, p h meet LK in H and
A, and draw DE a semi-ordinate to Pp. Because of
the parallels PH, ED, CK,
LE : LD :: EP : DH,
and EC : DK :: Ep : D/z,
therefore LE • EC : LD • DK :: EP • Ep : DH • D/L
But LE • ECzrEP ■ Ep (1 cor. 9.)
therefore LD/ DKzrDH • DA= (by this prop.) CR2.
Prop. XVII.
If two straight lines be drawn from the foci of
an ellipse perpendicular to a tangent, straight
lines drawn from the centre, to the points in
which they meet the tangent, will each be
equal to half the transverse axis.
3
E C T I O N S. Part I]
Let DPg? be a tangent to the curve at P, and ED, Qfli)e
fd perpendiculars to the tangent from the foci, the Ellipse,
straight lines joining the points C, D, and C, z/, are *—v~~
each equal to AC half the transverse axis. Fig. 31.
Join FP/P,and produce FD,yP till they intersect
in E. The triangles FDP, EDP, have the angles at D
right angles, and the angles FPD, EPD equal (4) and
the side DP common to both, they are therefore equal,
and consequently have EDrzDF, and EP=PF,
wherefore E/i^FP-f-P/b:Aa. Now the straight lines
FE, F/i being bisected at D and C, the line DC is
parallel to E/j and thus the triangles F/E, FCD are
similar,
therefore Ff: /"EC or Ao :: FC : CD,
but FC is half of Fjf, therefore CD is half of Ao. In
like manner it may be shewn that C is half of Ac.
Cor. If the diameter Q y be drawn parallel to the
tangent Dz/, it will cut off from PF, V f the segments
PG, Pg, each equal to AC half the transverse axis.
For C</PG, CD P g are parallelograms, therefore
PG=z* C-AC, and P^-DC-AC,
Prop. XVIII.
The rectangle contained by perpendiculars drawn
from the foci of an ellipse to a tangent, is equal
to the square of half the conjugate axis.
Let DP z£ be a tangent, and FD, fd perpendicu- Fig. 31.
lars from the foci, the rectangle contained by FD and
fd is equal to the square of CB half the conjugate axis.
It is evident from the last proposition that the points
D, d are in the circumference of a circle whose cen¬
tre is the centre of the ellipse, and radius GA, half the
transverse axis 5 now FDz/ being a right angle, if z/C
be joined, the lines DF, d C when produced will meet
at II, a point in the circumference 5 and since FC=
yC, and CH=C d} and the angles FCH, yCz/ are
equal, FH is equal to f d, therefore
DF • zf/=DF • FH=AF - Fo (35.3. E.)=CB* (3.).
Cor. If PF, P./ be drawn from the point of con¬
tact to the foci, the square of FD is a fourth propor¬
tional to/P, FP and BC*. For the lines %/P, FP
make equal angles with the tangent (4 cor. 4,) and
yj P, FDP are right angles, therefore the angles
/P d, FPD are similar, and
/P : FP fd: FD :fd- FD or CB* : FD2,
Prop. XIX.
If from C the centre of an ellipse a straight 3^
line CL be drawn perpendicular to a tangent
LD, and from D the point of contact a perpen¬
dicular be drawn to the tangent, meeting the
transverse axis in H, and the conjugate axis in
hy the rectangle contained by CL and DH is
equal to the square of CB, the semi-conjugate
axis; and the rectangle contained by CL and
DA is equal to the square of C, the semi-
transverse axis.
Produce the axes to meet the tangent in M and
niy and from D draw the semi-ordinates DE, D et
which will be perpendicular to the axes.
The
rt II. CONICS
Cthe The triangles DEH, CL are evidently equi-an-
lipse. gular, therefore
' DH : DE :: Cm : CL,
hence CL • DHrrDE • Cm;
but DE * Cm, or Ce * CmzrBC*,
therefore CL * DH=rBC*.
In the same way it is shewn that CL • D JizzAC1.
Cor. I. If a perpendicular be drawn to a tangent at
the point of contact, the segments intercepted between
the points of contact, and the axes, are to each other
E C T I O N S.
reciprocally as the squares of the axes by which they
are terminated.
For AC* : BC
CL • D A : CL • DH :: D h : DH.
531
Of the
Ellipse.
Cor. 2. If BF be drawn to either focus, and HK
be drawn perpendicular to DF, the straight line DK
shall be equal to half the parameter of the transverse
axis.
Draw CG parallel to the tangent at D, meeting
DH in N, and DF in G. The triangles GDN,
HDK are similar, therefore
GD : DN :: HD : DK, and hence GD * DK=HD * DN.
But GD= AC (cor. 17.) and NDrzrCL,
therefore AC ’ DKrrHD * C.Lrr (by the prop.) CB*,
wherefore AC : BC :: BC : DK, hence DK is half the parameter of A o (Def. 13.).
Definitions.
XIV. If a point G be taken in the transverse axis
of an ellipse produced, so that the distance of G from
the centre may be a third proportional to CF the ex-
centricity, and CA the semi-transverse axis, a straight
line GH h, drawn through G perpendicular to the axis,
is called the Directrix of the ellipse.
Cor. 1. If MF m, an ordinate to the axis, be
drawn through the focus, tangents to the ellipse at the
extremities of the ordinate will meet the axis at the
point G (9.)
Cor. 2. The ellipse has two directrices, for the
point G may be taken on either side of the centre.
Prop. XX.
The distance of any point in an ellipse from either
directrix is to its distance from the focus near¬
est that directrix in the constant ratio of the se¬
mi-transverse axis to the excentricity.
^ Let D be any point in the ellipse, letDK be drawn
perpendicular to the directrix, and let DF be drawn
to the focus nearest the directrix *, DK is to DF as
CA, half the transverse axis, to CF, the excentricity.
Draw D/to the other focus, and DE perpendicu¬
lar to An, take L a point in the axis, so that ALzx
FD, and consequently L a—D f, then CL is evidently
half the difference between AL and a L, or FD and
/D, and CE half the difference between /E and FE,
and because
D/+DF :/F ::/E—FE : D/-~DF (Trigon.)
By taking the halves of the terms of the proportion
CA : CF :: CE : CL,
But CA : CF :: CG : CA (Def. 14.)
therefore CG : CA :: CE : CL,
hence (20. $. E.) EG : AL :: CG : CA :: CA : CF,
that is, DK : DF :: CA : CF.
Cor. I. If the tangent GMN be drawn through
M, the extremity of the ordinate passing through the
focus, and ED be produced to meet GM in N, EN
shall be equal to DF. For draw MO perpendicular
to the directrix, then, because M and D art points in
the ellipse, and from similar triangles.
FM: FD :: MO : DK :: GF : GE :: FM : EN,
therefore FD = EN.
Cor. 2. If AI and a i be drawn perpendicular to
the transverse axis at its extremities, meeting the tan¬
gent GM in I and i, then AI=AF, and a f c F.
This follows evidently from last corollary.
Prop. XXL
Let A a, B £ be the transverse and conjugate axes Fig- 34-
of an ellipse-, from K any point in the conju¬
gate axis let a straight line KH, which is equal
to the sum or difference of the semi-axis CA,
CB, be placed so as to meet the transverse axis
in H ; and in KH, produced beyond H when
KH is the difference of the semi-axes, let HD
be taken equal to CB j the point D is in the
ellipse.
Draw DE perpendicular to A o, and through C
draw CG parallel to KD, meeting ED in G, then
CG=KD=AC by construction, hence G is in the
circumference of a circle of which C is the centre, and
CA the radius 5 and because the triangles CEG, HED
are similar,
GE : DE :: CG : HD :: CA : CB,
therefore DE is a semi-ordinate, and D a point in the
ellipse (5 cor. 11.)
Scholium.
The instrument called the trammels, also the elliptic
compasses, which workmen use for describing elliptic
curves, is constructed on the property of the curve
demonstrated in this proposition. (See Compasses.)
Upon the same principle lathes are constructed for
turning picture frames, &c. of an oval form.
Prop. XXII.
If a circle be described on the transverse axis of an
ellipse as a diameter, the area of the circle will
be to the area of the ellipse as the transverse
axis to the conjugate axis.
Let A a be the transverse axis of the ellipse, which 35.
is also the diameter of the circle. Draw DE, D'E*,
D" E" any number of perpendiculars to the axis, meet¬
ing the ellipse in D, D', D", and the circle in d, d',
d", and join AD, DD', D'D", D"rt; also A d, d d\
3X2 d' d'!,
532
CONIC SECTIONS.
Part II
Of the d'd", d!'a, and draw DG, dg parallel to ka, meeting
Hyperbola, d' E' in G and g.
{~~~~^ The triangle Ar/E is to the triangle ADE as r/E
to DF, that is (4 cor. 11.) as the transverse axis to
the conjogate axis. Again, because f/'E' and d E are
similarly divided at D' and D (3 cor. 11.)
JE : DE :: (r/'E'—r/E : D'E'—DE ::) d'g : D'G,
But, triangle dg d' : triangle DGD' :: d'g : DG,
therefore the triangles dgd\ DGD' as well as the
rectangles d E', DE' are to each other as d E to DE,
or as the transverse axis to the conjugate axis, and
consequently the trapezoids r/EE'f/', DEE'D' are to
each other in the same ratio. In like manner it may
be shewn, that the trapezoids d'YJYJ'd", D'E'E"D",
also the triangles d"Y." a, D"E" a are to each other as
the transverse, to the conjugate axis, and therefore the
whole rectilineal figure A dd'd" a inscribed in the se-
. micircle to the whole figure ADD'D" a inscribed in
the semiellipse in the same ratio, which ratio is con¬
stant, and altogether independent of the number of
the sides of each figure. But, the base A a remaining
common to both figures, if we suppose the number of
perpendiculars e/DE, J'D'E', &c. indefinitely increased,
it is evident that the polygons Add'd"a, ADD'D" a
will approach nearer and nearer to the semicircle and
semiellipse, which are their respective limits, therefore,
the semicircle is to the semiellipse, and consequently
the circle is to the ellipse, as the transverse to the con¬
jugate axis.
Cor. The area of an ellipse is equal to the area of a
circle, whose diameter is a mean proportional between
the axes.
Prop. XXI1T. Problem.
Two unequal straight lines which bisect each other
at right angles being given by position, to de¬
scribe an ellipse of which these may be the two
axes.
First Method. By a Mechanical Description.
35. Let A o, B 6 be the transverse and conjugate axes,
and C the centre. On B, one extremity of the con¬
jugate axis, as a centre, with a radius equal to AC,
half the transverse axis, let a circle be described, cut¬
ting the transverse axis in F and f ; these points will
be the foci of the ellipse (4 cor. 1.).
Let the ends of a string, equal in length to A a, be Of the
fastened at the points F j\ and let the string be stretch-Hyperbol j
ed by a pin D, and while it is kept uniformly tensej1
let the point of the pin be carried round in the plane
in which the lines Aff, B 5 are situated, till it return
to the place from which it set out ; by this motion the
point of the pin will trace upon the plane a curve line
which is the ellipse required, as is evident from the de¬
finition of the Ellipse.
Second Method.
By Finding any Numbcr pf Points
in the Curve.
Find F either of the foci as before1, draw HAK Fig. 37.
hak, perpendicular to the transverse axis at its extre¬
mities, and take AH and AK on each side of the ver¬
tex equal to AF, also ah and ak each equal to a F,
join HA and K&, take E any point in A a, and
through E draw NE n parallel to HK, meeting H h
and K& in N and n. On F as a centre with a radius
equal to EN or E n let a circle be described, meeting
N rc in D and d, these will be two points in the ellipse,
and in the same way may any number of points be
found. The reason of this construction is obvious from
cor. I. and 2. to prop. 20.
Prop. XXIV. Problem.
An ellipse being given by position, to find its axes.
Let AB a & be the given ellipse. Draw two pa-Fig. 38.
rallel chords H h, K k, and bisect them at L and M j
join LM, and produce it to meet the ellipse in P and
p, then, Yp is a diameter (4 cor. 8.). Bisect Yp in
C, the point C is the centre of the ellipse (2.).
Take D any point in the ellipse, and on C as a cen¬
tre with the distance CD describe a circle. If this cir¬
cle fall wholly without the curve, then CD must be
half the transverse axis •, and if it fall wholly within the
curve, then CD must be half the conjugate axis (l2.).
If the circle neither falls wholly without the curve, nor
wholly within it, let the circle meet it again in d, join
D c/, and bisect D d in E, join CE, which produce to
meet the ellipse in A and a, then A a will be one of
the axes (5 cor. 8.), for it is perpendicular to D r/
(3. 3. E.) which is an ordinate to A a. The other axis
B b will be found by drawing a straight line through,
the centre perpendicular to A a.
PART III. OP THE HYPERBOLA.
Definitions.
Fig- 39- I. If two points F,/ be given in a plane, and a
point D be conceived to move in such a manner that
Df-—DF, the difference of its distances from them is
always the same, the point D will describe upon the
plane a line DAD' called an Hyperbola. By assuming
first one of the given points F, and then the other /’as
that to which the moving point is nearest, the differ¬
ence of the lines DF and Df in both cases being the
same, there will be two hyperbolas DAD', c?a d', de-
2
scribed, opposite to one another, which are therefore
called Opposite Hyperbolas.
Cor. The lines DF, D f may become greater than
any given line, therefore the hyperbolas extend to a
greater distance from the given points Y,f than any
which can be assigned.
II. The given points Y,f are called the Foci of the
hyperbola.
III. The point C, which bisects the straight line be¬
tween the foci, is called the Centre.
IV. A straight line passing through the centre, and
terminated
HI. CONIC SE CTI ON S. 533
the terminated by the opposite hyperbolas, Is called a
ibola. Transverse Diameter. It Is also sometimes called,
' simply, a Diameter.
V. The extremities of a diameter are called its
Vertices.
VI. The diameter which passes through the foci, is
called the Transverse Axis.
Cor. The vertices of the transverse axis lie be¬
tween the foci. Let A be either of the vertices, then,
because any side of a triangle is greater than the difler-
ence between the other two sides, Yf is greater than
fD—DF which is equal to^/A—FA (Def. I.). Now
this can only take place when A is between F and f.
VII. A straight line B b passing through the centre,
perpendicular to the transverse axis, and limited at B
and b by a circle described on one extremity of that
axis, with a radius equal to the distance of either focus
from the centre, is called the Conjugate Axis. It is also
called the Second Axis.
Cor. The conjugate axis is bisected in the centre.
This appears from 3. 3. E.
VIII. Any straight line terminated both ways by
the hyperbola, and bisected by a transverse diameter
produced, is called an Ordinate to that diameter.
IX. Each of the segments of a transverse diameter
produced, intercepted by its vertices, and an ordinate,
is called an Absciss.
X. A straight line which meets the hyperbola in
one point onlv, and which everywhere else falls with¬
out the opposite hyperbolas, is said to touch the hyper¬
bola in that point, and is called a Tangent to the hy¬
perbola.
Prop. I.
If from any point in an hyperbola two straight
lines be drawn to the foci, their difference is
equal to the transverse axis.
Let DAD', d a df he opposite hyperbolas, of which
F, /are the foci, and A a the transverse axis $ let D
be any point in the curve, and DF, Df lines drawn
to the foci, Df-—DFzrAr/.
Because A and a are points in the hyperbola,
\f-—AF=«F—af (Def. 1.)
therefore Yf-—aAFrzrFf-—2 af ;
Hence 2AT—2 a f and AYz=.afy
and A/*—AF—Aj-—af—K a.
But D and A being points in the hyperbola,
Df-—DF=zAf-—AF, therefore D/I—DF=zAo.
Cor. 1. The difference of two straight lines drawn
from a point without the opposite hyperbolas to the foci
is less than the transverse axis, and the difference of
two straight lines drawn from a point within either of
them to the foci is greater than the transverse axis.
Let Pyj PF be lines drawn from a point without
the hyperbolas, that is, between the curve and its
conjugate axis. The line PF must necessarily meet
the curve, let D be the point of intersection ; P/" is
less than PD-f-D /’(20. 1. E.), therefore Y f-—PF, is
less than (PD--j-D f')—PF, that is, less than Df-—DF,
or A a. Again, let Qyi QF be lines drawn from a
point within either of the hyperbolas, Qf must ne¬
cessarily meet the curve \ let D be the point of inter- Of the
section, join FD. QF is greater than QD-j-DI, and Hyperbola.
therefore Qf-—CF is greater than Q^-—(QD-f-DF), v
that is, greater than Df—DF or A a.
Cor. 2. A point is without, or within the hyper¬
bolas, according as the difference of two lines drawn
from that point to the foci is less or greater than the
transverse axis.
Cor. 3. The transverse axis is bisected in the centre.
Let C be the centre ; then CF=rCf (Def. 3.), and
FArr/’a, therefore CA=C it.
Lemma I.
Two triangles ABC, ADC on the same base, and Fig. 41.
on the same side of it, having AB, AD, the
greater of the two sides of each ending in the
same extremity of the base, and having their
vertical angles B, D without each other, cannot
have the difference of the sides of the one equal
to the difference of the sides of the other.
Let AD meet BC in E. Because AE-J-EB is
greater than AB, (AE-f-EB)—BC—AE—EC is
greater than AB—BC. Again, because DC is less
than DE-|-EC, AD—DC is greater than AD—
(DE-J-EC)—AE—EC ; much more therefore is AD
—DC greater than AB—BC. Therefore AD—DC
cannot be equal to AB—BC.
Prop. II.
Every transverse diameter of an hyperbola is bi- Plate
sected in the centre. CLIX.
Let P jo be a transverse diameter, it is bisected in ^
C •, for if C p be not equal to CP, take CQ equal to ”
CP 5 from the points P, p, Q draw straight lines to F
and f the foci; draw j^D perpendicular to C/>, and
FE parallel to PD, meeting /"D in E ; join Ep, EQ.
Because yC~CF, and CD is parallel to EF, y’D—
DE (2. 6. E.). Nowp D is common to the triangles
fDp, EDp, and the angles at D are equal, being
right angles, therefore the triangles are equal, and
p f~p E. In like manner, it appears that Q/irrQE.
Again, the triangles FCP, j^CQ having FG—Cj\
PCrrCQ, and the angles at C equal, are in all re¬
spects equal, therefore FP=/’Q. In like manner it
appears that P /rrQF, therefore FQ—/Q is equal to.
/P—FP, or (Def. I.) to Yp—fp; th'at is, FQ—QE
is equal to Fp—p E, which by the preceding lemma
is absurd ; therefore CP=Cp.
Cor. I. Every transverse diameter meets the op¬
posite hyperbolas each in one point only, and being
produced falls within them.
Cor. 2. Every transverse diameter divides the op¬
posite hyperbolas into parts which are equal and simi¬
lar; the like parts of the curve being at opposite ex-
tremities of the diameter, and on contrary sides of it.
Prop. III.
THe square of half the conjugate axis of an hyper¬
bola is equal to the rectangle contained by the
straight lines between either focus and the ex¬
tremities of the transverse axis.
Draw
534
CONIC SECTIONS.
Part I
Of the Draw a straight line from a, either of the extremi-
Hyperbola. ties of the transverse axis, to B, either of the extremi-
ties of the conjugate axis.
CLVHI Then BC*+Co*=Ba*=C/* (Def. 7.)
* 23U(; because Aa is bisected at C, and produced toyj
Cf'=Affa+Ca* (6 2. E.)
therefore BC24-Ca,—A/Vh-J-Ca*,
and BCI=A/j/a.
Prop. IV.
Scholium.
Ofth
Hyperbc
From the property of the hyperbola which forms this
proposition, the points F and f are called Foci. For
rays of light proceeding from one focus, and falling
upon a polished surface whose figure is that formed by
the revolution of the curve about the transverse axis,
are reflected in lines passing through the other focus.
Prop. V.
The straight line which bisects the angle contained
by two straight lines drawn from any point in
the hyperbola to the foci is a tangent to the
curve at that point.
Plate Let D be any point in the curve, let DF, Dy be
CLIX. straight lines drawn to the foci, the straight line DE
i',&- 43- which bisects the angle yDF is a tangent to the
curve.
Take H any other point in DE, take DGrrrDy
and join H/, IIF, HG,yG ; let J'G meet DE in I.
Because D /irDG and DI is common to the triangles
D/I, DGI, and the angles/DI, GDI are equal,
these triangles are equal, and/lizrlG, and hence/H
= HG (4. 1. E.), so that FH—/HzzFH—HG : but
since FH is less than FG-f-GH, FH—HG is less than
FG, that is less than FD—/D or Act, therefore
FH—/H is less than A o; hence the point H is
without the hyperbola, (2 cor. 1.), and consequently
DHI is a tangent to the curve at D (Def. 10.)
Cor. I. There cannot be more than one tangent
to the hyperbola at the same point. For D is such a
point in the line DE, that the difference of the lines
DF, D/ the distances of that point from the foci,
rs evidently greater than the difference of FH, /H
the distances of H any other point in that line } and
if another line KD be drawn through D, there is in
like manner a point K in that line which will be dif¬
ferent from D, such, that the difference of FK, /K
is greater than the difference of the distances of any
other point in KD, and therefore greater than FD—
/D, therefore the point K will be within the hyper¬
bola (2 cor. 1.), and the line KD will cut the
curve.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the transverse axis at
either of its extremities is a tangent to the curve.
The demonstration is the same as for the proposition,
if it be considered that when D falls at either extre¬
mity of the axis, the point I falls also at the extremi¬
ty of the axis, and thus the tangent DE, which is ab
ways perpendicular to /I, is perpendicular to the
axis.
Cor. 3. Every tangent to either of the opposite hy¬
perbolas passes between that hyperbola and the centre.
Let the tangent DI meet the axis in E. Because DE
bisects the angle FD/
FD :/D :: FE :/E (3. 6. E.)
^ But FD is greater than /D (Def. 1.), therefore
FE is greater than /E, and hence E is between C
and the vertex of the hyperbola to which DE is a tan¬
gent.
The tangents at the vertices of any transverse dia¬
meter of an hyperbola are parallel.
Let P/7 be a diameter, HP, 7i p tangents at itsver- fig, 44
tices j draw straight lines from P and/? to F and/the
foci. The triangles FCP,/C/?, having FCir/C,
CPr^C/? (2.), and the angles at C equal, are in all
respects equal, and because the angle FPC is equal to
C/?/ FP is parallel to//? (27. I. E.), therefore P/
is equal and parallel to p F (33. I. E.) : thus FP//?
is a parallelogram of which the opposite angles P and
/? are equal (34. I. E.) j now the angles FPH,//?A
are the halves of these angles (4.) $ therefore the
angles FPH,//?A, and hence CPH, Cp ht are also
equal, and consequently HP is parallel to p h.
Cor. 1. If tangents be drawn to an hyperbola at
the vertices of a transverse diameter, straight lines
drawn from either focus to the points of contact make
equal angles with these tangents. For the angle ¥p h
is equal to FPH.
Cor. 2. The transverse axis is the only diameter
which is perpendicular to tangents at its vertices. For
let P/? be any other diameter. The angle CPH is
less than FPH,If that is, less than the half of FP/
therefore CPH is less than a right angle.
Prop. VI.
A straight line drawn from either focus of an hy¬
perbola to the intersection of two tangents to
the curve, will make equal angles with straight
lines drawn from the same focus to the points
of contact.
Let HP, H/? he tangents to an hyperbola at the^^g•45•!
points P,/?; let a straight line be drawn from H theiraD<* 46'|
intersection to F either of the foci 5 and let FP, F p
be drawn to the points of contact $ the lines PF, p F
make equal angles with HF.
Draw P/ /?/ to the other focus. In PF and/?F
take PK=P/, and/? A:—7? /; join HK, HA:, and let
/K, fkho drawn, meeting the tangents in G and g-.
‘The ‘triangles /PH, KPH have P/=PK, by con¬
struction, and PH common to both, also the angle
/PH equal to KPH (4.) j therefore /H is equal to
KH. In like manner it may be shown, that/H is
equal to A:H, therefore FIK is equal to II k ; now FK
is equal to F k ; for each is equal to the difference be¬
tween FP and/P, or F/? and fp, that is, to the trans¬
verse axis j therefore the triangles FKH, F A: H are 111
all respects equal, and hence the angle KFH is equal
to A: FH, therefore PF and /? F make equal angles
with HF.
Prop.
P t III. CONIC S
ite Prop. VII.
rbola.
- r—' Two tangents to an hyperbola, or opposite hyper¬
bolas, which are limited by their mutual inter¬
section and the points in which they touch the
curve, are to each other, reciprocally, as the
sines of the angles they contain with straight
lines drawn from the points of contact to either
focus.
pj Let HP, H/?, which intersect each other at H, be
ati lS, tangents to an hyperbola, or opposite hyperbolas, at
the points P, p; and let PF, p F be drawn to either
focus,
HP : H/j :: sine Hf?F : sine PHF.
Join HF, and in FP take FQ equal to F p, and join
HQ 5 then, the angles at F being equal (6.), the tri¬
angles HFQ, HFyj are equal, therefore HQ is equal
to H p, and the angle HQF is equal to H/> F. Now
in the triangle HPQ,
HP: HQ:: sine HQP, orsine HQF : sine HPF (Trig.)
therefore HP : Hp :: sine Hp F : sine HPF.
Lemma II.
F t9- Let KL / be a triangle, having its base L / bisect¬
ed at />, and let H £, any straight line parallel to
the base, and terminated by the sides produced,
be bisected at P, then P, p the point of bisection,
and K the vertex of the triangle, are in the same
straight line, and that line bisects D d any other
line parallel to the base.
Join KP, Yip. The triangles KH h, KL l being
similar, and H A, L/ similarly divided at P,/?,
KH : KL :: (H £ : L / ::) HP : Lp.
Now the angles at H and L are equal, therefore the
triangles KHP, KLp are similar, and the angle PKH
is equal to p KL ; to both add the angle HK p, and
the angles PKH, HKp are equal top KL, HKp, that
is, to two right angles j therefore KP, K p lie in the
same straight line (14. 1. E.)
Next let D d meet Kp in E, then
HP : DE (:: PK : EK) :: P /*: E r/,
therefore DE is equal to E d.
Prop. VIII.
Any straight line terminated both ways by an hy¬
perbola, and parallel to a tangent, is bisected by
the transverse diameter produced, that passes
through the point of contact, or is an ordinate
to that diameter.
I 50, The straight line D d, terminated by the hyperbola,
and parallel to the tangent HP //, is bisected at E by
Pp the transverse diameter produced, which passes
through P, the point of contact.
Let L p / be a tangent at the other extremity of the
diameter, and let KD, Kc/, tangents at the points
D, d, meet the parallel tangents HP h^\j p l in the
E C T I O N S. 535
point H, L, /*, /, and draw DF, dY, PF to either fo- Of the
cus. Because H /i is parallel to D d} Hyperbola.
HD : /i d :: KD : K d.
But KD, K d being tangents to the hyperbola,
sine 7i d¥ : sine HDF :: KD : Kf/(7.)
therefore sine 7id¥ : sine HDF :: HD : 7i d,
now, sine h PF : sine 7i d Y :: 7/ d \ 7iY (7.)
therefore, (23. 5. E.) sine/iPF : sine HDF ::HD: hY $
but sine HPF or sine 7i PF : sine HDF :: HD : HP,
therefore the ratio of HD to 7i P is the same as the ra¬
tio of HD to HP, wherefore PHz=P 7i. In the same
manner it may be demonstrated that p L~p /, there¬
fore (lemma 2.) the diameter Pp when produced pas¬
ses through K, and bisects D r/, which is parallel to
H 7i, or L l, at E.
Cor. 1. Straight lines which touch an hyperbola at
the extremities of an ordinate to any transverse diame¬
ter, intersect each other in that diameter.
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a transverse diameter is
parallel to a tangent at its vertex. For, if not, let a
tangent be drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the
diameter drawn through the point ot contact would bi¬
sect the ordinate, and thus the same line would be bi¬
sected in two difl’erent points, which is absurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the same transverse
diameter are parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A straight line that bisects two parallel
chords, and terminates in the opposite hyperbola, is a
transverse diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to the transverse axis are per¬
pendicular to it, and no other transverse diameter has
its ordinates perpendicular to it. This follows from
2 cor. 4. and 2 cor. 5.
Cor. 6. The transverse axis, indefinitely produced,
divides each of the opposite hyperbolas into two parts
which are similar to one another.
Prop. IX.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet a transverse dia¬
meter, and from the point of contact an ordi¬
nate be drawn to that diameter, the semidiame¬
ter will be a mean proportional between the seg¬
ments of the diameter intercepted between the
centre and the ordinate, and between the centre
and the tangent.
Let DK a tangent to the curve at D meet the Fig. 50.
transverse diameter Yp in K, and let DE J be an or¬
dinate to that diameter,
Then CE : CP :: CP : CK.
Through P and /?, the vertices of the diameter, draw
the tangents PH and p L, meeting KD in H and L,
these tangents are parallel to each other (50» ailtl to
DE, the ordinate, by last proposition. Draw PF, pF,
DF to either of the foci. Then,
DH:HP ::sine HPF: sine HDF. 7
andDL: Lp ::sine LpF: sine LDI,orsineHDI 3
Now the angles HPF, Lp F are equal (1 cor. 5.) ;
therefore,
53^
or the therefore,
Hjperboln,
CONIC SECTIONS.
CE ; EP :: CP : PK ;
Part I]
DH : PH :: DL : p L,
and by alternation
DH : DL :: PH :^L;
hence, by division, CE : CP CP : CK,
Oftlit
Hyperbo
Cor. I. The rectangle contained by PE and Ep is
equal to the rectangle contained by KE and CE.
therefore, because of the parallel lines PH, ED,/jL,
EP : E/? :: PK : p K.
Take CG=:CE, then PG—Ey>, and by composition
EG : EP :: Vp : PK,
and taking the halves of the antecedents
For CP,=KC*CE=:EC,=:KE,EC (2. 2. E.)
also CP*=rEC*—PE*E p (6. 2. E.)
therefore EC2—KE EC=EC2—PE Ep,
and KE-EC=PE-E p.
Cor. 2. The rectangle contained by PK and Kp
is equal to the rectangle contained by KE and KC.
For KC2=CP2—PK-K p (5. 2. E.)
also KC*=EC-KC—EK*KC=CP2—EK-KC (3. 2. E. and by the prop.)
therefore CP*—PK K7;=CP*-EK KC,
and PK-Ky—EK-KC.
Prop. X.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet the conjugate
axis, and from the point of contact a perpendi¬
cular be drawn to that axis, the semiaxis will
be a mean proportional between the segments
of the axis intercepted between the centre and
the perpendicular, and between the centre and
the tangent.
S1, Let DH, a tangent to the hyperbola at D, meet
the conjugate axis B b in H, and let DG be perpen¬
dicular to that axis, then
•CG : CB :: CB : CH.
Let DH meet the transvei-se axis in K, draw DE
perpendicular to that axis, draw DF, DJ' to the foci,
and describe a circle about the triangle DJ~F 5 the
conjugate axis will evidently pass through the centre
of the circle, and because the angle FD J' is bisected
by the tangent DK, the line DK will pass through one
extremity of the diameter therefore the circle passes
through H. Draw DL to the other extremity of the
diameter. The triangles LGD, KCH, are similar,
for each is similar to the X'ight-angled triangle LDH,
therefore,
LG : GD (=CE) :: CK : CH;
hence LG-CH=CE-CK=: (by last prop.) CA*.
Now LC-CHmCF* (35. 3. E.)
therefore LC-CH—LG-CH=CF2—CA2,
that is, CG CHzrCB2 (Def. 7.)
wherefore CG : CB :: CB : CH.
Definition.
Fig. 52. 'gj' through A, one of the vertices of the trans¬
verse axis, a straight line HA /i be drawn, equal and
parallel to B £ the conjugate axis, and bisected at A
by the transverse axis, the straight lines CHM, C/im
drawn through the centre, and the extremities of that
parallel, are called Asymptotes.
Cor. I. The asymptotes of two opposite hyperbo¬
las are common to both. Through o, the other ex¬
tremity of the axis, draw H' a parallel to B b, and
meeting the asymptotes of the hyperbola DAD in H'
and A1. Because a C is equal to AC, a H' is equal to
A b, or to BC ; also a h! is equal to AH, or to BC ;
hence, by the definition, CH' and C h' are asymptotes
of the opposite hyperbola d a d.
Cor. 2. The asymptotes are diagonals of a rect¬
angle formed by drawing perpendiculars to the axes at
their vertices. For the lines AH, CB, a H' being equal
and parallel, the points H, B, H' are in a straight line
passing through B parallel to A a ,* the same is true of
the points ht b, ft!.
Prop. XI.
The asymptotes do not meet the hyperbola; and
if from any point in the curve a straight line be
drawn parallel to the conjugate axis, and ter¬
minated by the asymptotes, the rectangle con¬
tained by its segments from that point is equal
to the square of half that axis.
Through D any point in the hyperbola draw a Fig. 53-
straight line parallel to the conjugate axis, meeting the
transverse axis in E, and the asymptotes in M and m;
the points M and m shall be without the hyperbola,
and the rectangle MD*D m is equal to the square of
BC.
Draw DG perpendicular to B 3 the conjugate axis,
let a tangent to the curve at D meet the transverse
axis in K, and the conjugate axis in L, and let a per¬
pendicular at the vertex A meet the asymptote in II.
Because DK is a tangent, and DE an ordinate to the
axis, CA is a mean proportional between CK and CE
(9.), and therefore
CK : CE :: CA* : CE* (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But CK : CE :: LC : LG,
and CA* : CE2 :: AH* : EM*;
therefore LC : LG :: AH* : EM2.
Again, CB being a mean proportional between CL and
CG (10.)
LC : CG :: CB2 : CG2,
and therefore
LC : LG :: CB* : CB*+CG*, or CB*+ED*;
wherefore AH2 : EM2 :: CB* : CB*-|-ED*;
Now AR2=CB2 (Def. 11.)
therefore EM?=:CB2-}-EH2,
consequently EM* is greater than ED2, and EM
greater
.rt m.
CONIC SECTIONS.
ip the greater than ED, therefore M is without the hyper-
erbola. bola. In like manner it appears that m is without the
-v—hyperbola j therefore every point in both the asymp¬
totes is without the hyperbola. Again, the straight
line Mzrc terminated by the asymptotes, being mani¬
festly bisected by the axis at E,
ME*=±MD’D/w+DE* 5
but it has been shewn that
ME*=BC*-f DE*,
therefore MD’DwrrrBC*.
Cor. I. Hence, if in a straight line Mw, termina¬
ted by the asymptotes, and parallel to the conjugate
axis, there be taken a point D such that the rectangle
MD'Dw is equal to the square of that axis, the point
1) is in the hyperbola.
Cor. 2. If straight lines MD/rc, NR«, be drawn
through D and R, any points in the hyperbola, or
opposite hyperbolas, parallel to the conjugate axis, and
meeting the asymptotes in M, ttz, and N, ft, the rect¬
angles MD’D/ft, NR’Rft are equal.
Prop. XII.
The hyperbola and its asymptote when produced
continually approach to each other, and the
distance between them becomes less than any
given line.
S3. Take two points E and O in the transverse axis
produced, and through these points draw straight
lines parallel to the conjugate axis, meeting the hy¬
perbola in D, R, and the asymptotes in M ?ft, and
N ft.
Because NO1 is greater than ME%
and NR'RftzrMD^Dm, (2 cor. n.)
therefore NO2—NR'Rft is greater thanME*—MD’D/ft,
that is, RO* is greater than DE*,
and RO is greater than DE j
now Oft is greater than E/ft,
therefore Rft is greater than D/ft,
and since Rft : D/ft :: DM : RN, (2 cor. II.)
DM is greater than RN,
therefore the point R is nearer to the asymptote than D,
that is, the hyperbola when produced approaches to the
asymptote.
Let S be any line less than half the conjugate axis ;
then, because D/ft, a straight line drawn from a point
in the hyperbola, parallel to the conjugate axis, and ter¬
minated by the asymptote on the other side of the trans¬
verse axis, may evidently be of any magnitude greater
than A//, which is equal to half the conjugate axis,
D/ft may be a third proportional to S and BC j and
since D/ft is also a third proportional to DM (the seg¬
ment between D and the other asymptote) and BC,
DM may be equal to S ; but the distance of D from
the asymptote is less than DM, therefore that distance
tnay become less than S, and consequently less than any
given line.
Cor. Every straight line passing through the centre,
within the angles contained by the asymptotes through
which the transverse axis passes, meets the hyperbola,
and therefore is a transverse diameter; and every
straight line passing through the centre within the ad¬
jacent angles falls entirely without the hyperbola.
Vol. VI. Part It f
Scholium.
537
Of tho
Hyperbola.
The name asymptotes {non concurt'entes') has been
given to the lines CH, C//, because of the property
they have of continually approaching to the hyperbo¬
la without meeting it, as has been proved in this pro¬
position.
Prop. XIII.
If from two points in a hyperbola, or opposite hy- Plate CLX.
perbolas, two parallel straight lines be drawn to
meet the asymptotes, the rectangles contained
by their segments between the points and the
asymptotes are equal.
Let D and G be two points in the hyperbola^ or ffg. 14,
opposite hyperbolas, let parallel lines EDe, HG// be and 55.
drawn to meet the asymptotes in E, r?, and H, k, the
rectangles ED’D^, HG’GH are equal.
Through D and G draw straight lines parallel to
the conjugate axis, meeting the asymptotes in the
points L, /, and M, m. The triangles HGM, EDL
are similar, as also the triangles h (Jr m, e T) ly
therefore DL : DE :: GM : GH,
and D/: De :: Gm : Gk;
hence, taking the rectangles of the corresponding terms
of the proportions,
LD D/: ED-Dc :: MG G/ft : HG-G/z.
But LD D/=MG Gm (2 cor. II.)
therefore ED'DczzHG G/z.
Cor. I. If a straight line be drawn through D,
two points in the same or opposite hyperbolas, the seg-and
ments DE, de between those points and the asymp¬
totes are equal. For in the same manner that the
rectangles ED’Dc, HG‘G/z have been proved to be
equal, it may be shewn that the rectangles E d ’ de,
HG • Gh are equal, therefore ED • D e=E d ' de.
Let E e be bisected in O, then ED*De=EO*—ODa
and Y* d ' d tj~EO*—Od1, therefore EO*—OD*—
EO2—O d* ; hence OD—Oc/, and YY)—ed.
Cor. 2. When the points D and d are in the same-.,
hyperbola, by supposing them to approach till they co- an|’
incide at P, the line Ye will thus become a tangent to
the curve at P. Therefore any tangent KP/c, which
is terminated by the asymptotes, is bisected at P, the
point of contact.
Cor. 3. And if any straight line KP&, limited bypj^ s4>
the asymptotes, be bisected at P a point in the curve,
that line is tangent at P. For it is evident that only
one line can bd drawn through P which shall be limit¬
ed by the asymptotes, and bisected at P.
Cor. 4. It a straight line he drawn through D, pjg ^
any point in the hyperbola, parallel to a tangent KP&,
and terminated by the asymptotes at E and <?, the rect¬
angle ED Dc is equal to the square of PK, the seg¬
ment of the tangent between the point of contact and
either asymptote. The demonstration is the same as in
the proposition.
Cor. 5. If from any point D in a hyperbola a straight ^
line be drawn parallel to Yp any diameter, meeting the &
asymptotes in E and e, the rectangle ED.De is equal
to the square of half the diameter. The demonstra¬
tion is the same as in the proposition.
3 * Prop.
538
Ol‘ t'ne
Hyperbola.
Fig. 36.
Fig. 57.
Prop. XIV.
CONIC SECTIONS. Parti.
that passes through the point of contact, or is ofJ
an ordinate to that diameter. Hyperb
If two straight lines be drawn from any point in
an hyperbola to the asymptotes, and from any
other point in the same, or opposite hyperbolas,
two other lines be drawn parallel to the former,
the rectangle contained by the two first lines
will be equal to the rectangle contained by the
other two lines.
From D any point in the hyperbola draw DH and
DK to the asymptotes, and from any other point d
draw dh and dk parallel to DH and DIv. The rect¬
angles HD • DK, hd ' dk are equal.
Join D, d meeting the asymptotes in E, e. From
similar triangles
ED : DH :: E d: dk,
and e D : DK :: e d : dkt
therefore taking the rectangles of corresponding terms,
ED • D e : HD • DK d • de : hd ' dk;
but ED * D err E r/ * c/e (13.),
therefore HD * DKmAc/ * dk.
Cor. I. If the lines D'K', DTP, d' k', dr /<', be pa¬
rallel to the asymptotes, and thus form the parallelo¬
grams D'K'CIP, d' k' C h'y these are equal to one an¬
other (16. and 14. 6. E.). And if D'C, d'C be joined,
the halves of the parallelograms, or the triangles D'K'C,
d' k' C are also equal.
Cor. 2. If from D', dr, any two points in an hyper¬
bola, straight lines D'K, d' k' be drawn parallel to one
asymptote, meeting the other in K' and k*, these lines
are to each other reciprocally as their distances from
the centre, or D'K : d' k' :: C kf : CK'. This appears
from last cor. and 14. 6. E.
Definitions.
XII. If A a be the transverse axis, and the con¬
jugate axis of two opposite hyperbolas DAD, dad,
and if B £ be the transverse axis, and A a the conju¬
gate axis of other two opposite hyperbolas EBE, e b e,
these hyperbolas are said to be conjugate to the jbrmer.
When all the four hyperbolas are mentioned they are
called conjugate hyperbolas.
Cor. The asymptotes of the hyperbolas DAD, dad
are also the asymptotes of the hyperbolas EBE, eb e.
This is evident from Cor. 2. to Definition 11.
XIII. Any diameter of the conjugate hyperbolas is
called a second diameter of the other hyperbolas.
Cor. Every straight line passing through the centre
within the angle through which the conjugate or
second axis passes, is a second diameter of the hyper¬
bola.
XIV. Any straight line not passing through the
centre, but terminated both ways by the opposite hy¬
perbolas, and bisected by a second diameter, is called
an Ordinate to that diameter.
The straight line D c/ terminated by the opposite Fig. 58,)
hyperbolas, and parallel to the tangentKQ A:, is bisect¬
ed at E by Q <7 the diameter that passes through the
point of contact.
Let D d meet the asymptotes in Gandg, and let the
tangent meet them in K and k. The straight lines
G^, KA: are evidently similarly divided at E and Q,
and since KQ=Q£ (2 cor. 13.) therefore GE=Eg;
now DGzrgt/ (1 cor. 13.} therefore DE=Er/.
Cor. 1. Every ordinate to a second diameter is pa¬
rallel to a tangent at its vertex. The demonstration is
the same as in Cor. 2. Prop. 8.
Cor. 2. All the ordinates to the same second diame¬
ter are parallel to each other.
CoR. 4. A straight line that bisects two parallel
straight lines which terminate in the opposite hyperbolas
is a second diameter.
CoR. 5. The ordinates to the conjugate or second
axis are perpendicular to it, and no other second dia¬
meter is perpendicular to its ordinates.
Cor. 6. The opposite hyperbolas are similar to on«
another, and like portions of them are, in all respects,
equal.
Prop. XVI.
If a transverse diameter of an hyperbola be parallel
to the ordinates to a second diameter, the latter
shall be parallel to the ordinates to the former.
Let P/>, a transverse diameter of an hyperbola, be rig, 5
parallel to DEd, any ordinate to the second diameter
Q <y, the second diameter Q g'shall be parallel ta the
ordinates ta the diameter P/?.
Draw the diameter d CG through one extremity of
the ordinate d D, and join G and D, the ether extre¬
mity, meeting Vp in H. Because c? G is bisected
at C, and CH is parallel to </D, the line DG is bi¬
sected at H, therefore DG is an ordinate to the dia¬
meter Pp. And because r/G and dD are bisected at
C and E, the diameter Qg1 is parallel to DG (2. 6. E.),
therefore Q g is parallel to any ordinate to the diame¬
ter P p.
Definitions.
XV. Two diameters are said to be conjugate to on*
another when each is parallel to the ordinates to the
other diameter.
Cor. Diameters which are conjugate to one ano¬
ther are parallel to tangents at the vertices of each
other.
XVI. A third proportional to any diameter and its
conjugate is called the Parameter, also the Lotus rec¬
tum of that diameter.
Prop. XVII.
Prop. XV.
Any straight line not passing through the centre,
but terminated by the opposite hyperbolas, and
parallel to a tangent to either of the conjugate
hyperbolas, is bisected by the second diameter
2
The tangent at the vertex of any transverse diame-j-jg. ,
ter of an hyperbola, which is terminated by the
asymptotes, is equal to the diameter that is con¬
jugate to that diameter.
Let PCy? be any transverse diameter of an hyper¬
bola, HPA a tangent at its vertex, meeting the asymp¬
totes
t HI, CONIC S E
the totes in H and h, and Q q the diameter which is con-
ibola. jugate to Y p S the tangent H /i is equal to the dxame-
' ter Q g'. . • , , , , j
Through D, any point in the hyperbola, draw a
straight line parallel to the tangent and . diameter,
cutting either of the conjugate hyperbolas in </, and
the asymptotes in E and e, and through D and d
draw lines parallel to B b the conjugate axis, meet¬
ing the asymptotes in the points Iv, k, and L, l. T-he
triangles DEK, JEL are similar, as also eD k, e d/,
therefore
KD : DE :: Yd : d E,
and & D:Dc:: l d : d e ;
therefore, taking the rectangles of the corresponding
terms,
KD • D £ : ED • V) e Y d • d l \ Y d • d e.
But KD • D/tzrBC1 (n.) andBE^L / (5 cor. 13.)
therefore ED * D e—Y d ' de.
Now ED • D err HP2 (4 cor. 13.),
and E d • de=zQC* (5 cor. 13.)
therefore HP,=QC*, and HP:=:QC,
and consequently H hzzQ q.
Cor. 1. If another tangent be drawn to the carve at
p, meeting the asymptotes in IP and h1, the straight
lines which join the points U, IP, also h, /ir, are tan¬
gents to the conjugate hyperbolas at Q and q. For
p IP as well as PH is equal and parallel to CQ, there¬
fore the points H, Q, IP are in a straight line parallel
toP/?, and HQrrH'Q (33. I. E.), therefore HQH'
is a tangent to the curve at Q. In like manner it ap¬
pears tliat /i q k' is a tangent at q.
C T I O N S. 539
Cor. 2. If tangents he drawn at the vertices of two
conjugate diameters, they will meet in the asymptotes, Hyperbola,
and form a parallelogram of which the asymptotes are y
diagonals.
Prop. XVIII.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet a second diame¬
ter, and from the point of contact an ordinate
be drawn to that diameter, half the second dia¬
meter will be a mean proportional between
the segments of the diameter intercepted be¬
tween the centre and the ordinate, and between
the centre and the tangent.
Let DL a tangent to the curve at D meet the se-Fig 6r.
cond diameter Q q in L, and let DG d' be an ordinate
to that diameter, then
CG : CQ :: CQ : CL.
Let Yp be the diameter that is conjugate to Qy,
let HP h be a tangent at the vertex, terminated by the
asymptotes*, through D draw the ordinate DE d to the
diameter P p, meeting the asymptotes in M and m ;
let K be the intersection of DL and P p. Because
DK is a tangent at D, and DE d an ordinate to 1 p,
CP is a mean proportional between CE and CK (9*)
and therefore
CE1 : CP* :: CE : CK.
Now, the lines CQ, PH, EM being parallel (8. and
Def. 15.), from similar triangles,
CE2 : CP* :: EM* : PH*,
and CE, or DG : CK :: LG : LC ;
therefore EM2 : PH*:: LG : LC,
and by division, &c. EM2—PH* : PH*:: CG : LC :: CG* : CG * LC.
But since PH*=MD * Dm (4 cor. 13.), EM*—PH2=ED*=CG*,
therefore PH*=:CG * LC ;
wherefore, and since PHrz:CQ (17O
CG : CQ :: CQ : CL.
Prop. XIX.
If an ordinate be drawn to any transverse diame¬
ter of an hyperbola, the rectangle under the ab¬
scisses of the diameter will be to the square of
the semi-ordinate as the square of the diameter
to the square of its conjugate.
Let DE d be an ordinate to the transverse diameter
P/>, and let Qy be its conjugate diameter.
PE • E/i : DE*:: Yf : Qy*.
Let DKL a tangent at D meet the diameter in K,
and its conjugate in L. Draw* DG parallel to Y p,
meeting Q q in G. Because CP is a mean proportion¬
al between CE and CK (9.)
CP* : CE* :: CK : CE,
and by division CP* : PE • Yp :: CK : XE.
But, because ED is parallel to CL,
CK : KE :: CL : DE, or CG,
and because CQ is a mean proportional between CG
and CL (i8»)
CL : CG :: CQ* : CG*, or DE4,
therefore CP* : PE • E jp :'. CQ2 : DE*,
and by inversion and alternation,
YY-Yp .DY* :: CP* : CQ* :: Pp* : Q
Cor. I. If an ordinate be drawn to any second dia¬
meter of an hyperbola, the sum of the squares of half
the second diameter and its segment intercepted by the
ordinate from the centre, is to the square of the semi¬
ordinate, as the square of the second diameter to the
square of its conjugate.
Let DG be a semi-ordinate to the second diameter
Q q. It has been shewn that
CG* : CQ*:: PE*Ef :CP%
therefore, by comp.
CQ*-f CG2 : CQ2: CE2 or DG* : CP*,
and by alter.
CQ2-f CG* : CE* :: CQ* : CP* :c Q ?* : P^*.
Cor. 2. The squares of semi-ordinates, and of or¬
dinates to any transverse diameter, are to one anothei
as the rectangles contained by the corresponding ab¬
scisses 1 and the squares of semi-ordinates, and of ordi-
3 Y 2 nates,
540 CONIC SECTIONS. Part II
Of the nates to any second diameter are to one another as the
Hyperbola, sums of the squares of half that diameter and the seg-
ments intercepted by the ordinate from the centre.
Cor. 3. The ordinates to any transverse diameter,
which intercept equal segments of that diameter from
the centre, are equal to one another, and, conversely,
equal ordinates intercept equal segments of the diameter
from the centre.
Prop. XX.
CL>:I transverse ax^s an hyperbola is the least of
all its transverse diameters, and the conjugate
axis is the least of all its second diameters.
Fig. 64, Let R r be the transverse axis, Fp any other trans¬
verse diameter, draw PE perpendicular to R r ; then
CE being greater than CR, and CP greater than
CE, much more is CP greater than CR, therefore J3p
is greater than R r. In like manner it is shewn that if
S s be the conjugate axis, and Q ^ any other second
diameter, Q y is greater than S s.
Prop. XXI.
Plate CLX. If an ordinate be drawn to any transverse diame¬
ter of an hyperbola, the rectangle under the
abscisses of the diameter is to the square of the
semi-ordinate as the diameter to its parameter.
Fig. 63. Let DE be a semi-ordinate to the transverse diame¬
ter P p ; let PG be the parameter of the diameter, and
the conjugate diameter. Bj the definition of the
parameter (Def. 16.)
P/7 : Q<7 :: Q y : PG,
therefore, P p : PG :: P/?2 : Q 9», (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But Pp1 : Q y2 :: PE • E p : DE1, (19.)
therefore PE*Ep : DE* :: Pp . PG.
Cor. Let the parameter PG he perpendicular to the
diameter Pp ; join p G, and from E draw EM parallel
to PG, meeting pG in M. The square of DE the
semirordinate is equal to the rectangle contained bv PE
and EM. 6 '
For PE • Ep : DE2:: Pp : PG,
and Pp : PG :: Ep : EM :: PE-Ep : PE-EM
therefore DE2=:PE,EM.
Scholium.
If the rectangles PGL p, HGKM be completed, it
will appear that the square of ED is equal to the rect¬
angle MP, which rectangle is greater than the rect¬
angle KP, contained by the absciss PE, and the pa¬
rameter GP, by a rectangle KH similar and similarly
situated to LI , the rectangle contained by the parame¬
ter and diameter. It was on account of the excess of
the square of the ordinate above the rectangle con¬
tained by the absciss and parameter that Apollonius
gave the curve to which the property belonged the
name of Hyperbola.
Prop. XXII.
CLXJ. ^ ^r0m t^e vertaces °f two conjugate diameters
of an hyperbola there be drawn, ordinates to
3
any third transverse diameter, the square of the or the
segment of that diameter, intercepted between ilypeiW
the ordinate from the vertex of the second dia- ^—
meter, and the centre, is equal to the rectangle
contained by the segments between the other
ordinate and the vertices of the third transverse
diameter. And the square of the segment in¬
tercepted between the ordinate from the vertex
of the transverse diameter and the centre is
equal to the square of the segment between the
other ordinate, and the centre, together with
the square of half the third transverse diameter.
Let Pp, Qy be two conjugate diameters, of which fig. 64,
P p is a transverse, and a second diameter j let PE,
QG be semi-ordinates to any third transverse diameter
Hr, then CG,=RE-E r, and CE*=:CG* + CR2.
Draw the tangents PH, QK, meeting R r in H and
K. The rectangles HOCE and KC*CG are equal,
for each is equal to CR* (9.) therefore,
HC : CK :: CG : CE.
But the triangles HPC, CQK are evidently similar
(cor. Def. 15.) and since PE, QG are parallel, their
bases CH, KC similarly divided at E and G, there- i
fore
HC : CK :: HE : CG,
wherefore CG : CE :: HE : CG,
consequently CG2=CE • EH= (1 cor. 9.) BE • E r.
Again, from the similar triangles HPC, CQK,
HC : CK :: CE : KG.
Now it was shewn that HC : CK :: CG : CE,
therefore CG : CE :: CE : KG,
consequently
CE*=CG GK=(3. 2. E.) CG*+GC CK.
But GC-CK=CR* (18.)
therefore CE*=CG*-I-CR*.
Cor. I. Let Ss be the diameter that is conjugate
to R r, then R r is to S 5 as CG to PE, or as CE to
QG.
For R r3 : S s2:: RE'E r, or CG* : PE*,
therefore Rr ; Ss :: CG : PE.
In like manner R r : S s :: CE : QG.
Cor. 2. The difference between the squares of CE,
CG the segments of the transverse diameter to which
the semi-ordinates PE, QG are drawn, is equal to the
square ofCR the sembdiameter. For it has been shewn
that CE*=CG2-fCR*j
therefore CE*—CG*=:CR*.
Cor. 3. The difference of the squares of any two
conjugate diameters is equal to the difference of the
squares of the axes. Let R S 5 be the axes, and
P p, Q any two conjugate diameters ; draw PE,
QG perpendicular to R r, and PL, QM perpendicular
to S s. Then
CE*—CG*=CR*,
and CM*—CL3, or GB*—PE*=CS»,
therefore CE* + PE*—(CG*+GQ*)=CR»—CS*,
that is (47. 1. E.) CP*—CQ2zrCR*—CS*,
therefore Pp2—Q g^zzR r*—S s*.
Prop.
F -t III.
ibe
H nbola.
I 6$
Prop. XXIII.
If four straight lines be drawn touching conjugate
hyperbolas at the vertices of any two conjugate
diameters, the parallelogram formed by these
lines is equal to the rectangle contained by the
tr^nsverfe and conjugate axes.
Let P p, Q <7 be any two conjugate diameters, a
parallelogram DEGH formed by tangents to the con¬
jugate hyperbolas at their vertices is equal to the rect¬
angle contained by A B the two axes.
Let A (/, one of the axes, meet the tangent PE in K. j
join QK, and draw PL, QM perpendicular to A a.
Because CK : CA :: CA : CL (9.)
and CA : CB :: CL : QM (1 cor. 22.)
ex aeq. CK : CB :: CA : QM,
therefore CK * QM=CB * CA.
But CK * QM= twice trian. CKQrrrparal. CPEQ,
therefore the parallelogram CPEQ=CB * CA *,
CONIC SECTIONS. 54i
But, if CD be joined, the points D and R are evi* Of the
dently the vertices of two conjugate diameters (cor. Hyperbola,
def. 15.) and therefore PE ‘ p E=CMl (22.) v
therefore HD • /zD^rCIP.
Cor. The rectangle contained by LD and DK, the
segments of a tangent intercepted between D the point
of contact, and P p, Q <7, any two conjugate diameters,
is equal to the square oi CR, the semi-diameter to which
the tangent is parallel.
Let the parallel tangents p h meet LK in H
and h, and draw DE a semi-ordinate to P p. Because
of the parallels ED, PH, CK, p h,
LE : LD :: EP : DH,
and EC : DK:: Ep : D/q
therefore
LE • EC : LD • DK :: EP • Ep : DH • D h.
But LE • EC=EP • E p (1 cor. 9.)
therefore LD • DK=DH • D h— (by this prop.) CR*.
and, taking the quadruples of these, the parallelogram
DEGH is equal to the rectangle contained by A a
and B b.
Prop. XXIV.
If two tangents at the vertex of any transverfe dia¬
meter of an hyperbola meet a third tangent,
the rectangle contained by their segments be¬
tween the points of contact, and the points of
intersection, is equal to the square of the semi¬
diameter to which they are parallel. And the
h rectangle contained by the segments of the third
jtis tangent between its points of contact and the
parallel tangents, is equal to the square of the
p:: semi-diameter to which it is parallel.
Let PH, p /?, tangents at the vertices of a transverse
diameter Pp, meet DH A, a tangent to the curve at
any point D, in H and h ; let CQ be the semi-diame¬
ter to which the tangents PH, p h are parallel, and
CR that to which H h is parallel 5 then
PH • P /7=CQ2, and DH • D /z:=CR*.
Let H h meet the semi-diameters CP, CQ in L and
K. Draw ED, RM parallel to CQ, and DG parallel
to CP.
Because LP * L prrLE * LC (2 cor. 9.)
LP : LE ::LC: Lp;
Hence, and because of the parallels PH, ED, CK, p //,
PH : ED :: CK : p h,
wherefore PH * p /zzzrED • CK.
But ED • CKrrCG • CK=CQ’ (18.)
therefore PH ’p/zrzCQ2.
Again, the triangles LED, CMR are evidently si¬
milar, and LE, LD are similarly divided at H and P,
also at h and p,
therefore PE : HD :: (LE : LD :: ) CM : CR,
alsop E : 7zD :: (LE : LD :: ) CM : CR,
hence taking the rectangles of the corresponding
terms,
PE • p E : HD • £ D :: CM* : CR*.
Prop. XXV.
If two straight lines be drawn from the foci of an
hyperbola perpendicular to a tangent, straight
lines drawn from the centre, to the points in
which they meet the tangent, will each be
equal to half the transverse axis.
Let P d D be a tangent to the curve at P, and FD, Fig. 67.
f d perpendiculars to the tangent from the loci, the
straight lines joining the points C, D and C, d are each
equal to AC, half the transverse axis.
Join FP, /"P, and produce FD, P f till they inter¬
sect in E. The triangles FDP, EDP have the an¬
gles at D right angles, and the angles FPD, EPD
equal (4.), and the side DP common to both; they are
therefore equal, and consequently have ED^DF, and
EP~PF, wherefore E/r=FP—P/=Aa. Now the
straight lines FE, Ff being bisected at D and C, the
line DC is parallel to E^/j and thus the triangles
F/E, FCD are similar.
therefore Y f ox A. a v. FC : CD ;
but FC is half F /j therefore CD is half of A a.
Cor. If a straight line Q <7 be drawn through the
centre parallel to the tangent D d, it will cut off
from PE, P f the segments PG, Pg, each equal to AC
half the transverse axis. For Cd PG, CDPg are pa¬
rallelograms, therefore PGzzf/CrrAC, and P^rrrDCiz:
AC.
Prop. XXVI.
The rectangle contained by perpendiculars drawn
from the foci of an hyperbola to a tangent is
equal to the square of half the conjugate axis.
Let P d D be a tangent, and FD,/t/ perpendicu- Fig
Jars from the foci, the rectangle contained by FD and
fdis equal to the square of BC half the conjugate
axis.
It is evident from last proposition that the points
D, d are in the circumference of a circle, whose centre
is
542 - CONIC S
or the is the centre of the hyperbola, and radius CA half the
Hyperbola, transverse axis $ now FDo? being a right angle, if o?C
v ' he joined, and produced, it will meet DF in H, a
point in the circumference j and since ICrr^C, and
CHr=Cr/, and the angles FCH,yCc/ are equal, FH is
equal tof d, therefore,
BF^/=DF FH=AF • «F (36. 3. E.)=CB2 (3.)
Cor. If PF, P/j be drawn from the point of con¬
tact to the foci, the square of FD is a fourth propor¬
tional to fV, FP and CB*. For the angles f^dt
FPD are equal (4.), and FDP^/VP are right angles,
therefore the triangles FDP,ydP are similar, and
/P : FP :: fd : FD :: fd • FD or BC* : FD*.
Prop. XXVII.
rig. 53. If from C the centre of an hyperbola a straight
line CL be drawn perpendicular to a tangent
LD, and from D the point of contact a perpen¬
dicular be drawn to the tangent, meeting the
transverse axis in H, and the conjugate axis in
/j, the rectangle contained by CL and DH is
equal to the square of CB, the semi-conjugate
axis; and the rectangle contained by CL and
D/j is equal to the square of CA, the semi-
transverse axis.
Let the axes meet the tangent in M and and
from D draw the semi-ordinates DE, Dtf, which will
be perpendicular to the axes.
The triangles DEH, CLm are evidently equiangu¬
lar, therefore,
DH : DE :: Cm : CL,
hence CL • DHrrDE * Cm,
but DE • Cwz or Ce • C#2—BC* (10.)
therefore CL • DH=BC*.
In the same way it may be shewn, that CL • D/jrr:
AC2.
Cor. 1. If a perpendicular be drawn to a tangent
at the point of contact, the segments intercepted be¬
tween the point of contact and the axes are to each
other reciprocally as the squares of the axes by which
they are terminated.
For AC* : BC* :: CL • D^ : CL • DH :: D/i: DH.
Cor. 2. If DF be drawn to either focus, and HK
be drawn perpendicular to DF ; the straight line DK
shall be equal to half the parameter of the transverse
axis.
Draw CG parallel to the tangent at D, meeting
DH in N, and DF in G. The triangles GDN, HDK
are similar, therefore
GD : DN :: DH : DK j
and hence GD • DK=HD • DN.
But GD=AC (cor. 25.) and NDrrCL,
therefore AC • DK=HD : CL~(by the prop.) CB2,
wherefore AC : BC :: BC : DK,
hence DK is half the parameter of Aa (def. 16.)
Definition.
Fig. 6$. XVII. If a point G be taken in the transverse axis
of an hyperbola, so that the distance of G from the
E C T I O N S. Part II
centre may be a third proportional to CF, the distance Of the
of either focus from the centre, and CA the semi-trans-Hyperbolj
verse axis, a straight line HG h drawn through G, '""H—v—
perpendicular to the axis, is called the Directrix of the
hyperbola.
Cor. 1. If MF»z, an ordinate to the axis, be drawn
through the focus, tangents to the hyperbola at the ex¬
tremities of the ordinate will meet the axis at the point
G (9).
Cor. 2. The hyperbola has two directrices, for the
point G may be taken on either side of the centre.
Prop. XXVIII.
The distance of any point in an hyperbola from
either directrix is to its distance from the focus
nearest that directrix, in the constant ratio of
the semi-transverse axis to the distance of the
focus from the centre.
Let D be any point in the hyperbola j let DK be fig,
drawn perpendicular to the directrix, and DF to the
focus nearest the directrix ; DK is to DF as CA, half
the transverse axis, to CF, the distance of the focus
from the centre.
Draw Dy to the other focus, and DE perpendicu¬
lar to A ; take L a point in the axis, so that AL=r
FD, and consequently LozrD/; then CL is evidently
half the sum of AL and a L, or of FD andyD, and
CE half the sum of FE and jf E, and because
D/-DF : F/::/E+FE : D/+DF (Trig.)
by taking the halves of the terms of the proportion,
CA : CF :: CE
But CA : CF :: CG
therefore, CG : CA :: CE
hence (19.5. E.) EG : AL :: CG
that is, DK : DF :: CA
CL.
CA (def. 17.) j
CL,
CA :: CA : CF,
CF.
Cor. 1. If iIk; tangent GMN be drawn through M,
the extremity of the ordinate passing through the focus,
and ED be produced to meet GM in N, EN shall be
equal to DF. For draw MO perpendicular to the
directrix, then, because M and D are points in the hy¬
perbola, and from similar triangles,
EM : FD :: MO : DK :: GF : GE :: ME : EN,
therefore FD=EN.
Cor. 2. If AI and a i be drawn perpendicular to the
transverse axis at its extremities, meeting the tangent
GM in I and i, then AI—AF and az=aF.
Prop. XXIX.
If through P and Q, the vertices of two semi-dia- pig. 70.
meters of an hyperbola, there be drawn straight
lines PD, QE parallel to one of the asymptotes
CN, meeting the other asymptote in D and E,
the hyperbolic sector PCQ is equal to the hyper¬
bolic trapezium PDEQ.
Let CQ meet PD in G. The triangles CDP,
CEQ are equal (1 cor. 14.) therefore, taking the tri¬
angle CDG from both, the triangle CGP is equal to
the quadrilateral DEQG j to these add the figure
PGQ,
Ijrt HI.
CONIC SE
tjje PGQ, and the hyperbolic sector PCQ is equal to the
^erbola. hyperbolic trapezium PDEQ.
Prop. XXX.
>7r. If from the centre of an hyperbola the segments
CD, CE, CH be taken in continued propor¬
tion, in one of the asymptotes, and the straight
lines DP, EQ, HR be drawn parallel to the
other asymptote, meeting the hyperbola in P,
O, R, the hyperbolic areas PDEQ, QEHR are
equal.
Through Q draw a tangent to the curve, meeting
the asymptotes in K and L : join PR meeting the
asymptotes in M and N $ draw the semi-diameters CP,
CQ, CR, let CQ meet PR in G.
Because QE is parallel to CM, and KQ is equal to
QL (2 cor. 13.) CE is equal to EL j and because
MC, PD, RH, are parallel, and MP is equal to
RN (1 cor. 13.) CD is equal to HN. Now, by hy¬
pothesis,
CD : CE :: CE : CH,
therefore NH : LE :: CE : CH j
but CE : CH :: HR: EQ (2 cor. 14.)
therefore NH : LE :: HR : EQ,
and by alternation NH : HR :: LE : EQ.
Now the angles at H and E are equal, therefore
the triangles NHR, LEQ are equiangular, and NR
is parallel to LQ j consequently RP is an ordinate to
the diameter CQ (8.), and is bisected by it at G } and
as CQ bisects all lines which are parallel to KL, and
are terminated by the hyperbola, it will bisect the area
PQR. Let the equal areas PQG, RQG be taken
from the equal triangles PCG, RCG, and there will
remain the hyperbolic sectors PCQ, RCQ equal to each
other. Therefore (29.) the areas DPQE, EQRH
are also equal.
Cor. Hence if CD, CE, CH, &c. any number of
segments of the asymptote be taken in continued pro¬
portion, the areas DPQE, DPQRH, &c. reckoned
from the first line DP, will be in arithmetical progres¬
sion.
Prop. XXXI. Problem.
•i*.7,!T3.Two straight lines Ha, B £, which bisect each
other at right angles in C, being given, by po¬
sition, to describe an hyperbola, of which H a
shall be the transverse and B b the conjugate
axis.
First Method. By a Mechanical Tyescription.
Pig, Join AB, and in A o, produced, take CF, C f each
equal to AB j the points F, f will be the foci of the
hyperbola.
Let one end of a string be fastened at F, and the
other to G the extremity of a ruler ^/DG, and let the
C T I O N S. 543
difference between the length of the ruler and the Of ihe
string be equal to A a. Let the other end of the Hyperbola,
ruler be fixed to the pointyi and let the ruler be made
to revolve abouty as a centre in the plane in which
the axes are situated, while the string is stretched by
means of a pin D, so that the part ot it between G
and D is applied close to the edge of the ruler ; the
point of the pin will by its motion trace a curve line
DAD upon the plane which is one of the hyperbolas
required.
If the ruler be made to revolve about the other
focus F, while the end of the string is fastened to
the opposite hyperbola will be described by the
moving point D ; for in either case Gf-—(GD-j-DF),
that is, D/-—DF is by hypothesis equal to A a the
transverse axis.
Second Method. By finding any number of points in
ihe curve.
Find F, either of the foci as before, draw HAK, Fig. 73.
h ak perpendicular to the transverse axis at its extre¬
mities, and take AH and AK on each side of the ver¬
tex equal to AF, also a h and a k each equal to c F j
join 11 h and K k; take E any point in Ac, anff
through E draw NE n parallel to HK, meeting H h
and K £ in N and n. On F as a centre, with a radius
equal to EN or E n, let a circle be described meeting
N n in D and d, these will be two points in the hy¬
perbola ; and in the same way may any number of
points in the hyperbola, or opposite hyperbolas, be
found. The reason of this construction is obvious from
cor. I. and 2. Prop. 28.
Prop. XXXII. Problem.
An hyperbola being given by position, to find its Plate
axes. CLXM.
Let HA h be the given hyperbola. Draw two Fig. 74.
parallel straight lines H K A: terminating in either
of the opposite hyperbolas, and bisect them at L and
M j join LM, and produce it to meet the hyperbola in
Pj then LP will be a transverse diameter (4 cor. 8.).
Let/? be the point in which it meets the opposite hy¬
perbola, bisect P/7 in G, the point C is the centre (2.).
Take D any point in the hyperbola, and on C as a
centre with the distance CD describe a circle j if this
circle lie wholly without the opposite hyperbolas, then
CD must be half the transverse axis (20.), but if not,
let the circle meet the hyperbola again in d, join
D d, and bisect it in E, join CE, meeting the opposite
hyperbolas in A and o, then A a will be the transverse
axis (5 cor. 8.) for it is perpendicular to D a? (3. 3.
E.) which is an ordinate to A a. The other axis will
be found by drawing B 6 a straight line through the
centre perpendicular to A o, and taking CB so that
CB* may be a fourth proportional to the rectangle
AE • E a, and the squares of DE and CA, thus CB
is half the conjugate axis (19O.
PART
CONIC SECTIONS.
544
Of the Cone
and its
Sections.
PART IV.
SECT. I. ^
OF THE CONE AND ITS SECTIONS.
Definitions.
I. If through the point V, without the plane of the
circle ADR, a straight line AVE be drawn, and pro¬
duced indefinitely both ways, and if the point V re¬
main fixed while the straight line AVE is moved round
the whole circumference of the circle, two superficies
will be generated by its motion, each of which is called
a Conical Superficies, and these mentioned together are
called Opposite Conical Superficies.
II. The solid contained by the conical superficies,
and the circle ADR is called a Cone.
III. The fixed point V is called the Vertex of the
cone.
IV. The circle ADR is called the Base ofithe cone.
V. Any straight line drawn from the vertex to the
circumference of the base is called a Side of the cone.
VI. Any straight line VC drawn through the vertex
of the cone, and the centre of the base, is called the
Axis of the cone.
\ II. If the axis of the cone be perpendicular to the
base, it is called a Bight cone.
VIII. If the axis of the cone be not perpendicular
to the base, it is called a Scalene cone.
Prop. I.
If a cone be cut by a plane passing through the
vertex, the section will be a triangle.
IS' Let ADRV be a cone, of which VC is the axis j
let AD be the common section of the base of the cone
and the cutting plane $ join VA, VD. When the ge¬
nerating line comes to the points A and D, it is evi¬
dent that it will coincide with the straight lines VA,
VD, they are therefore in the surface of the cone, and
they are in the plane which passes through the points
v, A, D, therefore the triangle VAD is the common
section of the cone and the plane which passes through
its vertex.
Prop. II.
If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its base, the
section will be a circle, the centre of which is
in the axis.
75- Let EFG be the section made by a plane parallel
to the base of the cone, and VAR, VCD two sections
of the cone made by any two planes passing through
the axis ^ C j let EG, IIF be the common sections
of the plane EFG, and the triangles VAR, VCD.
Because the planes EFG, ADR are parallel, HE
HF will be parallel to CA, CD, and
AC ; EH :: (VC : VH ::) CD : HF,
Part ll
Of the (L
and i f
Sectio
* y« I
but AC=CD, therefore EHirHF. For the same
reason GH=HF, therefore EFG is a circle of which
H is the centre and EG the diameter.
Prop. III.
If a scalene cone ADBV be cut through the axis
by a plane perpendicular to the base, making
the triangle VAB, and from any point H, in
the straight line AV, a straight line HK be
drawn in the plane of the triangle VAB, so that
the angle VHK may be equal to the angle VBA,
and the cone be cut by another plane passing
through HK perpendicular to the plane of the
triangle ABC, the common section HFKM of
this plane and the cone will be a circle.
Take any point L in the straight line HK, and Fig. 76,1
through L draw EG parallel to AB, and let EFGM
be a section parallel to the base, passing through EG 5
then the two planes HFKM, EFGM being perpendi¬
cular to the plane VAB, their common section FLM
is perpendicular to ELG, and since EFGM is a circle
(by last prop.) and EG its diameter, the square of FL
is equal to the rectangle contained by EL and LG
(35. 3. E.) ; but since the angle VHK is equal to
VBA, or VGE, the angles EHK, EGK are equal,
therefore the points E, H, G, K, are in the circum¬
ference of a circle (21.3.E.), and HL • LKrrEL • LG
(35. 3. E.)=FLa, therefore the section HFKM is a
circle of which HLK is a diameter (35. 3. E.)
This section is called a Suhcontrarij Section.
Prop. IV.
If a cone be cut by a plane which does not pass
through the vertex, and which is neither paral¬
lel to the base, nor the plane of a subcontrary
section, the common section of the plane and
the surface of the cone will be an ellipse, a pa¬
rabola, or an hyperbola, according as the plane
passing through the vertex parallel to the cut¬
ting plane falls without the cone, touches it, or
falls within it.
Let ADVB be any cone, and let ONP be the Fig-77 ”
common section of a plane passing through its vertex 79'
and the plane of the base, which will fall without the
base, will touch it, or will fall within it.
Let FKM be a section of the cone parallel to VPO ;
through C the centre of the base draw CN perpendi¬
cular to OP, meeting the circumference of the base in
A and B ; let a plane pass through V, A and B,
meeting the plane OVP in the line NV, the surface
of the cone in VA, VB, and the plane of the section
FKM in LK ; then because the planes OVP, MKF
are parallel, KL will be parallel to VN, and will
meet VB one side of the cone in K $ it will meet VA
the
1 rt IV.
0 leConetlie other side in H, fig. 77. within the cone $ it will
id it* he parallel to VA in fig. 78. and it will meet VA,
dons, produced beyond the vertex, in H, fig. 79.
1 ^ Let EFGM be a section of the cone parallel to the
base, meeting the plane VAB in EG, and the plane
FKM in FM, and let L be the intersection of EG
and FM, then EG will be parallel to BN, and FM
will be parallel to PO, and therefore will make the
same angle with LK wherever the lines FM, LK cut
each other and since BN is perpendicular to PO, EG
is perpendicular to FM. Now the section EFGM is a
circle, of which EG is the diameter (2.) ; therefore
FM is bisected at L, and FL’rrEL'LG.
I 77. Case I. Let the line PNO be without the, base of
the cone. Through K and H draw KR and HQ pa¬
rallel to AB. The triangles KLG, KHQ are simi¬
lar, as also HLE, HKR ; therefore
KL : LG :: KH : HQ,
and HL : LE :: KH : KR j
therefore KL-HL : LG-LE or LF*:: KH2: HQ KR-
Now the ratio of KH* to HQ'KR is the same where-
ever the sections HFKM, EFGM intersect each other,
therefore KL’HL has a contant ratio to LF*, conse¬
quently (1 cor. r I. Part II. the section HFKM is an
ellipse, of which HK is a diameter and MF an ordi¬
nate.
] 78. Case II. Next, suppose the line ONP to touch
the circumference of the base in A. Let DIB be the
common section of the base and the plane FKM, the
line DIB is evidently parallel to FLM and perpendi¬
cular to AB, therefore DI*=AI * IB,
hence HI* : FL2 :: AI • IB : EL * LG.
But since EG is parallel to AB, and IK parallel to
AV, AI is equal to EL, and
IB : LG :: KI : KL j
therefore DI* : FL*:: KI: KL.
Hence it appears (cor. 9. Part I.), that the section
DFKMS is a parabola, of which KLI is a diameter,
and DIB, FLM ordinates to that diameter.
■ 79. Case III. Lastly, Let the line PNO fall within the
base ; draw VT through the vertex parallel to EG. The
triangles HVT, HEL are similar, as also the triangles
KVT, KGL, therefore
HT : TV :: HL : LE,
and KT : TV :: KL : LG,
therefore HT-KT : TV*:: HL-LK : LE.LG or LF*.
Hence it appears, that HL‘LK has to LF* a constant
ratio, therefore the section DFKMS is an hyperbola,
of which KH is a transverse diameter, and FM an or¬
dinate to that diameter, (2 cor. 19. Part III.).
Scholium.
From the four preceding propositions it appears,
that the only lines which can be formed by the com¬
mon section of a plane and the surface of a cone, are
these five. I. A straight line, or rather two straight
lines intersecting each other in the vertex of the cone,
and forming with the straight line which joins the
points in which they meet the base a triangle. II. A
circle. III. An ellipse. IV. A parabola. V. An
hyperbola. The two first of these, however, viz. the
Vol. VI. Part II. +
545
triangle and circle, maybe referred to the hyperbola Of the Cnr-
and the ellipse, for if the axes of an hyperbola be sup- vatuie of
posed to retain a constant ratio to each other, and, at ^le Jolv*c
the same time to diminish continually, till at last the , -
vertices coincide; the opposite hyperbolas will evi¬
dently become two straight lines intersecting each
other in a point j and a circle may be considered as an
ellipse, whose axes are equal, or whose foci coincide
with the centre j so that the only three sections which
require to be separately considered, are the ellipse, the
parabola, and the hyperbola,
SECT. II.
OF THE CURVATURE OF THE CONIC
SECTIONS.
Definitions.
I. A circle is said to touch a conic section in any
point, when the circle and conic section have a common
tangent in that point.
II. If a circle touch a conic section in any point, *0
that no other circle touching it in the same point can
pass between it and the conic section on either side of
the point of contact, it is said to have the same curva¬
ture with the conic section in the point of contact, and
it is called the Circle of Curvature.
Lemma.
Let PL be any chord in a circle, PX a tangent at y;g. s0,
one of its extremities, and LK a diameter pas¬
sing through the other extremity: draw any
chord G g parallel to the tangent PX, meeting
PL in E, and from its extremities draw GH,
g h perpendicular to the diameter, meeting PL
in N and n \ the square of GE is equal to the
rectangle contained by PE and LN, and the
square of g E is equal to the re&angle contain¬
ed by PE and L n.
From G and g draw the straight lines GP, g P,
GL, g L, and let LM a perpendicular to the diame¬
ter, and therefore a tangent to the circle at L, meet
the tangent PX in M. The triangle NGE is evi¬
dently similar to the triangle LMP, and LMzzMP,
therefore NG=:GE j hence the angles GNL, GEP
are equal. Now the angle PGE is equal to the alter¬
nate angle GPX, that is, to the angle GLN in the al¬
ternate segment of the circle (32. 3. E.), therefore the
triangles PGE, GLN are similar, and
PE : EG :: GN or E^ : NL,
therefore GE2=PE • NL.
In the same way it may be demonstrated that n g—g E,
and that the triangles PgE, g’Lw are similar, and
therefore that
PE : Y. g y. g n or 1L g n Hj.
and hence g E*=:PE • n L.
Prop. I.
•
If a circle be described touching a conic section,
and cutting off from the diameter that paflfes
3 Z through
CONIC SECTIONS.
54-6
CONIC SECTIONS.
Of the Cur¬
vature of
the Conic
Sections.
Fig-. Sr, 8-2,
S3, S4-
through the point of contact a segment greater
than the parameter of that diameter, a part of
the circumference on each side of the point of
contact will be wholly without the conic sec¬
tion ; but if it cuts off from the diameter a seg¬
ment less than the parameter, a part of the cir¬
cumference on each side of the point of contact
will be wholly within the conic section.
Let Pp be the diameter of a conic section j let a
circle GP g touch the section in P the vertex of the
diameter, and cut off from it a segment PL, which is
either greater or less than the parameter oi the diame¬
ter ; in the former case a part GP g of the circumfe¬
rence of the circle on each side ol P the point of con¬
tact will be wholly without the conic section, as in
fig. 81. and fig. 82. and in the latter a part GP g of the
circumference on each side of P will be wholly within
the section, as in fig. 83. and fig. 84.
Through L draw LK a diameter of the circle; let
X)E d an ordinate to the diameter of the section meet
the circle in G and g, so that the points G, P, g may
be on the same side of LK the diameter of the circle,
and draw GH, g- h, PO perpendicular to LK, the two
former lines meeting LP in N and n. From L to¬
wards P place LR in the diameter equal to its para¬
meter j then in the former case the point R will fall
between L and P, as in fig. 81. and 82.; and in the
latter it will fall in LP produced, as in fig. 82. and
83-
Case I. First, let the section be a parabola (fig.
81. 83.)
Then DE*, also JE*r=:PE-RL (Cor. prop. 9. of Part I.)
Now GE*=PE-LN7 .
and g E*=PE-L n $ CLemraa)*
Part P
Therefore DEa : GE*LR : LN, Of the c
and c? E2 : g E* :: LR : L «. vature
the Coii
Now if the ordinate D f? be supposed to approach to Section
the tangent at the vertex, the points G, g will ap-'-T-
proach to P, the lines GH, g h to the line PO, and
the points N, n to the vertex P, where they will at
last coincide ; hence it is evident, that the ordinate
DE d may be at such a distance from the tangent
that the points N, «, and the vertex P, may be all on
the same side of the point R ; in this position of the
ordinate if the segment cut off by the circle be greater
than the parameter, as in fig. 81. then LR will be
less than either LN, or L «, and therefore LE* less
than GE2, also d E2 less than g E2, so that the points
G, g are both without the parabola. If the ordinate
be supposed to approach nearer to the tangent, as the
points N, n will also approach nearer to P, tiie line
LR will still he less than either LN, or L w, and
therefore DE* less than GE*, and d E* less than
g E2. Hence it follows, that every point in the arch
GPg, which lies on each side of the point of contact,
is without the parabola.
If the segment cut off by the circle be less than the
parameter (fig. 83.), and therefore LR greater than
either LN or L «, then, reasoning as before, it will
appear that DES is greater than GE*, and d E* great¬
er than g E2, so that the points G, g are within the
parabola; and as the same will hold for every other
position of the ordinate nearer to the tangent, the
arch GP g which lies on each side of the point of con¬
tact is wholly within the parabola.
Case II. Next, let the section be an ellipse, or an
hyperbola (fig. 82. 84.) (a). Take V a point in LR,
so that
/? P :/> E :: LR : LV,
and therefore Y p : LR ::jj E : LT/ p E*EP : LV-EP.
But Yp : LR :: p E-EP : DE* or d E* (13. Part II. and 21. Part III.),
therefore DE*, also d E*=LV-EP.
Now GE*=LN-EP 7 ,T >.
and g E2=L« EP, S (Lemma-)
therefore DE* : GE2 :: LV : LN,
and c? E* : g E2 :: LV : Lw.
Now as P and RL are similarly divided at E and V,
if the point E approach to P, the point V will ap¬
proach to R, and as E may come nearer to P than
any assignable line, so V may come nearer to R than
any assignable line $ but as in the same circumstances
GH and g h approach to PO, and N and n approach
to P, it is evident that the ordinate D d may have
such a position that the points N, «, and the vertex P,
may be all on the same side of V, and the same thing
have place for every other position of the ordinate
nearer to the tangent; therefore, in these circumstan¬
ces, when LP the segment cut off from the diameter
is greater than LR the parameter (fig. 82.), LV will
be less than either LN or L tz, and consequently DE*
less than GE2, also e?E* less than g Ea $ thuS the points
G, g, as well as every other point in the arch GP g
which lies on both sides of the vertex, are without the
ellipse or hyperbola.
On the contrary, when LP is less than LR the pa¬
rameter (fig. 84.), LV will be greater than either
LN or L «, and therefore DE2 greater than GE2, al¬
so d E2 greater than g E* j and therefore the points
G, g, as well as every other point in the arch GPg,
are within the ellipse or hyperbola.
Cor. 1. If a circle touch a conic section, and cut
off from the diameter that passes through the point of
contact a segment equal to its parameter, it will have
the same curvature with the conic section in the point
of
(a) As the reasoning applies alike to the ellipse and hyperbola, to avoid a number of figures, those for the
hyperbola are omitted.
Hirt rv.
( !ie cur-of contact. For if a greater circle be described it will
ure of cut off from the diameter a segment greater than its
Conic parameter, therefore a part of its circumference on
::lions■ each side of the point of contact will be wholly with-
1 ~srmmJ out the conic section ; and as it will also be without the
former circle, it will not pass between that circle and
the conic section at the point of contact. II, on the
other hand, a less circle he discrihed, it will cut oft
from the diameter a segment less than its parameter,
therefore a part of its circumference on each side of
the point of contact will fall within the conic section $
and as it will be within the former circle, it will not
pass between that circle and the conic section at the
point of contact. Hence (Def. 2.), the circle which
cuts off a segment equal to the parameter is the circle
547
lipse (fig. 88.) as P/7 is less than LP, and Pp : LP :: Of the Cin-
PE : PV, therefore, PE is less than PV j hence LV vaiure oC
is less than LE, and consequently DE* is less than
GE2, also dY? less than g E2, therefore the circle is
wholly without the ellipse.
Prop. III.
The circle of curvature at the vertex of any dia¬
meter of a conic section, which is not an axis,
meets the conic section again in one point on¬
ly ; and between that point and the vertex of
the diameter the circle falls wholly within the
conic section on the one side, and wholly with¬
out it on the other.
CONIC SECTIONS.
of curvature.
Cor. 2. Only one circle can have the same curva¬
ture with a conic section in a given point.
Prop. II.
plate The circle of curvature at the vertex of the axis of
LiM. a parabola, or at the vertex of the transverse
axis of an ellipse or hyperbola, falls wholly with¬
in the conic section *, but the circle of curvature
at the vertex of the conjugate axis of an ellipse
falls wholly without the conic section.
. 85,66, Let P/j be the axis of the parabola (fig. 85.), and
88- PGLg the circle of curvature at its vertex, which
therefore cuts off from the axis a segment I L equal to
the parameter of the axis j because the tangent at the
vertex is common to the parabola and circle, the cen¬
tre of the circle is in P/>. Let HE d an ordinate to
the axis meet the circle in G and g j it may he shewn
as in last proposition that
HE* : GE* :: LP : LE.
But in every position of the ordinate LP is greater
than LE, therefore DE* is always greater than GE*,
and </E* greater than g E*; therefore the circle is
wholly within the parabola. Next let Pjo be the
transverse axis of an ellipse or hyperbola (fig. 86, 87.),
or the conjugate axis of an ellipse (fig. 88.), and
PGL g the circle of curvature, then as in the para¬
bola the centre of the circle will be in the axis. Draw
D d an ordinate to the axis meeting the circle in G,#;
and take a point ^ in PL, so that
/? P : /? E :: LP : L\ 5
then it will appear as in last prop, that
DE* : GE*:: LV : LE.
Now, when P /? is the transverse axis of an ellipse,
(fig. 86.) as P/i is greater than LP, and P/7 : PL ::
PE : PV, therefore PE is greater than PV, and hence
LVis always greater than LE, therefore DE* is great¬
er than GE2, also d E* greater than g E*, so that
the circle falls wholly within the ellipse.
Again, when P/7 is the transverse axis of an hy¬
perbola (fig. 87.) as /7 E is greater than p P, there¬
fore LV is greater than LP, and consequently greater
also than LE *, hence DE* is greater than GE, and
£?E* is greater than gE2, and the circle is wholly
within the hyperbola.
Lastly, When P/7 is the conjugate axis of an el-
Case I. Let the conic section be a parabola, of Fig. Sy, 9c.
which P/7 is a diameter (fig. 89.) and PLK the cir¬
cle of curvature at the vertex, cutting oft from the dia¬
meter a segment PL equal to its parameter. Draw
LK a diameter of the circle, and draw PO perpendi¬
cular to LK, this line will necessarily meet the circle
again, let it meet the circle in I *, draw IS parallel to
the tangent at P, meeting the chord PL in S j then,
because IP is perpendicular to LK,
IS*=PS-PL (Lemma) $
hence (Cor. Prop. 9. Part I.) I is a point in the parabola.
Let DE d an ordinate to the diameter Pp meet the
arch PLI anywhere in G j draw Gli perpendicular to
LK, meeting PL in N, then because LP is equal to
the parameter, as in Prop. I. Case I.
DE* : GE* :: LP : LN :: LO : LH.
But wherever the point G be taken in the arch PLI,
LO is greater than LH, therefore DE* is also greater
than OE2; thus the arch PGLI falls wholly within
the parabola.
Let the ordinate DE d now meet the arch PKI, any¬
where, as atj-, draw gh perpendicular to LK, meeting
LP in ft, then it will appear as before that
r^E* : g E* :: LP : L ft :: LO : L/* ;
but LO is less than L A, and therefore d E* less than
e-E*, thus the arch P g KI falls wholly without the
parabola.
Case II. Let the conic section be either an el¬
lipse or hyperbola (fig. 9®*) which P/7 is a diame¬
ter, and PLK the circle of curvature at its vertex,
cutting off PL equal to its parameter. Draw LK the
diameter of the circle and LQ perpendicular to LK,
and let /> Q, a tangent to the conic section in p, meet
LQ in Q. Join PQ, this line will necessarily meet
the circle again } let it meet the circle in I j and
draw IS, IT parallel to Q/?, QL, meeting PL in S, T.
Because of the parallels,
ftP:ftS::QP:QI::LP:LT,
hence p P : LP :: /7S : LT :: p S-SP : LT*SP j
hut LT-&P=IS* (Lemma),
therefore p P : LP ”. p S'SP : SI $
hence I is a point in the ellipse or hyperbola (13. Prop.
Part II. and 21. Prop. Part III.)
Let DE d an ordinate to the diameter P/7 meet the
arch PLI anywhere in G, if the point L is between
3 Z 2 P
548 CONIC SECTIONS. Part \\
Of the Cur-P and p, or the arch PTL, if L is in P p produced,
vatu re of Let D </ meet PI in Y, draw GH perpendicular to
the Conic LK meeting PL in N, and PT in Z, and draw YV
. ’ ectJons' i parallel to GN meeting LP in V. Because EY, pQ
are parallel, also VY, LQ,
Tp ipK :: (QP : QY ::) LP : LV;
now LP being the parameter, we have, as in Case II.
Prop. I.
DE2: GE* :: LV : LN :: QY : QZ;
but wherever the point G be taken in the arch PGI,
QY is greater than QZ, therefore also DE2 is greater
than GE* $ thus the arch PGI falls wholly within the
conic section.
Let the ordinate DE r/ now meet the other arch Pgl
anywhere in o-; draw g A perpendicular to LK meet¬
ing LP in «, and IP in ss, then it will in like manner
appear that
dE1: gE* :: LV : En :: QY : Qz;
and since in this case QY is less than Qas, therefore
r/E* is less than g E* ; hence the arch Pg I is wholly
without the conic section.
Of the t
Prop, V. vaiure j
the Coi
The radius of the circle of curvature at the vertex
of any diameter of an ellipse, or hyperbola, is
a third proportional to the perpendicular drawn
from the centre upon the tangent, and half the
conjugate diameter; and the chord which is
drawn from the point of contact through the
focus is a third proportional to the transverse
axis, and conjugate diameter.
Let PL be the chord cut off from the diameter, Fig. 92. ||
and PFH the chord passing through F the focus; draw
PM the diameter of the circle, and from the centre O
draw OR perpendicular to PL, which will bisect PL
in R; join HM, and draw the conjugate diameter
QC q meeting PH in N and PM in S, then PS is
equal to the perpendicular from the centre C upon the
tangent. The triangles PSC, PRO ate similar, there¬
fore,
PS • PC •• PR • PO
but PC : CQ :: CQ : PR ("Def. of param.)
therefore PS : CQ CQ : PO.
Prop. IV.
The chord of the circle of curvature which is
drawn from the point of contact through the
focus of a parabola is equal to that which is cut
off from the diameter; and half the radius of
the circle is a third proportional to the perpen¬
dicular from the focus upon the tangent, and
the distance of the point of contact from the
focus.
yig 91' Let PL be the chord cut off from the diameter,
and PFH the chord passing through F the focus ;
draw PM the diameter of the circle, join HL, HM,
and draw FK perpendicular to the tangent at P. Be¬
cause the lines PFH, PL make equal angles with the
tangent at P (3. Part I.), the angles PHL, PLH are
equal (32. 3. E.) hence PH=PL. Secondly, the tri¬
angles FKP, PHM, being manifestly similar,
FK : FP :: PH, or 4 PF : PM,
hence FK : FP :: FP : £PM, or § the radius.
Cor. I. Hence the radius is equal to
2FP*
FK *
Cor. 2. The radius is also equal to where
AF is the distance of the focus from the vertex of the
FKa
parabola ; for FP= (11. Part I.)
Cor. 3. Hence also the radius is equal
FK3 ,
where L denotes the parameter of the axis,
2FP*_ 2AFFP3 _| E'FP*
FK ~ AF-FP-FK ~ “FK^•
for
Secondly, the triangles PSN, PHM are similar,
therefore PN : PS :: PM : PH;
hut PS : CQ (CQ : PO ) Q? : PM,
therefore PN : CQ :: Q q : PH,
or, since PN=AC (Cor. 17. Part IL and Cor. 25.
Part III.),
A a : Q^ :: Q7 : PH.
Cor. I. Hence the radius of curvature is equal to
CQ*
^575-, and the chord passing through the focus is equal
AO
2CQ*
t0 AC *
Cor. 2. The radius of curvature is also equal to
AC-BC’ ^°r (tj. Part II. and 23. Part
HI).
Cor. 3. Draw FK from the focus perpendicular
to the tangent, and let L denote the parameter of the
transverse axis; the radius of curvature is also equal to
—* F°r the triangles PFK, NFS are mani¬
festly similar, therefore
FK : FP :: PS : PN, or AC :: BC : CQ;
hence CQ-^xBC,
K
, CQ3 FP3 BC2 FP*
and AC-BC” FK3- AC ~ FK3* *L*
This expression for the radius of curvature is the same
far all the three conic sections.
CONICHTHYODONTES,
CONIC SUCTIONS.
PI,ATI' CLVll.
A
ULA77- CmU
Fuf .“>9
/ J
./ \
\ V.
\
 ^ A
13
/ r\ \
\ \\
f\/
\(v>/^A—/
c
./•
\ \ /
'\ /1
/ 1
\ /
N>J /
r x /
f' Ta
Fui ■
7/1
13
ik
' / i'C/--
\ \
\ \
, \
a /••/ >: ■
<, /
(?
\
//
*
CONIC SECTIONS
rw.42.
Jti,
F ^
\t/*
i'/
1
A
^N.
/
\
\
/
\
\
!>/ //
'/ /
X \
C OXI C SECTIONS.
PLATE ( LA .
Fuj.
Fig. FI.
H'Jrdtthahl ''atIp
IP
: \Tt
V
IT \
PLATE CLXIi
CONIC SECTIONS
R<f/a
ri</. 07.
Fig- 60.
CONIC SECTIONS
PLATE CLXJI.
v Fir,-75.
WAvclnbald -PniljA
.SO.
Fig. 83
Plate CM, Kill.
COISTC SECTIONS.
Coaklithy-
uduiites
CON ' [ 549 ] CON
CONICHTHYODONTES, or Plectronit^, in
Natural History, a name by which the fossil teeth of
fishes are sometimes distinguished.
CONIFER A, in Botany, an order of plants in the
Fragmenta methodi naturalis of Linnaeus, containing
the following genera, viz. cupressus, ephedra, equisetum,
juniperus, pinus, taxus, thuja. See Botany Index.
CONIFEROUS TREES, such as bear hard dry seed-
vessels of a conical figure $ consisting of several woody
parts, being mostly scaly, adhering close together, and
separating when 1'ipe.
CONIMBRICA, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Lusitania, on the south side of the river Monda j
from the ruins of which arose Coimbra, in its neigh¬
bourhood, a city of Portugal. W. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat.
4°. 16.
CONINGSECK, a town of Suabia in Germany,
and capital of a county of the same name, 20 miles
north of Constance. E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 47. 5°*
CONJOINT, in a general sense, signifies united or
connected.
Conjoint Degrees, in Music, two notes which follow
each other immediately in the order of the scale, as tit
and re.
Conjoint Tetrachords, two tetrachords, or fourths,
where the same chord is the highest of one and the
lowest of the other.
CONISSALiE, an old term in natural history,
signifying a class of fossils, which were said to be na¬
turally and essentially compounded, not inflammable,
nor soluble in water, found in detached masses, and
formed of crystalline matter debased by earth. It in¬
cluded sand and gritty substances.
CONJUGATE DIAMETER, or Axis of an Ellipsis,
the shortest of the two diameters, or that bisecting the
axis.
CONJUGxATION, in Grammar, a regular distri¬
bution of the several inflections of verbs in their differ¬
ent voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, so as
to distinguish them from one another. See Grammar
and Language.
CONIUM, Hemlock. See Botany Index.
CONJUNCT, in a general sense, signifies conjoin¬
ed, concurrent, or united.
Conjunct Rights, in Scots Laic, such as are grant¬
ed to two or more persons. See Law Index.
Conjunct, or Confidant Persons, in Scots Law,
such as are about the person of another, or employed by
him. See Law Index.
CONJUNCTION, in Astronomy, the meeting of
two or more stars or planets in the same degree of the
zodiac.
Conjunction, in Grammar, an indeclinable word
or particle, which serves to join words and sentences
together, and thereby shows their relation or depend¬
ence upon one another. See Grammar.
CONJURATION, magic words, characters, or
ceremonies, whereby evil spirits, tempests, &c. are
supposed to he raised, or driven away. The Romish
priests pretend to expel devils, by preparing holy wa¬
ter in a particular manner, and sprinkling it over the
possessed, with a number ol conjurations and exor¬
cisms.
Some authors make the difference between conju¬
ration and witchcraft to consist in this ; that the for- Conjma-
mer effects its end hy prayers and invocation of God’s l'on
name, &c. to compel the devil to do what is desired 5 Comiccti
so that the conjuror is supposed to he at war with the cut<
devil, and that evil spirit to act merely out of con-'——y—.
straint: whereas the latter attains its end by an im¬
mediate application to the devil himself: and the de¬
vil’s complaisance is supposed to be the consequence oi
some compact between them, so that the devil and the
witch have a good understanding together, Both these,
again, differ from inchantment and sorcery ; in that
these latter operate secretly and slowly by spells, charms,
&c. without ever calling on the devil, or having any
conference with him.
CONN. See COND.
CONNAUGHT, one of the four provinces of Ire¬
land, bounded on the east by that of Leinster, on the
west by the ocean, on the north and north-west by
part of the ocean and province of Ulster, and on the
south and east by Munster. It is about 130 miles in
length, and 84 in breadth. It has no rivers of any
great note besides the Shannon. It has several con¬
venient bays and creeks, and is fertile in many places.
It had several dangerous bogs, overrun with woods,
which are now in some measure cleared away. Ibis
province produces abundance of cattle, sheep, deer)
hawks, and honey ; but tiie inhabitants being lazy, it
is the least cultivated of all the four provinces. It con¬
tains 1 archbishopric, 5 bishoprics, 6 counties, 7 mar¬
ket towns, 8 places of trade, 10 boroughs that sent
members to the Irish parliament, 47,256 houses, 24 old
castles, besides fortresses that have been erected ol late,
and 330 parishes. The principal town is Galway.
CGNNARUS, Ceylon Sumach. See Botany
Index.
CONNECTICUT, a large river in New England,
which gives name to one of the five colonies of that
province (see the next article). It rises in a swamp
on the height of land, in N. Lat. 45« W* Long. 71.
After a sleepy course of eight or ten miles, it tumbles
over four separate falls, and turning west keeps close
under the hills which form the northern boundary of
the vale through which Reruns. The Amonoosuck
and Israel rivers, two principal branches of Connecti¬
cut river, fall into it from the east, between the lati¬
tudes 440 and 450. Between the towns of Walpole
on the east, and Westminster on the west side of the
river, are the great falls. The whole river, compres¬
sed between two rocks scarcely 30 feet asunder, shoots
with amazing rapidity into a broad bason below. Ovei
these falls, a bridge 160 feet in length was built in
1784, under which the highest floods may pass without
detriment. This is the first bridge that was ever erect-*
ed over this noble river. Above Deerfield in Alassa-
chusets it receives Deerfield river from the west, and
Miller’s river from the east, after which it runs west¬
erly in a sinuous course to Fighting-falls, and a little
after tumbles over Deerfield falls, which are impassaLe
by boats. At Windsor in Connecticut it receives Far¬
mington river from the west, and at Hartford meets the
tide. From Hartford it passes on in a crooked course,
until it falls into Long Island sound between bay brook
and Lyme. . . , .
The length of this river, »n a straight line, is near-
Jy/
CON [ 550 ] CON
ly 300 miles. Its general course is several degrees west
of soutl). It is from 80 to IOO rods wide, 130 miles
from its mouth. At its mouth is a bar of sand which
considerably obstructs the navigation. Ten feet water
at full tides is found on this bar, and the same depth
to Middleton. The distance of the bar from this
place, as the river runs, is 36 miles. Above Middle-
ton are several shoals which stretch quite across the ri¬
ver. Only six feet water is found on the shoal at high
tide, and here the tide ebbs and flows but about eight
inches. About three miles below Middleton the river
is contracted to about 40 rods in breadth by two high
mountains. Almost everywhere else the banks are
low, and spread into fine extensive meadows. In the
spring floods, which generally happen in May, these
meadows are covered with water. At Hartford the
water sometimes rises 20 feet above the common sur¬
face of the river, and having all to pass through the
above-mentioned strait, it is sometimes two or three
weeks before it returns to its usual bed. These floods
add nothing to the depth of water on the bar at the
mouth of the river : this bar lying too far off in the
sound to be affected by them.
On this beautiful river, whose banks are settled al¬
most to its source, are many pleasant, neat, well-built
towns. On its western bank, from its mouth north¬
ward, are the towns of Saybrook, Haddam, Middle-
ton, Weathersfield, Hartford, Windsor, and Suffield,
in Connecticut ; West Springfield, Northampton, Hat¬
field, and Deerfield, in Massachusets j Guilford, Brat-
tleborough, in which is Fort Dummer, Westminster,
Windsor, Hartford, Fairlee, Newbury, Brunswick,
and many others in Vermont. Crossing the river into
New Hampshire, and travelling on the eastern bank,
you pass through Woodbury nearly opposite to Bruns¬
wick, Northumberland, the Coos country, Lyman,
Orford, Lyme, Hanover, in which is Dartmouth Col¬
lege, Lebanon, Cornish, Clermont, Charlestown or
N° 4, Chesterfield, and many others in New Hamp¬
shire ; Sunderland, Hadley, Springfield, Long Meadow,
in Massachusets •, and in Connecticut, Enfield, East
Windsor, East Hartford, Glastenbury, East Haddam,
and Lyme.
This river is navigable for vessels drawing 10 feet
water 36 miles ; for those of smaller size to Hart¬
ford, upwards of 50 miles from its mouth j and flat-bot¬
tomed boats ascend 200 miles farther, and bring down
the produce of the country. These boats are long and
narrow, for the convenience of going up stream, and of
so light a make as to be portable in carts. They are
taken out of the river at three different carrying-places,
all of which make 15 miles.
Sturgeon, salmon, and shad, are caught in plenty in
their season, from the mouth of the river upwards, ex¬
cepting sturgeon, which do not ascend the upper falls $
besides a variety of small fish, such as pike, carp, &c.
Connecticut, one of the five states of New Eng¬
land in America; bounded on the north by Massachu¬
sets ; on the east by Rhode Island $ on the south by the
sound which divides it from Long Island ; and on the
west by the province of New York.
The divisional line between Connecticut and Mas¬
sachusets, as settled in 1728, was found to be about
72 miles in length. The line dividing Connecticut
2
from Rhode Island was settled in 1728, and found to Connecj
be about 45 miles. The sea coast, from the mouth of cut.
Paukatuk river, which forms a part of the eastern ''"“■v*
boundary of Connecticut, in a direct south-westwardly
line to the mouth of Bryam river, is reckoned at about
90 miles. The line between Connecticut and New
York runs from latitude 41. o. to latitude 42. 2. ; 72
miles. Connecticut contains about 4674 square miles 5
equal to about 2,960,000 acres. 1
This state is watered by several fine rivers, the prin- Rbers.
cipal of which are, Connecticut described in the pre¬
ceding article, Housatonik, and the Thames. One
branch of the Housatonik rises in Lanesborough, the
other in Windsor, both in Berkshire county in Mas¬
sachusets. It passes through a number of pleasant
towns, and empties into the sound between Stratford
and Milford. It is navigable 12 miles, to Derby. A
bar of shells, at its mouth, obstructs its navigation lor
large vessels. In this river, between Salisbury and Ca¬
naan, is a cataract, where the water of the whole river,
which is 150 yards wide, falls about 60 feet perpendi¬
cularly, in a perfectly white sheet. A copious mist
arises, in which floating rainbows are seen in various
places at the same time, exhibiting a scene exceedingly
grand and beautiful.
The Thames empties into Long Island sound at
New London. It is navigable 14 miles, to Norwich
Landing. Here it loses its name, and branches into
Shetucket on the east, and Norwich or Little River on ^
the west. The city of Norwich stands on the tongue
of land between these rivers. Little River, about a
mile from its mouth has a remarkable and very ro¬
mantic cataract. A rock 10 or 12 feet in perpendi¬
cular height, extends quite across the channel of the
river. Over this the whole river pitches, in one entire
sheet, upon a bed of rocks below. Here the river is
compressed into a very narrow channel between two
craggy cliffs, one of which towers to a considerable
height. The channel descends gradually, is very crook¬
ed, and covered with pointed rocks. Upon these the
water swiftly tumbles, foaming with the most violent
agitation, 15 or 20 rods, into a broad bason which
spreads before it. At the bottom of the perpendicu¬
lar falls, the rocks are curiously excavated by the con¬
stant pouring of the water. Some of the cavities, which
are all of a circular form, are five or six feet deep. The
smoothness of the water above its descent, the regularity
and beauty of the perpendicular fall, the tremendous
roughness of the other, and the craggy, towering clifi
which impends the whole, present to the view of the
spectator a scene indescribably delightful and majestic.
On this river are some of the finest mill seats in New
England, and those immediately below the falls, occu¬
pied by Lathrop’s mill, are perhaps not exceeded by
any in the world. Across the mouth of this river is a
broad, commodious bridge, in the form of a wharf,
built at a great expence.
Shetucket river, the other branch of the Thames,
four miles from its mouth, receives Quinnabog, which
has its source in Brimfield in Massachusets *, thence
passing through Sturbridge and Dudley in Massachu¬
sets, it crosses into Connecticut, and divides Pomfret
from Kiilingly, Canterbury from Plainfield, and Lisbon
from Preston, and then mingles with Shetucket. In
mnecU-
cut.
irboors.
3
imate,
•il, aud
od«c-
ont.
CON [55
passing through this hilly country, it tumbles over
many falls, and affords a vast number of mill seats.
1 The source of the Shetucket is not far from that of
Quinnabog. It has the name of ^Willamantik while
passing through Stafford, and between T-olland and
Willington, Coventry, and Mansfield. Below Wind¬
ham it takes the name of Shetucket, and empties as
above. These rivers are fed by numberless brooks
from every part of the adjacent country. At the
mouth of Shetucket is a bridge of timber 124 feet in
length, supported at each end by pillars, and held up
in the middle by braces on the top, in the nature of an
arch.
The two principal harbours are at New London and
New Haven. The former opens to the south. From
the light-house, which stands at the mouth of the har¬
bour, to the town, is about three miles; the breadth is
three quarters of a mile, and in some places more.
The harbour has from five to six fathoms water, a clear
bottom, tough ooze, and as far as one mile above the
town is entirely secure and commodious for large
ships. New Haven harbour is greatly inferior to that
of New London. It is a bay which sets up northerly
from the sound about four miles. Its entrance is about
half a mile wide. It has very good anchorage, and two
and a half fathoms at low water, and three fathoms and
four feet at common tides. The whole of the sea
coast is indented with harbours, many of which are safe
and commodious, but are not sufficiently used to merit
a description.
Connecticut, though subject to the extremes of heat
and cold in their seasons, and to Trequent sudden
changes, is very healthful. As many as one in 46
of the inhabitants of Connecticut, who were living in
1774, were upwards of 40 years old. Irom accurate
calculation it is found, that about one in eight live
to the age of 70 years and upwards ; one in 13 to the
age of 80 years, and one in about 30 to the age of 90.
In the maritime towns the weather is variable, ac¬
cording as the wind blows from the sea or land. As
you advance into the country, the sea breezes have less
effect upon the air, and consequently the weather is
less variable. The shortest day is 8 hours and 58
minutes, and the longest 15 hours. The north-west
winds, in the winter-season, are often extremely severe
and piercing, occasioned by the great body of snow
which lies concealed from the dissolving influence of the
sun in the immense forests north and north-west. The
clear and serene temperature of the sky, however,
makes amends for the severity of the weather, and is
favourable to health and longevity. Connecticut is ge¬
nerally broken land, made up of mountains, hills, and
valleys *, and is exceedingly well watered. Some small
parts of it are thin and barren. It lies in the fifth and
sixth northern climates, and has a strong fertile soil.
Its principal productions are Indian corn, rye,.wheat
in many parts of the state, oats, and barley, which are
heavy and good, and of late buck-wheat, flax in large
quantities, some hemp, potatoes of several kinds, pump¬
kins, turnips, pease, beans, &c. &c. fruits of ^li kinds,
which are common to the climate. The soil is very
well calculated for pasture and mowing, which enables
the farmers to feed large numbers of neat cattle and
i •] CON
horses. Actual calculation has evinced, that any given Connecti-
quantity of the best mowing land in Connecticut, pro- cut.
duces about twice as much clear profit as the same v"~
quantity of the best wheat land in the state of New
York. Many farmers, in the eastern part ot the state,
have lately found their advantage in raising mules,
which are carried from the ports of Norwich and New
London to the West India islands, and yield a hand¬
some profit. The beef, pork, butter, and cheese, ot
Connecticut, are equal to any in the world. ^
The trade of Connecticut is partly with the West Trade.
India islands, and is carried on in vessels from 60 to
140 tons. The exports consist of horses, mules, oxen,
oak staves, hoops, pine boards, oak planks, beans, In¬
dian corn, fish, beef, pork, &c. Horses, live cattle
and lumber, are permitted in the Hutch, Hanish, and
French ports. Beef and fish are liable to such heavy
duties in the French islands, as that little profit arises
to the merchant who sends them to their ports. Pork
and flour are prohibited. As the ordinance making
free ports in the French West India islands extends to
all foreigners, the price of molasses and other articles
has been greatly enhanced by the English purchasers
for Canada and Nova Scotia ; so that the trade of
Connecticut with the French West India islands is not
profitable. Cotton, cocoa, indigo, and sugars, are not
permitted to be brought away by Americans. The
severity with which these prohibitory laws are ad¬
ministered is such, as that these articles cannot be
smuggled.
Connecticut has a large number of coasting vessels
employed in carrying the produce of the state to other
states.—To Rhode island, Massachusets, and New
Hampshire, they carry pork, wheat, corn, and rye.
To North and South Carolinas, and Georgia, butter,
cheese, salted beef, cyder, apples, potatoes, hay, &c.
and receive in return rice, indigo, and money. But
as New York is nearer, and the state of the markets
always well known, much of the produce of Connec¬
ticut, especially of the western parts, is carried there j
particularly pot and pearl ashes, flax-seed, beef, pork,
cheese, and butter in large quantities. Most of the
produce of Connecticut river, from the parts of Mas¬
sachusets, New Hampshire, and Vermont, as well as
of Connecticut, which are adjacent, goes to the same
market. Considerable quantities of the produce of the
eastern parts of the state are marketed at Boston and
Providence.
The value of the whole exported produce and com¬
modities from this state amounted in 1805 to 1,443,729
dollars, and in 18x7 only to 604,139 dollars. The
high amount at the former period was owing to the ex¬
traordinary activity of the neutral trade during the wai
between France and Britain.
In 1774, the number of shipping in Connecticut
was 189 *, their tonnage 10,317 ; seafaring men 1162*,
besides upwards of 20 sail of coasting vessels, which
employed about 90 seamen. In 18x5, the shipping
belonging to the state amounted to 60,102 tons, of
which 13,669 belonged to New London, 131637
New Haven, 25,950 to Middleton, and 6846 to I air¬
field. New London harbour is fortified, and ad¬
mits of large vessels, the other ports are unfortified.
Though
CON [ 552 J CON
Connect!- Though Connecticut has a great extent of sea coast,
cut- it is a much less commercial state than Massachu-
' v—setts.
The number of shipping from the port of New Lon¬
don employed in 1788 in the European and West In¬
dia trade, was four ships, one snow, 54 brigantines, 32
schooners, and 45 sloops. The number of horses and
cattle exported from the district round New London,
from the 10th of January 1787, to the 10th of Janu¬
ary 1788, was 6917; besides jack asses imported and
exported, not included. From 1786 to 1787* ^
number was 6671 *, so that the last year exceeded the
other 246. From March 1787 to January 1788, 1459
horses, 780 oxen, and 23 cows, were exported from the
s port of Middleton.
Mann lac- The farmers in Connecticut and their families are
tines. mostly clothed in plain, decent, homespun cloth. Their
linens and woollens are manufactured in the family
Wav } and although they are generally of a coarser
kind, they are of a stronger texture, and much more
durable, than those imported from France and Great
Britain. Many of their cloths are fine and hand¬
some.
In New Haven is a linen manufactory which flou¬
rishes, and one for cotton is about to be established.
In East Hartford is a glass-work, a snuff and powder
mill, and an iron-work and slitting mill. Iron-works
are established also at Salisbury, Norwich, and other
parts of the state. At Stafford is a furnace at which
are made large quantities of hollow ware and other
ironmongery, sufficient to supply the whole state. Pa¬
per is manufactured at Norwich, Hartford, New Ha¬
ven, and in Litchfield county. Nails of every size are
made in almost every town and village in Connecticut;
so that considerable quantities can be exported to the
iieighbouring states, and at a better rate than they can
be had from Europe. Ironmongery, hats of the best
kinds, candles, leather, shoes, and boots, are manu¬
factured in this state. We must not omit to men¬
tion wooden dishes and other wooden ware, which
are made in vast quantities in Suffield and some few
other places, and sold in almost every part of the
eastern states. The annual value, of the manufactures
of this state in 1810 was estimated at 5,900,560 dol¬
lars.
It appears from experiments made formerly in this
state, that a bushel of sun-flower seed yields a gallon
of oil j and that an acre of ground planted with the
seed at three feet apart, will yield between forty and
fifty bushels of the seed. This oil is as mild as sweet
oil, and is equally agreeable with salads, and as a me¬
dicine. It may, moreover, be used with advantage in
paints, varnishes, and ointments. From its being ma¬
nufactured in our own country, it may always be pro¬
cured and used in a fresh state. The oil is pressed from
the seed in the same manner that cold-drawn linseed
oil is drawn from flax-seed, and with as little trouble.
Sweet olive oils sells for six shillings a quart. Should
the oil of the sun-flower sell for only two-thirds of that
price, the produce of an acre of ground, supposing it
to yield only 40 bushels of the seed, will be 32I.
a sum far beyond the product of an acre of ground in
any kind of grain. The seed is raised with very little
3
trouble, and grows in land of moderate fertility. It Conny
may be gathered and shelled, fit for the extraction of cuF]
the oil, by women and children. v w
Connecticut is divided into eight counties, viz. Hart-^.^ j j
ford, New Haven, New London, Fairfield, Windham,gjons
Litchfield, Middlesex, and Tolland. The counties popnlaL
are subdivided into upwards of 119 townships; each of
which is a corporation invested with power to hold
lands, choose their own town officers, to make pruden¬
tial laws, the penalty of transgression not to exceed
20s. and to choose their own representatives to the ge¬
neral assembly. The townships are generally divided
into two or more parishes, in each of which is one or
more places of public worship.
Connecticut is the most populous, in proportion to
its extent, of any of the thirteen states. It is laid out
in small farms from 50 to 300 or 400 acres each, which
are held by the farmers in fee-simple ; and are gene¬
rally cultivated as well as the nature of the soil will
admit. The state is chequered with innumerable roads
or highways, crossing each other in every direction.
A traveller in any of these roads, even in the most un¬
settled parts of the state, will seldom pass more than
two or three miles without finding a house or cottage,
and a farm under such improvements as to afford the
necessaries for the support of a family. The whole
state resembles a well-cultivated garden; which, with
that degree of industry that is requisite for happiness,
produces the necessaries and conveniences of life in
great plenty.
In 1759, the number of inhabitants in Connecticut
was 130,611 ; in 1774, there were 197,856 souls. In
18 years, the increase was 67,245 ; from 1774 to
1782, the increase was but 11,294 persons. This com¬
paratively small increase was owing to the destruction
of the war, and the numerous emigrations to Vermont.
In 1810 the population was 261,942.
The inhabitants are almost entirely of English de¬
scent. There are no Dutch, French, or Germans, and
very few Scotch or Irish people, in any part of New
England. ^ j
In addition to what has been already said on these Chara
particulars under New England, it may be observed, manm,
that the people of Connecticut are remarkably fond of^®’
having all their disputes, even those of the most tri¬
vial kind, settled according to law. The prevalence
of this litigious spirit affords employment and support
for a numerous body of lawyers. The number of ac¬
tions entered annually upon the several dockets in the
state, justifies the above observations. That party
spirit, however, which is the bane of political happi¬
ness, has not raged with such violence in this state as
in Massachusets and Rhode Island. Public proceed¬
ings have been conducted, generally, and especially
of late, with much calmness and candour. The
people are well informed in regard to their rights, and
judicious in the methods they adopt to secure them.
The clergy, who are numerous, and, as a body,
very respectable, have hitherto preserved a kind of
aristocratical balance in the very democratical govern¬
ment of the state ; which has happily operated as a
check upon the overbearing spirit of republicanism.
It has been lamented that the unhappy religious dis¬
putes
( :ecli-
[-
8
;ion.
9
\U
' II.
leges,
demies,
1 schools.
CON [ 553 3
putes which have too much prevailed among some of vernor Hopkins,
the clergy, and the too great attention that others
have paid to their temporal concerns, to the neglect
of their flocks, and an inattention to the qualifica¬
tions of those who have been admitted to the sacred
oflice, have, heretofore, considerably diminished their
influence. It is a pleasing circumstance that the rage
for theological disputation is abating; and greater
strictness is observed in the admission of candidates to
the ministry. Their influence is on the increase ; and
it is no doubt to be attributed, in part, to their in¬
creasing influence, that an evident reformation in the
manners of the people of this state has taken place
since the peace. In regard to learning and abilities,
the clergy, at the present day, are equal to their pre¬
decessors at any former period.
As to ecclesiastical government and discipline, each
church is a separate jurisdiction, and claims authority
to choose their own minister, to exercise government,
and to enjoy gospel ordinances within itself. The
churches, however, are not independent of each other;
they are associated for mutual benefit and convenience.
The associations have power to license candidates for
the ministry, to consult for the general welfare, and
to recommend measures to be adopted by the churches,
but have no authority to enforce them. When dis¬
putes arise in churches, councils are called, by the par¬
ties, to settle them ; but their power is only advisory.
There are as many associations in the state as there
are counties ; and they meet twice in a year. These
are all combined in one general association, who meet
annually.
All religions that are consistent with (he peace of
society are tolerated in Connecticut; and a spirit of
liberality and Catholicism is increasing. There are
very few religious sects in this state ; the bulk of the
people are Congregationalists. Besides these there are
Episcopalians and Baptists; and formerly there was
a society of Sandimanians at New-Haven ; but they
are now reduced to a very small number. The Epis¬
copalian churches are respectable, and are under the
superintendence of a bishop. The Baptists are in¬
creasing here as in the other states. Their congrega¬
tions, with those in the neighbouring states, meet in
associations, by delegation, annually.
There are a great number of very pleasant towns,
both maritime and inland, in Connecticut. It con¬
tains five incorporated towns or cities. Two of these,
Hartford and New-Haven, are the capitals of the state.
The general assembly is hoi den at the former in May,
and at the latter in October, annually. See Hart¬
ford and Ncw-Haven.
In no part of the world is the education of all ranks
of people more attended to than in Connecticut. Al-
'most every town in the state is divided into districts,
and each district has a public school kept in it a greater
or less part of every year. Somewhat more than one
third of the money arising from a tax on the polls and
rateable estate of the inhabitants, is appropriated to the
support of schools, in the several towns, for the educa¬
tion of children and youth. The law directs that a
grammar school shall be kept in every county town
through the state.
There is a grammar school at Hartford, and ano¬
ther at New-Haven, supported by a donation of Go-
Vol. VI. Part II. f
CON
This venerable and benevolent gen- Conv.eeti-
tleman, in his last will, dated 1657, ^ie i)ands cut.
of Theophilus Eaton, Esq. and three others, a legacy "y-™—1
of 1324I. “ as an encouragement, in these foreign
plantations, of breeding up hopeful youths both at
the grammar school and college.” In 1664, this le¬
gacy was equally divided between New-Haven and
Hartford ; and grammar schools were erected, which
have been supported ever since.
At Greenfield there is a respectable academy. At
Plainfield is another. This academy has flourished for
several years, and furnished a number of students for
A ale and Dartmouth colleges. At Norwich and Wind¬
ham, likewise are academies furnished with able in¬
structors ; each of these academies has 60 or 70 scho¬
lars. In 1801 Mr P. Bacon bequeathed 30,000 dollars
to found an academy in Colchester.
Yale College was founded in 1700, and remained
at Killingworlh until 1707—then at Saybrook, until
1716, when it was removed and fixed at New-Haven.
See New-Haven. ■ 11
On the bank of Connecticut river, two miles from Mines, mi-
Middleton, is a lead mine, which was wrought during an(l
the war at the expence of the state, and was produc¬
tive. It is too expensive to work in time of peace.
Copper mines have been discovered and opened in se¬
veral parts of the state, but have proved unprofitable,
and are much neglected. Iron mines are numerous
and productive. Steel ore has been found in the
mountains between Woodbury and New’ Milford.
Talcs of various kinds, white, brown, and chocolate-
coloured crystals, zinc or speltzer, a semimetal, and
several other fossils and metals, have been found in
Connecticut. I2
All freeholders in the state are required by law to Mode of
give in lists of their polls and rateable estate, to per-levying
sons appointed in the respective towns to receive them,taxes‘
on or before the 20th of August annually. These are
valued according to law, arranged in proper order, and
sent to the general assembly annually in May.
The sum total of the list of the polls and rateable
estate of the inhabitants of Connecticut, as brought
into the general assembly in May 1787, were as fol¬
lows :
Sum total of the single list
Assessments
One quarter of the fourfolds
L.1,484,901
47,790
1,176
4i
9
4
Total L.i,533,867 18 sh
On this sum taxes are levied, so much on the
pound, according to the sum proposed to be raised.
A tax of two-pence on the pound would raise 12,782k
4s-
The ordinary annual expences of government be¬
fore the war amounted to near 4000k sterling, ex¬
clusive of that which was appropriated to the support
of schools. In 1811 the revenue was 79,192 dollars.
At Stafford is a medicinal spring, which is said to Mineral
be a sovereign remedy for scorbutic, cutaneous, andsPrlnS‘s,
other disorders. At Guilford is a spring, whose wa¬
ter, it is said, when separated from the fountain, will
evaporate even when put into a bottle and tightly
corked.
It is difficult to say what is the constitution of this
4 A state.
CON [ 554 1 CON
Connecti- state. Contented with the form of government which
cut. originated from the charter of Charles It. granted in
' v"~ 1, 1662, the peop'e have not been disposed to run the
Constitn- ^a7-ftrd of traming a new constitution since the decla-
tion and ration of independence. They have tactly adopt-
courts of ed their oUl charter as the ground of civil govern-
justice. ment, so far as it is applicable to an independent
people.
Agreeable to this charter, the supreme legislative
authority of the state is vested in a governor, deputy-
governor, twelve assistants or counsellors, and the re¬
presentatives of the people, styled the General Assembly.
The governor, deputy-governor, and assistants, are an¬
nually chosen by the freemen in the month of May.
The representatives (their number not to exceed two
from each town) are chosen by the freemen twice
a-year, to attend the two annual sessions, on the second
Thursday of May and October. This assembly has
power to erect judicatories, for the trial of causes civil
and criminal, and to ordain and establish laws for settling
the forms and ceremonies of government. By these
laws the general assembly is divided into two branches,
called the upper and lower houses. The upper house
is composed of the governor, deputy-governor, and as¬
sistants ; the lower house, of the representatives of the
people. No law can pass without the concurrence of
both houses. The judges of the superior court hold
their offices during the pleasure of the general assembly.
The jud ges of the county courts, and justices, are an¬
nually appointed. Sheriffs ai‘e appointed by the go¬
vernor and council, without limitation of time. The
governor is captain-general of the militia, the deputy-
governor lieutenant-general. All other military offi¬
cers are appointed by the assembly, and commissioned
by the governor.
The mode of electing the governor, deputy-gover¬
nor, assistants, treasurer, and secretary, is as follows :
The freemen in the several towns meet on the Monday
next alter the first Tuesday in April, annually, and
give in their votes for the persons they choose lor the
said offices respectively, with their names written on a
piece of paper, which are received and sealed up bv a
constable in open meeting, the votes for each office by
themselves, with the name of the town and office wTrit-
ten on the outside. These votes, thus sealed, are sent
to the general assembly in May, and there counted by
a committee from both houses. All freemen are eli¬
gible to any office in government. In choosing assist¬
ants, twenty persons are nominated, by the vote of
each freeman, at the freemen’s meeting for choosing
representatives in September annually. These votes
are sealed up, and sent to the general assembly in Oc¬
tober, and are there counted by a committee of both
houses, and the twenty persons who have the most
votes stand in nomination ; out of which number the
twelve who have the greatest number of votes, given
by the freemen at their meeting in April, are in May
declared assistants in the manner above mentioned.
The qualifications of freemen are, maturity in years,
quiet and peaceable behaviour, a civil conversation, and
fx’eehold estate to the value of forty shillings per annum,
or forty pounds personal estate in the list, certified bv
the select men of the town ; it is necessary also that
they take the oath of fidelity to the state. In 1818,
Z
a bill was brought in for altering the constitution of Conne!
of this state, by making the elections annual, instead of cut
every six months as at present. y
The courts are as follows : The justices of the peace,
of whom a number are annually appointed in each town
by the general assembly, have authority to bear and de¬
termine civil actions, where the demand does not ex¬
ceed four pounds. If the demand exceeds forty shil¬
lings, an appeal to the county is allowed. They have
cognizance of small offences, and may punish by fine
not exceeding forty shillings, or whipping not exceed¬
ing ten stripes, or sitting in the stocks. There are
eight county courts in the state, held in the several
counties by one judge and four justices of the quorum,
who have jurisdiction of all criminal cases, arising with¬
in their respective counties, where the punishment does
not extend to life, limb, or banishment. They have
original jurisdiction of all civil actions which exceed the
jurisdiction of a justice. Either party may appeal to the
superior court, if the demand exceeds twenty pounds,
except on bonds or notes vouched by two witnesses.
There are several courts of probate in each county,
consisting of one judge. The peculiar province of
this court, is, the probate of wills, granting administra¬
tion of intestate estates, ordering distribution of them,,
and appointing guardians for minors, &c. An ap¬
peal lies from any decree of this court to the superior
court.
The superior court consists of five judges. It has
authority in all criminal cases extending to life, limb,
or banishment, and other high crimes and misdemea¬
nors, to grant divorces, and to hear and determine all
civil actions brought by appeal from the county courts,
or the court of probate, and to correct the erfors of all
inferior courts. This is a circuit court, and has two
state sessions in each county annually. The superior
and county courts try matters of fact by a jury, or
without if the parties will agree.
There is a supreme court of errors, consisting of the
deputy-governor and the twelve assistants. Their sole
business is to determine writs of error brought on
judgments of the superior court, where the error com¬
plained of appears on the record. They have two
stated sessions annually, viz. on the Tuesdays of the
weeks preceding the stated sessions of the general as¬
sembly.
The county court is a court of chancery, empowered
to hear and determine cases in equity, where the mat¬
ter in demand does not exceed one hundred pounds.
The superior court has cognizance of all cases where
the demand exceeds that. sum. Error may he brought
from the county to the superior court, and from the
superior court to the supreme court of errors, on judge¬
ment in cases of equity as well as of law.
The general assembly only have power to grant par¬
dons and reprieves, to grant commissions of bankruptcy,
or protect the persons and estates of unfortunate
debtors. *
The common law of England, so far as it is appli¬
cable to this country, is considered as the common
law of this state. The reports of adjudication in the
court of king’s bench, common pleas, and chancery,
are read in the courts of this state as authorities ; yet
the judges do not consider them as conclusively bind-
CON [ 555 ] CON
„ Jng, unless founded on solid reasons which will apply in
this state, or sanctioned by concurrent adjudications of
. ' their own courcS.
The feudal system of descents was never adopted in
this state. All the real estate of intestates is divided
equally among the children, males and females, except
that the eldest son has a double portion. And all
estates given in tail must be given to some person then
in being;, or to their Immed'ate issue, and shall become
fee-simp'e estates to the issue of the first donee in tali.
The widow of an intestate is entitled to a third part of
the personal estate for ever, and to her dower, or third
part of the houses and lands belonging to the intestate
at the time of his death, during her life.
J ^eof The practice of law in this state has more simplicity,
hut less precision, than in England. Assistants and
judges are empowered to issue writs through the state,
and justices through their respective counties. In
these writs, the substance of the complaints or the de¬
clarations must be contained ; and if neither of the
parties show good reason for delay, the causes are heard
and determined the same term to which the writs are
returnalde. Few of the fictions of law, so common
in the English practice, are known in this state.
The plamtilF has a'ways his election to attach or sum¬
mon the defendant. Attorneys are adm’tted and qua¬
lified by the county courts. Previous to their ad¬
mission to the bar, they must study two years with a
practising attorney in the state, if they have had a col¬
lege education, and three years if they have not ; their
morals must be good, and their characters unblemished $
and they must sustain an examination by the attorneys
of the court of the county where they are^admitted,
and be by them recommended to the court. When
admitted to the county court, they can practise with¬
out other qualifications, in any court in the state.
There are upon an average about thirteen attorneys to
each county, one hundred and four in the state ; a very
great proportion for the real exigencies of the people.
Yet from the litigious spirit of the citizens, the most
of them find employment and support. There is no
attorney general, but there is one attorney to the state
Lg in each county.
I iry. The present territory of Connecticut, at the time of
the first arrival of the English, was possessed by the Pe-
quot, the Mobegan, Podunk, and many other smaller
tribes of Ind'ans.
The Pequots were numerous and warlike. Their
country extended a’ong the sea coast from Paukatuk
to Connecticut river. About the year 1630, this
powerful tribe extended their conquests over a consi¬
derable part of Connecticut, over all Long Island, and
partof Narragansett. Sassacus, who was the grand mo¬
narch of the whole country, was king of this nation.
The seat of his dominions was at New London $ the
ancient Indian name of which was Pequot.
The Mohegans were a numerous tribe, and their
territory extensive. Their ancient claim, which was
surveyed and settled by commissioners from Queen
Anne in 1705, comprehended all New London county,
except a narrow strip of about eight miles wide, on the
sea-coast, almost the whole of the county of Windham,
and a part of the counties of Tolland and Hartford.
Uncas, distinguished for his friendship to the English,
was the sachem of this tribe.
The Podunks inhabited East Hartford, and the cir- Co inecti-
cumjacent country. The first sachem of this ti.be, cut
of whom the English had any know'edge was Taiani- ^ ~'r"1'
moo. He was aide to bring into the field more than
2co fighting men.
The first grant of Connecticut was made by the Ply¬
mouth council to the earl of Warvr.’ck, in 1630, and
confirmed by his majesty in council the same year.
This grant comprehended all that part of New Eng¬
land which lies west f om Narragansett river, 120 miles
on the sea-coast, from thence in latitude and breadth
aforesaid to the South sea. The year following, the
earl assigned the grant to Lord Say and Sele, Lord
Brook, and nine others.
No English setUements were attempted in Connec¬
ticut, until the year 1633, w^en a number of Indian
traders, having purchased of Zequasson and Natawa-
nute, two principal sachems, a tract of land at the mouth
of Little river in Windsor, bui't a house and fortified
it, and ever after maintained their right of soil upon the
rivei.
The same year, a little before the arrival of the
English, a company of Dutch traders came to Hart-
fort, and built a house which they called the Hirse oj
Good Hope, and erected a small fort, in which they
planted two cannon. The remains of this settlement
are still visible on the bciuk of Connecticut river. This
was the only settlement of the Dutch in Connecticut
in these ancient times. The Dutch, and after them
the province of New York, for a long time claimed as
far east as the western bank of Connecticut river. It
belongs to the professed historian to prove or disprove
the justice of this claim. Douglas says, “ The parti¬
tion line between New York and Connecticut, as
established December 1. 1664, runs irom the mouth
of Memoroncok river, a little west of Byram river,
N. N. W. and was the ancient easterly limits of New
York, until November 23. 1683, when the line was
i-un nearly the same as it is now settled.” If Douglas
is right, the New York claim could not have been well
founded.
In 1634, Lord Say and Sele, &c. sent over a small
number of men, who built a fort at Saybrook, and held
a treaty with the Pequot Indians, who in a formal
manner gave to the English their right to Connecticut
river and the adjacent country.
In 1635, the Plymouth council granted to the duke
of Hamilton, all lands between Narragansett and Con¬
necticut rivers, and back into the country as far as
Massachusets south line. This covered a part of the
earl of Warwick’s patent, and occasioned some disputes
in the colony. There were several attempts to revive
the Hamilton claim, but they vvexe never prosecuted.
In October of this year, about sixty persons from
Newton, Dorchester, and Watertown, in Massachusets,
came and settled at Hartford, Wethersfield, and Wind¬
sor, in Connecticut; and the June following the famous
Mr Hooker and his company came and settled at Hart¬
ford, and was a friend and father to the colony to the
day of his death.
The first court held in Connecticut was at Hartford,
April 26. 1636.
The year 1637 was distinguished by the war with
the Pequots. This warlike nation had, for some time,
been troublesome neighbours. They solicited the Nar-
4 A 2 ragansetts
CON [ 556 1 CON
Connecti- ragansetts to join them in extirpating the English,
cut. They had surprised and killed several of the English
* upon Connecticut river. These threatening appearan¬
ces and actual hostilities induced the three colonies
of Massachusets, Plymouth, and Connecticut, to com¬
bine their forces, to carry the war into their country,
and to attempt the entire destruction of the whole
tribe. Myantonomo, the Narrangansett sachem, and
Uncas, sachem of the Mohegans, sent to the English
and offered their service to join with them against the
Pequots. Forces were accordingly raised in all the
colonies j but those of Connecticut, on account of
their vicinity to the enemy, were first in action. Cap¬
tain Mason, with 80 English and 100 Indians from
Connecticut river, proceeded by water to the Narra-
gansetts country, where 200 of that tribe joined him.
On the 24th of May, they began their march for Sas-
sacus fort on Pequot, now Thames river. They af¬
terwards determined first to assault Mystic fort, which
was situated between them and Pequot river. On the
morning of the 26th of May the attack was made.
The Indians, after a midnight revel, were buried in a
deep sleep. At the moment of their approach, the
sentinel happened to be gone into a wigwam to light
his pipe. The barking of a dog gave the alarm. The
Indians awoke, seized their arrows and began their
hideous yell. They were joined in their tjemendous
noise by the Indians in the English army, who were
in the rear and afraid to approach. The battle was
warm and bloody, and the victory complete. The
fort was taken—about 70 wigwams burnt—50 or 60
of the Indians were killed—many were wounded and
taken, and the rest escaped. Sassacus and his warriors
at Pequot, struck with terror at the news of this de¬
feat, demolished their principal fort, burnt their w'ig-
wams, and fled to the westward. Captain Stoughton,
with 160 men from Massachusets, had by this time
arrived at Saybrook. He with his forces joined Cap¬
tain Mason and pursued the Indians, and overtook and
surrounded them in a great swamp near Fairfield. A
sachem and 99 women and children came out and
delivered themselves up to their pursuers. Terms
of peace were offered to the rest: but after a short
parley they determined, that as they had lived they
would die together. There were about 80 who made
this resolution. Part of these escaped by means of
the darkness of the night. The rest were either kil¬
led^ or taken. In this action the Indians had guns,
which is the first account of their having used them,
bassacus fled to the Mohawks, by whom it is reported
lie was murdered ; but it is most probable that he and
his company incorporated with them. Many of the
Indian captives were unjustifiably sent to Bermudas and
sold for slaves. T-he Pequot tribe was wholly extin¬
guished. This successful expedition struck the Indians
that remained with such terror, as restrained them from
open hostilities for near forty years after.
The English thus obtained the country east of the
Dutch settlements, by right of conquest. The pur¬
suit of the Indians led to an acquaintance with the
lands on the sea-coast from Seabrook to Fairfield. It
was reported to be a very fine country. This favour¬
able report induced Mssrs Eaton and Hopkins, two
very respectable London merchants, and Mr Daven¬
port, a man of distinguished piety and abilities, with
3
their company, who arrived his year (1637) from "Conne
London, to think of this part of the country as the cut
place of their settlement. Their friends in Massachu- ‘
sets, sorry to part with so valuable a company, dis¬
suaded them from their purpose. Influenced, how¬
ever, by the promising prospects which the country af¬
forded, and flattering themselves that they should be
out of the jurisdiction of a general governor, with
which the country was from time to time threatened,
they determined to proceed. Accordingly, in March
1638, with the consent of their friends on Connecticut
river, they settled at New Haven, and laid the founda¬
tion of a flourishing colony, of which Quinnipiak, now
New Haven, was the chief town. The first public
worship in this new plantation, was attended on Lord’s
day, April 18. 1638, under a large spreading oak.
The Rev. Mr Davenport preached from Mat, iii. 1.
on the temptations of the wilderness. Both colonies,
by voluntary compact, formed themselves into distinct
commonwealths, and remained so until their union in
1665.
In 1639, ^ie tliree towns on Connecticut river, al¬
ready mentioned, finding themselves without the li¬
mits ol any jurisdiction, formed themselves into a body
politic, and agreed upon articles of civil government.
These articles were the foundation of Connecticut
charter, which was granted in 1662. The substance
of the articles, so far as they respect the holding of
assemblies, the time and manner of electing magistrates
and other civil officers (except that in the old con¬
federation no person was to be chosen governor more
than once in two years), and the extent of legislative
powers was transferred into, and established in said
charter.
The first church was gathered in New Haven this
year, and consisted of seven members. These were
chosen by the settlers after Mr Davenport bad preach¬
ed from the words of Solomon, ‘ Wisdom hath builded
her house, she hath hewed out her seven pillars.’
These men were indeed the pillars of the church, to
whom the rest were added as they became qualified.
They were also the court to try all civil actions.
The first settlers in New Haven had all things com¬
mon } all purchases were made in the name and for the
use of the whole plantation j and the lands were appor¬
tioned out to each family, according to their number
and original stock.
At their first election, in October 1639, Mr Theo-
philus Eaton was chosen governor for the first year.
Their elections, by agreement, were to be annual; and
tbe word of God their only ride in conducting the af¬
fairs of government in the plantation.
In 1643, the articles of confederation between the
four New England colonies, mentioned under the arti¬
cle New England, were unanimously adopted by the
colonies of New Plaven and Connecticut.
The English settlement on Delaware, which was
under the jurisdiction of New Haven, was surprised
by the Swedes, and the people put in irons, under a
false pretence that they were entering into a conspiracy
with the Indians to extirpate the Swedes.
The general court of New Haven, this year, esta¬
blished it as a fundamental article, not to be disputed,
That none be admitted as free burgesses but church
members, and that none but such should vote at elec¬
tions.
| inccti-
CON [ 557 ] CON
tions. They also ordained, That each town choose
from among themselves judges (church members) to be
a court, to have cognizance of all civil actions not ex¬
ceeding twenty pounds 5 and of criminal causes, where
the punishment was sitting in the stocks, whipping,
and fining not exceeding five pounds. There was li¬
berty of appeal from this to the court of magistrates.
The court of magistrates consisted of all the magi¬
strates throughout the colony, who were to meet twice
a-year at New Haven, for the trial of all capital
causes. Six made a quorum. The general court was
to consist of the governor, deputy-governor, magistrates,
and two representatives from each town. The annual
election of officers of government was at this time esta¬
blished, and has ever since continued.
The unsettled state of the colony had hitherto pre¬
vented their establishing a code of laws. To supply
this defect, the general court ordered, ‘ That the ju¬
dicial laws of God, as they were delivered to Moses,
and as they are a fence to the moral, being neither
typical nor ceremonial, nor having any reference to
Canaan, shall he accounted of moral equity, and gene¬
rally bind all offenders, and be a rule to all the courts
in this jurisdiction in their proceedings against offen¬
ders, until they be branched out into particulars here¬
after.’
About this time a war broke out between the Mo-
hegan and Narragansett Indians. A personal quarrel
between Myantonomo sachem of the Narragansetts,
and Uncas sachem of the Mohegans, was the founda¬
tion of the war. Myantonomo raised an army of 900
warriors, and marched towards the Mohegan country.
Uncas by his spies received timely notice ofTbeir ap¬
proach. His seat of residence was in some part of
Norwich. He quickly collected 600 of his bravest
warriors, and told them, ‘ The Narragansetts must
not come into our town 5 we must meet them.’ They
accordingly marched about three miles to a large plain,
where the two armies met, and halted within bow-shot
of each other. A parley was proposed by Uncas, and
agreed to by Myantonomo. The sachems met, and
Uncas addressed his enemy as follows. You have a
great many brave men : so have I. You and I have
quarrel'ed ; but these warriors, what have they done ?
Shall they die to avenge a private quarrel between us ?
No. Come like a brave man, as you pretend to be,
and let us fight. If you kill me, my men shall be
yours : if I kill you, your men shall be mine.’ Myan¬
tonomo replied: ‘ My men came to fight, and they
shall fight.’ Uncas, like an experienced warrior,
aware of the result of the conference from the superior
force of his enemy, had previous'y signified to his men,
that if Myantonomo refused to fight him in single
combat, he would immediately fall, which was to be
the signal for them to begin the attack. As soon
therefore as Myantonomo bad finished his laconic
speech, Uncas dropped : his men instantly obeyed the
signal, and poured in a shower of arrows upon the un¬
suspecting Narragansetts, and rmhing on with their
horrid yells and savage fierceness, put them to flight.
Many were killed on the spot, the rest were closely
pursued, and some were precipitately driven down
craggy precipices, and dashed in pieces. At a place
called, from this event, Sachem’s plain, Uncas over¬
took and seized Myantonomo by the shoulder. They
sat down together ; and Uncas with a hoop called in Connecti-
his men, and the battle ceased. Doubtful what to do cut*
with the royal prisoner, Uncas and his warriors, in *
council, determined to carry him to the governor and
council at Hartford, and be advised by them. Thither
he was accordingly conducted. The governor having
advised with his council, told Uncas, that the English
were not then at war with the Narragansetts, and of
course that it was not proper for them to intermeddle
in the matter. Uncas was left to do with him as he
pleased. Myantonomo was conducted hack to the plain
where he was taken, and put to death by Uncas him¬
self. The tragic scene did not end with his death.
Uncas, after the manner of the Indians, with his toma¬
hawk cut olf a large piece of flesh from the shoulder of
his slaughtered enemy, broiled and ate it, saying, with
an air of savage triumph, ‘ It is the sweetest meat I
ever ate. It makes me have a stout heart.’ His body
was afterwards buried, and a pillar erected over it,
the remains of which are visible to this day.
The Narragansetts were greatly enraged at the death
of their prince, and resolved to take vengeance on the
Mohegans. The united colonies interposed to pre¬
vent a war between them, hut in vain. The Narra¬
gansetts resolutely declared, they would continue the
war until they had Uncas’s head. But as Uncas had
ever been a friend to the English, they joined him
against his enemies, and were victorious. Such, how¬
ever, was the enmity of the Narragansetts to the Eng¬
lish, that they afterwards sent some of their men to
Uncas; with large presents, to induce him to join with
them in a war with the colonies. Uncas replied,
“ Go tell your king, that I will go to Norwich, and
advise with Major John Mason and Mr Fitch ; if they
tell me to join him and fight against the Engish, 1
will join him.” In the war that happened soon after,
Uncas assisted the English, and the Narragansetts were
subdued, and never after were formidable.
In consideration of the success and increase of the
New England colonies, and that they had been of no
charge to the nation, and in prospect of their being
in future very serviceable to it, the English parlia¬
ment, March 10. 1643, granted them an exemption
from all customs, subsidies, and other duties, until fur¬
ther order.
In 1664, the Connecticut adventurers purchased of
Mr Fenwick, agent for Lord Say and Sele, and Lord
Brooke, their right to the colony of Connecticut, for
1600I.
The history of Connecticut is marked with traces
of the same spirit which has been mentioned as
characteristic of the Massachusets, in different stages
of their history. Indeed, as Massachusets was the
stock whence Connecticut proceeded, this is to be ex¬
pected.
The colonies of Connecticut and New Haven, from
their first settlement, increased rapidly: tracts ol land
were purchased of the Indians, and neAV towns settled
from Stamford to Stonington, and far back into the
country, when, in 1761, Major John Mason, as agent
for the colony, bought of the natives all lands which
had not before been purchased by particular towns,
and made a public surrender of them to the colony, in
the presence of the general assembly. Having done
these things, the colonies petitioned King Charles II.
CON [ 55B ] CON
Connect!- f°r a charter, and their petition was granted. His
cut. majesty, on the 23d of April 1662, issued his letters
' « ' patent under the great seal, ordaming that the colony
of Connecticut sliould for ever hereafter be one body
corporate and politic, in fact and in name, confirming
to them their ancient grant and purchase, and fixing
their boundaries as follows, viz. “ All that part of bis
Majesty's dominions in New England, in America,
bounded east by Narragansett river, commonly called
Narragansett bay, where the river faHeth into the sea j
and on the north by the line of Massachusets p'anta-
tion, and on the south by the sea, and in longitude as
the line of the Massachusets colony, running from east
to west, that is to say, from the said Narragansett bay
on the east, to the South sea on the west part, with
the islands thereunto belonging.'” This charter has
ever since remained the basis of the government of
Connecticut.
Such was the ignorance of the Europeans respect¬
ing the geography of America, when they first assumed
the right of giving away lands which the Cod of na¬
ture had long before given to the Indians, that their
patents extended they knew not where $ many of them
were of doubtful construction, and very often covered
each other in part, and have produced innumerable
disputes and mischiefs in the colonies, some of which
are not settled to this dav. Connecticut construed her
charter literally, and passing over New York, which
was then in possession of the subjects of a Christian
prince, claimed, in latitude and breadth mentioned
therein, to the South sea. Accordingly purchases
were made of the Indians, on the Delaware river, west
of the western bounds of New York, and within the
supposed limits of Connecticut charter, and settle¬
ments were made thereon by peop'e from, and under
the jurisdiction of, Connecticut. The charter of Penn¬
sylvania, granted to William Penn, in 1681, covered
these settlements. This laid the foundation for a dis¬
pute, which for a long time was maintained with
warmth on both sides. The matter was at last sub¬
mitted to gentlemen chosen for the purpose, who de¬
cided the dispute in favour of Pennsylvania. Many,
however, still assert the justice of the Connecticut
claim. The state of Connecticut has lately ceded to
Congress all their lands west of Pennsylvania, except a
reserve of 20 miles square. This cession Congress have
accepted, and thereby undabitably established the right
of Connecticut to the reserve.
The colony of New Haven, though unconnected
with the colony of Connecticut, Avas comprehended
within the limits of their charter, and, as they con¬
cluded, within their jurisdiction. But New Haven
remonstrated against their claim, and refused to unite
with them until they should hear from Englan d. It
was not until the year 1665, Avhen it was believed
that the king’s commissioners had a design upon the
New England charters, that these two colonies formed
a union, which has ever since amicably subsisted be-
tAveen them.
In 1672, the laws of the colony Avere revised, and
the general court ordered them to be printed ; and al¬
so, that “ every family should buy one of the law
books 5 such as pay in silver, to have a book for I2d.
such as pay in wheat, to pay a peck and a half a book:
and such as pay in pease, to pay 2s. a book, the pease
at 3s. the bushel.” Perhaps it is owing to this early Connect
and universal spread of Irav books, that the people of cut.
Connecticut are to this day so fond of the law. In ^—y'-
1750, the Ihavs of Connecticut Avere again revised and
published in a small folio volume of 258 pages. Dr
Douglas observes, that they Avere the most natural,
equitable, plain, and concise code of laws for planta¬
tions hitherto extant. There has been a revision of
them since the peace, in which they Avere greatly and
very judiciously simpbfied.
The jears i675 and 1676 were distinguished by
the Avars Avith Philip and bis Indians, and with the
Narragansetts, by which the co’ony Avas throAvn into
great distress and confusion. The inroads of the en-
raged savages were marked Avitb cruel murders, and
with fire and devastation.
In 1684, the charters of Massachusets bay and Ply¬
mouth Avere taken aAvay in consequence of Quo
Avarrantos which had been issued against them. The
charter of Connecticut Avouid have shared the same fate
had it not been for   Wadsworth, Esq. Avho
having very artfuhy procured it when it Avas on the
point of being delivered up, buried it under an oak tree
in Hartford, Avhere it rema’ped until all danger Avas
over, and then Avas dug up and reassumed.
Connecticut has ever made rapid advances in popu¬
lation. There have been moie emigrations from this
than from any of the other states, and yet E is at pre¬
sent full of inhabitants. This increase, under the di¬
vine benediction, may be ascribed to several causes.
The bulk of the inhabitants are industrious, sagacious
husbandmen. Their farms furnish them with all the
necessaries, most of the conveniences, and but few of
the luxuries of life. They of course are generally tem¬
perate, and, if they choose, can subsist with as much
independence as is consistent with happiness. The sub¬
sistence of (he farmer is substantial, and dees not de¬
pend on incidental circumstances, like that of most
other professions. There is no necessity of serving an
apprenticeship to the business, nor of a large stock of
money to commence it to advantage. Farmers, Avho
deal much in bai ter, have less need of money than any
other class of people. The ease Avith which a com¬
fortable subsistence is obtained, induces the husband¬
man to marry young. The cultivation of his farm
makes him strong and healthful. He toils cheerfully
through the day—eats the fruit of bis own labour Avith
a gladsome heart—at night devoutly thanks his boun¬
teous God for his daily blessings—retires to rest, and
his sleep is SAveet. Such circumstances as these have
greatly contributed to the amazing increase of inhabi¬
tants in this state.
Besides, the people live under a free government,
and have no fear of a tyrant. There are no overgrown
estates, with rich and ambitious landlords, to have an
undue and pernicious influence in the election of civil
officers. Property is equally enough divided, and must
continue to be so as long as estates descend as they now
do. No person is prohibited from voting, or from be¬
ing elected into office, on account of his poverty. He
who has the most merit, not he Avho has the most mo-
ney, is generally chosen into public office. As instances
of this, it is to be observed, that many of the citizens
of Connecticut, from the humble walks of life, have
arisen to the first offices in the state, and filled them
Avith
i mecti-
cut
I!
lunor.
CON t 559 1 CON
with dignity and reputation. That base business of
electioneering, which is so directly calculated to intro¬
duce wicked and designing men into office, is yet but
little known in Connecticut. A man who wishes to be
chosen into office, acts wisely for that end, when he
keeps his desires to himselr.
A thirst for learning prevails among all ranks of
people in the state. More of the young men in Con¬
necticut, in proportion to the:r numbers, receive a pub¬
lic education, than in any of the states. Dr Franklin
and other literary characters have honoured this state
by saying, that it is the Athens of America.
The revolution, which so essenda'ly affected the go¬
vernments of most of the colonies, produced no very
perceptible alteration in the government of Connecti¬
cut. While under the jurisdiction of Great Britain,
they elected their own governors, and all subordinate
civil officers, and made their own law's in the same
manner and with as little controul as they now do.
Connecticut has ever been a republic, and perhaps as
perfect and as happy a republic as has ever existed.
While other states, more monarchical in their govern¬
ment and manners, have been under a necessity of un¬
dertaking the difficult task of affering their old, or
forming new constitutions, and of changing their mo¬
narchical for republican manners, Connecticut has un¬
interruptedly proceeded in her old track, both as to
government and manners 5 and by these means has
avoided those convulsions which have rent other states
into violent parties.
CONNECTtON, or Connexion, the relation or
dependence of one thing upon another.
Connection, or Continuity, in the drama, consists
in the joining of the several scenes together.
The connection is said to be observed, when the
scenes of an act succeed one another immediately,
and are so joined as that the stage is never left
empty.
CONNECTIVES, in Grammar, one of the four
species under which, according to Mr Harris, all words
may be included. They are of two kinds : and as
they connect sentences or words, are called by the dif¬
ferent names of conjunctions and prepositions. See
Grammar.
CONNIVENT valves, in Anatomy, those wrin¬
kles, cellules, and vascules, which are found in the in¬
sides of the two intestines ilium and jejunum. See A-
NATOMY, N° 93. et seq.
CONNOISSEUR, a French term, of late used in
English : it literally denotes a person well versed in
any thing ; being formed of the verb connoitre, “ to
know, understand.” Hence it comes to be used in our
language for a critic, or person who is a thorough judge
or master in any way, particularly in matters of paint¬
ing and sculpture.
CONNOR, Bernard, a learned physician, was
born in the county of Kerry, in Ireland, about the
year 1666. Having determined to apply himself to
the study of physic, he went to France, and resided
some time in the university of Montpelier. After¬
wards he went to Paris; where he obtained great skill
in medicine, anatomy, and chemistry. From thence
he travelled to Venice, with the two sons of the high-
chancellor of Poland $ and then taking a tour through
great part of Germany, went to Warsaw, where he
was made physician to King John Sobieski. In 1695, Connor
he came to England, read a course of lectures in Lon- [J
don and Oxford, and became member of the Royal Conquest.
Society and College of Physicians; alterwards, being
invited to Cambridge, he read pub'ic lectures there,
and made various experiments in chemistry. He has
rendered himself memorable for a philosophical and
medical treatise in Latin, entitled Eoangehum Me¬
dici, i. e. “ the Physician’s Gospel tending to ex¬
plain the miracles performed by Christ as natural
events, upon the principles of natural philosophy.
He wrote also a history of Polard ; and died in 1698,
aged 32.
CONNOR, a city of Ireland, in the county of An¬
trim, and province of Ulster. W. Long. 6. 30. N.
Lat. 54. 30.
CONOCARPUS, Button-wood. See Botany
Index.
CONOID, in Geometry, a solid body, generated by
the revolution of a conic section about its axis. See
Conic Sections.
CONQ1DES, in Anatomy, a gland found in the
third ventricle of the brain, called pinealis, from
its resemblance to a pine apple. See Anatomy
Index.
CONON, the renowned Athenian general and ad¬
miral, flourished 394 years before Christ. See At¬
tica, N° 162, 163. After his defeat by Lysander, he
fled to Evagoras king of Cyprus ; after which he put
himself under the protection of Artaxerxes king of
Persia ; with whose army he delivered Athens from the
oppression of strangers, and rebuilt its walls. In the
360th year of Rome, he beat the Lacedaemonians in a
sea-fight near Cnidus upon the coast of Asia, deprived
them of the sovereign rule they had on sea ever since
the taking of Athens, and had some other considerable
advantage over them : but falling into the hands of
Teribazus a Persian, who envied his glory, he was put
to death.
CONOPS, in Zoology ; a genus of insects belonging
to the order diptera. See Entomology Index.
CONOVIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Ordovices, in Britain. From its ruins arose, at the
distance of four miles, Aberconwey, the mouth of the
Conwey, in Caernarvonshire ; and on the spot where
Conovium stood is an hamlet, called Caerhean, the old
town (Camden).
CONQUEST, in civil jurisprudence, is the ac¬
quisition of property in common by a number of per¬
sons.
In some countries they confound acquisition with
conquest; but, according to the most general accep¬
tation, acquisition is the gaining of unappropriated
goods before the -establishment of a community :
whereas by the term conquest, is ordinarily intended
whatever is acquired by a.number ol persons in com¬
munity ; or by some one for all the others. As it is
more especially in the union of persons by marriage
that a community of property takes place ; so it is in
reference to them that we frequently use the word con¬
quest. There are nevertheless conquests also among
other persons who are in a tacit communion or society ;
such as obtain by particular local customs. According
to this sense of the word, it has been contended by
several, that William I. claimed this kingdom > that
CON [560] CON
Conquest, is, not by right of arms, but by right of conquest or
Conrad, acquest; under promise of succession made by Edward
v- „ f Confessor, and a contract entered into by Harold
to support his pretensions to that succession 5 and by
old writers, conquestus, acquiaitio, and perquisition are
frequently used as synonymous terms.
Conquest, in the law of nations, is the acquisition
of sovereignty by force of arms, by some foreign prince j
who reduces the vanquished under his empire. The
right of conquest is derived from the laws of war and
when a people is subjected, the conduct of the conque¬
ror is regulated by four kinds of law. First, the law
of nature, which dictates whatever tends to self-preser¬
vation ; secondly, our reason, which teaches us to use
others as we would be treated ourselves j thirdly, the
laws of political society, to which nature has not assign¬
ed any precise boundary j lastly, the law which is de¬
rived from the particular circumstances attending the
conquest. Thus, a state conquered by another will be
treated in one of the four methods following: Either
the conqueror will continue it under its own laws, and
will only claim the exercise of civil and ecclesiastical
sovereignty 5 or he will impose a new farm of govern¬
ment 5 or he will destroy the frame of their society, and
incorporate the inhabitants with others j or he will ex¬
terminate them.
CONRAD II. elected emperor of Germany in 1004.
He was obliged to take the field against most of the
German dukes who had revolted from him 5 and he
put Ernest duke of Suabia under the ban of the empire.
This being one of the earliest instances of such a pro¬
scription, the formula is inserted here for its singularity.
“ We declare thy wife a widow, thy children orphans 5
and we send thee, in the name of the devil, to the four
corners of the world.” It was in the reign of this prince
that the German fiefs became hereditary. He died in
I039*
Conrad III. emperor of Germany in 1138. The
duke of Bavaria opposed his election $ and being put
under the ban of the empire, and deprived of the du¬
chy, he could not survive his disgrace. The margrave
of Austria was ordered by the emperor to take pos¬
session of Bavaria ; but VYelst, uncle to the deceased
duke attacked him, and was defeated near the castle
of W insburgh $ the battle fought upon this occasion is
famous in history, as having given rise to the party
names of Guelphs and Gibbcltnes, afterwards assumed
in Italy. Ihe parole of the day with the Bavarians was
W°.lsti, from the name of their general ; that of the Im¬
perialists Werblingen from a small village where Fre¬
deric duke of Suabia, their commander, had been
nursed: by degrees these names served to distinguish
the two parties j and the Italians, who could not ac¬
custom themselves to such rough words, formed from
them their Guelphs and Gibbelines. He died in
1152.
Conrad of Lichtenau, or Abbas Uspergensis, was
author of an Universal Chronology from the creation
to 1229, continued by an anonymous writer to Cha, V.
He collected a fine library, and died about the year Ccm-fdl
I24°. . l\'
C ON R A DIN, or Conrad junior, son of Con-c'on6!‘ng'|
rad IV. was acknowledged emperor by the Gibbe-,, nUy’ 1
lines, who received him in triumph at Rome : but !
Pope Alexander IV. had published a crusade against
this orphan •, and Urban VIE his successor, gave the
empire to Charles of Anjou, brother to Louis IX.
king of France ; and the unfortunate youth, though
powerfully supported even by the Turks, lost a battle,
in which he was taken prisoner, and was beheaded, by
order of his base opponent, publicly at Naples in 1229,
in the 18th year of his age. In him ended the race of
the dukes of Suabia, which had produced several kings
and empciors.
CONSANGUINITY, or Kindred, is defined by
the writers on these subjects to be, vinculum persona-
rum ab eodem stipite descendeniium ; “ the connexion
or relation of persons descended from the same stock or
common ancestor.” This consanguinity is either lineal
or collateral.
Lineal consarguinitti is that which subsists between
persons of whom one is descended in a direct line from
the other ; as between John Stiles (the propositus in
the table of consanguinity) and his father, grandfa¬
ther, great grandfather, and so upwards in the direct
ascending line ; or between John Stiles and his son,
grandson, great grandson, and so downwards in the
direct descending line. Every generation in this di¬
rect lineal consanguinity, constitutes a different de¬
gree, reckoning either upwards or downwards ; the
father of John Stiles is related to him in the first de¬
gree, and so likewise is his son \ his grandsire and
grandson, in the second ; bis great grandsire and great-
grandson in the third. This is the only natural way of
reckoning the degrees in the direct line 5 and therefore
universally obtains, as well in the civil and canon, as in
the common law.
The doctrine of lineal consanguinity is sufficiently
plain and obvious j but it is, at the first view, astonish¬
ing to consider the number of lineal ancestors which
every man has, within no very great number of de¬
grees : and so many different bloods is a man said to
contain in his veins, as he hath lineal ancestors. Of
these he hath two in the first ascending degree j his
own parents $ he hath four in the second 5 the parents
of his father and the parents of his mother : he hath
eight in the third, the parents of his two grandfathers,
and of his two grandmothers; and by the same rule of
progression, he hath 128 in the seventh ; 1024 in the
tenth 5 and at the 20th degree, or at the distance of 20
generations, every man hath above a million of an¬
cestors, as common arithmetic will demonstrate (a).
This lineal consanguinity, we may observe, falls strictly
within the definition of vinculum personarum ab eodem
stipite descendentium ; since lineal relations are such as
descend one from the other, and both of course from
the same common ancestors.
Collateral kindred answers to the same description :
collateral
(a) This will seem surprising to those who are unacquainted with the increasing power of progressive num-
bers4 but it is palpably evident from the following table of a geometrical progression, in which the first term
is 2, and the denominator also 2 j or, to speak more intelligibly, it is evident, for that each of us has two an¬
cestors
CON [ 561 ] CON
t mgai- collateral relations agreeing with the lineal in this,
ity. that they descend from the same stock or ancestor j
i- v—' but differing in this, that they do not descend the one
from the other. Collateral kinsmen, then, are such as
lineally spring from one and the same ancestor, who is
the stirpSy or “ root,” the stipes, “ trunk,” or common
stock, from whence these relations are branched out.
As if John Stiles hath two sons, who have each a nu¬
merous issue j both these issues are lineally descended
from John Stiles as their common ancestor, and they
are collateral kinsmen to each other, because they are
all descended from this common ancestor, and all have
a portion of his blood in their veins, which denominates
them consanguineous.
We must be careful to remember, that the very be¬
ing of collateral consanguinity consists in this descent
from one and the same common ancestor. Thus Ti-
tius and his brother are related $ why ? because both
are derived from one father: Titius and his first cou¬
sin are related $ why ? because both descend from the
same grandfather 5 and his second cousin’s claim to
consanguinity is this, that they are both derived from
one and the same great-grandfather. In short, as
many ancestors as a man has, so many common stocks
he has from which collateral kinsmen may be derived.
And as we are taught by holy writ, that there is one
couple of common ancestors belonging to us all, from
whom the whole race of mankind is descended, the
obvious and undeniable consequence is, that all men
are in some degree related to one another. For, in¬
deed, if we only suppose each couple of our ancestors Consangui-
to have left, one with another, two children $ and nity-
each of those children to have left, on an average, two
more (and without such a supposition the human spe¬
cies must be daily diminishing) ; we shall find that all
of us have now subsisting near 270 millions of kindred,
in the 15th degree, at the same distance from the seve¬
ral common ancestors as we ourselves are j besides those
that are one or two degrees nearer to our father from
the common stock, who may amount to as many
more (b). And if this calculation should appear in¬
compatible with the number of inhabitants on the earth,
it is because, by intermarriages among the several de¬
scendants from the same ancestor, a hundred or a thou¬
sand modes of consanguinity may be consolidated in one
person 5 or he may be related to us a hundred or a thou¬
sand different ways.
The method of computing these degrees in the ca¬
non law, which we have adopted, is as follows. We
begin at the common ancestor, and reckon downwards j
and in whatsoever degree the two persons, or the
most remote of them, is distant from the common an¬
cestor, that is the degree in which they are related to
each other. Thus, Titius and his brother are related
in the first degree j for from the father to each of
them is counted only one j Titius and his nephew are
related in the second degree $ for the nephew is two
degrees removed from the common ancestor, viz. his
own grandfather, the father of Titius: or (to give
a more illustrious instance from the English annals)
cestors in the first degree, the number of whom is doubled at every remove j because each of our ancestors has
also two immediate ancestors of his own.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
16
I?
18
19
20
2
4
8
16
32
64
128
*J6
1024
2048
4096
8192
16384
32768
65536
131072
262144
524288
1048576
A shorter way of finding the number of ancestors at any given degree, is by squaring the number of ancestors at
half that number of degrees. Thus 16, the number of ancestors at 4 degrees, is the square of 4, the number of
ancestors at 2 } 256 is the square of 16 j 65536 of 256 $ and the number of ancestors at 40 degrees would be
the square of 1,048,576, or upwards of a million of millions.
(b) This will swell more considerably than the former calculation j for here, though the first term is but I, the
denominator is 4 j that is, there is one kinsman (a brother) in the first degree, who makes, together with the
propositus, the two descendants from the first couple of ancestors $ and in every other degree, the number of kin¬
dred must be the quadruple of those in the degree which immediately precedes it. For since each couple of
Vol. VI. Part II. f 4 B ancestors
CON [ 562 ] CON
Consangui- King Henry VII. wbo slew Richard III. in the battle
nity. of Boswcrth, was related to that prince in the fifth
L,“" V 1 degree. Let the propositus, therefore, in the table of
consanguinity, represent King Richard III. and the
class marked E, King Henry VII. Now their com¬
mon stock or ancestor was King Edward III. the aba-
vus in the same table : from him to Edmund duke of
York, the proavus, is one degree j to Richard earl of
Cambridge, the avus, two ; to Richard duke of York,
the pater, three ; to King Richard III. the propositus,
four; and from King Edward III. to John of Gaunt
(a) is one degree $ to John earl of Somerset (b) two;
to John duke of Somerset (c) three 5 to Margaret
countess of Richmond (d) four; to King Henry VII.
(e) five. Which last-mentioned prince, being the far¬
thest removed from the common stock, gives the deno¬
mination to the degree of kindred in the canon and
municipal law. Though according to the computation
of the civilians (who count upwards from either of the
persons related, to the common stock, and then down¬
wards again to the other; reckoning a degree for each
person both ascending and descending) these two
princes were related in the ninth degree : for from
King Richard III. to Richard duke of York is one
degree; to Richard earl of Cambridge two; to Ed¬
mund duke of York three; to King Edward III. the
common ancestor, four; to John of Gaunt five; to Consan
John earl of Somerset six; to John duke of Somerset nity^
seven; to Margaret countess of Richmond eight; to^onsc*ei>
King Henry VII. nine. See the Table of Consangui-'’""V"
nity (Plate CLXIV.), wherein all the degrees of col¬
lateral kindred to the propositus are computed, as far
as the tenth of the civilians and the seventh of the ca¬
nonists inclusive ; the former being distinguished by the
numeral letters, the latter by the common ciphers.
Consanguinity and Affinittj, degrees of, forbidden
in marriage. See Marriage and Law Index.
Consanguinity and AJJinitij, an objection against a
judge or a witness. See Law Index.
CONSCIENCE, a secret testimony of the soul,
whereby it gives its approbation to things that are na¬
turally good, and condemns those that are evil. See
Moral Philosophy.
A man of integrity will never listen to any reason, or
give way to any measure, or be misled by any induce¬
ment, against conscience.—The inhabitants of a great
town offered Marshal de Turenne 100,000 crowns,
upon condition he would take another road, and not
march his troops their way. He answered them, “ As
your town is not in the road I intend to march, I
cannot accept the money you offer me.”—The earl
of Derby, in the reign of Edward III. making a de¬
scent
ancestors has two descendants who increase in a duplicate ratio, it will follow, that the ratio in which all the de¬
scendants increase downwards, must be double to that in which the ancestors increase upwards : but we have seen,
that the ancestors increase in a duplicate ratio ; therefore, the descendants must increase in a double duplicate;
that is, in quadruple ratio.
Collateral Degrees. Humber of Kindred.
1 1
2 4
a 16
4 64
5 256
6 1024
7 4096
8 16384
9 65536
10 262144
11 1048576
12 4194304
13 16777216
14 67108864
15 268435456
16 1073741824
17 4294967296
18 17179869184
19 68719476736
20 274877906944
This calculation may also be formed by a more compendious process, viz. by squaring the couples, or half
the number of ancestors, at any given degree ; which will furnish us with the number of kindred we have in
the same degree, at equal distance with ourselves from the common stock, besides those at unequal distances.
Thus in the tenth lineal degree, the number of ancestors is 1024 ; its half, or the couples, amounts to 512; the
number of kindred in the tenth collateral degree amounts therefore to 262144, or the square of 512. And, if
we will be at the trouble to recollect the state of the several families within our own knowledge, and observe how
far they agree with this account j^that is, whether, on an average, every man has not one brother or sister, four
first-cousins, sixteen second cousins, and so on, we shall find, that the present calculation is very far from being
overcharged.
CON [ 563 1 CON
ence. seent in Guienne, carried by storm the town of Ber-
jgerac, and gave it up to be plundered. A Welch
knight happened by chance to light upon the receiver’s
office. He found there such a quantity of money that
he thought himself obliged to acquaint his general with
it, imagining that so great a booty naturally belonged
to him. But he was agreeably surprised when the earl
told him, with a pleasant countenance, that he wished
him joy of his good fortune : and that he did not make
the keeping of his word to depend upon the great or
little value of the thing he had promised.—In the siege
of Falisci by Camillus general of the Romans, the
schoolmaster of the town, who had the children of the
senators under his care, led them abroad under the pre¬
text of recreation, and carried them to the Roman
camp, saying to Camillus, that by this artifice he had
delivered Falisci into his hands. Camillus, abhorring
this treachery, observed, il That there were laws for
war as well as for peace } and that the Romans were
taught to make war with integrity not less than with
courage.” He ordered the schoolmaster to be stripped,
his hands to be bound behind his back, and to be de¬
livered to the boys to be lashed back into the town.
The Falerians, formerly obstinate in resistance, struck
with an act of justice so illustrious, delivered themselves
up to the Romans ; convinced that they would be far
better to have the Romans for their allies than their
enemies.
It is a saying, That no man ever offended his own
conscience, but first or last it was revenged upon him.
The power of conscience indeed has been remarked in
all ages, and the examples of it upon record are innu¬
merable. The following is related by Mr Fordyce,
* 1. ii. in his Dialogues on Education *, as a real occurrence
P'l[* which happened in a neighbouring state not many
years ago. A jeweller, a man of good character and
considerable wealth, having occasion in the way of his
business to travel at some distance from the place of
his abode, took along with him a servant, in order to
take care of his portmanteau. He had with him some
of his best jewels, and a large sum of money, to which
his servant was likewise privy. The master having
occasion to dismount on the road, the servant watching
his opportunity, took a pistol from his master’s saddle
and shot him dead on the spot •, then rifled him of his
jewels and money, and hanging a large stone to his
neck, he threw him into the nearest canal. With this
booty he made off to a distant part of the country,
where he had reason to believe that neither he nor his
master was known. There he began to trade in a
very low way at first, that his obscurity might screen
him from observation, and in the course of a good
many years seemed to rise, by the natural progress of
business, into wealth and consideration 5 so that his
good fortune appeared at once the effect and reward
of industry and virtue» Of these he counterfeited the
appearance so well, that he grew into great credit,
married into a good family, and by laying out his hid¬
den stores discreetly, as he saw occasion, and joining
to all an universal affability, he was admitted to a
share of the government of the town, and rose from
one post to another, till at length he was chosen chief
magistrate. In this office he maintained a fair cha¬
racter, and continued to fill it with no small applause,
both as a governor and a judge j till one day as he sat
on the bench with some of his brethren, a criminal Conscience
was brought before him who was accused of murder- 1!
ing his master. The evidence came out full, the jury Co".s^ia'
brought in their verdict that the prisoner was guilty,. ^
and the whole assembly waited the sentence of the pre¬
sident of the court (which he happened to be that
day) with great suspense. Meanwhile he appeared
to be in unusual disorder and agitation of mind, and
his colour changed often j at length he arose from his
seat, and coming down from the bench, placed him¬
self just by the unfortunate man at the bar. “ You
see before you (said he, addressing himself to those
who had sat on the bench with him), a striking in¬
stance of the just rewards of heaven, which this day,
after 30 years concealment, presents to you a greater
criminal than the man just now found guilty.” Then
he made an ample confession of his guilt, and of all
its aggravations. “ Nor can 1 feel, (continued lie)
any relief from the agonies of an awakened conscience,
but by requiring that justice be forthwith done against
me in the most public and solemn manner.” We may
easily suppose the amazement of all the assembly, and
especially of his fellow judges. However, they pro¬
ceeded, upon this confession, to pass sentence upon
him, and he died with all the symptoms of a penitent
mind.
Courts of Conscience, are courts for recovery of
small debts, constituted by act of parliament in Lon¬
don, Westminster, &c. and other populous and trading
districts.
CONSCIOUSNESS. Metaphysicians, in lieu of
the word conscience, which seems appropriated to theo¬
logical or moral matters, ordinarily use that of con¬
sciousness; whereby they mean an inner sentiment of
a thing, whereof one may have a clear and distinct
notion. In this sense they say that we do not know
our own soul, nor are assured of the existence of our
own thoughts, otherwise than by self-consciousness.
See Metaphysics.
CONSCRIPT, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to the senators of Rome, who were called con¬
script fathers, an account of their names being all en¬
tered in one register.
CONSECRATION, the act of devoting any thing
to the service and worship of God. The Mosaical
law ordained, that all the first-born, both of man and
beast, should be sanctified or consecrated to God. We
find also that Joshua consecrated the Gibeonites, as
Solomon and David did the Nethinims, to the service
of the temple ; and that the Hebrews sometimes con¬
secrated their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which
they were no longer in their power.
Among the ancient Christians, the consecration of
churches was performed with a great deal of pious so¬
lemnity. In what manner it was done for the three
first ages, is uncertain $ the authentic accounts reach¬
ing no higher than the fourth, when, in the peaceable
reign of Constantine, churches were everywhere built,
and dedicated with great solemnity. Some think the
consecration consisted in setting up the sign of the
cross, or in placing a communion table in the church ;
and others, that no more was done than preaching a
panegyrical sermon in commemoration of the founder,
and that then they proceeded to prayers, one of which
was composed on purpose for the church to be conse-
4 B 2 crated.
CON [ 564 ] CON
Consecra- crated. The Romanists have a great deal of pious fop-
tiou pery in the ceremonies of consecration j which they be¬
ll stow on almost every thing, bells, candles, books, water,
Consent., ojj^ as|ies^ pa]mSj swords, banners, pictures, crosses, ag-
nus dei’s, roses, children’s clouts, &c.
In England, churches have been always consecrated
with particular ceremonies, the form of which was left
to the discretion of the bishop. That observed by Bi¬
shop Laud, in consecrating St Catherine Creed church,
in London, gave great offence.
Consecration, is particularly used for the benedic¬
tion of the elements in the eucharist.
Consecration, among medalists, is the ceremony
of the apotheosis of an emperor, or his translation into
heaven and reception among the gods. On medals the
consecration is thus represented : on one side is the em¬
peror’s head, crowned with laurel, sometimes veiled ;
and the inscription gives him the title of divus : on
the reverse is a temple, a bustum, an altar, or an eagle
taking its flight towards heaven, either from off the
altar, or from a cippus : at other times the empe¬
ror is seen in the air, borne up by the eagle $ the in¬
scription always, consecratio. These are the usual sym¬
bols : yet on the reverse of that of Antoninus is the
Antonine column. In the apotheosis of empresses, in¬
stead of an eagle there is a peacock. As to the ho¬
nours rendered these princes after death, they were ex¬
plained by the words consecratio, pater, divus, and deus.
Sometimes around the temple or altar are put, memoria
felix, or memoria: ceternce: for princesses, cete,rnitas
and sideribus recepta: on the one side of the head,
dea, or G>ut.
CONSENT, in a general sense, denotes much the
same with Assent.
Consent of Parts, in the animal economy, an agree¬
ment or sympathy, whereby when one part is imme-
j> diately affected, another at a distance becomes affected
in the same manner.
This mutual accord or consent is supposed to be ef¬
fected by the commerce of the nerves, and their artful
distribution and ramification throughout the body.
The effect is so sensible as even to come under the
physician’s cognizance : thus, the stone in the bladder,
by vellicating the fibres there, will pain and draw them
so much into spasms, as to affect the coats of the bowels,
in the same manner, by the intermediation of nervous
threads, and make a colic there ; and also extend their
twitches sometimes as far as the stomach, and occasion
grievous vomitings; the remedy, therefore, in such
cases, is to regard the part originally affected, how re¬
mote and grievous soever may be the consequences and
symptoms in other places.
The fifth conjugation of nerves branched to the parts
of the eye, the ear, those of the mouth, cheeks, prsecor-
dia, and pairs adjacent, &c. is supposed by natu¬
ralists to be the instrument of that particular and ex¬
traordinary consent between those parts. Hence it
is, that a savoury thing seen or smelled excites the
appetite, and affects the glands and parts of the
mouth; that a shameful thing seen or heard affects
the cheeks with blushes: on the contrary, if it pleases
it affects the praecordia, and excites the muscles of the
mouth and tace to laughter; if it grieve, it affects
the glands, of the eyes, so as to occasion tears, and
the muscles., of the face, putting them into an aspect
of crying. Dr Willis, quoted by Mr Derham, ini- Conw]
putes the pleasure of kissing, and its effects, to this jj
pair of nerves; which being branched both to the lips Con sen
and the genital parts, when the former are affected to^•
an irritation is occasioned in the latter. See Sympa-
THY.
CONSENTES, the name which the Romans gave
to the 12 superior gods, the Dii majorum gentium.
The word signifies as much as consentientes; that is,
who consented to the deliberations of Jupiter’s council.
They were twelve in number, whose names Ennius has
briefly expressed in these lines,
Juno, V?sta, Minerva, Ceres, JJiana, Venus, Mars,
Mercurius, Jovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.
CONSEQUENCE, in Logic, the conclusion or
what results from reason or argument. See Conclu¬
sion.
The consequence is that other proposition in which
the extremes or premises of a syllogism are joined, or
separated ; and is gained from what was asserted in the
premises.
This word, in a more restrained sense, is used for the
relation or connection between two propositions, where¬
of one is inferred from the ether.
CONSEQUENT, something deduced or gathered
from a former argumentation. But, in a more precise
sense, it is used for the proposition which contains the
conclusion, considered in itself, without any regard to
the antecedent: in which sense the consequent may be
true, though the consequence be false. See the preced¬
ing article.
CONSERVATOR, an officer ordained for the se¬
curity and preservation of the privileges of some cities
and communities, having a commission to judge of and
determine the differences among them.
In most catholic universities there are two conserva¬
tors ; the conservator of royal privileges, or those
granted by kings ; and the conservator of apostolical
privileges, or those granted by the pope. The first
takes cognizance of personal and mixed causes between
the regents, students, &c. and the latter of spiritual
matters between ecclesiastics.
Anciently there were appointed conservators of trea¬
ties of peace between princes ; which conservators
became judges of the infractions made on a treaty,
and were charged with procuring satisfaction to be
made. These were usually the feudatories of the se¬
veral powers. In lieu of conservators, princes now
have recourse to other indifferent princes to guarantee
their treaties.
Conservator of Scots Privileges, at Campvere, was
an officer belonging to the royal boroughs of Scotland,
who took care of the mercantile affairs of Scotland,
agreeable to the staple.contract between them and the
States-General.
Conservator of the Peace, in the ancient English
customs, was a person who had an especial charge, by
virtue ot his office, to see the king’s peace kept. Till
the erection ot justices of the peace by King Ed¬
ward III. there were several persons who by common
law were interested in keeping the same: some having
that charge as incident to other offices; and others
simply, or ot itself, called custodes, or conservators of
the peace. The chamberlain of Chester is still a con¬
servator
CON
[ 565
^ ,va servator in that county $ and petty constables are, by
tor the common law, conservators, &.e. in the first sense,
ft within their own jurisdiction : so are also the coroner
nsisten- an(\ the sheriff within their own county. The king is
tes‘ , the principal conservator of the peace within all his do-
"~v minions: the lord chancellor, lord treasurer, lord high
steward, lord marshal, lord high constable, all the jus¬
tices of the court of king’s bench, by their office, and
the master of the rolls, by prescription, are general con¬
servators of the'peace through the whole kingdom, and
may commit breakers of the peace, and bind them in
recognizances to keep it.
Conservator of the Truce, and Safe Conducts, was
an officer appointed in every sea port, under the king’s
letters patent. His charge was to inquire of all of¬
fences committed against the king’s truce, and safe
conducts upon the main sea out of the franchises of
the cinque-ports, as the admirals were wont to do,
and such other things as are declared anno 3 Hen. V.
cap. 6.
CQNSERVATORIOS, are musical schools esta¬
blished for the instruction of children in the profession
of music. There are four of these at Venice, designed
for the education of girls, and three at Naples, for the
education of boys. It has been suggested that the
operation of castration was performed in the conserva¬
tories $ but the practice is absolutely prohibited 5 and
the young castrati are brought from Lucia in Pug¬
lia : but before that operation is performed, their voices
are tried in a conservatorio. The scholars of the Ve¬
netian conservatories have been chiefly celebrated for
taste and neatness of execution j and those of Naples
have had the reputation of being the first contrapuntists,
or composers, in Europe.
CONSERVATORY, a term sometimes used for a
green-house or ice-house.
CONSERVE, in Pharmacy, a form of medicine
contrived to preserve the flowers, herbs, roots, or
fruits of several simples, as near as possible, to what
they are when fresh gathered. See Pharmacy.
CONSIGNMENT, in Law, the depositing any
sum of money, bills, papers, or commodities, in good
hands j either by appointment of a court of justice, in
order to be delivered to the persons to whom they are
adjudged ; or voluntarily, in order to their being re¬
mitted to the persons they belong to, or sent to the
places they are designed for.
Consignment of Goods, in Commerce, is the de¬
livering or making them over to another •, thus, goods
are said to be consigned to a factor, when they are sent
to him to be sold, &c. or when a factor sends back
goods to his principal, they are said to be consigned to
him.
CONSISTENCE, in Physics, that state of a body
wherein its component particles are so connected or
entangled among themselves, as not to separate or
recede from eath other. It differs from continuity in
this, that it implies a regard to motion or rest, which
continuity does not, it being sufficient to denominate
a thing continuous that its parts are contiguous to each
other.
_ CONSISTENTES, in church-history, a kind of pe¬
nitents who were allowed to assist at prayers, but who
could not be admitted to receive the sacrament.
] CON
CONSISTORY (Consistorium), signifies as much Conmtory.
as preetorium, a tribunal : it is commonly used for a v — 1
council-house of ecclesiastical persons, or place of ju¬
stice in the spiritual court •, a session or assembly of pre¬
lates. And every archbishop and bishop of every dio¬
cese hath a consistory court held before his chancellor
or commissary in his cathedral church, or other conve¬
nient place of his diocese, far ecclesiastical causes. The
bishop’s chancellor is the judge of this court, supposed
to be skilled in the civil and canon law j and in places
of the diocese far remote from the bishop’s consistory,
the bishop appoints a commissary to judge in all causes
within a certain district, and a register to enter his de¬
crees, &c.
Consistory, at Rome, denotes the college of cardi¬
nals, or the pope’s senate and council, before whom ju¬
diciary causes are pleaded. Hu Cange derives the word
from consistoriumi i. e. locus uhi consistitur; used chiefly
for a vestibule, gallery, or anti-chamber, where the
courtiers wait for admission : and so called a consistente
multitudine.
The consistory is the first court, or tribunal of
Rome : it never meets but when the pope pleases to
convoke it: the pope presides in it in person, mounted
on a magnificent throne, and habited in his pontifi¬
calia ; on the right are the cardinal-bishops and priests,
and on the left the cardinal-deacons. The place where
it is held, is a large hall in the apostolical palace,
where princes and ambassadors of kings are received.
The other prelates, prothonotaries, auditors of the ro¬
ta, and other officers, are seated on the steps of the
throne : the courtiers sit on the ground j ambassadors
on the right, and consistorial and fiscal advocates behind
the cardinals.
Besides the public consistory, there is also a private
one, held in a retired chamber, called the chamber of
papegay ; the pope’s throne here being only raised two
steps high. Nobody is here admitted but the cardi¬
nals, whose opinions are collected, and called sentences*
Here are first proposed and passed all bulls for bishop-
ricks, abbeys, &c. Hence bishopricks and abbeys
are said to be consistorial benefices j in regard they must
be proposed in the consistory, the annates be paid to the
pope, and his bulls taken. Anciently they were elec¬
tive $ but by the concordat, which abolishes elections,
they are appointed to be collated by the pope alone, on
the nomination of the prince.
Consistory was also the name of a court under
Constantine, where he sat in person, and heard causes:
the members of this court were called comites.
Consistory is also used among the reformed, for
a council or assembly of ministers and elders, to regulate,
their affairs, discipline, &c.
Consistory, t Court Christian, in the English laws,
is a council of ecclesiastical persons, or the place of
justice in an ecclesiastical or spiritual court. Every
archbishop and bishop has a consistory court, held be¬
fore his chancellor or commissary, either in his cathe¬
dral, in some chapel, aisle, or portico, belonging there¬
to j or in some other convenient place ot his diocese, tor
ecclesiastical causes. The spiritual court was anciently,
in the time of the Saxons, joined with the county or
hundred court; and the original of the consistory court,
as divided from those courts, is found in a law of the
Conqueror,
CON' [ 566 ] CON
€«usistory Conqueror, quoted by Lord Coke. From this court
II there lies an appeal to the archbishop of each province
Constable.. reSpectiVely.
CONSOLATION, one of the places in rhetoric,
wherein the orator endeavours to abate and moderate
the grief or concern of another.
CONSOLE, in Architecture, an ornament cut upon
the key of an arch, which has a projecture, and on
occasion serves to support little corniches, figures, busts,
and vases.
CONSOLIDATION, in Law, the combining and
uniting two benefices into one. The term is borrowed
from the civil law j where it properly signifies an union
of the possession, or occupation, with the property.
Thus, if a man have by legacy usum fructum fundi, and
afterwards buy the property, or fee-simple, of the heir 5
this is called a consolidation.
Consolidation, in Medicine, the action of uniting
broken bones, or the lips of wounds, by means of con~
solidating remedies, as they are called 5 which cleansing
with a moderate heat and force, taking corruption out
of the wounds, and preserving the temperature of the
parts, cause the nourishment to be fitly applied to the
part affected.
Among the many instances of the consolidating
power of blood and raw flesh, we have a very re¬
markable one in Bartholine’s Medical Observations.
A man being condemned to have his nose cut off by
the hand of the common executioner, the friends, who
were to be present, provided a new loaf of warm bread,
which was cut in the middle, and the nose received in
it as it fell from the face: the nose was after this nicely
placed on the face again $ and being sewed on, the
whole in time consolidated, and left no other marks
of the ignominy than the scar round the whole nose,
and the traces of the stitches.
CONSONANCE, in Music. See Interval.
CONSONANT, a letter that cannot be sounded
without some single or double vowel before or after it;
as b, c, d, &c.
CONSORT, Queen Consort. See Queen.
CONSPIRACY, in Law, signifies an agreement
between two or more, falsely to indict, or procure to he
indicted, an innocent person, of felony.
CONSPIRATORS are, by statute, defined to be
such as End themselves by oath, covenant, or other al¬
liance, to assist one another falsely and maliciously to
indict persons, or falsely to maintain pleas.
Conspirators in treason, are those that plot against
the king and the government.
CONSTABLE, according to some, is a Saxon
word, compounded of coning, “ king,” and staple which
signifies the “ stay or support of the king.” But as
we borrowed the name as well as the office of Constable
from the French, Sir William Blackstone is rather in¬
clined to deduce it, with Sir Henry Spelman and Dr
Cowel, from that language 5 wherein it is plainly de¬
rived from the Latin comes stabuli, an officer well
known in the empire $ so called, because, like the
great constable of France, as well as the lord high
constable of England, he was to regulate all matters
of chivalry, tilts, tournaments, and feats of arms, which
were performed on horseback.—The
Lord High Constable of England is the seventh
great officer of the crown 5 and he, with the earl
marshal of England, were formerly judges of the court Constablt
of chivalry, called in King Henry IV.’s time Curia v"- y—
Militaris, and now the court of honour. It is the
fountain of the martial law, and anciently was held in
the king’s hall. The power of the lord high con¬
stable was formerly so great, and of which so improper
a use was made, that so early as the 13th of King Rich¬
ard II. a statute passed for regulating and abridging
the same, together with the power of the earl marshal
of England $ and by this statute, no plea could be tri¬
ed by them or their courts, that could be tried by the
common law of the realm. The office of constable
existed before the Conquest. After the Conquest, the
office went with inheritance, and by the tenure of the
manors of Harlefield, Newman, and Whitenhurst, in
Gloucestershire, by grand serjeanty in the family of
the Bohuns earls of Hereford and Essex, and afterwards
in the line of Stafford as heirs-general to them $ but
in 1521, this great office became forfeited to the king
in the person of Edward Stafford duke of Bucking¬
ham, who was that year attainted for high treason ; and
in consideration of its extensive power, dignity, and
large authority, both in time of war and peace, it has
never been granted to any person, otherwise than hac
vice, and that to attend at a coronation, or trial by
combat. In France, the same office was also suppressed
about a century after by an edict of Louis XIII. ;
though it has been exercised, in the command of the
Marshals, by the first officer in the army.
Lord high constable of Scotland was an office of
great antiquity and dignity. The first upon record is
Hugo de Morvelle in the reign of David I. He had
two grand prerogatives, viz. First, The keeping of the
king’s sword, which the king, at his promotion, when
he swears fealty, delivers to him naked. Hence the
badge of the constable is a naked sword.—Second, The
absolute and unlimited command of the king’s armies
while in the field, in the absence of the king ; but
this command does not extend to castles and garrisons.
He was likewise judge of all crimes committed within
two leagues of the king’s house, which precinct was
called the Chalmer of Peace: though his jurisdiction
came at last to be exercised only as to crimes during
the time of parliament, which some extended likewise
to all general conventions. This office was conferred
heritably upon the noble family of Errol, by King Ro¬
bert Bruce j and with them it still remains, being ex¬
pressly reserved by the treaty of union.
Inferior Constables. From the great office of high
constable is derived that inferior order, since called the
constables of hundreds andfranchises ; these were first
ordained in the 13th year of Edward I. by the statute
of Winchester; which, for the conservation of the
peace, and view of armour, appointed that two consta¬
bles should be chosen in every hundred and franchise.
These are what we now call constabularii capitales, or
high constables ; because continuance of time, and in¬
crease of people, &c. have occasioned others of like
nature, but inferior authority, in every town, called
petty constables, or sub-constabularii, first instituted a-
bout the reign of Edward III.
The former, or modern high constables, are appoint¬
ed at the court-leets of the franchise or hundred over
which they preside 5 or, in default of that, by the
justices at their quarter-sessions 5 and are removeable
by
CON [ 567 ] CON
tables, by the same authority that appoints them. The petty
-V—' constables have two offices united in them, the one an¬
cient, and the other modern. Their ancient office is
that of head-borough, tithing-man, or borsholder j
which is as ancient as the time of King Alfred : their
more modern office is that of constable merely j which
was appointed so lately as the reign of Edward III.
in order to assist the high constable. And in general
the ancient head-boroughs, tithing-men, and borshold-
ers, were made use of to serve as petty constables,
though not so generally, but that in many places they
still continue distinct officers from the constables.
They are all chosen by the jury at the court-leet $ or,
if no court-leet be held, are appointed by two justices
of the peace.
The general duty of all constables, both high and
petty, as well as of the other officers, is to keep the
king’s peace in their several districts} and to that pur¬
pose they are armed with very large powers of ar¬
resting and imprisoning, of breaking open houses, and
the like : of the extent of which powers, considering
what manner of men are for the most part upon
these offices, it is perhaps very well that they are ge¬
nerally kept in ignorance. One of their principal
duties arising from the statute of Winchester, which
appoints them, is to keep watch and ward in their re¬
spective jurisdictions. Ward, guard, or custodia, is
chiefly intended of the day-time, in order to appre¬
hend rioters, and robbers on the highways } the man¬
ner of doing which is left to the discretion of the jus¬
tices of the peace and the constable: the hundred be¬
ing, however, liable, for all the robberies committed
therein by day-light, for having kept negligent guard.
Watch is properly applicable to the night only (being
called among the Saxons wach't or wactu) ; and it be¬
gins when ward ends, and ends when that begins:
for, by the statute of Winchester, in walled towns the
gates shall be closed from suu-setting to sun-rising:
and watch shall be kept in every borough and town,
especially in the summer season, to apprehend all
rogues, vagabonds, and night-walkers, and make them
give an account of themselves. The constable may
appoint watchmen at his discretion, regulated by the
custom of the place } and these, being his deputies,
have, for the time being, the authority of their prin¬
cipal.
There are also constables denominated from parti¬
cular places," as constable of the Tower, of Dover
castle, of Windsor castle, of the castle of Caernarvon
and many other of the castles of Wales} whose office
is the same with that of the castellani, or governors of
castles.
Constables of London. The city of London is di¬
vided into 26 wards, and the wards into precincts, in
each of which is a constable. They are nominated by
the inhabitants of each precinct on St Thomas’s day,
and confirmed, or otherwise, at the court of wardmote.
After confirmation, they are sworn into their offices
at a court of aldermen, on the next Monday after
Twelfth day. Such as are chosen into the office, are
obliged to place the king’s arms, and the arms of the
city, over their doors } and if they reside in alleys, at
the ends of such alleys toward the streets, to signify
that a constable lives there, and that they may be the
more easily found when wanted.
2
Constables to Justices of the Peace, in Scotland, constables
are the proper officers for executing their orders. j}
They have powers to suppress tumults, and to ap-Constancy;
prehend delinquents and those who can give no good ''' " v r
account of themselves, and carry them to the next
justice.
CONSTANCE, a strong town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, now included in the grand duchy of
Baden. It has a handsome bridge, and several fine
structures, as well sacred as profane. It carries on
a great trade, and is well fortified : but its population
in 1810 amounted only to 4420. It is famous for a
council held here in 1514, when there were three
popes } but they were all deposed, and Martin V. was
elected in their room. This council caused Jerome
of Prague and John Huss to be burnt, though the
emperor Sigismund had given them a safe-conduct}
in pursuance of this maxim, “ that no faith is to be
kept with heretics.” They likewise condemned the
doctrine of Wickliffe, and ordered his bones to
be burned 40 years after he was dead. However,
the inhabitants now are Protestants. It is seated on
a lake of the same name. E. Long. 9. 10. N. Lat.
47- 38.
Constance, one of the most considerable and beau¬
tiful lakes of Switzerland, which separates it from Sua¬
bia, except that part where the city of Constance is
seated on its side. It is divided into three parts } the
upper or largest part is called Boden see, the middle
Bodmer see, and the lower part Zeller see. The first
is 37 miles long, and its greatest breadth 15 miles. It
is deeper in summer than in winter.
CONSTANCY, in a general sense, denotes immu¬
tability, or invariableness. In ethics, or when applied
to the human mind, the term implies resolution or
steadiness, particularly under sufferings and the trials
of adversity.
It was the saying of a heathen philosopher That
there cannot be imagined upon earth a spectacle mme
worthy the regard of the Creator intent on his works,
than a brave man superior to his sufferings. Nothing
indeed can be more noble or honourable than to have
courage enough to execute the commands of reason
and conscience} to maintain the dignity of our na¬
ture, and the station assigned ns } and to be proof
against poverty, pain, and death itself, so far as not to
do any thing that is scandalous or sinful to avoid them.
To be thus, is to be great above title or fortune. This
argues the soul of a heavenly extraction, and is worthy
the offspring of the Deity.
Of this virtue the following example, related in
English history, is here selected, as superior perhaps,
all circumstances considered, to any other upon re¬
cord.
Sir William Askew of Kelsay, in Lincolnshire, had
several daughters. His second, named Anne, had re¬
ceived a genteel education } which, with an agreeable
figure and good understanding, rendered her a very
proper person to be at the head of a family. Her fa¬
ther, regardless of his daughter’s inclination and hap¬
piness, obliged her to marry a gentleman who had no¬
thing to recommend him but his fortune, and who was
a most bigotted Papist. No sooner was he convinced
of his wife’s regard for the doctrines of the reforma¬
tion from popery, than, by the instigation of his
priests,
CON
[ 568 ]
CON
Constancy, priests, he violently drove her from his house, though
—V'——' she had born him two children, and her conduct was
unexceptionable. Abandoned by her husband, she
came up to London, in order to procure a divorce, and
to make herself known to that part of the court who
either professed or were favourers of Protestantism ;
but as Henry VIII. with consent of parliament, had
just enacted the law of the six articles, commonly called
the bloody statute, she was cruelly betrayed by her own
husband j and, upon his information, taken into custo¬
dy, and examined concerning her faith. The act above
mentioned denounced death against all those who
should deny the doctrine of transubstantiation ; or that
the bread and wine made use of in the sacrament was
not converted after consecration into the real body
and blood of Christ j or, maintain the necessity of re¬
ceiving the sacrament in both kinds 5 or affirm, that it
was lawful for priests to marry $ that the vows of ce¬
libacy might be broken j that private masses were of no
avail $ and that auricular confession to a priest was not
necessary to salvation. Upon these articles she was
eKamined by the inquisitor, a priest, the lord mayor of
London, and the bishop’s chancellor j and to all their
queries gave proper and pertinent answers 5 but not
being such as they approved, she was sent back to pri¬
son, where she remained eleven days to ruminate alone
on her alarming situation, and was denied the small
consolation of a friendly visit. The king’s council
being at Greenwich, she was once more examined by
Chancellor Wriothesley, Gardiner bishop of Winche-
iter, Dr Cox, and Dr Robinson $ but not being able
to convince her of supposed errors, she was sent to
the Tower. Mr Strype, from an authentic paper,
gives us the following short account of her examina¬
tion, which may not, perhaps, be unentertaining or
useless to the reader : “ Sir Martin Bowes (lord
mayor) sitting with the council, as most meet for his
wisdom, and seeing her stand upon life and death, I
pray you, quoth he, my lords, give me leave to talk
to this woman ? Leave was granted. Lord Mayor.
Thou foolish woman, sayest thou that the priest can¬
not make the holy body of Christ ? A. Askew. I say so,
my lord : for I have read that God made man j but
that man made God I never read j nor I suppose ever
shall read it. Lord Mayor. No ! Thou foolish wo¬
man, after the words of consecration, is it not the
Lord s body ? A. Askew. No : it is but consecrated
bread, or sacramental bread. Lord Mayor. What if
a mouse eat it after consecration ; what shall become of
this mouse ? what sayest thou, thou foolish woman ?
A. Askew. What shall become of her, say you, my
lord ? Lord Mayor. I say, that the mouse is damned.
A.. Askew. Alack, poor mouse!” Perceiving that
some could not keep in their laughing, the council
proceeded to the butchery and slaughter that they in¬
tended before they came there. It was strongly su¬
spected that Mrs Askew was favoured by some ladies
of high rank 5 and that she carried on a religious cor¬
respondence with the queen j so that the chancellor
V\ nothesley, hoping that he might discover something
that would a (lord matter of impeachment against that
princess, the earl of Hertford, or his countess, who
all favoured reformation, ordered her to be put to the
rack: but her fortitude in suffering, and her resolution
not to betray her friends, was proof against that dia-
3
bolical invention. Not a groan, not a word, could be Constant
extorted from her. The chancellor, provoked withConstanl'!
what he called her obstinacy, augmented her tortures
with his own hands, and with unheard-of violence : but
her courage and constancy were invincible 5 and these
barbarians gained nothing by their cruelties but ever¬
lasting disgrace and infamy. As soon as she was taken
from the rack, she fainted away j but being recovered,
she was condemned to the flames. Her bones were dis¬
located in such a manner, that they were forced to car¬
ry her in a chair to the place of execution. While she
was at the stake, letters were brought her from the lord
chancellor, offering her the king’s pardon if she would
recant. But she refused to look at them} telling the
messenger, that ‘s she came not thither to deny her
Lord and Master.” The same letters were also ten¬
dered to three other persons condemned to the same
fate } and who, animated by her example, refused to
accept them. Whereupon the lord-mayor commanded
the fire to be kindled } and with savage ignorance cried
out, Fiatjustitia, “ Let justice take its course.” The
faggots being lighted, she commended her soul, with the
utmost composure, into the hands of her Maker ; and,
like the great founder of the religion she professed, ex-
pired, praying for her murderers, July 16. 1546, about
the 25th of her age.
CONSTANTIA, a district at the Cape of Good
Hope, consisting of two farms, which produce the
well-known wine so much prized in Europe, and
known by the name of Cape or Constantia wine. This
place is situated at the distance of a mile and a half
from Alphen, in a bending formed by and nearly un¬
der the ridge of hills, which comes from Meuisen-
mountain, and just where it strikes off towards Hout-
bay. One of these farms is called Little Constantia.
Here the white Constantia wine is made. The other
produces the red. According to M. de la Cail’s ac¬
count, not more than 60 siggars of red and 90 of the
white Constantia wine are made, each siggar being
reckoned at 600 French pints, or about 150 Swedish
cans } so that the whole produce amounts to 22,500
cans. As the company are used to keep one-third
of this for themselves, the remainder is always be¬
spoke by the Europeans long before it is made. At
the Cape this wine is seldom seen at table, partly be¬
cause it is dear, and partly because it is the produce
of the country; The red Constantia wine sells for
about 60 rixdollars the half awin } but the white is
usually to be purchased at a more ^reasonable rate.
The genuine Constantia wine is undeniably a very
racy and delicate dessert wine, and has something pe¬
culiarly agreeable in the flavour of it. That its supe¬
riority, however, is not owing to any thing peculiar
in the manner of procuring it, seems extremely pro¬
bable } for then, without doubt, a great deal more of
it would be made. In fact, Dr Sparmann informs us,
that the genuine wine can only be produced from
particular soils. The districts that lie next to these
yield merely the common Cape wine, notwithstanding
that they have been planted with vine stocks taken
from this, as well as with some brought from the
banks of the Rhine, whence it is supposed that the
true Constantia sort originally comes } nay, even though
all the vineyards about Constautia seem to have the
same soil. We have instances at the Cape, as well as
in
CON
as* ail'
tia
in Europe, that good grapes sometimes produce a
bad wine j while, on the other hand, bad grapes
11 will yield a good sort of wine: therefore, towards
"stan' making wine of a certain quality, besides finer ma-
'1°e‘ . terials, there must be certain conditions and circum¬
stances, which, by a diligent and rational investigation,
might probably be explored to the great benefit of man-
kind.
Such as are apprised in what quantities Constantia
wine is consumed in Europe, will perhaps think the
above calculation of the produce too limited. This,
however, Dr Sparmann assures us, is by no means the
case ; the overplus being the produce of avarice, which,
goaded on by the desire of gain, will always hit upon
some method of satisfying the demands of luxury and
sensuality. The votaries of these, accustomed to be
put off with empty sounds, do not seldom drink with
the highest relish an imaginary Constantia, with which,
however, this liquor, has nothing in common besides
the mere name. It is therefore advisable, even at
the Cape itself, to take care, that whilst one has a ge¬
nuine sample given one to taste, one is not made to
pay for a made-up red Constantia, which otherwise is
in general sold for half the price. The rich quality
of this wine is, according to Barrow, owing partly
to the situation and soil, and partly to the care in the
manufacture; for ripe fruit only is used, and always
entirely freed from the stalks.
CONSTANTINA, a strong and considerable town
of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers, and capital of a
territory of the same name. It is the largest and
strongest place in all the eastern parts; and it is seated
on the top of a great rock. There is no way to it
but by steps cut out of the rock j and the usual way
of punishing criminals here is to throw them down
the cliff. Here are a great many Roman antiquities,
particularly a triumphal arch. E. Long. 7. 12. N.
Lat. 36. 4. r
CONSTANTINA, a town of Spain, in Andalusia, and
capital of a small territory of the same name, with a
castle seated on a mountain. W. Long. 5. 35. N.
Lat. 37. 40.
CONSTANTINE, a kingdom of Barbary of that
name, in Africa. It is bounded on the north by the
Mediterranean, on the east by the kingdom of Tunis,
on the south by Bildulgerid, and on the west by the
river Sufegmar, which separates it from the kingdom
of Bugia. The country is the New Numidia of the
ancients, and had its own king *, but it is now a pro¬
vince of Algiers.
Constantine the Great, the first emperor of the
Romans who embraced Christianity. His father, Con¬
stantins Chlorus, rendered himself famous by his vic¬
torious expeditions to Germany and Britain : upon the
abdication of Dioclesian, be shared the Roman empire
with Galerius Maximinus in 305, and was at that time
at York, where he died in 306 j having first caused
his son Constantine the Great to be proclaimed empe¬
ror by his army, and the English. Galerius at first
refused to admit Constantine to his father’s share in the
imperial throne; but after having lost several battles,
he consented in 308. Maxentius, who succeeded Ga¬
lerius, opposed him: but was defeated, and drowned
himself in the Tyber. The senate then declared
Constantine chief or first Augustus, and Licinius his
Vol. VI. Part II. f
[ 569 ] CON
second associate in the empire, in 412. These princes
published an edict, in their joint names, in favour of
the Christians •, but soon after Licinius, jealous of Con¬
stantine’s renown, conceived an implacable hatred a-
gainst him, and renewed the persecutions against the
Christians. Thus brought on a rupture between the
emperors, and a battle, in which Censtantine was
victorious. A short peace ensued j but Licinius hav¬
ing shamefully violated the treaty, the war was re¬
newed 5 when Constantine totally defeating him, he
fled to Nicomedia, where he was taken prisoner and
strangled in 323. Constantine, now become sole ma¬
ster of tbe western and eastern empires, immediately
formed the plan of establishing Christianity as the reli¬
gion of the state $ for which purpose, he convoked se¬
veral ecclesiastical councils : but finding he was like¬
ly to meet with great opposition from the Pagan inte¬
rest at Rome, he conceived the design of founding a
new city, to be the capital of his Christian empire 5 see
Constantinople. The glory Constantine had ac¬
quired by establishing the Christian religion, was tar¬
nished by the part he took in the persecutions carried
on by the Arians, towards the close of his reign,
against their Christian brethren who differed from
them: seduced by Eusebius of Nicomedia, he banished
several eminent prelates 5 soon after which, he died in
337, the 66th year of his age, and 31st of his reign.
As to the character of Constantine, he was chaste,
pious, laborious, and indefatigable; a great general,
successful in war, and deserving his success by his
shining valour and by tbe biightness of his genius ; a
protector of arts, and an encourager of them by his
beneficence. If we compare him with Augustus, we
shall find that he ruined idolatry, by the same precau¬
tions and the same address that the other used to de¬
stroy liberty. Like Augustus, he laid the foundation
of a new empire 5 but possessed of less political skill, he
could not give it the same stability: he weakened the
body of the state by adding to it, in some measure, a
second head in the foundation of Constantinople j and
transporting the centre of motion and strength too
near the eastern extremity, he left without heat, and
almost without life, the western parts, which soon be¬
came a prey to the barbarians. The Pagans were
too much his enemies to do him justice. Eutropius
says, that in the former part of his reign he was equal
to the most accomplished princes, and in the latter to
the meanest. The younger Victor, who makes him
to have reigned more than 31 years, pretends, that in
the first 10 years he was a hero; in the 12 succeeding
ones a robber; and in the 10 last a spendthrift. It is
easy to perceive, with respect to these two reproaches
of Victor’s, that the one relates to the riches which
Constantine took from idolatry, and the other to those
with which he loaded the church.
Constantine, emperor of the East in 912, left
the care of the empire to his wife Helena, who loaded
the people with taxes, and sold all the offices in church
and state to the highest bidders; while the emperor
employed himself in reading, writing, and the fine arts,
till he became as good an architect and painter as he
was a bad prince: he wrote several biographical and
geographical works, which would have done honour to
his name, if he had not neglected his duty to compose
them. He died in 959.
4 C Constantine,
CON [ 57° ] CON
Constan¬
tine,
Constan¬
tinople.
Removing
Constantine, Dracoses, the son of Emmanuel Pa-
leologus, was placed on the throne by Sultan Amurath
in 1448. But Mahomet II. his successor, resolving
to dethrone him, laid siege to Constantinople by sea
and land, and took it by assault in 1453, after it had
held out 58 days. The unfortunate emperor seeing
the Turks enter the breaches, threw himself into the
midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces; the chil¬
dren of the imperial house were massacred by the sol¬
diers j and the women reserved to gratify the lust of
the conqueror 5 and thus terminated the dynasty of
the Constantines, 1123 years after its establishment at
Constantinople.
Constantine, Robei't, a learned physician, born at
Caen, taught polite literature in that city ; and acqui¬
red great reputation by his skill in the Greek language,
in history, and in medicine. He died in 1603, aged
103. He wrote a dictionary in Greek and Latin, and
other works, which are esteemed.
CONSTANTINOPLE, the modern name of the
the imperi- cJty 0f Byzantium in Thrace. It was enlarged and
thiTcUy0 beautified by the Roman emperor Constantine the Great,
the came of *n ^ie year 330. At the same time he transferred
the decline thither the seat of the empire ; and this removal is ge-
of the vvest-neral]y thought to hav3 been one of the principal causes
eni empire. 0£ t|ie SU{j(jen decline of the western empire after this
2 period.
Constantine In the year 332, the Sarmatians implored Constan-
Coi'h!8 llle tine’s assistance against the Goths, who had made an
irruption into their territories, and destroyed every
thing with fire and sword. The emperor readily
granted their request, and gained a complete victory.
Near 100,000 of the enemy perished, either in the
battle, or after it with hunger and cold. In conse¬
quence of this overthrow', the Goths were obliged to
sue for peace j but the ungrateful Sarmatians no sooner
found themselves delivered from their enemies, than they
turned their arms against their benefactor, and ravaged
the provinces of Maesia and Thrace. The emperor,
receiving intelligence of this treachery, returned with
incredible expedition, cut great numbers of them in
pieces, and obliged the rest to submit to what terms he
was pleased to impose.
Constantine seems to have been a prince very highly
respected, even by far distant nations. In 333, ac¬
cording to Eusebius, ambassadors arrived at Constanti¬
nople from the Blemyes, Indians, Ethiopians, and Per¬
sians, courting his friendship. They were received in
a most obliging manner ; and learning from the ambas¬
sadors of Sapor king of Persia, that there were great
numbers of Christians in their master’s dominions,
Constantine wrote a letter in their behalf to the Per¬
sian monarch.
Next year, the Sarmatians being again attacked by
the Goths, found themselves obliged to set at liberty
and arm their slaves against them. By this means
they indeed overcame the Goths : but the victorious
slaves turning their arms against their masters, drove
He takes a them out of the country. This misfortune obliged
rni.nhpr nt t[ien^ to t|]e numijer 0f 300,000, to apply for relief to
the Roman emperor, who incorporated with his le¬
gions such as were capable of service j and gave settle¬
ments to the rest in Thrace, Scythia, Macedon, and
Italy. This was the last remarkable action of Con¬
stantine the Great. He died on May i j. 33^ haying
3
and the
Sarmaiians,
.4
Is highly
respected.
number of
Sarmatians
into his
anry.
divided the empire among his children and nephews, constg
in the following manner. Constantine his eldest son, tinopolii,
had Gaul, Spain, and Britain : Constantius, the se- histoi
cond, had Asia, Syria, and Egypt j and Constans, the ^~~sr 1
youngest, Illyricum, Italy, and Africa. To his ne-His(,6
phew Dalmatius, he gave Thrace, Macedon, and and di^ n
Achaia; and to King Annibalianus, his other nephew, of the e
Armenia Minor, Pontus, Cappadocia, and the city ofpke.
Caesarea, which he desired might be the capital of his
kingdom.
After the death of Constantine, the army and senate All his i ]
proclaimed his three sons emperors, without taking any lationsi •.
notice of his two nephews, who were soon after murder-^erei^£: j
ed, with Julius Constantius the late emperor’s brother,
and all their friends and adherents. Thus the family andt^
of Constantine was at once reduced to his three sons,nephew; 1
and two nephews Gallus and Julian, the sons of Julius
Constantius ; and of these the former owed his life to a
malady, from which no one thought he could recover $
and the latter to his infancy, being then at most about
seven years of age. The three brothers divided among
themselves the dominions of the deceased princes j but
did not long agree together. In 340, Constantine ha- s
ving in vain solicited Constans to yield part of Italy Constai
to him, raised a considerable army j and under pretence bne jn*J I
of marching to the assistance of his brother Constan-^
tius, who was then at war with the Persians, made0fCon.il
himself master of several places in Italy. Hereupon stans.
Constans detached part of his army against him ; and
Constantine, being drawn into an ambuscade near A- p
quileia, was cut off with his whole forces. His body Is defea t
was thrown into the river Ansa ; but being afterwards an<G^
discovered, was sent to Constantinople, and interred
there near the tomb of his father. J0
. By the defeat and death of his brother, Constans Cohstai
remained sole master of all the western part of the sole ma r
empire, in the quiet possession of which he continued
till the year 350. This year Magnentius, the son ofM ”
one Magnus, a native of Germany, finding Constans t;ug rev 8
despised by the army on account of his indolence and against
inactivity, resolved to murder him, and setup for him-hi®,
self. Having found means to gain over the chief
officers of the army to his designs, he seized on the
imperial palace at Autun, and distributed among the
populace what sums he found there j which induced not
only the city, but the neighbouring country, to espouse
bis cause. But Constans being informed of what had
passed, and finding himself unable to resist the usurper,
fled towards Spain. He was overtaken, however, byconsta
Gaiso, whom Magnentius bad sent after him with a murder
chosen body of troops, and despatched with many
wounds, at Helena, a small village situated near the
foot of the Pyrenees.
Thus Constantins acquired a right to the whole
Roman empire ; though one-half of it was seized by
Magnentius after the murder of Constans. The former
had been engaged in a war with the Persians, in
which little advantage was gained on either side ; but
the Persians now giving no more disturbance, the em¬
peror marched against the usurpers in the west. Be¬
sides Magnentius, there were at that time two other j,
pretenders to the western empire. Veteranio, general Three e'
of the foot in Pannonia, had, on the first news of the tender 0
death of Constans, caused himself to be proclaimed^®en
emperor by the legions under his command. He was
a
CON [S7i] CO
nstan- a native of Upper Maesia, and advanced in years when against Magnentius without delay.
but so illiterate, that he
N
)po!itan he usurped the sovereignty ;
istory. tiien fi,st learned to read. The third pretender was
Flavius Popilius Nepotianus, son of Eutropia, the sis¬
ter of Constantine the Great. Having assembled a
company of gladiators and men of desperate fortunes,
he assumed the purple on the 3d of June 350, and in
that attire presented himself before the gates of Rome.
The prefect Anicetus, who commanded there for Mag¬
nentius, sallied out against him with a body of Ro-
14 mans, who were soon driven back into the city. Soon
potianusafter Nepotianus made himself master of the city it-
keshim-8ei^ which he filled with blood and slaughter. Mag-
tloine^ nent'us being informed of what had happened, sent
against this new competitor his chief favourite and
prime minister Marcellinus. Nepotianus received him
with great resolution $ a bloody battle ensued between
the soldiers of Magnentius and the Romans who had
espoused the cause of Nepotianus j but the latter being
betrayed by a senator, named Heraclitus, his men were
;s de- put to flight, and he himself killed, after having enjoy-
tedand ed the sovereignty only 28 days. Marcellinus ordered
kd* his head to be carried on the point of a lance through
the principal streets of the city •, put to death all those
who had declared for him } and under pretence of pre-
16 venting disturbances, commanded a general massacre
rannyof of all the relations of Constantine. Soon after, Mag-
ignea- nentius himself came to Rome, to make the necessary
preparations for resisting Constantins, who was exert¬
ing himself to the utmost in order to revenge the
death of his brother. In the city he behaved most
tyrannically, putting to death many persons of dis¬
tinction, in order to seize their estates j and obliged
the rest to contribute half of what they were worth
towards the expence of the war. Having by this
means raised great sums, he assembled a mighty arpiy
composed of Romans, Germans, Gauls, Franks, Bri¬
tons, Spaniards, &c. At the same time, however,
dreading the uncertain issues of war, he dispatched
ambassadors to Constantius with proposals of accom¬
modation. Constantius set out from Antioch about the
beginning of autumn ; and passing through Constanti¬
nople, arrived at Heraclea, where he was met by the
deputies from Magnentius, and others from Veteranio,
who had agreed to support each other in case the em¬
peror would hearken to no terms. The deputies of
Magnentius proposed in his name a match between him
and Constantia, or rather Constantina, the sister of
Constantius, and widow of Annibalianus ; offering, at
the same time, to Constantius the sister of Magnentius.
At first the emperor would hearken to no terms ; but
afterwards, that he might not have to oppose two ene¬
mies at once, concluded a separate treaty with Vetera¬
nio, by which he agreed to take him for his partner
in the empire. But w’hen Veteranio ascended the tri¬
bunal along w'ith Constantius, the soldiers pulled him
down from thence, crying out, That they would ac¬
knowledge no other emperor than Constantius alone.
On this Veteranio threw himself at the emperor’s feet,
and implored his mercy. Constantius received him
with great kindness, and sent him to Prusa in Bithy-
nia, where he allowed him a maintenance suitable to
his quality.
Constantius, now master of all Ulyricum, and of
jnstthe the army commanded by Veteranio, resolved to march
:r«ians. J J ’
nds pro
sals of
ace to
nstau-
i sent
In the mean time, Constan-
however, on advice that the Persians were preparing tinopolitaa
to invade the eastern provinces, he married his sister bistory. ^
Constantina to his cousin-german Gallus ; created
him Caesar on the 15th of March ; and allotted him
for his share not only all the east, but likewise
Thrace and Constantinople. About the same time
Magnentius gave the title of Caesar to his brother
Decentins, whom he dispatched into Gaul to defend
that country against the barbarians who had invaded 19
it $ for Constantius had not only stirred up the Franks ^0Ilstant'11*
and Saxons to break into that province, by promising^
to relinquish to them all the places they should con-jnva(]e
quer, but had sent them large supplies of men and Gaul,
arms for that purpose. On this encouragement the
barbarians invaded Gaul with a mighty army, over¬
threw Decentius in a pitched battle, committed every¬
where dreadful ravages, and reduced the country to
a most deplorable situation. In the mean time Mag¬
nentius having assembled a numerous army, left Italy,
and crossing the Alps, advanced into the plains of
Pannonia, where Constantius, whose main strength
consisted in cavalry, was waiting for him. Magnen¬
tius hearing that his competitor was encamped at a
small distance, invited him by a messenger to the ex¬
tensive plains of Sctscia on the Save, there to decide ao
which of them had the best title to the empire. This defeated
challenge was by Constantius received with great joy
but as his troops marched towards Sciscia in disorder,
they fell into an ambuscade, and were put to flight
with great slaughter. With this success, Magnentius
was so elated, that he rejected all terms of peace, which
were now offered by Constantius; but after some time, 21
a general engagement ensued at Mursa, in which Mag-^aS“en"
nentius was entirely defeated, with the loss of 24,000 feate(j *at
men. Constantius, though victor, is said to have lost Mursa.
30,000, which seems improbable. All authors, how- 22
ever, agree, that the battle at Mursa proved fatal to T^us battle
the western empire, and greatly contributed to ;tsfatal to ^ie
speedy decline.
After his defeat at Mursa, Magnentius retired into
Italy, where he recruited his shattered forces as well
as he could. But the beginning of the following year,
352, Constantius, having assembled bis troops, surpri¬
sed and took a strong castle on the Julian Alps, belong¬
ing to Magnentius, without the loss of a man. After
this the emperor advanced in order to force the rest;
upon which Magnentius was struck with such terror,
that he immediately abandoned Aquileia, and ordered
the troops that guarded the other passes of the Alps to
follow him. Thus Constantius entering Italy without
opposition, made himself master of Aquileia. From
thence he advanced to Pavia, where Magnentius gain¬
ed a considerable advantage over him. Notwith¬
standing this loss, however, Constantius reduced the
whole country bordering on the Po, and Magnentius’s
men deserted to him in whole troops, delivering up
to him the places they had garrisoned ; by which the
tyrant was so disheartened, that he left Italy, and retir¬
ed with all his forces into Gaul. Soon after this, A-
frica, Sicily, and Spain, declared for Constantius ; upon
which Msgnentius sent a senator, and after him some
bishops, to treat of a peace ; but the emperor treated
the senator as a spy, and sent back the bishops with¬
out any answer. Magnentius now finding his affairs
4 C 2 desperate,
empire.
CON t 572 ] CON
Constan-
tinopolitan
history.
23
Magnen-
tius at¬
tempts to
get Callus
murdered.
24
Magnen-
tius defeat¬
ed a second
time; kills
all his fa¬
mily and
himself.
desperate, and that there were no hopes of pardon, re¬
cruited his army in the best manner he could, and
dispatched an assassin into the east to murder Gallus
Caesar ; hoping that his death would oblige the empe¬
ror to withdraw his forces from Gaul, and march in
person to the defence of the eastern provinces, which
were threatened by the Persians. The assassin gained
over some of Gallus’s guards ; but the plot being disco¬
vered before it could be put in execution, they were all
seized and executed as traitors.
In 353, the war against Magnentius was carried on
with more vigour than, ever, and at last happily ended
by a battle fought in the higher Dauphiny. Magnen¬
tius, being defeated, took shelter in Lyons ; but the
few soldiers who attended him, despairing of any fur¬
ther success, resolved to purchase tire emperor’s favour
by delivering up to him his rival, the author of so cala¬
mitous a war. Accordingly they surrounded the house
where he lodged ; upon which the tyrant, in despair,
slew with his own hand his mother, his brother Leside-
rius whom he had created Csesar, and such of his friends
and relations as were with him : and then fixing his
sword in a wall, threw himself upon it, in order to
avoid a more shameful death which he had reason to
apprehend.
After the death of Magnentius, his brother Decen-
tius Caesar, who was marching to his assistance, and
had already reached Sens, finding himself surrounded
on all sides by the emperor’s foi'ces, chose rather to
25 strangle himself than fall alive into the hands of his
Constantmsenemies. Thus Constantins was left sole master of
of the ern61 ^ ^oman emP*rei His panegyrists tell us, that after
})ire_ his victory he behaved with the greatest humanity,
forgiving and receiving into favour his greatest ene¬
mies j but other historians differ considerably from
them, and tell us that Constantins now became haugh-
ty, imperious, and cruel, of which many instances are
26 given.
Many grie- rI his year the empire was subjected to very grie-
ndtiesala" V0US calamit*es* Gaul was ravaged by the barbarians
beyond the Rhine, and the disbanded troops of Mag¬
nentius. At Rome, the populace rose on account of
a scarcity of provisions. In Asia, the Isaurian rob¬
bers overran Lycaonia and Pamphylia ; and even laid
siege to Seleucia, a city of great strength j which, how¬
ever, they were not able to make themselves masters
of. At the same time the Saracens committed dread¬
ful ravages in Mesopotamia, the Persians also invaded
the province of Anthemusia on the Euphrates. But
the eastern provinces were not so much harassed by
the barbarians as by Gallus Caesar himself, who ought
to have protected them. That prince was naturally
of a cruel, haughty, and tyrannical disposition ; but
being elated with his successes against the Persians, he
27 at last behaved more like a tyrant and a madman than
o/Slus. a governor- His natural cruelty is said to have been
heightened by the instigations of his wife Constantina,
who is by Ammianus styled the Megcera, or “ fury of
her sexand he adds, that her ambition was equal to
her cruelty. Thus all the provinces and cities in the
east were filled with blood and slaughter. No man,
however innocent, was sure to live or enjoy his estate
a whole day j for Gallus’s temper being equally suspi¬
cious and cruel, those who had any private enemies
took care to accuse them of crimes against the state,
and with Gallus it was the same thing to be accused Conshr
and condemned. At last the emperor being informed tinopoliti
from all quarters of the evil conduct of his brother-in- history
law, and being at the same time told that he aspired ’'’""‘V"'
to the sovereignty, resolved upon his ruin. For this
end he wrote letters to Gallus and Constantina, invit¬
ing them both into Italy. Though they had both suf¬
ficient reason to fear the worst, yet they durst not
venture to disobey the emperor’s express command.
Constantina, who was well acquainted with her bro¬
ther’s temper, and hoped to pacify him by her artful
insinuations, set out first, leaving Gallus at Antioch:
but she had scarce entered the province of Bithynia,
when she was seized with a fever which put an end
to her life. Gallus now despairing of being able to
appease his sovereign, thought of openly revolting j
but most of his friends deserted him on account of his
inconstant and cruel temper, so that he was at last ob¬
liged to submit to the pleasure of Constantins. He ad¬
vanced, therefore, according to his orders : but at Pe-
tavium was arrested, and stripped of all the ensigns of
his dignity. From thence he was carried to Fianona,
now FianonC) in Dalmatia, where he was examined by
two of his most inveterate enemies. He confessed
most of the crimes laid to his charge ; but urged as an 28
excuse the evil counsels of his wife Constantina. The He is pm
emperor, provoked at this plea which reflected on hist0 death,
sister, and instigated by the enemies of Gallus, signed
a warrant for his execution, which was performed ac¬
cordingly. _
All this time the emperor had been engaged in a War wit
war with the Germans : he bad marched against them the Ger-
in person : and though he gained an advantage, theman8,
barbarians thought proper to make peace with him.
This, however, was but short lived. No sooner was
the Roman army withdrawn, than they began to make
new inroads into the empire. Against them Con-
stantius despatched Arbetio with the flower of the
army ; but he fell into an ambuscade, and was put to
flight with the loss of a great number of men. This
loss, however, was soon retrieved by the valour of
Arinthseus, who became famous in the reign of Va-
lens, and of two other officers, who falling upon the
Germans, without waiting the orders of their general,
put them to flight, and obliged them to leave the Romair
territories.
The tranquillity of the empire, which ensued on
this repulse of the Germans, was soon interrupted by
a pretended conspiracy, by which in the end a true
one was produced. Sylvanus, a leading man among
the Franks, commanded in Gaul, and had there per¬
formed great exploits against the barbarians. He had
been raised to this post by Arbetio j but only with a ^
design to remove him from the emperor’s presence, Sylvanu
in order to accomplish his ruin, which he didin the betrayed
following manner : One T)ijnamesr keeper of the empe-Albet10'
ror’s mules, leaving Gaul, begged of Sylvanus letters
of recommendation to his friends at court j which
being granted, the traitor erased all but the subscrip¬
tion. He then inserted directions to the friends of
Sylvanus for the carrying on a conspiracy j and de¬
livering these forged letters to the prefect Lampi- 31
dius, they were by him shown to the emperor. Thus Heist'
Sylvanus was forced to revolt, and cause himself to bece<^t0
proclaimed emperor by the troops under his command.
In
CON [ 573 ] CON
C tan- In the mean time, however, Dynames having thought
tin ditan proper to forge another letter, the fraud was disco-
ory’ yered, and an inquiry set on foot, which brought to
' light the whole matter. Sylvanus was now declared
innocent, and letters sent to him by the emperor con¬
firming him in his post 5 but these were scarce gone,
when certain news arrived at" the court of Sylvanus
having revolted, and caused himself be proclaimed em¬
peror. Constantius, thunderstruck at this news, dis¬
patched against him Ursicinus, an officer of great in¬
tegrity, as well as valour and experience in war ; who
5JS forgetting his former character, pretended to be Syl-
I urder- vanus’s friend, and thus found means to cut him off by
* treachery.
( hiava-' ^,e barbarians, who had hitherto been kept quiet
^ bythe by the brave Sylvanus, no sooner heard of his death,
t arians. than they broke into Gaul with greater fury than
ever. They took and pillaged above forty cities, and
among the rest Cologne, which they levelled with the
ground. At the same time the Quadi and Sarma-
tians entering Pannonia, destroyed every thing with
fire and sword. The Persians also, taking advantage
of the absence of Ursicinus, overran, without opposi¬
tion, Armenia and Mesopotamia j Prosper and Mau-
sonianus, who had succeeded that brave commander in
the government of the east, being more intent upon
pillaging than defending the provinces committed to
their care. Constantius not thinking it advisable to
leave Italy himself, resolved at last to raise his cousin
34 Julian, the brother of Gallus, to the dignity of Caesar.
^ Julian seems to have been a man of very extraordinary
;ar4 talents; for though before this time he bad been en¬
tirely buried in obscurity, and conversed only with
books, no sooner was he put at the head of an army
than he behaved with the same bravery, conduct, and
experience, as if he had been all his life bred up to the
art of war. He was appointed governor of Gaul j but
before he set out, Constantius gave him in marriage
his sister Helena, and made him many valuable presents.
At the same time, however, the jealous emperor great¬
ly limited his authority j gave him written instructions
how to behave ; ordered the generals who served under
him to watch all his actions no less than those of the
enemy ; and strictly enjoined Julian himself not to give
any largesses to the soldiery.
Julian set out from Milan on the first of December
355, the emperor himself accompanying him as far as
Pavia, from whence he pursued his journey to the Alps,
attended only by 360 soldiers. On his arrival at Turin
he was first acquainted with the loss of Cologne, which
had been kept concealed from the emperor. He arriv¬
ed at Vienna before the end of the year, and was re¬
ceived by the people of that city and the neighbourhood
3$ with extraordinary joy.
e sets out In 356, the barbarians besieged ; to relieve
Gaul, which place, Julian marched with what forces he
could raise. When he came there, he found the siege
raised : on which he went in pursuit of the barbarians
to Auxerre, crossing with no small danger thick woods
and forests, from Auxerre to Troies. On his march
he was surrounded on all sides by the barbarians, who
moved about the country in great bodies ; but he put
36 them to flight with a handful of men, cut great num-
efeats the hers of them in pieces, and took some prisoners. From
‘rbarians. Troies he hastened to Rheims, where the main body
of the army, commanded by Marcellus, waited his Constan-
arrival. Leaving Rheims, he took his route towards tinopolitan
Decempagi, now Dieu%e, on the Seille in Lorrain, history-
with a design to oppose the Germans who were busy *
in ravaging that province. But the enemy attacking
his rear unexpectedly, would have cut off two legions,
had not the rest of the army, alarmed at the sudden
noise, turned back to their assistance. A few days
afterwards he defeated the Germans, though with
great loss to his own army j the victory, however,
opened him a way to Cologne. This city he found
abandoned by the barbarians. They had neglected to
fortify it : but Julian commanded the ancient forti- 37
fications to be repaired with all possible exPedition,^t1-g|;r®_l^e
and the houses to be rebuilt j after which he retired {jons of Cc-
to Sens, and there took up his winter-quarters. Thislogne.
year also Constantius entered Germany on the side of
Rhaetia, laid waste the country far and wide; and
obliged the barbarians to sue for peace, which was 38
readily granted. The same year he enacted two laws j Idolatry de-
by one of which it was declared capital to sacrifice, orclared caP*"
pay any kind of worship, to idols j the other, granting
the effects of condemned persons to belong to thejr chil-* an 1US’
dren and relations within the third degree, except in
cases of magic and treason 5 but this last one he revok¬
ed two years after.
In the beginning of the year 35*7, the barbarians be¬
sieged Julian a whole month in Sens; Marcellus, the
commander in chief, never once offering to assist him.
Julian, however, so valiantly defended himself with
the few forces he had, that the barbarians at last re¬
tired. After this, Constantius declared Julian com¬
mander in chief of all the forces in Gaul ; appointing
under him one Severus, an officer of great experience,
and of a quite different disposition from Marcellus.
On his arrival in Gaul, Julian received him with great
joy, raised new troops, and supplied them with arms
which he luckily found in an old arsenal. The em¬
peror, resolving at all events to put a stop to the ter¬
rible devastations committed by the barbarous nations,
chiefly by the Alemans, wrote to Julian to march di¬
rectly against them. At the same time he sent Bar-
batio, who had been appointed general in place of Syl¬
vanus, with a body of 25 or 30,000 men, out of Italy,
in order to inclose the enemy between two armies.
The Leti, however, a German nation, passing between
the armies, advanced as far as Lyons, hoping to sur¬
prise that wealthy city ; but meeting with a warmer
reception than they expected, contented themselves
with ravaging the country all round it. On the first
notice of this expedition, Julian detached strong par¬
ties to guard the passages through which he knew the
barbarians must return. Thus they were all cut off 39
except those who marched near the camp of Barbatio ; ^1C
who was sq far from cutting off their retreat, that he j“jjan by
complained by a letter to Constantius of some officers
for attempting it. These officers, among whom was
Vaientinian, afterwards emperor of the West, were,
by the order of Constantius, cashiered for their dis¬
obedience. The other barbarians either fortified them¬
selves in the countries which they had seized, stop¬
ping up all the avenues with huge trees, or took shel¬
ter in the islands formed by the Rhine. Julian re¬
solved first to attack the latter; and with this view
demanded some boats of Barbatio: but he, instead of
complying
CON [ 574 ] CON
40
He forces
the barba¬
rians to a
41
Entirely
defeats
them at
Strasburg,
Coiman- complying with his just request, immediately burnt all
tiuopolitan his boats, as he did on another occasion the provisions
history, uhld, j,atJ been sent to both armies, after he had plen-
~'v tifully supplied his own. Julian, not in the least dis¬
heartened with his unaccountable conduct, persuaded
some of the most resolute of his men to wrade over
to one of the islands. Here they killed all the Ger¬
mans who had taken shelter in it. They then seized
bandon the their boats, and pursued the slaughter in several other
Wands °t islands, till the enemy abandoned them all, and retired
e 1 nile’ to their respective countries with their wives and
what booty they could carry. On their departure,
Barbatio attempted to lay a bridge of boats over the
Rhine ; but the enemy, apprised of his intention,
threw a great number of huge trees into the river,
which being carried by the stream against the boats,
sunk several of them, and parted the rest. The Ro¬
man general then thought proper to retire, but the
barbarians falling unexpectedly upon him in his re¬
treat, cut great numbers of his men in pieces, took
most of his baggage, laid waste the neighbouring coun¬
try, and returned in triumph loaded with booty. E-
lated with this success, they assembled in great num¬
bers under the command of Chnodomarius, a prince of
great renown among them, and six other kings. They
encamped in the neighbourhood of Strasburg. Here
they were encountered by Julian ; who put them to
flight, with the loss of 6000 or 8000 of their men slain
in the field, and a vastly greater number drowned in
the river; while Julian himself lost only 243 private
men and four tribunes. In this action Chnodomarius
w'as taken, and sent to Rome, where he soon after
died.
After the battle, Julian advanced with all his army
t° Mayence, where he built a bridge over the Rhine
He enters and entered Germany, having with difficulty prevailed
aml'con^ uPon ^*s ai’my to follow him. Here he ravaged the
eludes a country till the time of the autumnal equinox, when
truce with heiog prevented by snow from advancing any further,
the barba- he began to repair the fort of Trajan, by some suppo-
rians. sed to be the castle of Cromburgh, about three or four
leagues from Frankfort. The barbarians were now
so much alarmed, that they sent deputies to treat of a
peace; but this Julian refused to grant them upon
any terms. He consented, however, to a truce for
seven months, upon their promising to store with provi-
43 sions the fort he was building in their country. This
Remark- year Constantius made some remarkable laws. By one
able laws of he punished with confiscation such as renounced the
Christian for the Jewish religion; and by another, ad¬
dressed to Felix bishop of Rome, he exempted all mer¬
chandising ecclesiastics, with their wives, children, and
domestics, from every imposition ordinary and extraor¬
dinary : supposing the gains they made to be applied
44 by them to the relief of the poor.
Julian con- In 358, as soon as the season was fit for action, Ju-
qners the lian took the field against the Franks, with a design to
£ ranks. conquer them before the truce he had concluded with
the Alemans was expired. The Franks were at that
time divided into several tribes, the most powerful of
which were the Salii and Chamavi. The first of these
sent deputies, intreating that he would suffer them to
remain as friends to the empire in the country they
possessed. But Julian, without paying any regard to
this deputation, entered their country, and obliged
42
them to submit; after which lie allotted them lands CoRstan
in Gaul, incorporating great numbers of them into his tinopoliu j
cavalry. He next marched against the Chamavi, whom history,
he defeated and obliged to retire beyond the Rhine. .
Afterwards he rebuilt three forts on the river Meuse,
which had been destroyed by the barbarians ; but want¬
ing provisions in a country so often ravaged, he order¬
ed 600 or 8co vessels to be built in Britain for the con¬
veying corn from thence into Gaul. Julian continued
in the country of the Chamavi till the expiration of
his truce with the Alemans ; and then laying a bridge
of boats over the Rhine, he entered their country, put¬
ting all to fire and sword. At last two of their kings
came in person to him to sue for peace; which Julian Grant. *
granted, upon their promising to set at liberty the cap-peace to
tives they had taken; to supply a certain quantity oftlleGer-
corn when required; and to furnish wood, iron, andnians‘
carriages, for repairing the cities they had ruined. The
prisoners whom he at this time released, amounted to
upwards of 20,000.
Soon after the vernal equinox of this year, 358,Expe4ditioi
Constantius marched in person against the Quadi and of Constai *
Sarmatians, whose country lay beyond the Danube.tlus ®Saini I
Having crossed that river on a bridge of boats, he laid80"16®*1'
waste the territories of the Sarmatians; who thereupon t;ons>
came in great numbers, together with the Quadi, pre¬
tending to sue for peace. Their true design was to
surprise the Romans ; but the latter suspecting it, fell
upon them sword in hand, and cut them all in pieces.
This obliged the rest to sue for peace in good earnest,
which was granted on the delivery of hostages. The
emperor then marched against the Limtgantes, that is,
the slaves who, in 334» bad driven the Sarmatians out
of their country, and seized it for themselves *. They* See No. '
used the same artifice as the Sarmatians and Quadi had
done, coming in great numbers under pretence of sub¬
mitting, but prepared to fall upon him unexpectedly
if opportunity oflered. The emperor, observing their
surly looks, and distrusting them, caused his troops sur¬
round them insensibly while he was speaking. The Li-
migantes then displeased with the conditions he oflered
them, laid their hands on their swords: on which
they were attacked by the Roman soldiers. Finding
it impossible to make their escape, they made with
great fury towards the tribunal, but were repulsed by
the guards forming themselves into a wedge, and every 47
one of them cut in pieces. After this, the emperorHe
ravaged their country to such a degree, that they weretlietLimi
in the end obliged to submit to the only condition he8
thought proper to allow them, which was to quit their
country, and retire to a more distant place. The coun¬
try was then restored to the Sarmatians, who were its
original possessors. 4*
Jhis year is also remarkable for a very haughty Haughty
embassy from Sapor king of Persia. The ambassa-^m*)a^ c I
dor named Norses, brought a letter, in which the Per-^ 0fP
sian monarch styled himself “king of kings, brother Persia,
of the sun and moon,” &c. He acquainted the em¬
peror, that he might lawfully insist on having all the
countries beyond the river Strymon in Macedon deli¬
vered up to him ; hut lest his demands should seem
unreasonable, he would be contented with Armenia
and Mesopotamia, which had been most unjustly taken
from his grandfather Narses. He added, that unless
justice was done him, he was resolved to assert his
right
CON [ 575 ] CON
nstan- right by force of arras. This letter was presented to
[>olitaii Constantins wrapped up in a piece of white silk ; but
story. ],e? without entering into any negotiation with the
ambassador, wrote a letter to Sapor, in which he told
him, that as he had maintained the Roman dominions
in their full extent, when he was possessed only of the
east, he could not suffer them to be curtailed now
when he was master of the whole empire. In a few
days, however, he sent another letter, with rich pre¬
sents j being very desirous at least to put off the war
till he had secured the northern provinces against the
incursions of the barbarians, that he might then employ
all the forces of the empire against so formidable an
enemy. This embassy proved unsuccessful, as did al¬
so another which was sent soon after. The last am¬
bassadors were imprisoned as spies, but afterwards dis-
iw^a- missetl unhurt. By a law of Constantius dated in 358,
inslma-all magicians, augurs, astrologers, and pretenders to
ans,5tc. the art of divination, were declared enemies to man¬
kind $ and such of them as were found in the court
either of the emperor or of Julian, he commanded to
be put to the torture, and specified what torments they
were to undergo.
In 359, Julian continued his endeavours for reliev¬
ing the province of Gaul, which had suffered so much
from the incursions of the barbarians. He erected
magazines in different places, visited the cities which
had suffered most, and gave orders for repairing their
walls and fortifications properly. He then crossed the
Rhine, and pursued the war in Germany with great
(■0 success, insomuch that the barbarians submitted to such
achery terms as he pleased to impose. In the mean time, the
lie Li- emperor, having received intelligence that the Limi-
antes. gantes had quitted the country in which he had placed
them, hastened to the banks of the Danube, in order
to prevent their entering Pannonia. On his arrival
he sent deputies, desiring to know what had induced
them to abandon the country which had been allotted
them. The Limigantes answered, in appearance with
the greatest submission imaginable, that they were will¬
ing to live as true subjects of the empire in any other
place j but that the country he had allotted them was
quite uninhabitable, as they could demonstrate if they
were but allowed to cross the river, and lay their com¬
plaints before him. This request was granted j but
while he ascended his tribunal, the barbarians unex¬
pectedly fell upon his guards sword in hand, killed
several of them, and the emperor with difficulty saved
51 himself by flight. The rest of the troops, however,
cuUff Soon t0°k" ^ie a^arm» an^ surrounding the Limigantes,
‘ cut them all oft’ to a man. This year Constantius in-
e hea- stituted a court of inquisition against all those who
oscruel-consulted heathen oracles. Paulus Catena, a noted
^lse’ and cruel informer, was despatched into the east to
prosecute them j and Modestus, then count of the east,
and equally remarkable for his cruelty, was appointed
judge. His tribunal was erected at Scythopolis in Pa¬
lestine, whither persons of both sexes, and of every rank
and condition, were daily dragged in crowds from all
parts, and either confined in dungeons, or torn in pieces
in a most cruel and barbarous manner by racks, or pub-
^ licly executed.
: Per- In 359, Sapor king of Persia began hostilities, be-
'P begin ing encouraged thereto by the absence of Ursicinus,
1 lties* whom the emperor had recalled, and appointed in his
room one Sabinianus, a person very unfit for such an Constan-
office. During this campaign, however, he made tinopolitan
very little progress 5 having only taken two Roman hi>ton. ^
forts, and destroyed the city of Amida, the siege of
which is said to have cost him 30,000 men. On the
first news of the Persian invasion, Constantius had
thought proper to send Ursicinus into the east ; but his
enemies prevented him from receiving the supplies
necessary for carrying on the war ; so that he found
it impossible to take any effectual means for stopping
the progress of the Persians. On his return, he was
unexpectedly charged with the loss of Amida, and all
the disasters that had happened during the campaign.
Two judges were appointed to inquire into his con¬
duct } but they, being creatures of his enemies, left
the matter doubtful. On this Ursicinus was so much
exasperated, that he appealed to the emperor, and in
the heat of passion let fall some unguarded expres¬
sions, which being immediately carried to the em¬
peror, the general was deprived of all his employ¬
ments. ^
Constantius resolved to march next year in person Constantins
against the Persians j but in the mean time dreading marches ia
to encounter so formidable an enemy, he applied him- Pe‘'son a-
self wholly to the assembling of a mighty army, by^”^1
which he might be able fully to cope with them. For
this purpose he wrote to Julian to send him part of
his forces, without considering that by so doing he
left the province of Gaul exposed to the ravages of
the barbarians. Julian resolved immediately to com¬
ply with the emperor’s orders j but at the same time
to abdicate the dignity of Caesar, that he might not
be blamed for the loss of the province. Accordingly
he suffered the best soldiers to be draughted out of his ^
army. They were, however, very unwilling to leave Julian pro-
him, and at last proclaimed him emperor. Whether c*a‘med
this was done absolutely against Julian’s consent or nottnd)eior*
is uncertain j but he wrote to the emperor, and persuad¬
ed the whole army also to send a letter along with his,
in which they acquainted Constantius with what had
happened, and entreated him to acknowledge Julian as
his partner in the empire. But this was positively re¬
fused by Constantius, who began to prepare for war.
Julian then, designing to he before-hand with the em¬
peror, caused bis troops to take an oath of allegiance to
himself, and with surprising expedition made himself
master of the whole country of Ulyricum, and the
important pass separating that country from Thrace.
Constantius was thunderstruck with this news ; but
hearing that the Persians had retired, he marched
with all his force against his competitor. On his ar¬
rival at Tarsus in Cilicia, he was seized with a feverish
distemper, occasioned chiefly by the uneasiness and per¬
plexity of his mind. He pursued his march, however, 1S
to Mosucrene, a place on the borders of Cilicia, at themarcjles a_
foot of Mount Taurus. Here he was obliged to stop gainst him,
by the violence of his disorder, which increased every but dies,
day, and at last carried him off on the 13th of Novem¬
ber 361, in the 45th year of his age.
By the death of Constantius, Julian now became jujiaa7J.c_
master of the whole Roman empire without a rival, stores the
He had been educated in the Christian religion j but heathen re.
secretly apostatized from it long before, and as soon as hgi°n»
he saw himself master of Illyricum, openly avowed
his apostasy, and caused the temples of the gods to be
opened.
S3
Condemns
some of the
late empe¬
ror’s mini¬
sters.
C O' N [ 576
Constan- opened. When the messengers arrived at Naissus in
tinopolitan Illyricum, where he then was, to acquaint him with
history, j^g beJng so]e master of the empire, they found him
v '" consulting the entrails of victims concerning the event
of his journey. As the omens were uncertain, he was
at that time very much embarrassed and perplexed ;
but the arrival of the messengers put an end to all his
fears, and he immediately set out for Constantinople.
At Heraclea he was met by almost all the inhabitants
of this metropolis, into which he made his public en¬
try on the nth of December 361, being attended by
the whole senate in a body, by all the magistrates, and
by the nobility magnificently dressed, every one testi¬
fying the utmost joy at seeing such a promising young
prince raised to the empire without bloodshed. He was
again declared emperor by the senate of Constantinople j
and as soon as that ceremony was over, he caused
the obsequies of Constantins to be performed with great
pomp.
The firrt care of Julian was to inquire into the con¬
duct of the late emperor’s ministers. Several of these
having been found guilty of enormous crimes, were
condemned and executed ; particularly the noted in¬
former Paulus Catena, and another named Apodamus,
were sentenced to be burnt alive. Along with these,
however, was put to death one Ursula, a man of un¬
exceptionable character, and to whom Julian him¬
self was highly indebted. He had been supplied
with money by Ursula, unknown to the emperor, at
the time when he was sent into Gaul with the title of
Caesar, but without the money necessary for the sup¬
port of that dignity. For what reason he was now
put to death, historians do not acquaint us. Julian
himself tells us, that he was executed without his know¬
ledge.
The emperor next set about reforming the court.
As the vast number of offices was in his time become
an intolerable burden, he discharged all those whom
he thought useless. He reduced, among the rest, the
officers called agentes in rebus, from 10,000 to 17 $
and discharged thousands of cooks, barbers, &c. who
by their large salaries drained the exchequer^. The
cunosi, whose office it was to inform the emperor of
what had passed in the diflerent provinces, were all
discharged, and that employment entirely suppressed.
rIhus he was enabled to ease the people of the heavy
taxes with which they were loaded : and this he did by
abating a fifth part of all taxes and imposts through¬
out the kingdom.
As to religious matters, Julian, as before observed,
was a Pagan, and immediately on his accession to the
“1C throne restored the heathen religion. He invited to
phers, ma- court tIie Philosophers, magicians, &c. from all parts •,
gicians,&c. nevertheless, he did not raise any persecution against
the Christians. On the contrary, he recalled from ba¬
nishment all the orthodox bishops who had been sent
into exile during the former reign j but with a de¬
sign, as is observed both by the Christian and Pagan
writers, to raise disturbances and sow dissensions in the
church.
As the Persians were now preparing to carry on
the war with vigour, Julian found himself under a
necessity of marching against them in person. But
before he set out, he enriched the city of Constanti¬
nople with many valuable gifts. He formed a large
3
3
CON
59
Reforms
the court,
60
6r
Marches
against the
Persians.
harbour to shelter the ships from the south wind, built Const,
a magnificent porch leading to it, and in another porch tinopoli
a stately library, in which he lodged all his books. In bhtoi
the month of May, A. D. 362, he set out for Antioch j U"'v'
and on the first of January renewed in that city the
sacrifices to Jupiter for the safety of the empire, which
had been so long omitted. During his stay in this city,
he continued his preparations for the Persian war, erect¬
ing magazines, making new levies, and above all con¬
sulting the oracles, aruspices, magicians, &c. The
oracles of Delphi, Delos, and Dodona, assured him of
victory. The aruspices, indeed, and most of his cour¬
tiers and officers, did all that lay in their power to
divert him from his intended expedition ; but the de¬
ceitful answers of the oracles and magicians, and the
desire of adding the Persian monarch to the many
kings he had already seen humbled at his feet, prevailed
over all other considerations. Many nations sent depu¬
ties to him, offering their assistance-, but these offers he
rejected, telling them that the Romans were to assist
their allies, but stood in no need of any assistance from
them. He likewise rejected, and in a very disobliging
manner, the offers of the Saracens j answering them,
when they complained of his stopping the pension paid
them by other emperors, that a warlike prince had steel,
but no gold 5 which they resenting, joined the Persians,
and continued faithful to them to the last. However,
he wrote to Arsaces king of Armenia, enjoining him to
keep his troops in readiness to execute the orders he
should soon transmit to him. ^
Having made the necessary preparations for so im-cross(;s.
portant an enterprise, Julian sent orders to his troops Euphn >
to cross the Euphrates, designing to enter the enemy’s
country before they had the least notice of his march }
for which purpose he had placed guards on all the
roads. From Antioch he proceeded to Litarba, a place
about 15 leagues distant, which he reached the same
day. From thence he went to Beraea, where he halted
a day, and exhorted the council to restore the worship
of the gods : but this exhortation, it seems, was com¬
plied with but by few. From Beraea he proceeded to
Batnae 5 and was better pleased with the inhabitants of
the latter, because they had, before his arrival, re¬
stored the worship of the gods. There he offered sa¬
crifices $ and having immolated a great number of vic¬
tims, he pursued the next day his journey to Hiera-
polis, the capital of the province of Euphratesiana,
which he reached on the 9th of March. Here he
lodged in the house of one for whom he had a par¬
ticular esteem, chiefly because neither Constantius nor
Gallus, who had both lodged in his house, had been
able to make him renounce the worship of his idols.
As he entered this city, 50 of his soldiers were killed
by the fall of a porch. He left Hierapolis on the 13th
of March j and having passed the Euphrates on abridge
of boats, came to Batnse a small city of Osrhoene,
about 10 leagues from Hierapolis j and here 50 more of
his soldiers were killed by the fall of a stack of straw.
From Batnse he proceeded to Carrhse $ where, in the
famous temple of the moon, it is said he sacrificed a
woman to that planet* 6;
While Julian continued in this city, he received ad-Invade
vice that a party of the enemies horse had broke intof*6^
the Roman territories. On this he resolved to leave
an army in Mesopotamia, to guard the frontiers of the
empire
CON
istan- empire on that side, while he advanced
politan into the heart of the Persian dominions. This army
story, consisted, according to some, of 20,000, according to
'r^’/ others, of 30,000 chosen troops. It was commanded
by Procopius, and Sebastian a famous Manichean who
had been governor of Egypt, and had persecuted there,
with the utmost cruelty, the orthodox Christians.
These two were to join, if possible, Arsaces king of
Armenia, to lay waste the fruitful plains of Media,
and meet the emperor in Assyria. To Arsaces Julian
himself wrote, but in the most disobliging manner ima¬
ginable, threatening to treat him as a rebel if he did
not execute, with the utmost punctuality, the orders
given him : and at the conclusion told him, that the
God he adored would not be able to screen him from
his indignation.
There were two roads leading from Carrhse to Per¬
sia ; the one to the left by Nisibis j the other to the
right through the province of Assyria, along the banks
of the Euphrates. Julian chose the latter, but caused
magazines to be erected on both roads 5 and, after
having viewed his army, set out on the 25th of March.
He passed the Abora, which separated the Roman and
Persian dominions, near its conflux with the Euphrates j
after which he broke down the bridge, that his troops
might not be tempted to desert, seeing they could not
return home. As he proceeded on his march, a soldier
and two horses were struck dead by a flash of lightning;
and a lion of an extraordinary size presenting himself to
the army, was in a moment dispatched by the soldiers
with a shower of darts. These omens occasioned great
disputes between the philosophers and aruspices: the
latter looking upon them as inauspicious, advised the
emperor to return ; but the former refuted their
arguments with others more agreeable to Julian’s
64 temper.
ys waste Having passed the Abora, Julian entered Assyria,
Syria. which he found very populous, and abounding with all
the necessaries of life; but he laid it waste far and near,
destroying the magazines and provisions which he could
not carry along with him; and thus he put it out of his
power to return the same way he came; a step which
was judged very impolitic. As he met with no army
in the field to oppose him, he advanced to the walls of
Ctesiphon, the metropolis of the Persian empire : hav¬
ing reduced all the strong holds that lay in his way.
Here, having caused the canal to be cleared, which
was formerly dug by Trajan between these two rivers,
he conveyed his fleet from the former to the latter. On
the banks of the Tigris he was opposed by the ene¬
my. But Julian passed that river in spite of their ut¬
most efforts, and drove them into the city with the loss
of a great number of their men, he himself, in the
66 mean time losing only 70 or 75.
gtns his Julian had now advanced so far into the enemy’s
«at. but country, that he found it necessary to think of a re-
treat, as it was impossible for him to winter in Per-
nisiong, sia. ror this reason he made no attempt on Ltesi-
phon, but began to march back along the banks ot
the Tigris, soon after he had passed that river. In
the mean time the king of Persia was assembling a
formidable army, with a design to fall upon the Ro¬
mans in their march ; but being desirous of putting an
end to so destructive a war, he sent very advantage¬
ous proposals of peace to Julian. These the Roman
Vol. VI. Part II. f
[ 577 ] CON
on the other emperor very imprudently rejected ; and soon after, Constan
«S
tances
Ctesi-
)Q.
deceived by treacherous guides, he quitted the river, tinopolitan
and entered into an unknown country totally laid waste , t
by the enemy; and where he was continually harassed
by strong parties, who in a manner surrounded his ar¬
my, and attacked him sometimes in the front, and
sometimes in the rear. A still worse step he was per¬
suaded to take by the treacherous guides already men¬
tioned : and this was to burn his fleet, lest it should fall
into the hands of the enemy. As soon as the fleet was
set on fire, the whole army cried out, that the emperor
was betrayed, and that the guides were traitors em¬
ployed by the enemy. Julian ordered them immedi¬
ately to be put to the rack, upon which they confessed
the treason ; but it was too late. The fleet was al¬
ready in flames ; they could by no means be extinguish¬
ed ; and no part was saved except 12 vessels, which
were designed to be made use of in the building of
bridges, and for this purpose were conveyed over land
in waggons.
The emperor thus finding himself in a strange coun¬
try, and his army greatly dispirited, called a council
of his chief officers, in which it was resolved to pro¬
ceed to Corduene, which lay south of Armenia, and
belonged to the Romans. With this view they had
not proceeded far, when they were met by the king
of Persia, at the head of a very numerous army, at¬
tended by his two sons, and all the principal nobility
of the kingdom. Several sharp encounters happened,
in which, though the Persians were always defeated,
yet the Romans reaped no advantages from their vic¬
tories, but were reduced to the last extremity for want 6y
of provisions. In one of these skirmishes, when the Is mortally
Romans were suddenly attacked, the emperor, eager to jV^ns^^eD
repulse the enemy, hastened to the field of battle attaok by
without his armour, when he received a mortal wound the Per-
by a dart, which, through his arm and side, pierced his »ians.
very liver. Of this wound be died the same night, the
26th of June 363, in the 32d year of his age, after
having reigned scarce 20 months from the time he be¬
came sole master of the Roman empire. 6S
As Julian had declined naming any successor, the^°.vl®;n
choice of a new emperor devolved on the army. They [beS gmp^rei
unanimously chose Jovian, a very able commander,
whose father had lately resigned the post of comes do-
mesticorum, in order to lead a retired life. The va¬
lour and experience of Jovian, however, were not
sufficient to extricate the Roman army from the diffi¬
culties in which they had been plunged by the impru¬
dence of his predecessor. The famine raged in the
camp to such a degree, that not a single man would
have been left alive, had not the Persians unexpected¬
ly sent proposals of peace. These were now received <59
with the utmost joy. A peace was concluded for 30 Concludes
years ; the terms of which were, that Jovian shoulda P®a®®e
restore to the Persians the fine provinces which had p*rsjanSj
been taken from them in the reign of Dioclesian, with
several castles, and the cities of Nisibis and Singara.
After the conclusion of the treaty, Jovian pursued his
march without molestation. When he arrived at An¬
tioch, he revoked all the laws that had been made in
the former reign against Christianity and in favour of
Paganism. He espoused also the cause of the orthodox
Christians against the Arians; and he recalled all those
who had been formerly banished, particularly Athana-
4 D sius,
CON
[ 578 ]
CON
71. .
Valentim-
ati chosen
emperor.
partner.
72
Procopius
reTolts.
Constan- sius, to whom he wrote a very ohliginp; letter, with
tinopolitan his own hand. It is generally believed also that Atha-
history. nasius, at the desire of Jovian, now composed the creed
' v which still goes by his name, and is subscribed by all
the bishops in Europe. But this emperor did not live
to make any great alterations, or even to visit his capi-
His death, tal as emperor ; for in his way to Constantinople he was
found dead in his bed, on the 16th or 17th of February
364, after he had lived 33 years, and reigned seven
months and 40 days.
After the death of Jovian, Valentinian was chosen
emperor. Immediately on his accession, the soldiers
mutinied, and with great clamour required him to
choosesya*c[10ose a partner in the sovereignty. Though he did
jells ior his o j
not instantly comply with this demand, yet in a few
days he chose his brother Valens for his partner ; and,
as the empire was threatened on all sides with an in¬
vasion of the barbarous nations, he thought proper to
divide it. This famous partition was made at Mediana
in Dacia. Valens had for his share the whole of Asia,
Egypt, and Thrace ; and Valentinian all the West;
that is, Illyricum, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain, and
Africa.
After this partition, Valens returned to Constanti¬
nople ; where the beginning of his reign was disturbed
by the revolt of Procopius, a relation of Julian. On
the death of that emperor, he had fled into Taurica
Chersonesus for fear of Jovian •, but not trusting the
barbarians who inhabited that country, he returned in
disguise into the Roman territories, where having
gained over an eunuch of great wealth, by name jE«-
genius, lately disgraced by Valens, and some officers
who commanded the troops sent against the Goths, he
got himself proclaimed emperor. At first he was join¬
ed only by the lowest of the people, but at length he
was acknowledged by the whole city of Constantinople.
On the news of this revolt, Valens would have abdi¬
cated the sovereignty, had he not been prevented by
the importunities of his friends. He therefore dis¬
patched some troops against the usurper j but these
were gained over, and Procopius continued for some
time to gain ground. It is probable he would finally
have succeeded, had he not become so much elated with
his good fortune that he grew tyrannical and insup-
ls defeated portable to his own party. In consequence of this al-
death"110 terat*on *n ^llS disposition, he was first abandoned by
some of his principal officers ; and soon after defeated
in battle, taken prisoner, and put to death.
This revolt produced a war betwixt Valens and the
Goths. The latter, having been solicited by Proco¬
pius, had sent 3000 men to his assistance. On hear¬
ing the news of the usurper’s death, they marched
back ; but Valens detached against them a body of
troops, who took them all prisoners notwithstanding
the vigorous resistance they made. Athanaric, king
of the Goths, expostulated on this proceeding with
Valens $ but that emperor proving obstinate, both
parties prepared for war. In 367 and 369, Valens
gained great advantages over his enemies j and ob¬
liged them to sue for peace, which was concluded up¬
on terms very advantageous to the Romans. The
rest of his reign contains nothing remarkable, except
the cruelty with which Valens persecuted the ortho¬
dox clergy. The latter sent 80 of their number to
him, in order to lay their complaints before him j but
2
73
74.
War with
the Goths.
he, instead of giving them any relief, determined to Constal
put them all to death. But the person who was or-tinopolij
dered to execute this sentence, fearing lest the pub- ^istor
lie execution of so many ecclesiastics might raise dis- ^ 'r‘
turbances, ordered them all to be put on board a ship, Eighty 1
pretending that the emperor had ordered them only tothodo*(
be sent into banishment •, but when the vessel was atc'esiasti
some distance from the land, the mariners set fire to it,
and made their own escape in the boat. The ship was ^
driven by a strong wind into a harbour, where it wasMagiuial
consumed and all that were in it. A persecution waspersecut
also commenced against magicians, or those who had
books of magic in their custody. This occasioned the
destruction of many innocent persons *, for books of this
kind were often conveyed into libraries, unknown to
the owners of them, and this was certainly followed by
death and confiscation of goods. Hereupon persons of
all ranks were seized with such terror that they burnt
their libraries, lest books of magic should have been
secretly conveyed in amongst the others. In 378, the
Goths, whom Valens had admitted into 1'hrace, advan¬
ced from that province to Macedon and Thessaly, 77
where they committed dreadful ravages. They af-Valenscji
terwards blocked up the city of Constantinople, P^un_
dered the suburbs, and at last totally defeated and kill-t'|le Got
ed the emperor himself. The day after the battle,
hearing that an immense treasure was lodged in Adria-
nople, the barbai'ans laid siege to that place: but be¬
ing quite strang .s to the art of besieging towns, they
were repulsed with great slaughter ; upon which they
dropped that enterprise, and returned before Constanti¬
nople. But here great numbers of them were cut in
pieces by the Saracens, whom Maria their queen had
sent to the assistance of the Romans *, so that they were
obliged to abandon this design likewise, and retire from
the neighbourhood of that city. ^8
By the death of Valens the empire once more fellGratian
into the hands of a single person. This was Gratian, takesTt
who had held the empire of the West, after the death
of Valentinian. He repalsed many barbarous nations11 s^8r
who threatened the empire at that time with dissolu¬
tion ; but finding himself pressed on all sides, he soon
resolved to take a colleague, in order to ease him of
some part of the burden. Accordingly on the 19th of
January 379, he declared Theodosius bis partner in
the empire, and committed to his care all the provinces
which had been governed by Valens.
Theodosius is greatly extolled by the historians of
those ages on account of his extraordinary valour and
piety j and for these qualifications has been honoured
with the surname cf the Great. From the many per¬
secuting laws, however, made in his time, it would seem
that his piety was at least very much misguided j and
that if he was naturally of a humane and compassionate
disposition, superstition and passion had often totally
obscured it. He certainly was a man of great con¬
duct and experience in war ; and indeed the present
state of the empire called for an exertion of all his abi- ^
lities. The provinces of Dacia, Thrace, and Illyri-Miser**1
cum, were already lost; the Goths, Taifali, Alans, state ofe
and Huns, were masters of the greatest part of these
provinces, and had ravaged and laid waste the rest.^
The Iberians, Armenians, and Persians were likewise
up in arms, and ready to take advantage of the dis¬
tracted state of the empire. The few soldiers whd
bad
I
CON [ 579 ] CON
njtan- had survived the late defeat, kept within the strong
t politan 0f Thrace, without daring so much as to look
, l^oiy' . abroad, much less face the victorious enemy, who mo¬
ved about the country in great bodies. But notwith¬
standing this critical situation, the historians of those
times give us no account of the transactions of the
year 379. Many great battles indeed are said to
have been fought, and as many victories obtained by
Theodosius $ but the accounts of these are so con¬
fused and contradictory, that no stress can be laid upon
them.
In the month of February 380, Theodosius was seized
with a dangerous malady, so that Gratian found himself
obliged to carry on the war alone. This emperor, ap¬
prehending that the neighbouring barbarians might break
into some of the provinces, concluded a peace with the
Goths, which was confirmed by Theodosius on his re¬
covery. The treaty was very advantageous to the bar¬
barians *, but they disregarding all their engagements,
no sooner heard that Gratian had leit Illyricum, than
they passed the Danube, and breaking into Thrace and
g0 Pannonia, advanced as far as Macedon, destroying all
e Goths with fire and sword. Theodosius, however, drawing
eated by together his forces, marched against them; and, ac-
eadosius. cortj|ng t0 t|le most respectable authorities, gained a
complete victory j though Zosimus relates, that he was
utterly defeated.
The following year, Athanaric, the most powerful
of all the Gothic princes, being driven out by a faction
at home, recurred to Theodosius, by whom he was
received with great tokens of friendship. The empe¬
ror himself went out to meet him, and attended him
with his numerous retinue into the city. The Gothic
prince died the same year} and Theodosius caused him
to be buried after the Roman manner with such pomp
and solemnity, that the Goths, who attended him in
his flight, returned home with a resolution never to mo¬
lest the Romans any more. Nay, out of gratitude to
the emperor, they took upon them to guard the banks
of the Danube, and prevent the empire from being in-
vaded on that side.
■atian In 383, one Maximus revolted against Gratian in
irdered Britain } and in the end, having got the unhappy em-
peror into his power, caused him to be put to death,
and assumed the empire of the West himself. Gra¬
tian had divided his dominions with his brother Va-
lentinian, whom he allowed to reign in Italy and West
Illyricum, reserving the rest to himself. Maximus,
therefore, immediately after his usurpation, sent de¬
puties to Theodosius, assuring him that he had no de¬
signs on the dominions of Valentinian. As Theodosius
at that time found himself in danger from the barba¬
rians, he not only forbore to attack Maximus after
this declaration, but even acknowledged him for his
partner in the empire. It was not long, however, be¬
fore the ambition of the usurper prompted him to
break his promise. In 387, he passed the Alps on a
3, sudden 5 and meeting with no opposition, marched to
kom- Milan where Valentinian usually resided. The young
des the prince fled first to Aquileia *, and from thence to Thes-
’y"1.’0"8. salonica, to implore the protection of Theodosius.
aaa enti- The latter, in answer to Valentinian’s letter, inform¬
ed him, that life was not at all surprised at the pro¬
gress Maximus had made, because the usurper had
protected, and Valentinian had persecuted, the ortho¬
dox Christians. At last he prevailed on the young Constan-
prince to renounce the Arian heresy which he had hi-tinopolitan
therto maintained ; after which Theodosius promised | Instory.
to assist him with all the forces of the East. At first, v
however, he sent messengers to Maximus, earnestly
exhorting him to restore the provinces he had taken
from Valentinian, and content himself with Gaul,
Spain, and Britain. But the usurper would hearken
to no terms. This very year he besieged and tookllissucceti.
Aquileia, Quaderna, Bononia, Mutina, Rhegium, Pla¬
centia, and many other cities in Italy. The following
year he was acknowledged in Rome, and in all the
provinces of Africa. Theodosius, therefore, finding a
war inevitable, spent the remaining months of this and
the beginning of the following year in making the ne¬
cessary-preparations. His army consisted chiefly of Goths,
Huns, Alans, and other barbarians, whom he was glad
to take into the service in order to prevent their raising
disturbances on the frontiers. He defeated Maximus Defeated
in two battles, took him prisoner, and put him to death, and put to
The usurper had left his son Victor, whom he created
Augustus, in Gaul, to awe the inhabitants in his ab¬
sence. Against him the emperor despatched Arboga-
stes, who took him prisoner after having dispersed the
troops that attended him, and put him to death. The
victory was used afterwards by Theodosius with great
clemency and moderation.
In 389, Theodosius took a journey to Rome ; and,
according to Prudentius, at this time converted the g
senate and people from idolatry to Christianity. The-f]ie tcm_
next year wras remarkable for the destruction of the pie* in A-
celebrated temple of Serapis in Alexandria} which,le*andria,
according to the description of Ammianus Marcellinus,^1^ ^^
surpassed all others in the world, that of Jupiter Capi-al| Egypt <
tolinus alone excepted. The reason of its being nowdestrojcd
destroyed was as follows. Theophilus, bishop of Alex¬
andria, having begged and obtained of the emperor
an old temple, formerly consecrated to Bacchus, but
then ruined and forsaken, with a design to convert it
into a church, the workmen found among the rubbish
several obscene figures, which the bishop, to ridicule
the superstition of the Heathens, caused to be exposed
to public view. This provoked the Pagans to such a
degree, that they flew to arms } and falling unexpec¬
tedly upon the Christians, cut great numbers of them
in pieces. The latter, however, soon took arms in
their own defence ; and being supported by the few
soldiers who w’ere quartered in the city, began to re¬
pel force by force. Thus a civil war was kindled,
and no day passed wdthout some encounter. The Pa¬
gans used to retire to the temple of Serapis } and
thence sallying out unexpectedly seized on such Chri¬
stians as they met, and dragging them into the tem¬
ple, either forced them by the most exquisite torments
to sacrifice to their idol, or if they refused, racked
them to death. As soon as they expected to be at¬
tacked by the emperor’s troops, they chose a philoso¬
pher named Olympus for their leader, with a design to
defend themselves to the last extremity. The emperor,
however, would not sufler any punishment to be inflict¬
ed upon them for the lives of those they had taken
away, but readily forgave them} however, he ordered
all the temples of Alexandria to be immediately pulled
down, and commanded the bishop to see his orders put
in execution. The Pagans no sooner heard that the
4 D a emperor
CON , [580
Constan- emperor was acquainted with their proceedings than
tinopolitanthey abandoned the temple, which was in a short time
t llist0l'y- destroyed by Theophilus 5 nothing being left except
the foundations, which could not be removed on ac¬
count of the extraordinary weight and size of the
stones. Not satisfied with the destruction of the Alex¬
andrian temples, the zealous bishop encouraged the
people to pull down all the other temples, oratories,
chapels, and places set apart for the worship of the
Heathen gods throughout Egypt, and the statues of the
gods themselves to be either burnt or melted down. Of
the innumerable statues which at that time were to be
found in Egypt, he is said to have spared but one, viz.
that of an ape, in order to expose the Fagan religion
to ridicule. On his return to Constantinople, Theo¬
dosius ordered such temples as were yet standing to be
thrown down, and the Arians to be everywhere driven
86 out of the cities.
Valentini- In 392, Valentinian, emperor of the West, was
an murder- treacherously murdered by Arbogastes his general ;
gastes^who W^°’ ^10US‘1 ^ie might afterwards have easily seized
raises Eu- 011 ^ie sovereignty himself, chose to confer it upon
genius to one Eugenius, and to reign in his name. This new
the empire, usurper, though a Christian, was greatly favoured by
the Pagans, who were well apprised that he only bore
the title of emperor, while the whole power lodged in
Arbogastes, who pretended to be greatly attached to
their religion. The aruspices began to appear anew,
and informed him that he was destined to the em¬
pire of the whole world ; that he would soon gain
a complete victory over Theodosius, who was as much
hated as Eugenius was beloved by the gods, &c. But
though Eugenius seemed to favour the Pagans, yet in
the very beginning of his reign he wrote to St Am¬
brose. The holy man did not answer his letter till
he was pressed by some friends to recommend them to
the new prince ; and then he wrote to this infamous
usurper with all the respect due to an emperor. Soon
after his accession to the empire, Eugenius sent depu¬
ties to Theodosius 5 and they are said to have been re¬
ceived by him in a very obliging manner. He did
not, however, intend to enter into any alliance with
this usurper, but immediately began his military pre¬
parations. In 394» set out from Constantinople,
and was at Adrianople on the 1 cth of June that y ear.
TI,. 1 ‘  1. il 1 TX • 1 J
]
CON
57
Eugenios
defeated,
tuken pri-
eoner, and
put to
death.
He bent his march through Dacia, and the other pro¬
vinces between Thrace and the Julian Alps, with a
design to force the passes of these mountains, atid break
into Italy before the army of Eugenius was in a con¬
dition to oppose him. On his arrival at the Alps, he
found these passes guarded by Flavianus prefect of Ita¬
ly, at the head of a considerable body of Roman troops.
These were utterly defeated by Theodosius, who
thereupon crossed the Alps and advanced into Italy.
He was soon met by Eugenius ; and a bloody battle
ensued, without any decisive advantage on either side.
The next day the emperor led his troops in person
against the enemy, utterly defeated them, and took
their camp. Eugenius was taken prisoner by his own
men, and brought to Theodosius, who reproached him
with the murder of Valentinian, with the calamities
he had brought on the empire by his unjust usurpa¬
tion, and with putting his confidence in Hercules,
and not in the true God $ for on his chief standard he
had displayed the image of that fabulous hero. Euge¬
nius begged earnestly for his life: but while he lay Consta
prostrate at the emperor’s feet, his own soldiers cut off tinopoii j
his head, and carrying it about on the point of a spear, histenf
showed it to those in the camp who had not yet sub-
mitted to Theodosius. At this they were all thunder¬
struck : but being informed that Theodosius was ready
to receive them into favour, they threw down their 8£
arms and submitted. After this, Arbogastes, despair-Arbogast
ing of pardon, fled to the mountains j but being in-laysvio-
formed that diligent search was made for him, he laid*ent j’8’11
violent hands on himself. His children, and those 0fon llimseJ
Eugenius, took sanctuary in churches ; but the empe¬
ror not only pardoned, but took the opportunity of
converting them to Christianity, restored them to their
paternal estates, and raised them to considerable em¬
ployments in the state. Soon after this, Theodosius
appointed his son Honorius emperor of the West, as¬
signing him for his share Italy, Gaul, Spain, Africa,
and W est lllyricum. The next year, as he prepared
for his return to Constantinople, he wras seized with a
dropsy, owing to the great fatigues he had undergone gs
during the war. As soon as he perceived himself toTheodosf
be in danger, he made his will j by which he be-^8,
queathed the empire of the East to Arcadius, and con¬
firmed Honorius in the posssession of the West. He
likewise confirmed the pardon which he had granted
to all those who had borne arms against him, and re¬
mitted a tribute which had proved very burdensome to
the people ; and charged his two sons to see these
points of his will executed. He died at Milan on the
17th of January 395, in the 16th year of his reign and
50th of his age.
From the time of Theodosius to the time when the Empire
Roman empire in the west was totally destroyed by usurped!
the Goths, we find but very little remarkable in theBas'*'6CU
history of Constantinople. At this time the eastern
empire was usurped by Basiliscus, who had driven out
Zeno the lawful emperor ; being assisted in his conspi¬
racy by the empress Verina his sister. Zeno fled in¬
to Isauria, whither he w^s pursued by Ulus and Tre-
condes, two of the usurper’s generals $ who having
easily defeated the few troops he had with him, for¬
ced the unhappy prince to shut himself up in a castle,
which they immediately invested. But in a short
time Basiliscus having disobliged the people by his cru¬
elty, avarice, and other bad qualities, for which he was
no less remarkable than his predecessor had been, his
generals joined with Zeno, whom they restored to the
throne. After his restoration, Zeno having got Basi¬
liscus into his powei’, confined him in a castle of Cap- ^
padoeia, together with his wife Zenonides, where they Is stam
botli perished with hunger and cold. This happened to death,
in the year 467, after Basiliscus had reigned about 20
months. During the time of this usurpation a dreadful pa
fire happened at Constantinople, which consumed great Great fit
part of the city, with the library containing 120,000^ Co,liSt‘
volumes 5 among which were the works of Horner,11110^6
written, as is said, on the great gut of a dragon 120
feet long.
The misfortunes which Zeno had undergone did
not work any reformation upon him. He still conti¬
nued the same vicious courses which had given occa¬
sion to the usurpation of Basiliscus. Other conspira¬
cies were formed against him, but he had the good
fortune to escape them. He engaged in a war with
the
CON [58
£ ;tan. the Ostrogoths, in which he proved unsuccessful, and
tj[ )litan was oblige^ to yield the provinces of Lower Dacia
[ °ry- and Moesia to them. In a short time, however, Theo-
P1' " doric their king made an irruption into Thrace, and
advanced within 15 miles of Constantinople, with a de¬
sign to besiege that capital : but the following year,
485, they retired in order to attack Odoacer king ot
Italy j of which country Theodoric wras proclaimed
king in 493. The emperor Zeno died in the year
491, in the 65th year of his age, and 17th ol his
I 15 reiSn*
D ne of The Roman empire had now for a long time been
I th oman on the decline: the ancient valour and military disci-
| ei e»to p][nej which had for such a long time rendered the Ro-
1.* ow' mans superior toother nations, had greatly degenera¬
ted ; so that they were now by no means so powerful
as formerly. The tumults and disorders which had
happened in the empire from time to time by the many
usurpations, had contributed also to weaken it very
much. But what proved of the greatest detriment
was the allowing vast swarms of barbarians to settle
in the different provinces, and to serve in the Roman
empire in separate and independent bodies. This had
proved the immediate cause of the dissolution of the
western empire j but as it affected the eastern parts
less, the Constantinopolitan empire continued for up¬
wards of 900 years after the western one was totally
dissolved. The weak and imprudent administration of
Zeno, and Anastasius who succeeded him, had reduced
the eastern empire still more j and it might possibly
have expired in a short time after the western one,
had not the wise and vigorous conduct of Justin, and
his partner Justinian, revived in some measure the an¬
cient martial spirit which had originally raised the Ro-
^ man empire to its highest pitch of grandeur.
1 Tires Justin ascended the throne in 518. In 521 be en-
u :i Jus- gaged in a war with the Persians, who had all along
I | nd Jus- jjeen very formidable enemies to the Roman name.
' " Against them he employed the famous Belisarius ; but
of him we hear nothing remarkable till after the acces¬
sion of Justinian. This prince was the nephew of
Justin, and was by him taken as his partner in the em¬
pire in 527 j and the same year Justin died, in the
77th year of his age and 9th of his reign. Justinian
being now sole master of the empire, bent his whole
force against the Persians. The latter proved success¬
ful in the first engagement; but were soon after utterly
defeated by Belisarius on the frontiers of Persia, and
95 likewise by another general named Dorotheas in Ar-
| -1 inian’s menia. The war continued with various success du-
II Per*1 r'ng first five years of Justinian’s reign. In the
L sixth year a peace was concluded upon the following
terms: i„ That the Roman emperor should pay to
Cosrhoes, the king of Persia, 1000 pounds weight of
gold. 2. That both princes should restore the places
they had taken during the wars. 3. That the com¬
mander of the Roman forces should no longer reside
at Daras on the Persian frontiers, but at a place called
Constantina in Mesopotamia, as he had formerly done.
4. That the Iberians, who had sided with the Romans,
should be at liberty either to return to their own coun¬
try or to remain at Constantinople. This peace, con¬
cluded in 532, was styled eternal; but in the event
proved of very short duration.
About this time happened at Constantinople the
i ] CON
greatest tumult mentioned in history. It began among Constan-
the different factions in the circus 5 but ended in an tinopolitan
open rebellion. The multitude, highly dissatisfied with history,
the conduct of John the prefectus prceiorio and of Tie-
bonianus then questor, forced Hypatius, nephew to th® Great: m-
emperor Anastasius, to accept the empire, and pro-muitia
claimed him with great solemnity in the forum. As Constan¬
tly two above-mentioned ministers were greatly ab- dnople.
horred by the populace on account of their avarice,
Justinian immediately discharged them, hoping by
that means to appease the tumult: but this was so far
from answering the purpose, that the multitude only
grew the more outrageous upon it ; and most of the
senators joining them, the emperor was so much alarm¬
ed, that he had thoughts of abandoning the city and
making his escape by sea. In this dilemma the em¬
press Theodora encouraged and persuaded him rather
to part with his life than the kingdom ; and he at last
resolved to defend himself to the utmost, with the few
senators who had not yet abandoned him. In the
mean time, the rebels having attempted in vain to
force the gates of the palace, carried Hypatius in tri¬
umph to the circus $ where, while he was beholding
the sports from the imperial throne, amidst the shouts
and acclamations of the people, Belisarius, who had
been recalled from Persia, entered the city with a
considerable body of troops. Being then apprised of
the usurpation of Hypatius, he marched straight to the
circus $ fell sword in hand upon the disarmed multi¬
tude ; and with the assistance of a band of Heruli,
headed by Mundus governor of lilyricum, cut about
30,000 of them in pieces. Hypatius the usurper, and
Pompeius another of the nephews of Anastasius, were
taken prisoners and carried to the emperor, by whose
orders they were both beheaded, and their bodies cast
into the. sea. Their estates were confiscated, and like¬
wise the estates of such senators as had joined with
them *, but the emperor caused great part of their lands
and effects to be afterwards restored, together with
their honours and dignities, to their children.
Justinian having now no other enemy to contend
with, turned his arms against the Vandals in Africa,
and the Goths in Italy ; both which provinces he re¬
covered out of the hands of the barbarians *. But be- * see j3ar.
fore his general Belisarius had time to establish fully bary and
the Roman power in Italy, he was recalled in order to GotAs.
carry on the war against Cosrhoes king of Persia, Ano^er
who, in defiance of the treaty formerly concluded in wat-wjth
532, entered the Roman dominions at the head of atliePer-
powerful army. The same year, however, a peace sians.
was concluded between the two nations upon the fol¬
lowing conditions: 1. That the Romans should, with¬
in two months, pay to the Persian king 5000 pounds
weight of gold, and an annual pension of 500. 2. That
the Persians should relinquish all claim to the fortress
of Daras, and maintain a body of troops to guard the
Caspian gates, and prevent the bax-barians from break¬
ing iuto the empire. 3. That upon payment of the
above-mentioned sum, Cosrhoes should immediately
withdraw his troops from the Roman dominions. The
treaty being signed, and the stipulated sum paid, Cos¬
rhoes began to march back again 5 but by the way
plundered several cities as if the war had still conti¬
nued. Hereupon Justinian resolved to pursue the war
with the utmost vigour $. and for that purpose des¬
patched
CON [ 582 ] CON
99
Decline of
Constan- patched Belisarius into the east. Bat soon after he
tinopolitan was obliged to recal him in order to oppose the Cioths,
history. vv|10 ]uuj gained great advantages in Italy after his de-
parture> 'j’jjg persian war was then carried on with
Peace Con->nt!iffcrent success till the year 558, when a peace was
chided. concluded upon the emperor again paying an immense
sum to the enemy. The same year the Huns, pas¬
sing the Danube in the depth of winter, marched in
two bodies directly for Constantinople ; and laying
waste the countries through which they passed, came,
without meeting the least opposition, within 150 fur-
^ longs of the city. But Belisarius marching out against
them with a handful of men, put them to flight j the
emperor, however, to prevent them from invading the
empire anew, agreed to pay them an annual tribute,
upon their promising to defend the empire against all
other barbarians, and to serve in the Homan armies
when required. This was the last exploit performed
by Belisarius, who on his return to Constantinople was
disgraced, stripped of all his employments, and con¬
fined to his house, on pretence of a conspiracy against
* See emPeror *• 1° th® year 5^5 a real conspiracy was
tarius. formed against Justinian, which he happily escaped, and
the conspirators were executed ; but the emperor did
not long survive it, being carried off by a natural death
in 566, in the 39th year of his reign.
During the reign of Justinian, the majesty of the
Roman empire seemed to revive. He recovered the
provinces of Italy and Africa out of the hands of the
barbarians, by whom they had been held for a number
of years 5 but after his death they were soon lost, and
theempire empire tended fast to dissolution. In 369 Italy
after Justi-was conquered by the Lombards, who held it for the
space of 200 years. Some amends, however, was
made for the loss by the acquisition of Persai'menia ;
the inhabitants of which, being persecuted by the Per¬
sians on account of the Christian religion which they
professed, revolted to the Romans. This produced a
war between the two nations, who continued to weak¬
en each other, till at last the Persian monarchy was
utterly overthrown, and that of the Romans greatly
reduced by the Saracenst. These new enemies at¬
tacked the Romans in the year 632, and pursued their
conquests with incredible rapidity. In the space of
four years they reduced the provinces of Egypt, Sy¬
ria, and Palestine. In 648 they were also masters of
Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Africa, Cyprus, Aradus, and
Rhodes; and having defeated the Roman fleet, com¬
manded by the emperor Constans in person, they con¬
cluded a peace on condition of keeping the vast extent
of territory they had seized, and paying for it 1000
nummi a-year.
An expedition against the Lombards was about this
time undertaken, but with very little success, a body
lion against of 20,000 Romans being almost entirely cut off by one
the Lom- 0f the Lombard generals. In 671 the Saracens ra¬
vaged several provinces, made a descent in Sicily, took
and plundered the city of Syracuse, -and overran the
whole island, destroying every thing with fire and
sword. In like manner they laid waste Cilicia ; and
having passed the winter at Smyrna, they entered
Cmistanti. Thrace in the winter of the year 672, and laid siege
nople be- t° Constantinople itself. Here, however, they were
sieged by repulsed with great loss : but next spring they renew-
the Sara- e(j attempt, in which they met with the same
sens. * J
f See Ara¬
bia,
Unsuccess¬
ful expedx
bad success ; many of their ships being burnt by the Constii
sea-fire, as it was called, because it burnt under water ; tinopoli
and in their return home their fleet was wrecked off l histo]| j
the Scyllsean promontory. At last a peace was con- 'r ’
eluded for 30 years, on condition that the Saracens
should retain all the provinces they had seized j and
that they should pay the emperor and his successors
3000 pounds weight of gold, 50 slaves, and as many
choice horses. ic'H
This peace was scarce concluded, when the empire
was invaded by a new enemy, who proved very trou- ^ gu j
blesome for a long time. These were the Bulgarians
who breaking into Thrace, defeated the Roman army
sent against them, and ravaged the country far and
wide. The emperor consented to pay them an annual
pension, rather than continue a doubtful war ; and al¬
lowed them to settle in Lower Moesia, which from them
was afterwards called Bulgaria. In 687, they were
attacked by Justinian II. who entered their country
without provocation, or regarding the treaties former¬
ly concluded with them. But they falling suddenly
upon him, drove him out of their country, and obli¬
ged him to restore the towns and captives he had ta¬
ken. In 697, this emperor was deposed ; and in his
exile fled to Trebelis king of the Bulgarians, by whom
he was kindly entertained, and by whose means he was
restored to his throne j but soon forgetting this fa¬
vour, he invaded the country of the Bulgarians, with
a design to wrest from them those provinces which he ^
had yielded to them. He was attended in this expe-TJiey J j
dition by no better success than his ingratitude deser-feat Juijj
ved, his army being utterly defeated, and he himself nian II.
obliged to make his escape in a light vessel to Constan¬
tinople. The Bulgarians continued their inroads and
ravages at different times, generally defeating the Ro¬
mans who ventured to oppose them, till the year 800,
the seventh of the reign ol Nicephorus, when they sur¬
prised the city of Sardica in Mcesia, and put the whole
garrison, consisting of 6000 men, to the sword. The
emperor marched against them with a considerable ar¬
my : but the enemy retired at his approach $ and he,
instead of pursuing them, returned to Constantinople. ^
Two years after he entered Bulgaria at the head of-rheirci.
a powerful army, destroying every thing with fire andtrycnii
sword. The king offered to conclude a peace with ra,vag®P|
him upon honourable terms ; but Nicephorus, reject-„*ep
ing his proposals, continued to waste the country, de¬
stroying the cities, and putting all the inhabitants,
without distinction of sex or age, to the sword. The
king was so much affected with these cruelties which
were exercised on his subjects, that he sent a se¬
cond embassy to Nicephorus, offering to conclude
a peace with him upon any terms, provided he would I0
quit his country. But Nicephorus dismissing the am-who if
bassadors with scorn, the Bulgarian monarch attacked off wit ji
unexpectedly the Roman camp, forced it, and cut offwl10'e
almost the whole army, with the emperor himself, andmI*
a great number of patricians. His successor Michael
likewise engaged in a war with the Bulgarians ; but
being utterly defeated, he was so grieved that he re¬
signed the empire. After this the Bulgarians conti¬
nued to be very formidable enemies to the empire, till
the year 979, when they were attacked by Basilius IL,^.^ j.
The Bulgai'ians were at that time governed by a kingtry jnvte|
named Samuel; who having ravaged the Roman terri-by Bas1^
tories,Ib
out being perceived. He then fell upon the Bulga¬
rians who were left in the camp, and lay for the most
part asleep j cut great numbers of them in pieces j
took a great number of prisoners, with all their bag¬
gage ; and made himself master of their camp. Sa¬
muel and his son were dangerously wounded $ and
CON [ 583 ] CON
Man- as was the common practice of his nation, Ba- communicating his design to any, he repaired, with Consian-
i| itan silius sent against him one Nicephoros Uranus at the two persons in whom he could confide, to the moun-tinopolitan
kilry. head of a powerful army. Uranus, leaving his bag- tain on which Ibatzes had fortified himself. He ho- history-
^ gage at Larissa, reached by long marches the Sper- ped to pass undiscovered among the many strangers ^
; chins, and encamped with his whole army over against who flocked thither to celebrate the approaching feast
the enemy, who lay on the opposite bank. As the ri- of the Virgin Mary, for whom Ibatzes had a particu-
ver was greatly swelled with the heavy rains that had lar veneration. In this he found himself mistaken 5 for
lately fallen, Samuel, not imagining the Homans would he was known by the guards, and carried before the
attempt to pass it, suffered his troops to roam in large prince. To him he pretended to have something of im-
parties about the country in quest of booty. But Ura- portance to communicate $ but as soon as Ibatzes had
nus having at length found out a place where the river retired with him into a remote place, Daphnomelus
was fordable, passed it in the dead of the night with- threw himself suddenly upon him, and with the assist¬
ance of the two men whom he had brought with him,
pulled out both his eyes, and got safe to an abandoned
castle on the top of the hill. Here they were imme¬
diately surrounded by the troops of Ibatzes $ but
Haphnomelus exhorting them now to submit to the
emperor, by whom he assured them they would be well
would have been taken, had they not all that day con- received, they congratulated Daphnomelus on his suc-
cealed themselves among the dead. The next night cess, and suffered him to conduct the unhappy Ibatzea
they stole away to the mountains of Aitolia, and from a prisoner to Basilius. The emperor was no less sur-
thence made their escape into Bulgaria. The follow- prised than pleased at the success of the bold attempt 5
ing year the emperor entered Bulgaria at the head of and rewarded Daphnomelus with the government of
a numerous and well-disciplined army $ defeated Sa- Dyrrbachium, and all the rich moveables of his pri-
rouel in a pitched battle, and took several strong ci- soner. After this, having accomplished the entire re¬
ties. The emperor himself, however, at last, nar- duction of Bulgaria, he returned to Constantinople
rowly escaped being cut oft with his whole army $ be- with an incredible number of captives, where he was
ing unexpectedly attacked by the Bulgarians in a nar- received by the senate and people with all possible de¬
row pass. From this danger he was relieved by the monstrations of joy. Ilt
arrival of Nicephoros Xiphias, governor of Philippo- AH this time the Saracens had at intervals invaded The em-
polis, with a considerable body of troops; who falling the Roman dominions, and even attempted to makepbe inva-
H !<>n- upon the enemies rear, put them to flight. Basilius themselves masters of Constantinople. Their internalded the
divisions, however, rendered them now much less for-Tuijj*2
midable enemies than they had formerly been ; so that Account of
some provinces were even recovered for a time out of them,
their hands, though the weak and distracted state of
the empire rendered it impossible to preserve such con¬
quests. But in 1041, the empire was invaded by an
enemy, not very powerful at that time indeed, but who
by degrees gathered strength sufficient to overthrow
both the Roman and Saracen empires. These were the
Turks ; who having quitted their ancient habitations
in the neighbourhood of Mount Caucasus, and passed
the Caspian straits, settled in Armenia Major, about
the year 844. There they continued an unknown' and
despicable people, till the intestine wars of the Saracens
*j era- pursued them close ; and having taken an incredible
* number of captives, caused their eyes to be pulled out,
leaving to every hundred a guide with one eye, that
he might conduct them to Samuel. This shocking
spectacle so affected the unhappy king, that he fell in¬
to a deep swoon, and died two days after. The Ro¬
man emperor«pursued his conquests, and in the space
)S of two years made himself master of most of the ene-
* :oun- mies strong holds. He defeated also the successor of
^ ;Mu* Samuel in several engagements ; and having at last
killed him in battle, the Bulgarians submitted them¬
selves without reserve. The vast treasures of their
princes were by Basilius distributed among his sol¬
diers by way of donative. Soon after, the widow
of the late king, with her six daughters and three of gave them an opportunity of aggrandizing themselves.
J»
About the year 1030, Mohammed the son of Sambrael
sultan of Persia, not finding himself a match for Pisa-
ris sultan of Babylon, with whom he was at war, had
recourse to the Turks, who sent him 3000 men under
the command of Tangrolipix, a leading man among
them. By their assistance Mohammed defeated his ad¬
versary ; but when the Turks desired leave to return
her sons, surrendered themselves to the Roman empe¬
ror, by whom they were received with the utmost civi¬
lity and respect. This obliging behaviour encouraged
the three other sons of the late king, and most of the
princes of the blood, who had taken shelter in the
mountains, to submit, and throw themselves on the
emperor’s mercy.
Ibatzes, however, a person nearly allied to the royal home, he refused to part with them. Upon this they
“ol<Is family, who had distinguished himself in a very emi- withdrew without his consent to a neighbouring de-
nent manner during the whole course of the war, re- sert; and being there joined by several discontented
fused to submit, and fled to a steep and craggy moun- Persians, began to make frequent inroads into the
tain, with a design to defend himself there to the last sultan’s territories. Against them Mohammed imme-
extremity. Basilius endeavoured to cause him submit diately dispatched an army of 20,000 men ; who be-
by fair means, but he equally despised both threats and ing surprised in the night, were utterly defeated by
j 10 promises. At the last Eustathius Daphnomelus, whom Tangrolipix. The fame of this victory drew multi-
b'takenBasilius had lately appointed governor of Achridus, tudes to him from all parts; so that in a short time
j,jSrata*the chief city of Bulgaria, undertook to secure him Tangrolipix saw himself at the head of 50,000 men.
by a most desperate and improbable scheme. Without Upon this Mohammed marched against them in per-
Conslan-
tinopolitan
history.
i * .3
They de¬
feat the
Roniaas.
ti4
A Turkish
army en¬
tirely cut
oft’.
US
They again
invade the
empire,
n6
An obsti¬
nate en¬
gagement.
CON [584
son, but was thrown from his horse in the beginning of
the engagement, and killed by the fall j upon which
his men threw down their arms, and submitted to Tan-
grolipix.
After this victory the Turkish general made war
upon the sultan of Babylon 5 whom be at length slew,
and annexed his dominions to his own. He then sent
his nephew, named Cutlu-Moses, against the Arabians j
but by them he was defeated, and forced to fly to¬
wards Media. Through this province he was denied
a passage by Stephen the Roman governor^ upon which
Cutlu-Moses was obliged to force a passage by en¬
countering the Roman army. These he put to flight,
took the governor himself prisoner, and without any
further opposition reached the confines of Persia,
where he sold Stephen for a slave. Returning from
thence to Tangrolipix, he excused, in the beat manner
he could, his defeat by the Arabians j but at the same
time acquainted him with his victory over the Romans
in Media, encouraging him to invade that fertile coun¬
try, which he said might be easily conquered, as it was
inhabited by none but women, meaning the Romans.
At that time Tangrolipix did not hearken to his ad¬
vice, but marched against the Arabians at the head of
a numerous army. He was, however, attended with
no better success than his nephew had been $ and
therefore began to reflect on what he had told him.
Soon after he sent Asan his brother’s son with an army
of 20,000 men to reduce Media. Pursuant to his or¬
ders, the young prince entered that country, and
committed everywhere dreadful ravages 5 but being in
the end drawn into an ambush by the Roman generals,
he was cut off with his whole army. Tangrolipix, no
way discouraged by this misfortune, sent a new army
into Media near 100,ooo strong; who, after having
ravaged the country without opposition, laid siege to
Artza a place of great trade, and therefore reckoned
the most wealthy in those parts. Not being able to re¬
duce it by any other means, they set it on fire ; and
thus in a short time it was utterly destroyed: the
buildings being reduced to ashes, and 150,000 of the
inhabitants perished either by the flames or the sword.
After this Abraham Halim, half-brother to Tangro¬
lipix, hearing that the Romans, reinforced with a bo¬
dy of troops under the command of Liparites governor
of Iberia, had taken the field, marched against them,
and offered them battle ; which they not declining,
the two armies engaged with incredible fury. The
victory continued long doubtful; hut at length inclined
to the Romans ; who nevertheless did not think pro¬
per to puj-sue the fugitives, as their general Liparites
was taken prisoner. The emperor, greatly concerned
for the captivity of Liparites, dispatched ambassadors
with rich presents, and a large sum of money to re¬
deem him, and at the same time to conclude an al¬
liance with Tangrolipix. The sultan received the pre¬
sents; but generously returned them together with the
money to Liparites, whom he set at liberty without
any ransom ; only requiring him at his departure, ne¬
ver more to bear arms against the Turks. Not long
after, Tangrolipix sent a person of great authority
among the Turks, with the character of ambassador,
to Constantinople ; who having arrogantly exhorted
the emperor to submit to his master, and acknowledge
3
]
CON
himself his tributary, was ignominiously driven out of Coluj
the city. _ _ _ tinopo 'a|
Tangrolipix, highly affronted at the reception his histcjl
ambassador had met with, entered Iberia while theV~^r;J
emperor Constantine Monomachus was engaged in
war with the Patzinacas, a Scythian nation. Having be$ieS( j
ravaged that country, he returned from thence to Me-Mautzk
dia, and laid siege to Mantzicbierta, a place defendedwla*
by a numerous garrison, and fortified by a triple wall
and deep ditches. However, as it was situated in an
open plain country, he hoped to be master of it in a
short time. But finding the besieged determined to de¬
fend themselves to the last extremity, he resolved to
raise the siege, after he had continued it 30 days. One
of his officers, however, named Alcan, prevailed on him
to continue it but one day longer, and to commit the
management of the attacks to him. This being grant¬
ed, Alcan disposed his men with such skill, and so en¬
couraged them by his example, that, notwithstanding
the vigorous opposition they met with, the place would
have probably been taken, had not Alcan been slain as
he was mounting the wall. The besieged, knowing
him by the richness of his armour, drew him by the
hair into the city, and cutting off his head threw it ^ j
over the wall among the enemy ; which so dishearten-1
ed them, that they gave over the assault and retired.
The next spring Tangrolipix returned, and ravaged
Iberia with the utmost cruelty, sparing neither sex nor
age. But on the approach of the Roman army he
retired to Tauris, leaving 30,000 men behind him to
infest the frontiers of the empire. This they did with
great success, the borders being through the avarice
of Monomachus unguarded. Till the time of this em¬
peror, the provinces bordering on the countries of
the barbarians had maintained, at their own charge,
forces to defend them ; and were on that account ex¬
empted from paying tribute; but as Monomachus ex¬
acted from them the same sums that were paid by
others, they were no longer in a condition to defend
themselves. I
In 1062 died the emperor Constantine Ducas, ha- ^ ei
ving left the empire to his three sons, Michael, An-press I
dronicus, and Constantine ; but as they were all very cia for1
young, he appointed the empress Eudocia, regent du*
ring their minority, after having required of her an^V^f
oath never to marry; which oath was with great so- raarij.
lemnity lodged in the hands of the patriarch. He like¬
wise obliged the senators solemnly to swear that they
would acknowledge none for their sovereign but his
three sons. No sooner, however, was he dead, than
the Turks, hearing that the empire was governed by
a woman, broke into Mesopotamia, Cilicia, and Cap¬
padocia, destroying all with fire and sword. The em¬
press was no way in a condition to oppose them, the
greater part of the army having been disbanded in her
husband’s lifetime, and the troops that were still on
foot being undisciplined, and altogether unfit for ser¬
vice. The concern which this gave the empress was
aggravated by the seditious speeches of a discontented
party at home, who repeated on all occasions that the
present state of affairs required a man of courage and
address at the helm, instead of a weak and helpless
woman ; and as they imagined the empress would ne¬
ver think of marrying, in consequence of the oath she
had
CON
t 5B5 ]
CON
d5
r -‘s to
t k her
<1 •
ni
! reco-
1 the
wing in
\ :h it
\ con-
I ed,
istan- taken, they hoped by these speeches to induce the
t poiitan people to revolt, and choose a new emperor. This Eu-
story. docia was aware of; and thei'efore determined to pre-
' vent the evils that threatened herself and her family,
1 em- marrying some person of merit who was capable of
deter-defeating her enemies both at home and abroad. At
this time one Romanus Diogenes, a person of a most
beautiful aspect, extraordinary parts, and illustrious
birth, being accused of aspiring to the empire, tried
and convicted, was brought forth to receive sentence
of death. But the empress, touched with compassion
at his appearance, gently upbraided him with his am¬
bition, set him at liberty, and soon after appointed
him commander in chief of all her forces. In this sta¬
tion he acquitted himself so well, that the empress re¬
solved to marry him if she could but recover the wri¬
ting in which her oath was contained out of the hands
of the patriarch. In order to this, she applied to a fa¬
vourite eunuch 5 who going to the patriarch, told him
that the empress was so taken with his nephew named
Bardass, that she was determined to marry and raise
him to the empire, provided the patriarch absolved
her from the oath she had taken, and convinced the
senate of the lawfulness of her marriage. The pa¬
triarch, dazzled with the prospect of his nephew’s
promotion, readily undertook to perform both. He
first obtained the consent of the senate, by representing
to them the dangerous state of the empire, and ex¬
claiming against the rash oath which the jealousy of
the late emperor had extorted from the empress. He
then publicly discharged her from it; restored the
writing to her j and exhorted her to marry some de¬
serving object, who being entrusted with an absolute
authority, might be capable of defending the empire.
The empress, thus discharged from her oath, married
Konm- a few. ^yg after Romanus Diogenes $ who was there-
^ upon proclaimed emperor, to the great disappointment
of the patriarch.
As the new emperor was a man of great activity
and experience in war, he no sooner saw himself vest¬
ed with the sovereign power, than he took upon him
the command of tbe army, and passed over into Asia
with the few forces he could assemble, recruiting and
( P?58es inuring them on his march to military discipline, which
i ilnt0 had been utterly neglected in the preceding reigns.
On his arrival in that coutinent, he was informed that
‘ defeats the Turks had surprised and plundered the city of Neo-
1 Turks, csesarea, and were retiring with their booty. On this
news he hastened after them at the head of a chosen
body of light-armed troops, and came up with them
on the third day. As the Turks were marching in
disorder, without the least apprehension of an ene¬
my, Romanus cut great numbers of them in pieces,
and easily recovered the booty j after which he pur¬
sued his march to Aleppo, which he retook from them,
together with Hierapolis, where he built a strong
( >25 castle.
c J15^86’ As he was returning to join the forces he had left
1 Vlct0‘ behind him, he was met by a numerous body of Turks,
who attempted to cut off his retreat. At first he pre¬
tended to decline an engagement through fear; but
attacked them afterwards with such vigour when they
least expected it, that he put them to flight at the first
onset, and might have gained a complete victory had
he thought proper to pursue them. After this, seve-
Vql. VI. Part II. +
122
1 mar-
1 Roma.
123
ral towns submitted to him 3 but the season being now Constan-
far spent, the emperor returned to Constantinople. The tinopolitan
following year he passed over into Asia early in the , ^sloiy- ^
spring 3 and being informed that the Turks had sacked
the rich city of Iconium, besides gaining other con¬
siderable advantages, he marched in person against 12$
them. But the Turks, not thinking it advisable toTheyaie
wait his coming, retired in great haste. The Arme- again de-
nians, however, encouraged by the approach of the*euUMi
emperor’s army, fell upon the enemy in the plains of
Tarsus, put them to flight, and stripped them both of
their baggage and the booty they had taken. The
spring following the emperor once more entered Asia
at the head of a considerable army which he had rak ed,
and with incredible pains disciplined during the win¬
ter. When the two armies drew near to each other,
Axan, the Turkish sultan, and son of the famous
Tangrolipix, sent proposals to Romanus for a lasting
and honourable peace. These were imprudently re-TheRo-
iected, and a desperate engagement ensued, when, in018118/30-
spite of the utmost enorts of the emperor, his army ^ eK]1)C_
was routed, and he himself wounded and taken pri-ror
soner. When this news was brought to Axan, he
could scarcely believe it 3 but being convinced by the
appearance of the royal captive in his presence, he ten¬
derly embraced him, and addressed him in an affec¬
tionate manner: “ Grieve not (said he), most noble
emperor, at your misfortune 3 for such is the chance
of war, sometimes overwhelming one, and semetimes
another 3 you shall have no occasion to complain of
your captivity 3 for I will not use you as my prisoner,
but as an emperor.” The Turk was as good as his
word. He lodged the emperor in a royal pavilion 3
assigned him attendants, with an equipage suitable to
his quality 3 and discharged such prisoners as he de¬
sired. After he had for some days entertained his
royal captive with extraordinary magnificence, a per¬
petual peace was concluded betwixt them, and the
emperor dismissed with the greatest marks of honour
imaginable. H6 then set out with the Turkish am¬
bassador for Constantinople, where the peace was to iaS
be ratified; but by the way he was informed that Eu-Eadociade-
docia had been driven from the throne by John theP°sedand
brother of Constantine Ducas, and Pselius a leadingconfine<Yc
man in the senate, who had confined her to a mona-r^
stery, and proclaimed her eldest son, Michael Ducas,
emperor. On this intelligence, Romanus retired to
a strong castle near Theodosiopolis, where he hoped in
a short time to be joined by great numbers of his
friends and adherents. But in the mean time John,
who had taken upon him to act as guardian to the
young prince, despatched Andronicus with a conside¬
rable army against him. Andronicus having easily de¬
feated the small army which Romanus had with him,
obliged him to fly to Adana a city in Cilicia, where
he was closely besieged, and at last obliged to surren¬
der. Andronicus carried his prisoner into Phrygia,
where he fell dangerously ill, being, as was suspected, 12^
secretly poisoned. But the poison being too slow inK,omanus
its operation, John ordered his eyes to be put out 3 put to
which was done with such cruelty that he died soon after, (3eath
in the year 1067, having reigned three years and eight 13®
months. The Turks
Axan was no sooner informed of the tragical end of a8ain 3a"
his friend and ally, than he resolved to invade the ^ e
4 E empire
CON
C 586 ]
CON
Comtan-
tinopolitan
history.
131
Tliey de¬
feat the
Homans.
132.
They gain'
a second
■victory
»33
They con¬
quer seve¬
ral pro via-
ses.
t34
A,lesius
Comnenus
stops their
progress.
empire anew ; and that not with a design only to plun¬
der as formerly, but to conquer, and to keep what he
had once conquered. The emperor despatched against
him Isaac Comnenus, with a considerable army 5 but
he was utterly defeated and taken prisoner by Axan.
Another army was quickly sent off’ under the com¬
mand of John Ducas the emperor’s uncle. He gained
at first some advantages, and would probably have put
a stop to their conquests, had not one Ruselius, or
Urselius, revolted with the troops he had under his
command, caused himself to be proclaimed emperor,
and reduced several cities in Phrygia and Cappadocia.
Against him John marched with all his forces, suf¬
fering the Turks in the mean time to pursue their con¬
quests ; but coming to an engagement with the rebels,
his army was entirely defeated and himself taken pri¬
soner. Notwithstanding this victory, Ituselius was so
much alarmed at the progress of the Turks, that he not
ony released his prisoner, but joined with him against
the common enemy, by whom they were both defeat¬
ed and taken prisoners. Axan, however, was for some
time prevented from pursuing his conquest by Cutlu-
Moses, nephew to the late Tangrolipix. He had re¬
volted against his uncle j hut being defeated by him in
a pitched battle, had taken refuge in Arabia, whence
he now returned at the head of a considerable army
in order to dispute the sovereignty with Axan. But
while the two armies were preparing to engage, the
caliph of Babylon, who was still looked upon as the suc¬
cessor of the great prophet, interposed his authority.
He represented the dangers of their intestine dissen¬
sions j and by his mediation, an agreement was at last
concluded, en condition that Axan should enjoy undis¬
turbed the monarchy lately left him by his father, and
Cutlu-Moses should possess such provinces of the Bo-
man empire as he or his sons should in process of time
conquer.
After this agreement, both the Turkish princes
turned their forces against the empire ; and before the
year 1077, made themselves masters of all Media, Ly-
caonia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, fixing the capital
city of their empire at Nice in the latter province.
During all this time, the emperors of Constantinople,
as well as their subjects, seemed to be in a manner
infatuated. No notice was taken of the great pro¬
gress made by these barbarians. THie generals were
ambitious only of seizing the tottering empire,, which
seemed ready to fall a prey to the Turks; and, after
it was obtained, spent their time in oppressing their
subjects, rather than in making any attempts to re¬
pulse the enemy.
^ At last Alexius Comnenus, having wrested the em¬
pire from Nicephorus Botouiates, in 1077, kfigan to
prepare for opposing so formidable an enemy. But
before he set out, as his soldiers had committed great
outrages on his accession to the empire, he resolved
to make confession of his sins, and do open penance
for those he had suffered his army to commit. Ac¬
cordingly he appeared in the attire of a penitent be¬
fore the patriarch and several other ecclesiastics ac¬
knowledged himself guilty of the many disorders’ that
had been committed by his soldiers, and begged of
the patriarch to impose upon him a penance suitable
to the greatness of his crimes. The penance enjoined
him and his adherents by the patriarch was to- fast, lie
upon the ground, and practise several other austerities Const
for the space of 40 days. This command was religious-tinopolt
ly obeyed, and the emperor then began to prepare for histoi
war with so much vigour, that Solyman, the Turkish '‘““-V'1
sultan, son and successor to Cutlu-Moses, dispatched
ambassadors to Alexius with proposals of peace. These
were at first rejected 5 but the emperor was at last glad
to accept them, on certain advice that Robert Guischard,
duke of Puglia and Calabria, was making great prepa¬
rations against him in the west. , .
To this expedition Robert was incited by Michael Robert
Ducas. That prince had been deposed by Nicepho-^uise^a *
rus Botoniates, and towards the end of the usurper’s e^pedlti
reign fled into the west, where he was received by emperor
Robert, who was prevailed upon to favour his cause.
I or this purpose, Robert made great preparations;
and these were continued even after the deposition of 13(
Botoniates. He sailed with all his forces from Brun-^®p®®*
dusium ; and landing at Buthrotum in Epirus, madeEp^s';
himself master of that place, while his son Bohemond b«sieges
with part of the army reduced Aulon, a celebrated
port and city in the country now called Albania™'
From thence they advanced to Dyrrhachium, which
they invested both by sea and land : but met with a
most vigorous opposition from George Paleologus^
whom the emperor had entrusted with the defence of
that important place. In spite of the utmost efforts of
the enemy, this commander held out till the arrival of
the Venetian fleet, by whom Robert’s navy, command¬
ed by Bohemend, was utterly defeated, the admiral
himself having narrowly escaped being taken prisoner.
After the victory, the Venetians landed without loss
of time, and being joined by Paleologus’s men, fell up¬
on Robert’s troops with such fury, that they destroy¬
ed their works, burnt their engines, and forced them
back to their camp in great disorder. As the Vene¬
tians were now masters at sea, the besieged were sup¬
plied with plenty of provisions, while a famine began
to rage in the camp of the enemy ; and this calamity
was soon followed by a plague, which in the space of
three months is said to have destroyed ten thousand
men. Notwithstanding all these disasters, however,.
Robert did not abandon the siege : having found means
to supply his famished troops with provisions, he con¬
tinued it with such vigour, that the courage of the be¬
sieged began at last to fail them ; and Paleologus sent
repeated messages to the emperor, acquainting him
that he would be obliged to surrender unless very
speedily assisted. On this Alexius marched in person
to the relief of the city, but was defeated with great
loss by Robert. The whole right wing of Alexius’s
army, finding themselves hard pressed by the enemy,
fled to a church dedicated to St Michael, imagining
they would there find themselves in a place of safety ;
but the victorious army pursuing them, set fire to the
church, which was burnt to ashes with all who were in
it. The emperor himself with great difficulty made
his escape, leaving the enemy masters of his camp and
all his baggage. Soon after this defeat, the city surren¬
dered ; and Alexius being destitute of resources for
carrying on the war, seized on the wealth of churches
and monasteries, which gave much offence to the clergy,
and had like to have occasioned great disturbances in
the imperial city. At the same time, Alexius enter¬
ing into an alliance with Henry emperor of Germany,
persuaded.
CON
[ 587 ]
CON
( ,tan-
tir >litan
ory.
17
Tl aty
ts iders.
38
1 war
e d by
ti eath
0 )berU
39
Scy-
r, ^
^ Ro-
* sde-
f :d.
1 41
1 t at
1; defeat
tj 'Cythi.
persuaded him to invade the dominions of Robert in
Italy. At first Henry met with great success 5 but
was soon overcome, and driven out of that country by
Robert. Bohemond, in the mean time, reduced several
places in lllyricum j and, having defeated Alexius in
two pitched battles, entered Thessaly, and sat down
before Larissa. This place, being defended by an offi¬
cer of great courage and experience in war, held out
till the emperor came to its relief. Soon after his ar¬
rival, he found means to draw a strong party of Bo-
hemond’s men into an ambuscade, and cut them off
almost entirely. However, in the battle which was
fought a few days after, Bohemond had the advantage 5
but his troops mutinying and refusing to carry on the
war, he was obliged to return to Italy. Alexius tak¬
ing advantage of his absence, recovered several cities ;
and being informed that Robert was making great
preparations against him, he had recourse once more
to the Venetians. By them he w'as assisted with a
powerful fleet, which defeated that of Robert in two
engagements 5 but being soon after surprised by him,
they were defeated with the loss of almost their whole
navy. Robert is said to have used his victory with
great barbarity, putting many of his prisoners to death
with unheard-of torments. The Venetians equipped
a second fleet $ and joining that of the emperor, fell
unexpectedly upon Robert’s navy, who were riding
without the least apprehensions in Buthrotum, sunk
most of his ships, and took a great number of prisoners,
his wife and younger sons having narrowly escaped
falling into their hands. Robert made great prepara¬
tions to revenge this defeat j but was prevented by
death from executing his designs ; and, after his
decease, his son Roger did not think proper to pursue
so dangerous and expensive a war. He therefore re¬
called his troops, and the places which had been con¬
quered by Robert and Bohemond submitted anew to the
emperor.
This war was scarce ended, when the Scythians pass¬
ing the Danube laid waste great part of Thrace, com¬
mitting everywhere the greatest barbarities. Against
them the emperor dispatched an army under the com¬
mand of Pacurianus and Branas. The latter insisted
upon engaging the enemy, contrary to the opinion of
his colleague ; and his rashness caused the loss of the
greater part of the army, who were cut off" by the Scy¬
thians, together with the two generals. Talicius, an
officer who had signalized himself on many occasions,
was appointed to command the army in their room.
He fell upon the enemy as they lay securely in the
neighbourhood of Philippopolis, cut great numbers of
them in pieces, and obliged the rest to retire in great
confusion. The following spring, however, they re¬
turned in such numbers, that the emperor resolved to
march against them in person. Accordingly he set
out for Adrianople, and from thence to a place called
Lardea. Here, contrary to the advice of his best
officers, he ventured a battle; in which he was utterly
defeated with the loss of vast numbers of his men, he
himself escaping with the utmost difficulty. The next
year he was attended with no better success, his army
being entirely defeated with the loss of his camp and
baggage. In the year following, 1084, the emperor
retrieved his credit ; and gave the Scythians such an
overthrow, that very few escaped the general slaughter.
Notwithstanding this disaster, however, they again Conran-
invaded the empire in 1093. To this they were en-tinopo!itaa
couraged by an impostor called Leo, who pretended to history.
be the eldest son of Romanus Diogenes. Die young
prince had been slain in a battle with the Turks ; but
as the Scythians only wanted a pretence to renew the
war, they received the impostor with joy. By a
stratagem, however, Leo was murdered ; and the
Scythians being afterwards overthrown in two great
battles, were obliged to submit on the emperor’s own
terms. I42
Since the year 1083, the war had been carried on The Holy
with the Turks with various success; but now an as-War.
sociation was formed in the w'est against these infidels,
which threatened the utter ruin of the Turkish nation.
This wTas occasioned by the superstition of the Christi¬
ans, who thought it a meritorious action to venture
their lives for the recovery of the Holy Land, posses¬
sed at that time by the Turks and Saracens. Had the
western princes been properly assisted by the empe¬
rors of the East in this undertaking, the Turks had
undoubtedly been unable to resist them ; but so far
from this, the Latins were looked upon by them as
no less enemies than the Turks ; and indeed whatever
places they took from the infidels, they never thought
of restoring to the emperors of Constantinople, to
whom they originally belonged, but erected a number
of small independent principalities; which neither ha¬
ving sufficient strength to defend themselves, nor be¬
ing properly supported bv one awother, soon became 14^
a prey to the Turks, In the year 1203, happened a Dreadful
dreadful fire at Constantinople, occasioned by some^ire a.t <'on"
Latin soldiers. These had plundered a mosque, whichstantino^e’
the Turks residing in Constantinople had been suffered
to build there. For this reason they were attacked
by the infidels ; who being much superior to them in
number, the Latins found themselves obliged to set
fire to some houses, in order to make their escape with
safety. The flame spreading in an instant from street
to street, reduced in a short time great part of the city
to ashes, with the capacious store-houses which had
been built at a vast expence on the quay. The late
emperor Isaac Angelus, who had been restored to his
throne by the Latins, died soon after their departure
from Constantinople, leaving his son Alexius sole mas¬
ter of the empire. The young prince, to discharge the
large sums he had promised the French and Venetians
for their assistance, was obliged to lay heavy taxes
on his subjects ; and this, with the great esteem and
friendship showed to his deliverers, raised a general dis¬
content among the people of Constantinople, who were
sworn enemies to the Latins. This encouraged John
Ducas, surnamed Murt%uphlus, from his joined and
thick eyebrows, to attempt the sovereignty. Unhappi¬
ly he found means to put his treacherous designs in I44
execution ; and strangled the young prince with hisMurtzu-
own hands. After this he presented himself to thephlus stran-
people ; told them what he had done, which he pretend-gies l^e
ed was in order to secure their liberties ; and earnestly <n ^ei°r
intreated them to choose an emperor who had courage
enough to defend them against the Latins that w’ere
ready to oppress and enslave them. On this he was
instantly saluted emperor by the inconstant multitude ;
but this usurpation proved the ruin of the city. The
Latins immediately resolved to revenge the death of
4 E 2 the
CON 1588] CON
Constan- the young prince and, as they had been so often be-
tinopolitan trayed and retarded in their expeditions to the Holy
history. LanJ {jV the emperoi's of Constantinople, to make
w t|iernse]ves masters of that city, and seize the empire for
themselves. In consequence of this resolution they
mustered all their forces in Asia, and having crossed the
straits, laid siege to Constantinople by sea and land.
The tyrant, who was a man of gi’eat courage and
experience in war, made a vigoi-ous defence. The
Latins, however, after having battered the walls for
several days together with an incredible number of
engines, gave a general assault on the 8th of April
1204. The attack lasted from break of day till three
in the afternoon, when they were forced to retire, after
145 having lost some of their engines, and a great number
The city 0f men< 'fhe assault was nevertheless renewed four days
plundered' a^er '•> when, after a warm dispute, the French planted
hy the La- their standard on one of the towers ; which the Vene-
tins. tians observing, they quickly made themselves masters
of four other towers, where they likewise displayed
their ensigns. In the mean time three of the gates
being broken down by the battering rams, and those
who had scaled the walls having killed the guards, and
opened the gates between the towers they had taken,
the whole army entered, and drew up in battle array
between the walls. The Greeks fled up and down in
the greatest confusion j and several parties were by the
Latins dispatched to scour the sti'eets, who put all they
met to the sword, without distinction of age or condition.
Night put a stop to the dreadful slaughtex*, when the
princes sounding the retreat, placed their men in diffe¬
rent quarters of the city, with orders to be upon their
guard, not doubting but they should be attacked early
next morning. They were surprised, however, at that
time by the entii’e submission of the Greeks ; to whom
they promised their lives, but at the same time ordering
them to retire to their houses, they gave up the city
to be plundered by the soldiers for that day. They
strictly enjoined their men to abstain from slaughter’,
to preserve the honour of the women, and to bring the
whole booty into one place, that a just distribution
might be made according to the rank and merit of each
individual. The Greeks had undoubtedly concealed
their most valuable effects during the night j many
persons of the first rank had escaped, and carried along
with them immense treasures 5 the soldiers had probably,
as is usual in all such cases, reserved things of great
value for themselves, notwithstanding all prohibitions to
the contrary *, and yet the booty, without the statues,
pictures, and jewels, amounted to a sum almost incredi¬
ble. As for Murtzuphlus, he made his escape in the
night j embarking in a small vessel with Euphrosyne, the
wife of Alexius Angelus a late usurper, and her daughter
Eudoxia, for whose sake he had abandoned bis lawful
i45 wife-
The Latins Constantinople coxrtinued subject to the Latins till the
expelled, year 1261, when they were expelled by one Alexius
Strategopulus. He was a person of an illustrious family;
and, for his eminent services, distinguished with the title
of Ccesar. He had been sent against Alexius Angelus
despot of Epirus, who now attempted to recover some
places in Thessaly and Gi’eece from MichaelPaleologus,
one of the Greek emperors, that since the capture of
Constantinople, had kept their court at Nice 5 and to
try whether he could on his march surprise the imperial Consti
city itself. Alexius, having passed the straits, encamped tinopalil
at a place called Rhegium, where he was informed by the histor)*
natives that a strong body of the Latins had been sent
to the siege oiDapkmisa, that the garrison was in great
want of provisions, and that it would be no difficult
matter to surprise the city. Hereupon the Greek
general resolved at all events to attempt it; in which he
was encouraged by some of the inhabitants, who, coin¬
ing privately to his camp, offered themselves to be his
guides. He approached the walls in the dead of the
night, which some of his men scaled without being
observed ; and, killing the sentries, whom they found
asleep, opened one of the gates to the rest of the
army. The Greeks rushing in, put all they met to the
sword ; and, at the same time, to create more terror, set
fire to the city in four difi’erent places. The Latins,
concluding from thence that the enemy’s forces were
far more numerous than they really were, did not so
much as attempt either to drive them out or to ex¬
tinguish the flames. In this general confusion, the
emperor Baldwin, quitting the ensigns of majesty, fled'
with Justinian the Latin patriarch, and some of his
intimate friends, to the sea-side ; and there, embarking
in a small vessel, sailed first to Euboea, and afterwards
to Venice, leaving the Greeks in full possession of Con¬
stantinople. When news of this sui’prising and altogether
unexpected success of Alexius were fii’st brought to
Paleologus, he could scarce give credit to it; but re¬
ceiving soon after letters from Alexius himself, with a
particular account of so memorable an event, he ordered
public thanks to be returned in all the churches, appear¬
ed in public in his imperial robes, attended by the nobi¬
lity in their best apparel, and ordered couriers to be
dispatched with the agreeable news into all parts of the
empire. 147
Soon after, having settled his affaii’S at Nice, he set Entry
out for Constantinople with the empress, his son An-
dronicus, the senate, and nobility, to take possessionjnt0 ^
of the imperial city, and fix his residence in that placecity.
that had originally been designed for the seat of the
eastern empii’e. Having passed the straits, he ad¬
vanced to the golden gate, and continued some days
without the walls, while the citizens were busied in
making the necessary preparations to receive him with
a magnificence suitable to the occasion. On the day
appointed, the golden gate, which had been long shut
up, was opened, and the emperor entering it amidst
the repeated acclamations of the multitude, marched'
on foot to the great palace. He was preceded by the
bishop of Cyzicus, who carried an image of the Virgin
Mary, supposed to have been done by St Luke, and
followed by all the great officers, nobility, and chief
citizens, pompously dressed. Public thanks were again
returned in the church of St Sophia, at which the em¬
peror assisted in person, with the clergy, the serrate,
and nobility. These exercises were succeeded by all
sorts of rejoicings ; after which the emperor carefully 148
surveyed the imperial city. This survey greatly al-He resol*
layed his joy. He saw the stately palaces and other
magnificent buildings of the Roman emperors lying iBniergra!
ruins ; the many capacious buildings that had beendeur.
erected by his predecessors, at an immense chai’ge,
destroyed by fire, and other unavoidable accidents of
war
CON
[ 589 ]
CON
1 stan-
ij, olitan
tory.
149
:at di-
:bances
asioned
the
ichery
^aleo.
>30
ion of
Greek
Latin
I'ches.
solved.
war 5 several streets abandoned by the Inhabitants, and
choked up with rubbish, &c. These objects gave the
emperor no small concern, and kindled in him a desire
of restoring the city to its former lustre. In the mean¬
time, looking upon Alexius as the restorer of his coun¬
try, he caused him to be clad in magnificent robes ;
placed with his own hand a crown on his head $ or¬
dered him to be conducted through the city, as it were,
in triumph •, decreed that for a whole year the name
of Alexius should be joined in the public prayers with
his own ; and to perpetuate the memory of so great
and glorious an action, he commanded his statue to be
erected on a stately pillar of marble before the church
of the Apostles. His next care was to re-people the
city, many Greek families having withdrawn from it
while it was held by the Latins, and the Latins
now preparing to return to their respective countries.
The former were recalled home $ and the latter, in
regard of the great trade they carried on, were al¬
lowed many valuable privileges, which induced them
not to remove. The Greeks were allowed to live in
one of the most beautiful quarters of the city, to be
governed by their own laws and magistrates, and to
trade without paying customs or taxes of any kind.
Great privileges were likewise granted to the natives
of Venice and Pisa, which encouraged them to lay
aside all thoughts of removing; and the trade they car¬
ried on proved afterwards highly advantageous to the
state.
It was not long, however, before these regulations
were altered. The emperor being soon after informed
that Baldwin, lately expelled from Constantinople, had
married his daughter to Charles king of Sicily, and
given him, by way of dowry, the imperial city itself,
he ordered the Genoese, who were become very nu¬
merous, to remove first to Heraclia, and afterwards to
Galata, where they continued. As for the Pisans and
Venetians, who were not so numerous and wealthy,
they were allowed to continue in the city. Paleolo-
gus, though he had caused himself to be proclaimed
emperor, and was possessed of absolute sovereignty, was
as yet only guardian to the young emperor John Las-
caris, then about 12 years of age. But having now set¬
tled the state, and having gained the affections both of
natives and foreigners, he began to think of securing
himself and his posterity in the full enjoyment of the
empire; and for this reason cruelly ordered the eyes of
the young prince to be put out, pretending that none
but himself had any right to the city or empire of Con¬
stantinople, which he alone had recovered out of the
hands of the Latins.
This piece of treachery and inhumanity involved him
in great troubles. The patriarch immediately excom¬
municated him : and he would in all probability have
been driven from the throne by a combination of the
western princes, had he not engaged Pope Urban IV.
to espouse his cause, by promising to submit himself and
his dominions to the Latin church. Thus, indeed, he
diverted the present storm; but this proceeding caused
the greatest disturbances, not only in Constantinople,
but throughout the whole empire, nor was Paleologns
able to reconcile his subjects to this union.
In 1283 Michael died, and was succeeded by his son
Andronicus. His first step was to restore the ancient
Greek ceremonies, thinking he could not begin his
reign with a more popular act. But thus he involved Constan-
himself in difficulties still greater than before. Though tinopolitaa
Michael had not been able fully to reconcile his Greek , 118 ^ • j
subjects to the Latin ceremonies, yet he had in some
degree accomplished his purpose. 1 he Latins had got
a considerable footing in the city, and defended their
ceremonies with great obstinacy j so that the empire
was again thrown into a ferment by this imprudent
step. _ # . r 15*.
All this time the Turks had been continuing their War witli
encroachments on the empire, which, had it not been1’0
for the crusades published against them by the pope,
they would, in all probability, have made themselves
masters of before this time. They were now, how¬
ever, very successfully opposed by Constantine the
emperor’s brother : but his valour rendered him sus¬
pected by the emperor; in consequence of which he ivas
thrown into prison, along with several persons of great
distinction. On the removal of this brave commander,
the Turks, under the famous Qthoman, made them¬
selves masters of several places in Phrygia, Caria, and
Bitbynia ; and, among the rest, of the city of Nice.
To put a stop to their conquests, the emperor dispatch¬
ed against them Philanthropenus and Libadarius, two
officers of great experience in war. Jhe former
gained some advantages over the enemy ; but being
elated with his success, caused himself to be proclaim¬
ed emperor. This rebellion, however, was soon sup¬
pressed, Philanthropenus being betrayed by bis own
men ; but the Turks taking advantage of these intes¬
tine commotions, not only extended their dominions
in Asia, but conquered most of the islands in the Me¬
diterranean ; and, being masters at sea, infested the
coasts of the empire, to the utter ruin of trade and
commerce.
From this time the Roman empire tended fast to
dissolution. After the revolt of Philanthropenus, the
emperor could no longer trust his subjects, and there¬
fore hired the Massagetes to assist him : but they, be¬
having in a careless manner, were first defeated by
their enemies, and afterwards turned their arms a-
gainst those they came to- assist. He next applied to
the Catalans, who behaved in the same manner ; and
having ravaged the few places left the emperor in
Asia, returned into Europe, and called the jurks to
their assistance. 153
This happened in the year 1292, and was the first Their first
appearance of the Turks in Europe. This enterprise,
however, was unsuccessful. Having loaded themselves’
with booty, they offered to depart quietly if they were
allowed a safe passage, and ships to transport them to
Asia. To this the emperor, willing to get rid of such
troublesome guests, readily consented, and ordered the
vessels to be got ready with all possible expedition.
But the Greek officers observing the immense booty
with which they were loaded, resolved to fall upon
them in the night, and cut them off all at once. This
scheme, however, was not managed with such secrecy
but that the Turks had notice of it, and therefore pre¬
pared for their defence. They first surprised a strong
castle in the neighbourhood, and then found means to
acquaint their countrymen in Asia with their danger¬
ous situation. Their brethren, enticed with the hopes
of booty, were not long in coming to their assistance ;
and having crossed the Hellespont in great numbers^,
ravaged
CON [ 590
Const an- ravaged the adjacent country, making excursions to by
, ^54
They are
uli cut in
pieces or
taken.
Unopolitaii the very gates of Constantinople. At last the emperor
. ' ^ determined to root them out; and accordingly march¬
ed against them with all his forces, the country people
flocking to him from all quarters. The Turks at first
gave themselves over for lost; but finding the Greeks
negligent of discipline, they attacked their army unex¬
pectedly, utterly defeated it, and made themselves ma¬
sters of the camp. After this unexpected victory, they
continued for two years to ravage Thrace in the most
terrible manner. At last, however, they were defeated ;
and being afterwards shut up in the Chersonesus, they
were all cut in pieces or taken.
Soon after new commotions took place in this un¬
happy empire, of which the Turks did not fail to take
the advantage. In 1327 they made themselves masters
of most of the cities on the Maeander; and, among
the rest, of the strong and important city of Prusa
in Bithynia. The next year, however, Othoman,
who may justly be styled the founder of the Turkish
monarchy, being dead, the emperor laid hold of that
opportunity to recover Nice, and some other impor¬
tant places, from the infidels. But these were lost
the year following, together with Abydus and Ni-
comedia ; and in 1330 a peace was concluded upon
condition that they should keep all their conquests.
This peace they observed no longer than served their
own purposes ; for new commotions breaking out in
the empire, they pursued their conquests, and by the
year 1357 had reduced all Asia. They next passed the
Hellespont under the conduct of Solyman the son, or,
as others will have it, the brother of Orchane, the suc¬
cessor of Othoman, and seized on a strong castle on the
European side. Soon after the Turkish sultau died, and
was succeeded by Amurath. He extended the con¬
quests of his predecessors, and in a short time reduced all
Thrace, making Adrianople the seat of his empire. A-
155 murath was slain by treachery in a little time after, and
Adrianople was succeeded by his son Bajazet. This prince greatly
theTurks. e.nlarSe(1 1,is dominions by new conquests. In a short
time he reduced the countries of Thessaly, Macedon,
Phocis, Peloponnesus, Mysia, and Bulgaria, driving
out the despots or petty princes who ruled there. Ela¬
ted with his frequent victories, he began to look upon
the Greek emperor, to whom nothing was now left but
the city of Constantinople and the neighbouring coun¬
try, as his vassal. Accordingly he sent him an arrogant
and haughty message, commanding him to pay a yearly
tribute, and send his son Manuel to attend him in his
military expeditions. This demand the emperor was
obliged to comply with, but died soon after, in the year
1392.
Manuel no sooner heard of his father’s death than
he hastened to Constantinople, without taking leave of
156 the sultan, or acquainting him with the reason of his
Bajazet be-sudden departure. At this Bajazet was so highly of-
stantinoide. t!l.at hre Passed wit!' great expedition out of
' Bithynia into Thrace, ravaged the country adjoining
to Constantinople, and at last invested the city itself,
both by sea and land. In this extremity Manuel had
recourse to the western princes ; who sent him an army
of 130,000 men, under the command of Sigismund
king of Hungary, and John count of Nevers. But
though the western troops proved at first successful,
they were in the end defeated with great slaughter
2
CON
returned to the siege
with
Consta;
]
Bajazet, who then
greater vigour than ever. As he found, however, linopoii,
that the citizens were determined to hold out to the histor
last, he applied to John, the son of Manuel’s elder bro-''T~
ther, who had a better title to the crown than Manuel
himself. With him he entered into a private agree¬
ment, by virtue of which Bajazet was to place John
upon the throne of Constantinople ; on the other hand,
John was to deliver up the city to the Turks, and re¬
move the imperial city to Peloponnesus, which the sul¬
tan promised to relinquish to him and his posterity. At
the same time, he sent deputies to the inhabitants of
Constantinople, oft'ering to withdraw his army, and cease
from further hostilities, provided they expelled Manuel
and placed John upon the throne. This proposal rent
the city into two factions ; but Manuel prevented the
mischiefs which were ready to ensue, by a voluntary re¬
signation, upon condition that he should be allowed to
retire to whatever place he thought proper with his wife
and children.
With this condition John readily complied ; and
Manuel having received him into the city, and con¬
ducted him to the palace, set sail for Venice. From
thence he went to the courts of all the western prin¬
ces, to solicit their assistance,against the Turks, whose
power was grown formidable to all Europe. He was
everywhere received with the greatest demonstra¬
tions of esteem, and promised large supplies ; all Chri¬
stendom being now alarmed at the progress of the in¬
fidels.
In the mean time, Bajazet did not fail to put John
in mind of his promise : but the citizens refusing to
comply with such a scandalous treaty, the siege was re¬
newed, and the city assaulted with more fury than ever.
When it was already reduced to the last extremity,
news were brought the sultan that Tamerlane, the vic¬
torious Tartar, having overrun all the east with in¬
credible celerity, had now turned his arms against the
Turks, and was preparing to break into Syria. Baja¬
zet, alarmed at the danger that threatened him, raised ,,y
the siege in great haste, and advanced against Tamer-He is de¬
lane with a very numerous and well-disciplined army ;feated an
but the Tartar totally defeated and took him prisoner, ta^eDPn
after having cut most of his men in pieces: and thus
Constantinople was preserved for the present. jjs
But this relief was of short duration. In 1424 the Amurath
city was again besieged by Amurath II. The inhabi-besie8es.
tants defended themselves with great bravery ; hut^”"]^6*111
must in the end have submitted, had not the emperor
prevailed upon the prince of Caramania to counte¬
nance an impostor and pretender to the Turkish throne.
This obliged Amurath to raise the siege, and march The sieg*
with all his forces against the usurper, whom he soonra*se^
reduced. Having then no other enemies to contend
with, he entered Macedon at the head of a powerful
army ; and having ravaged the country far and near,
he took and plundered Thessalonica, as he did also
most of the cities of iEtolia, Phocis, and Boeotia.
From Greece he marched into Servia ; which country
he soon reduced. He next broke into the dominions
of the king of Hungary, and besieged the strong city
of Belgrade ; but here he met with a vigorous repulse,
no fewer than 15,000 Turks being slain by the Chri¬
stians in one sally, which obliged the sultan to drop the
enterprise and retire.
In
CON [ 59i ] CON
tistan_ In his retreat he was attacked by the celebrated
politan John Hunniades, who cut great numbers of his men in
stmy. pieces, and obliged the rest to fly with precipitation,
-v—' Not long after he gained a still more complete vic-
l5° of tory over the enemy in the plains of Transylvania, with
iThuh- l°ss ^ on>y 300° l”8 ovvn men, whereas 20,000
lesa- of the Turks were killed on the field of battle, and
1st the almost an equal number in the pursuit. Amurath, who
lis' was then at Adrianople, sent an army into Transyl¬
vania far more numerous than the former; but they
were attended with no better success, being cut off
almost to a man by the brave Hungarian. He gain-
is at lastet^ several other victories no less remarkable; but was
:atcd. at last entirely defeated in 1448 ; and with this defeat
ended all hopes of preserving the Homan empire.
The unhappy emperor was now obliged to pay an
annual tribute of 300,000 aspers to the sultan ; and to
yield up to him some strong holds which he still held
on the Euxine sea. However, as he doubted not but
Amurath would soon attempt to become master of the
city itself, he renewed the union between the Greek
and Latin churches, hoping that this would induce
the western princes to assist him in the defence of the
city against the Turks. This union produced great
disturbances, which the emperor did not long survive,
but died in 1448, leaving the empire, now confined
within the walls of Constantinople, to his brother Con¬
stantine.
Amurath the Turkish sultan died in 1450, and was
succeeded by his son Mohammed. In the beginning
of his reign he entered into an alliance with Constan¬
tine, and pretended a great desire to live in friend¬
ship with him and the other Christian princes ; but no
sooner had he put an end to a war in which he was
engaged with Ibrahim king of Caramania, than he
built a strong fort on the European side of the Bospho¬
rus, opposite to another in Asia ; in both of which he
placed strong garrisons. These two castles command¬
ed the straits : and the former being but five miles
from the city, kept it in a manner blocked up. This
soon produced a misunderstanding between him and
162 the emperor, which ended in the siege of the city,
island- The siege commenced on the sixth of April I453i
sle be- Mohammed’s numerous forces covering the plains be-
’lijjjjJ fore it on the land-side, and a fleet of 300 sail block-
d. ing it up by sea. The emperor, however, had taken
care to secure the haven, in which were three large
ships, 20 small ones, and a great number of galleys,
by means of a chain drawn across the entrance. Mo¬
hammed began the siege by planting batteries as near
the city as he could, and raising mounts in several pla¬
ces as high as the walls themselves, whence the be¬
sieged were incessantly galled with showers of arrows.
He had in his camp a piece of ordnance of prodigious
size, which is said to have carried a ball of 100 pounds
weight made of hard black stone brought from the
Euxine sea. With this vast piece the enemy made
several breaches in the walls; which, however, were
repaired with incredible expedition by the besieged.
But Mohammed, the better to carry on the siege,
caused new levies to be made through his extensive
dominions, by which his army was soon increased to .
near 400,000 men ; while the garrison consisted only
of 9000 regular troops, viz. 6000 Greeks and 3000
Genoese and Venetians. As the enemy continued to
batter the walls day and night without intermission, a Constan-
great part of them was at last beaten down ; but while tinopolitan
the Turks were busy in filling up the ditch, in order , il'sl°1-y' ,
to give the assault, a new wall was built. This threw
the tyrant into a prodigious rage, which was greatly
heightened when he saw bis whole fleet worsted by five
ships, four of which were laden with corn from Pelo¬
ponnesus, and the other with all manner of provisions
from the isle of Chios. These opened themselves a
way through the whole Turkish fleet ; and, to the in¬
expressible joy of the Christians, at last got safe into
the harbour. 163
The Turks attempted several times to force the ha-He conteys
ven ; but all their efforts proving ineffectual, Moham- S°
med formed a design of conveying 80 galleys over land jia.
for the space of eight miles into it. This he accom-yen-
plished by means of certain engines, the contrivance of
a renegado; and having then either taken or sunk all
the ships contained in it, he caused a bridge to be built
over it with surprising expedition. By this means the
city was laid open to an assault from that side like¬
wise. The place was now assaulted on all sides ; and
Constantine being well apprised that he could not long
hold out against such a mighty fleet and so numerous
an army, sent deputies to Mohammed offering to ac¬
knowledge himself his vassal, by paying him yearly
what tribute he should think proper to impose, pro¬
vided he raised the siege and withdrew. The tyrant
answered that he was determined at all events to be¬
come master of the city : but if the emperor delivered
it up forthwith, he would yield up to him Peloponne¬
sus, and other provinces to his brothers, which they
should enjoy peaceably as friends and allies : but if
he held out to the last extremity, and suffered it to be
taken by assault, he would put him and the whole no¬
bility to the sword, abandon the city to be plunder¬
ed by his soldiers, and carry the inhabitants into capti-
vity- ...
This condition was rashly rejected by the emperor ;
who thereby involved himself and all his subjects in the
most terrible calamity. The siege was renewed with
more vigour than ever, and continued till the 25th of
May ; when a report being spread in the Turkish camp a mutiny
that a mighty army was advancing in full march to the in the
relief of the city under the conduct of the celebrated T'nk,sh
John Hunniades, the common soldiers, seized with a can:l’'
panic, began to mutiny, and pressed Mohammed in a
tumultuous manner to break up the siege. Nay, they
openly threatened him with death, if he did not imme¬
diately abandon the enterprise and retire from before
the city, which they despaired of being able to reduce
before the arrival of the supposed succours. Moham¬
med was upon the point of complying with their de¬
mand, when he was advised by Zagan, a Turkish of¬
ficer of great intrepidity, and an irreconcileable enemy
to the Christian name, to give without loss of time a
general assault. To this he said the soldiery, however
mutinous, would not be averse, provided the sultan so¬
lemnly promised to abandon the city to be plundered
by them. As such an advice best suited the humour of
Mohammed, he readily embraced it; and caused a
proclamation to be published throughout the camp, de¬
claring that he gave up to his soldiers all the wealth
of that opulsnt'city, requiring to himself only the empty
houses.
The
CON [ 592 ] CON
Constan- The desire of plunder soon got the better of that
tinopolitan fear which had seized the Turkish army ; and they una-
, -ii!!toiy- nimously desired to be led on to the attack. Here¬
upon Constantine was summoned for the last time to
deliver up the city, with a promise of his life and li¬
berty j but to this he answered, that he was unalter-
1S5 ably determined either to defend the city or to perish
A general with it. The attack began at three in the morning
assault: gi- on Tuesday the 29th of May $ such troops were first
employed as the sultan valued least, and designed them
for no other purpose than to tire the Christians, who
made a prodigious havock of that disorderly multi¬
tude. After the carnage had lasted some hours, the
Janizaries and other fresh troops advanced in good or¬
der, and renewed the attack with incredible vigour.
The Christians, summoning all their courage and re¬
solution, twice repulsed the enemy : but being in the
end quite spent, they were no longer able to stand
their ground ; so that the enemy in several places
broke into the city. In the mean time Justiniani, the
commander of the Genoese and a select body of
Greeks, having received two wounds, one in the
thigh, and the other in the hand, was so disheartened,
that he caused himself to he conveyed to Galata, where
he soon after died of grief. His men, dismayed at
166 the sudden flight of their general, immediately quitted
Bravery of their posts and fled in the utmost confusion. How-
the empe- ever, the emperor, attended with a few of the most re¬
solute among the nobility, still kept his post, striving
with unparalleled resolution to oppose the multitude
of barbarians that now broke in from every quarter.
But being in the end overpowered with numbers, and
, seeing all his friends lie dead on the ground, ti What!
He is kill- (cried he aloud) is there no Christian left alive to
ed. strike off my head ?” He had scarce uttered these
words, when one of the enemy, not knowing him, gave
him a deep cut across the face with his sabre; and at
the same time, another coming behind him, with a blow
16S on ^ie hack part of his head laid him dead on the
The town ground. After the death of the emperor, the few
plundered, 'Christians that were left alive betook themselves to
habitants11 ’ an<* ^ ^'urlcs meeting with no further oppo-
massacred. s^on’ stored the city, which they filled with blood
and slaughter. They gave no quarter, but put all they
met to the sword, without distinction. Many thou¬
sands took refuge in the church of St Sophia, but they
were all massacred in their asylum by the enraged bar¬
barians j who, prompted by their natural cruelty, the
desire of revenge, and love of booty, spared no place
nor person. Most of the nobility were, by the sultan’s
orders, cut off, and the rest kept for purposes more
grievous than death itself. Many of the inhabitants,
among whom were some men of great learning, found
means to make their escape while the Turks were bu¬
sied in plundering the city. These embarking on five
ships then in the harbour, arrived safe in Italy .-, where,
with the study of the Greek tongue, they revived the
liberal sciences, which had long been neglected in the
west. After the expiration of three days, Moham¬
med commanded his soldiers to forbear all further hos¬
tilities on pain of death: and then put an end to as
cruel a pillage and massacre as any mentioned in hi¬
story. The next day he made his public and trium¬
phal entry into Constantinople, and chose it for the seat
3
of the Turkish empire, which it has continued to be Consta
ever since. tinopolit
This city is now called by the Turks Istampol, and hbtor
by the Greeks Istampoli or Stampoli. It is seated at, ^onsta
the eastern extremity of Romania, on a small neck of l6()
land which advances towards Natolia, from which it Pretent
is separated by a channel of a mile in breadth. The*tateof
sea of Marmora washes its walls on the south, and a^-
gulf of the channel of Constantinople does the same
on the north. It is delightfully situated between the
Black sea and the Archipelago, from whence it is sup¬
plied with all necessaries. The grand seignior’s palace,
called the Seraglio, is seated on the sea-side, and is sur¬
rounded with walls flanked with towers, and separated
from the city by canals. It is said the harbour will easi¬
ly hold 1200 ships. The number of houses is very great,
but in general they are mean, especially on the out¬
side, where there are few or no windows j and the streets
being narrow, gives them a melancholy look. They
reckon that there are 3770 streets, small and great: but
they are seldom or never clean ; and the people are in¬
fested with the plague almost every year. The inha¬
bitants are half Turks, two-thirds of the other half
Christians, and the rest Jews. The number of inhabi¬
tants has been variously estimated from 200,000 to
700,000. Probably Eton’s calculation is pretty near the
truth j he estimates the population at 300,000. Here
are a great number of ancient monuments still remain¬
ing, and particularly the superb temple of Sophia, which
is turned into a mosque, and far surpasses all the rest.
The street called Adrianople is the longest and broadest
in the city j and the bazars, or besteins, are the markets
for selling all sorts of merchandise. The old and the new
are pretty near each other $ and are large square
buildings, covered with domes, and supported by arches
and pilasters. The new is the best, and contains all
sorts of goods which are there exposed to sale. The
market for slaves of both sexes, is not far off j and
the Jews are the principal merchants, who bring them
here to be sold. There are a great number of young
girls brought from Hungary, Greece, Candia, Russia,
Mingrelia, and Georgia, for the service of the Turks,
who generally buy them fqr their seraglios. The great
square, near the mosque of Sultan Bajazet, is the
place for public diversions, where the jugglers and
mountebanks play a great variety of tricks. The cir¬
cumference of this city is by some said to be 15 miles,
and by M. Tournefort 23 miles 5 to which if we add
the suburbs, it may be 34 miles in compass. The
suburb called Fera is charmingly situated} and is the
place where the ambassadors of England, France,
Venice, and Holland reside. This city is built in
the form of a triangle j and as the ground rises gra¬
dually, there is a view of the whole town from the
sea. The public buildings, such as the palaces,
the mosques, bagnios, and caravansaries, are many
of them magnificent. E. Long. 29. 20. N. Lat.
41. 4.
CONSTAT, in Law, the name of a certificate
which the clerk of the pipe and auditors of the ex¬
chequer make at the request of any person who intends
to plead or move in that court for the discharge of any
thing; and the effect of it is, the certifying what does
constare upon record touching the matter in question.
CON
[ 593 ]
CON
nstat —A constat is held to be superior to a certificate $
II, because this may err or fail in its contents j that can-
^!t0' not, as certifying nothing but what is evident upon re-
y—cord.
Also the exemplification under the great seal of the
inrolment of any letters patent is called a constat.
CONSTELLATION, in Astronomy) a system of
several stars that are seen in the heavens near to one
another. Astronomers not only mark out the stars,
but, that they may better bring them into order, they
distinguish them by their situation and position in
respect to each other 5 and therefore they distribute
them into asterisms or constellations, allowing several
stars to make up one constellation : and for the better
distinguishing and observing them, they reduce the
constellations to the forms of animals, as men, bulls,
bears, &c.; or to the images of some things known, as
of a crown, a harp, a balance, &c. j or give them the
names of those whose memories, in consideration of some
notable exploit, they had a mind to transmit to future
ages.
The division of the stars by images and figures is of
great antiquity, and seems to be as old as astronomy it¬
self: for in the most ancient book of Job, Orion, Arc-
turns, and the Pleiades, are mentioned : and we meet
with the names of many of the constellations in the writ¬
ings of the first poets, Homer and Hesiod.
The ancients, in their division of the firmament,
took in only so much as came under their notice, dis¬
tributing it into 48 constellations ; but the modern
astronomers comprehend the whole starry firmament,
dividing it into three regions. See Astronomy
Index.
CONSTERNATION is defined by ethical writers
to be an excess of horror, owing to the ill government
of our admiration and fear: or such an immoderate de¬
gree of fear as confounds the faculties, and incapaci¬
tates a person for consultation and execution.
CONSTIPATION, in Medicine, a hardness of the
belly, with great costiveness. See COSTIVENESS.
CONSTITUENT PART, in Physiology, an essen¬
tial part in the composition of any thing, differing
little from what is otherwise called element or prin¬
ciple.
CONSTITUTION, in matters of policy, signifies
the form of government established in any country or
kingdom.
CONSTITUTION also denotes an ordinance, decision,
regulation, or law, made by authority of any superior,
ecclesiastical or civil.
Apostolical Constitutions, a collection of regula¬
tions attributed to the Apostles, and supposed to have
been collected by St Clement, whose name they like¬
wise bear.
It is the general opinion, however, that they are
*purious, and that St Clement had no hand in them.
They appeared first in the 4th age, but have been
much changed and corrupted since that time. They
are divided into eight books, consisting of a great num- Constitu*
her of rules and precepts, relating to the duties of Chri- n.
stians, and particularly the ceremonies and discipline 0f ^ o;isUKtoi
the church. Mr Whiston, in opposition to the general
opinion, asserts them to be a part of the sacred writings,
dictated by the Apostles in their meetings, and written
down from their own mouths by St Clement j and in¬
tended as a supplement to the New Testament, or ra¬
ther as a system of Christian faith and polity. The rea¬
son why the Constitutions are suspected by the orthodox,
and perhaps the reason also why their genuineness is
defended by Mr Whiston, is, that they seem to favour
Arianism.
Constitution, in a physical sense, signifies the par¬
ticular temperature of the body.
It is curious to observe, says Dr Percival, the revo¬
lution which hath taken place, within this century, in
the constitutions of the inhabitants of Europe. Inflam¬
matory diseases more rarely occur, and, in general,
are much less rapid and violent in their progress than
formerly (a) j nor do they admit of the same antiphlo¬
gistic method of cure that was practised with success
IOO years ago. The experienced Sydenham makes 40
ounces of blood the mean quantity to be drawn in the
acute rheumatism ; whereas this disease, as it now ap¬
pears in the London hospitals, vrill not bear above half
that evacuation. Vernal intermittents are frequently
cured by a vomit and the bark, without venesection ;
which is a proof that at present they are accompanied
with fewer symptoms of inflammation than they were
wont to be. This advantageous change, however, is
more than counterbalanced by the introduction of a
numerous class of nervous ailments, in a great mea¬
sure unknown to our ancestors •, but which now prevail
universally, and are complicated with almost every
other distemper. The bodies of men are enfeebled
and enervated ; and it is not uncommon to observe
very high degrees of irritability, under the external
appearance of great strength and robustness. The
hypochondria, palsies, cachexies, dropsies, and all those,
diseases which arise from laxity and debility, are in
our days endemic everywhere ; and the hysterics,
which used to be peculiar to the women, as the name
itself indicates, now attack both sexes indiscriminate¬
ly. It is evident that so great a revolution could not
be effected without a concurrence of many causes ; but
amongst these (according to Dr Percival), the pre¬
sent general use of tea * holds the first and principal * See TVw,
rank. The second place may perhaps be allowed to
excess in spirituous liquors. This pernicious custom,
in many instances at least, owes its rise to the former,
which, by the lowness and depression of spirits it oc¬
casions, renders it almost necessary to have recourse to
something cordial and exhilarating. And hence pro¬
ceed those odious and disgraceful habits of intempe¬
rance, with which many of the softer sex are now, alas !
chargeable.
CONSTRICTOR, an appellation given to several
muscles,
(a) The decrease in the violence of inflammatory diseases may perhaps in part be ascribed to the present im¬
proved method of treating them. Moderate evacuations, cool air, acescent diet, and the liberal use of saline and
antimonial medicines, are better adapted to check the progress of fevers, than copious bleedings, stimulating pur¬
gatives-, and profuse sweats excited by theriaca and mithridate.
Vol. VI. Part II. f 4 F
CON [ 594 ] CON
Constrictor muscles, on account of their constringing or closing
1! some of the orifices of the body.
Consuada^ CONSTRUCTION, in Geometry, is the drawing
such lines, such a figure, &c. as are previously neces¬
sary for making any demonstration appear more plain
and undeniable.
Construction of Equations. See Equations.
Construction, in Grammar; syntax, or the ar¬
ranging and connecting the words of a sentence accord¬
ing to the rules of the language. See Grammar and
Language.
The construction is generally more simple, easy, and
direct, in the modern tongues than in the ancient: we
have very few of those inversions which occasion so much
embarrassment and obscurity in the Latin; our thoughts
are usually delivered in the same order wherein the
imagination conceives them : the nominative case, for
instance, always precedes the verb, and the verb goes
before the oblique cases it governs.
The Greeks and Latins, M. St Evremont observes,
usually end their periods, where, in good sense and
reason, they should have begun ; and the elegance of
their language consists, in some measure, in this capri¬
cious arrangement, or rather in this transposal and dis¬
order of the words. See Language.
Construction of Statutes, among lawyers. See
Law Index.
CONSUALIA, in antiquity, feasts which were held
among the ancients, in honour of the god Consus, i. e.
Neptune ; different from those other feasts of the same
deity called Neptunalia. They were introduced with a
magnificent cavalcade, or procession on horseback ; be¬
cause Neptune was reputed to have first taught men
the use of horses ; whence his surname of 'iTrxtag, Eque-
sti'is.
Evander is said to have first instituted this feast: it
was re-established by Romulus, under the name of
Consus; because it was some god under the denomina¬
tion of Consus that suggested to him the rape of the
Sabines. It is said, that it was with a view to this
rape that he made that establishment. This, however,
is certain, that it was to this feast all his neighbours
were invited ; when, taking advantage of the solem¬
nities and sacrifices, he seized the women. To draw
the greater concourse of people, he gave out, that he
had found an altar hid under ground, which he intend¬
ed to consecrate, with sacrifices to the god to whom
it had been originally erected. Those who take upon
them to explain the mysteries of the heathen theology,
say, that the altar hid under ground is a symbol of
the secret design of Romulus to seize Ins neighbours
wives.
The consualia were of the number of feasts called
sacred ; as being consecrated to a divinity. Original¬
ly they were not distinguished from those of the cir¬
cus ; whence it is, that Valerius Maximus says, that
the rape of the Sabines was effected at the games of the
circus.
Plutarch observes, that during the days of this so¬
lemnity, horses and asses were left at rest, and were
dressed up with crowns, &c. on account of its being
the feast of Neptunus Equestris. Festus says, the ca¬
valcade was performed with mules ; it being an opi¬
nion, that this was the first animal used to draw the
ear.
Servius gives us to understand, that the consualia Comu,
fell on the 13th of August; Plutarch, in the life of |j
Romulus, placed them on the 18th, and the old Roman C034’
kalendar on the 2lst of that month. vr v
CONSUBSI AN1 1AL, in Theology, a term of
like import with co-essential ; denoting something of
the same substance with another. The orthodox be¬
lieve the Son of God to be consubstantial with the Fa¬
ther.
The term consubstantial, was first adopted
by the fathers of the councils of Antioch and Nice, to
express the orthodox doctrine, the more precisely, and
to serve as a barrier and precaution against the errors
and subtleties of the Arians ; who owned every thing
excepting the consubstantiality.
The Arians allowed, that the Word was God, as
having been made God ; but they denied that he was
the same God, and of the same substance with the Fa¬
ther : accordingly they exerted themselves to the ut¬
most to abolish the use of the word. The emperor
Constantine used all his authority with the bishops to
have it expunged out of the symbols; but it still
maintained itself, and is at this day, as it was then, the
distinguishing criterion between an Athanasian and an
Arian.
Sandius will have it, that the word consubstantial
was unknown till the time of the council of Nice; but
it is certain it had been before proposed to the council
of Antioch, wherein Paulus Samosatenus had been con¬
demned ; though it had there the fortune to be reject¬
ed. Curcellaeus, on the other hand, maintains that it
was an innovation in doctrine in the council of Nice,
to admit an expression, the use whereof had been abo¬
lished by the council of Antioch.
According to St Athanasius, the word consubstan¬
tial was only condemned in the council of Antioch,
inasmuch as it implied the idea of a pre-existent mat¬
ter, prior to the things formed thereof; now, in this
sense, it is certain, the Father and the Son are not
consubstantial, there having been no pre-existent mat¬
ter.
CONSUBSTANTIATION, a tenet of the Lu¬
theran church with regard to the manner of the change
made in the bread and wine in the eucharist. The di¬
vines of that profession maintain, that after consecra¬
tion, the body and blood of our Saviour, are substan¬
tially present, together with the substance of the bread
and wine, which is called consubstantiation, or impana-
tion.
CONSUL, the chief magistrate of the Roman com¬
monwealth, invested with regal authority for the space
of one year. They were two in number, called consuls
a consulendo, and annually chosed in the Campus Mar-
tius. The two first consuls were L. Jun. Brutus, and
L. Tarquinius Collatinus, chosen in the year of Rome
244, after the expulsion of the Tarquins. In the first
times of the republic the two consuls were always cho¬
sen from patrician families or noblemen, but the peo¬
ple obtained the privilege in the year of Rome 388,
of electing one of the consuls from their own body,
and sometimes both were plebeians. The first consul
among the plebeians was L. Sextius. It was required
that every candidate for the consulship should be 43
years of age, called legitimum tempus. He was always
to appear at the election as a private man without a
retinue,
CON l 595 1 CON
retinue, and it was requisite before he canvassed for
i  ' the office to have discharged the functions of quaestor,
edile, and piaetor. Sometimes these qualifications
were disregarded. Val. Corvinus was made a consul
in his 23d year, and Scipio in his 24th. Young Ma¬
rius, Pompey, and Augustus, were also under the pro¬
per age, when they were invested with the office, and
Pompey had never been quaestor or praetor. The power
of the consuls was unbounded, and they knew no
superior but the gods and the laws ; but after the ex¬
piration of their office their conduct was minutely scru¬
tinized by the people, and misbehaviour was often pu¬
nished by the laws. The badge of their office was
the prtxtexta, a robe fringed with purple, afterwards
exchanged for the toga picta or palmata. They were
preceded by 12 lictors carrying the fasces or bundles of
sticks, in the middle of which appeared an axe. The
axe, as being the characteristic rather of tyranny than
of freedom, was taken away from the fasces by Vale¬
rius Poplicola, but it was restored by his successor.
They took it by turns monthly to be preceded by the
lictors while at Rome, lest the appearance of two per¬
sons with the badges of royal authority should raise
apprehensions in the multitude. While one appeared
publicly in state, only a crier walked before the other,
and the lictors followed behind without the fasces.
Their authority was equal •, yet the Valerian law gave
the right of priority to the older, and the Julian law
to him who had most children ; and he was generally
called consul major or prior. As their power was ab¬
solute, they presided over the senate, and could con¬
vene and dismiss it at pleasure. The senators were
their counsellors ; and among the Romans the manner
of reckoning their year was by the name of the con¬
suls, and by M. Tull. Cicerone et L. Antonio Consulibus,
for instance, the year of Rome 689 was always under¬
stood. This custom lasted from the year of Rome 244
till 1294, or the 541st year of the Christian era. In
public assemblies the consuls sat in ivory chairs, and
held in their hand an ivory wand called scipio eburneus,
which had an eagle on its top as a sign of dignity and
power. When they had drawn by lot the provinces
over which they were to preside during their consul¬
ship, they went to the capitol to offer their prayers to
the gods, and intreat them to protect the republic \
after this they departed from the city arrayed in their
military dress and preceded by the lictors. Sometimes
the provinces were assigned them without drawing by
lot, by the will and appointment of the senators. At
their departure they were provided by the state with
whatever was requisite during their expedition. In
their provinces they were both attended by the 12 lic¬
tors, and equally invested with regal authority. They
were not permitted to return to Rome without the
special command of the senate ; and they always re¬
mained in the province till the arrival of their succes¬
sor. At their return they harangued the people, and
solemnly protested that they had done nothing against
the laws or interest of their country, but had faith¬
fully and diligently endeavoured to promote the great¬
ness and welfare of the state. No man could be con¬
sul two following years ; yet this institution was some¬
times broken, and we find Marius re-elected consul
after the expiration of his office during the Cimbrian
war. The office of consul, so dignified during the
times of the commonwealth, became a mere title under Consul
the emperors, and retained nothing of its authority but H
the useless ensigns of original dignity. Even the dura- Contagion,
tion of the office, which was originally annual, was re¬
duced to two or three months by Julius Caesar; but
they who were admitted on the first of January deno¬
minated the year, and were called ordinarii. Their
successors during the year were distinguished by the
name of sujfecti. Tiberius and Claudius abridged
the time of the consulship ; and the emperor Commo-
dus made no less than 25 consuls in one year. Con¬
stantine the Great renewed the original institution, and
permitted them to be a whole year in office.
Consul, at present, is an officer established by vir¬
tue of a commission from the king and other princes,
in all foreign countries of any considerable trade, to
facilitate and dispatch business, and protect the mer¬
chants of the nation. The consuls are to keep up a
correspondence with the ministers of England residing
in the courts whereon their consulate depends. They
are to support the commerce and the interest of the
nation ; to dispose of the sums given and the presents
made to the lords and principals of places, to obtain
their protection, and prevent the insults of the natives
on the merchants of the nation.
CONSUMMATION, the end, period, or comple¬
tion of any work. Thus, we say, the consummation of
all things, meaning the end of the world. By the in¬
carnation, all the prophecies are said to be consummated.
See Prophecy and Accomplishment.
Consummation of Marriage, denotes .the last act
of marriage, which makes its accomplishment; or the
most intimate union between the married pair, &c.
CONSUMPTION, in Medicine, a word of very
extensive signification, implies all disorders that bring
any decay or waste upon the constitution ; but is most
commonly used for the phthisis puhnonalis. See Me¬
dicine Index.
Consumption, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
CONSUS, the pagan god of counsel. He had an
altar under ground in the great circus at Rome, to
show that counsel ought to be kept secret. See CoN-
SUALIA.
. CONTACT, is when one line, plane, or body, is
made to touch another; and the parts that do thus
touch are called the points qy places of contact.
CONTAGION, in Physic, the communicating a
disease from one body to another. In some diseases
it is only effected by an immediate contact or touch,
as in syphilis; in others it is conveyed by infected
clothes ; and in others it is supposed to be transmitted
through the air at a considerable distance, by means
of steams or effluvia arising from the sick, as in the
plague and other pestilential disorders, in which case
the air is said to be contagious, though this has been
disputed.
No attempts which have yet been made to investi-'*
gate the nature of contagion, or to ascertain the pro¬
perties of contagious matter, have proved successful.
But from the means which have been effectually em¬
ployed either to abate its virulence or to destroy it
entirely, this matter may be fairly inferred to be of a
chemical nature. We have already detailed the effects
of the fumes of muriatic acid in purifying the cathedral
of Dijon, which were successfully used by Morveau in
4 F 2 1773.
CON L 590 ] CON
Contagion. I773* Pursuing this hint, no doubt, Dr Carmichael
Smyth proposed the fumes of nitric acid. This was
tried on board different ships at Sheerness about the
year 1796; and being found to answer the purpose
of destroying the contagion which then prevailed, Dr
Smytli afterwards received a liberal reward from go¬
vernment for his discovery. These experiments were
conducted on board the Union hospital ship by Mr
Menzies surgeon of the Discovery, and Mr Bassan sur¬
geon of tbe Union. The wards at this time were
very much crowded with patients; and of 200 sick
on board, 150 were in different stages of a malignant
contagious fever, which made a very rapid progress,
and produced very fatal effects on the attendants and
ship’s company.
The materials and apparatus employed in the process
were the following : A quantity of fine sand, two dozen
quart earthen pipkins, as many common tea cups, some
lung slips of glass to be used as spatulas, a quantity of
concentrated sulphuric acid, and a quantity of saltpetre
(nitrate of potash).
The process was conducted in the following manner:
1st, All the ports and scuttles were shut up ; the sand,
previously heated in iron pots, w'as scooped out into
the pipkins with an iron ladle ; and in this heated sand,
in each pipkin, a small tea-cup was immersed, contain¬
ing about half an ounce of sulphuric acid, to which,
after it had acquired a proper degree of heat, an equal
quantity of nitrate of potash in powder was gradually
added, and the mixture stirred with a glass spatula till
the vapour arose from it in considerable quantity. The
pipkins were then carried through the wards by the
nurses and convalescents, who kept walking about with
them in their hands, occasionally putting them under
the cradles of the sick, and in every corner where any
foul air was suspected to lodge. In this manner they
continued fumigating, until the whole space between
decks, fore and aft, was filled with the vapour, which
appeared like a thick haze.
The vapour at first excited coughing among the pa¬
tients, which gradually ceased as it became more ge¬
nerally diffused through the wards : part of this effect,
however, was to be attributed to the inattention of
those who carried the pipkins, in putting them too near
the faces of the sick j which caused them to inhale
the strong vapour as it immediately issued from the
cups.
The body-clothes and bed-clothes of the sick were,
as much as possible, exposed to the nitrous vapour du¬
ring the fumigation j and all the foul linen removed
from them was immediately immersed in a tub of cold
water, afterwards carried on deck, rinsed out, and hung
up till nearly dry, and then fumigated before it was
taken to the wash-house : a precaution extremely neces¬
sary in every case of infectious disorder. Proper at¬
tention was also paid to cleanliness and ventilation.
Three hours were at first found necessary to fu¬
migate the ship. In about an hour after the va¬
pour having entirely subsided, the ports and scuttles
were thrown open for the admission of fresh air. It
could plainly be perceived that the air of the hospital
was greatly sweetened even after this first fumigation.
Ihe process was repeated again next morning j and
the people employed, being now more expert, finished
the whole in about an hour’s time. In an hour after-
3
wards, the vapour having entirely subsided, the fresh CohU
air was freely admitted into the hospital as before. 1 !
Fewer pipkins were employed for the evening fumiga¬
tions than for those of the mornings, as the fresh air
could not be admitted so freely after the former as the
latter.
The pleasing and immediate effect of the fumigation
in destroying the offensive and disagreeable smell, arising
from so many sick crowded together, was now very
perceptible, even to the attendants 5 the consequence
of which was, that they began to place some degree
of confidence in its efficacy, and approached the cradles
of the infected with less dread of being attacked with
the disorder : thus the sick were better attended, and
the duty of the hospital was more regularly and more
cheerfully performed.
From the 26th of November 1795, when the fumi¬
gation was first resorted to, till the 25th of December,
not a person on hoard was attacked with the fever,
though, in the three months preceding, more than one-
third of all the people in the ship had been seized with
the distemper, and of these more than one in four
were carried off by it j and the probability is, that the
sickness and mortality would have gone on, increasing
in proportion to the diffusion of the contagion,, and
to the increasing despondency of the people, who con¬
sidered themselves as so many devoted victims.
The advantage of the fumigation was not felt by the
ship’s company and attendants alone, whom it preserved
from the baneful effects of the fever : the sick and con¬
valescents derived almost an equal benefit from it. The
symptoms of the disease became milder, and lost much
of their malignant appearance ; and the advantage of a
pure and sweet air to convalescents must be obvious.
Great confidence is always dangerous. It proved so
on the present occasion. On the 17th of December
they imagined themselves so secure, that they discon¬
tinued the custom of fumigating morning and evening,,
thinking that once a-day was sufficient. On the 25th,
one of the nurses sufi’ered a slight attack ; and on the
26th a marine, who, for a week before, had been in a
state of intoxication, was seized with the fever, and
died. These two accidents gave immediate alarm :
they returned again to the practice of fumigating twice
a-day ; and from that time to the extermination of the
disorder, there was not an instance of a person suffering
from contagion on hoard the ship.
The success of the experiment was not confined to
the Union : the power of the nitrous vapour to destroy
contagion was equally displayed on board some Rus¬
sian ships then in the Downs. The safety, too, with
which it may be employed, in any situation, without
inconvenience or risk of fire, is another great recom¬
mendation in its favour.
It will not be difficult from this description to em¬
ploy this kind of fumigation. It is only necessary to
observe, for the sake of those who may not be versant
in chemical pursuits, that the ingredients ought to be
pure, and neither metal vessels nor rods should be used.
Any kind of metal getting among the ingredient!
would cause the vapour to be very noxious instead of
salutary. The fumes that rise should be white ; if
they are of a red colour, there is reason to suspect th»
purity of the ingredients.
The importance of this discovery need not be insisted
on ;
CON [ 597 ] CON
ntas'ion on : it is equally applicable to every species of putrid
y contagion, even to the plague itself. It should there-
Conti- f0I.e foe used in all hospitals and parish workhouses $
aelice. i,e constantly resorted to by the proprietors
of all large works, on the first appearance of infectious
disease among the people employed in them :—indeed,
it should be employed even as a preventive in all si¬
tuations where a number of people, from the nature of
their business, are obliged to be crowded together, or
where, from local circumstances, there are reasons for
suspecting that the purity of the air is injured by
noxious exhalations or other causes. If there be any
circumstances in which its utility may be called in
question, it can only be in cases of inflammatory dis¬
eases : for, in such, super-oxygenation has been found
hurtful.
CONTEMPLATION, an act of the mind, where¬
by it applies itself to consider and reflect upon the works
of God, nature, &c.
CONTEMPORARY, or Cotemporary, a per-
•on or thing that existed in the same age with another.
Thus, Socrates, Plato, and Aristophanes, were con¬
temporaries.
CONTEMPT, in a general sense, the act of de-
•pisiug, or the state of being despised.
Contempt, in Law, is a disobedience to the rules
and orders of a court, which hath power to punish such
offence *, and as this is sometimes a greater, and some¬
times a lesser offence, so it is punished with greater or
less punishment, by fine, and sometimes by imprison¬
ment.
CONTENT, in Geometry, the area or quantity of
matter or space included in certain bounds.
CONTESSA, a port-town of Turkey in Europe, in
the province of Macedonia, situated on a bay of the
Archipelago, about 200 miles west of Constantinople.
E. Long. 24. N. Lat. 40. 30.
CONTEXT, among divines and critics, that part
of Scripture or other writing which lies about the text,
before or after it, or both. To take the full and ge¬
nuine sense of the text, the context should be regard¬
ed.
CONTEXTURE, a word frequently used in speak¬
ing both of the works of nature and art j and denoting
the disposition and union of the constituent parts with
respect to one another.
CONTI, a town of Picardy in France, with the
title of a principality. It is seated on the river Seilie,
in E. Long. 2. 17. N. Lat. 49. 54.
CONTIGUITY, in Geometry, is when the surface
of one body touches that of another.
CONTIGUOUS, a relative term understood of
things disposed so near each other, that they join their
surfaces, or touch. The houses in ancient Rome were
not contiguous as ours are, but all insulated.
CONTINENCE, in Ethics, a moral virtue, by
which we resist concupiscence. It should seem that
there is this distinction between chastity and continence,
in that it requires no effort to be chaste, which results
from constitution $ whereas continence appears to be the
consequence of a victory gained over ourselves. The
verb continere, in the Latin, signifies “ to restrain.”
The term, however, is most usually applied to men j as
chastity is to women. See Chastity.
Continence is a virtue that makes but an inconsider¬
able figure in our days. However, we ought not to Conti-
lose our ideas of things, though we have debauched our nence.
true relish in our practice : for, after all, solid virtue v
will keep its place in the opinion ot the wise and sen¬
sible part of mankind. And though custom has not
made it so scandalous as it ought to be to ensnare in¬
nocent women, and triumph in the falsehood ; such ac¬
tions as we shall relate must be accounted true gallan¬
try, and rise higher in our esteem the farther they are
removed from our imitation.
I. Scipio the Younger, when only 24 years of age,Livy, Val.
was appointed by the Roman republic to the command Maxmw,
of the army against the Spaniards. His wisdom and^10,
valour would have done honour to the most experienced
general. Determined to strike an important blow, he
forms a design of besieging Carthagena, then the ca¬
pital of the Carthaginian empire in Spain, His mea¬
sures were so judiciously concerted, and with so much
courage and intrepidity pursued both by sea and land,
that notwithstanding a bold and vigorous defence, the
capital was taken by storm. The plunder was im¬
mense. Ten thousand free-men were made prisoners j
and above 300 more, of both sexes, were received as
hostages. One of the latter, a very ancient lady, the
wife of Mandonius, brother of Indibilis king of the
Uergetes, watching her opportunity, came out of the
crowd, and throwing herself at the conqueror’s feet,
conjured him, with tears in her eyes, to recommend
to those who had the ladies in their keeping to have
regard to their sex and birth. Scipio, who did not
understand her meaning at first, assured her that he
had given orders that they should not want for any
thing. But the lady replied, “ Those conveniences
are not what affect us. In the condition to which for¬
tune hath reduced us, with what ought we not to be
contented ! I have many other apprehensions, when I
consider, on one side, the licentiousness of war; and
on the other, the youth and beauty of the princesses
which you see here before us : for as to me, my age
protects me from all fear in this respect.” She had
with her the daughters of Indibilis, and several other
ladies of high rank, all in the flower of youth, who
considered her as their mother. Scipio then compre¬
hending what the subject of her fear was, “ My own
glory (says he) and that of the Roman people, are
concerned, in not suffering that virtue, which ought
always to be respected wherever we find it, should be
exposed in my camp to a treatment unworthy of it.
But you give me a new motive for being more strict
in my care of it, in the virtuous solicitude you show
in thinking only of the preservation of your honour,
in the midst of so many other objects of fear.” After
this conversation, he committed the care of the ladiett
to some officers of experienced prudence, strictly com¬
manding that they should treat them with all the re¬
spect they could pay to the mothers, wives, and daugh¬
ters, of their allies and particular friends. It was not
long before Scipio’s integrity and virtue were put to the
trial. Being retired in his camp, some of his officers
brought him a young virgin of such exquisite beauty,
that she drew upon her the eyes and admiration of every
body. The young conqueror started from his seat
with confusion and surprise ; and, like one thunder¬
struck, seemed to be robbed of that presence of mind
and self-possession so necessary in a general, and for
which,
CON [ 593 1 CON
Conti- which Scipio was remarkably famous. In a few mo*
Hence, ments, having rallied his straggling spirits, he inquired
0f the beautiful captive, in the most civil and polite
manner, concerning her country, birth, and connec¬
tions ; and finding that she was betrothed to a Celti-
berian prince named Aliucius, he ordered both him
and the captive’s father to be sent for. The Spanish
prince no sooner appeared in his presence, than, even
before he spake to the father and mother, he took him
aside $ and, to remove the anxiety he might be in on
account of the young lady, he addressed him in these
words : “ You and I are young, which admits of my
speaking to you with more liberty. Those who brought
me your future spouse, assured me, at the same time,
that you loved her with extreme tenderness; and her
beauty left me no room to doubt it. Upon which
reflecting, that if, like you, I had thought of making
an engagement, and were not wdiolly engrossed with
the affairs of my country, I should desire that so ho¬
nourable and legitimate a passion should find favour,
1 think myself happy in the present conjuncture to do
you this service. Though the fortune of war has made
me your master, I desire to be your friend. Here is
your wife : take her, and may the gods bless you with
her. One thing, however, I wmuld have you be fully
assured of, that she has been amongst us as she would
have been in the house of her father and mother. Far
be it from Scipio to purchase a loose and momentary
pleasure at the expence of virtue, honour, and _the
happiness of an honest man. No 5 I have kept her
for you, in order to make you a present worthy of
you and of me. The only gratitude I require of you
for th is inestimable gift is, that you would be a friend
to the Homan people.” Allucius’s heart was too full
to make him any answer ; but throwing himself at the
general’s feet, he wept aloud. The captive lady fell
into the same posture : and remained so, till the father-
burst out into the following words : “ Oh ! divine
Scipio ! the gods have given you more than human
virtue ! Oh ! glorious leader ! Oh ! wondrous youth !
does not that obliged virgin give you, while she prays
to the gods for your prosperity, raptures above all the
transports you could have reaped from the possession of
her injured person
I he relations of the young lady had brought with
them a very considerable sum for her ransom : but
when they saw that she was restored to them m so ge¬
nerous and godlike a manner, they intreated the con¬
queror, with great earnestness, to accept that sum as
a present j and declared, by his complying, that new
favour would complete their joy and gratitude. Sci-
piq, not being able to resist such a warm and earnest
solicitation, told them that he accepted the gift;
and ordered it to be laid at his feet: then addres¬
sing himself to Allucius, “ I add (says he) to the por¬
tion which you are to receive from your father-in-law
this sum j which I desire you to accept as a marriage-
present.”
If we consider that Scipio was at this time in the
prime of life, unmarried, and under no restraint, we
cannot but acknowledge, that the conquest he made
of himself was far more glorious than that of the Car¬
thaginian empire; and though his treatment of this
captive prince was not more delicate and generous than
what might jpstly be expected from a person endowed
with reason and reflection ; yet considering how few contj
there are in his circumstances who would have acted neru J
as he did, we cannot but applaud his conduct, and
propose him as a suitable example to future ages. Nor
was his virtue unrewarded. The young prince, charm¬
ed with the liberality and politeness of Scipio, went "
into his country to publish the praises of so generous
a victor. He cried out, in the transports of his gra¬
titude, “ That there was come into Spain a young
hero like the gods, who conquered all things less by
the force of his arms than the charms of his virtue
and the greatness of his beneficence.” Upon this report
all Celtiberia submitted to the Homans; and Allucius
returned in a shout to Scipio, at the head of 1400 chosen
horse, to facilitate his future conquests. To render the
marks of his gratitude still more durable, Allucius
caused the action we have just related to be engraven
on a silver shield, which he presented to Scipio, a present
infinitely more estimable and glorious than all his
treasures and triumphs. This buckler, which Scipio
carried with him when he returned to Rome, was lost,
in passing the Rhone, with part of the baggage. It
continued in that river till the year 1665, when some
fishermen found it. It was, before the revolution, in
the king of France’s cabinet.
2. The circumstance which raises Alexander the
Great above many conquerors, and, as it were, above
himself, is the use he made of his victory after the
battle of Issus. This is the most beautiful incident in
his life. It is the point of view in which it is his in¬
terest to be considered ; and it is impossible for him
not to appear truly great in that view. By the victo¬
ry of Issus he became possessed of the whole Persian
empire; not only Sysigambis, Darius’s mother, was
his captive, but also his wife and daughters, princesses
whose heauty was not to be equalled in all Asia. A-
lexander, like Scipio, was in the bloom of life, a con¬
queror, free, and not yet engaged in matrimony : ne¬
vertheless, his camp was to those princesses a sacred
asylum, or rather a temple, in which their chastity
was secured as under the guard of virtue itself; and
so highly revered, that Darius, in his expiring mo¬
ments, hearing the kind treatment they had met with,
could not help lifting up his dying hands towards hea¬
ven, and wishing success to so wise and generous a con¬
queror, who could govern his passions at so critical a
time. Plutarch informs us more particularly, that the
princesses lived so retired in the camp, according to
their own desire, that they were not seen by any per¬
son except their own attendants; nor did any other
person dare to approach their apartment. After the
first visit, which was a respectful and ceremonious one,
Alexander, to avoid exposing himself to the dangers of
human frailty, made a solemn resolution never to visit
Darius’s queen any more. He himself informs us of
this memorable circumstance, in a letter written by him
to Parmenio, in which he commanded him to put toPlutai'ck
death certain Macedonians who had forced the wives
of some foreign soldiers. In this letter was the fol¬
lowing paragraph : “ For as to myself, it will be found
that I neither saw nor would see the wife of Darius ;
and did not suffer any one to speak of her beauty before
me.”
3. Isocrates informs us, that Nicocles, king of Sa-
lamin, gloried in never having known any woman be¬
sides
CON l 599 1 CON
onti- sides his wife } and was amazed that all other contracts
eBCe, of civil society should be treated with due regard, whilst
Jiitinent that 0f marriage, the most sacred and inviolable of
obligations, was broken through with impunity-, and
that men should not blush to commit an infidelity with
respect to their wives, of which, should their wives be
guilty, it would throw them into the utmost anguish
and fury.
4. Henry VI. k ing of England, though unhappy in
his family and government, was nevertheless possessed
of many virtues. He was so remarkable for his cha¬
stity, that before his marriage he would not allow any
lady of a suspicious character and unguarded conduct
to frequent the court : and having observed one day
some ladies with their bosoms uncovered, he turned
away his eyes fi'om the indecent object, and reprimand¬
ed them smartly in the simple dialect of the times :
pin. « Fy^ fy (said he), for shame $ forsooth ye be to
blame.”
5. In the reign of King Charles II. when licentious¬
ness was at its height in Britain, a yeornan of the
guards refused the mistress of a king. The lady, who
was dissatisfied with her royal lover, had fixed her eyes
upon this man, and thought she had no more to do
than speak her pleasure. He got out of her way.
He refused to understand her; and when she pressed
him further, he said, “ I am married.” The story
reached the king, with all its circumstances j but they
who expected an extravagant laugh upon the occasion
were disappointed. He sent for the person : he found
him a gentleman, though reduced to that mean station;
and “ Odds fish, man (says he), though I am not honest
enough to be virtuous myself, I value them that are.
He gave him an appointment, and respected him for
life.
6. In many parts the poorest people are the most vir¬
tuous and honest in this respect. In the Swede’s domi¬
nion, towards the pole, there is no name for adultery.
They thought it an offence man could not commit against
man; and have no word to express it in their language.
The unpolished Lapland peasant, with these thoughts,
is, as a human creature, much more respectable than
the gay Briton, whose heart is stained with vices, and
estranged from natural affection ; and he is happier.
The perfect confidence mutually reposed between him
and the honest partner of his breast, entails a satisfac¬
tion even in the lowest poverty. It gilds the humble
hearth, and lights the cabin ; their homely meal is a
sacrifice of thanks, and every breath of smoke arises
in incense. If hand be laid upon hand, it is sure af¬
fection ; and if some infant plays about their knees,
they look upon him and upon each other with a de¬
light that greatness seldom knows, because it feels
distrust.
CONTINENT, in general, an appellation given to
things continued without interruption; in which sense
we say, continent fever, &c.
Continent, in Geography, a great extent of land
not interrupted by seas, in contradistinction to island
and peninsula, &c. See Geography. Sicily is said
to have been anciently torn from the continent of Italy;
and it is an old tradition, which some of our antiquaries
still have a regard to, that Britain was formerly a part
of the continent of France.
The world is usually divided into two great con- Continent
tinents, the old and the new. Whether there exists ||
in the southern hemisphere another continent, or the Eontor.
whole be only an immense watery region, is a ques- v~
tion that for near three centuries has engaged the at¬
tention of the learned as well as the commercial
world, and given rise to many interesting voyages
and discoveries; concerning which, see the article
Soum-Sea.
CONTINGENT, something casual or unusual.—
Hence future contingent denotes a conditional event
which may or may not happen, according as circum¬
stances fall out.
Contingent, is also a term of relation for the
quota that falls to any person upon a division. Thus
each prince of Germany in time of war is to furnish so
many men, so much money, and munition, for his con¬
tingent.
CONTINUED, or Continual, in a general
sense, means incessant, or proceeding without inter¬
ruption.
Continued Fever, is such a one as sometimes re¬
mits, but never intermits or goes entirely off till its
period.
Continued Bass, in Music, thus called, says Rous¬
seau, because it is continued through the whole piece.
Its principal use, besides that of regulating the harmony,
is to support the voice, and preserve the tone.—rlhey
pretend that it was one Ludovico Viana, of whom a
treatise still remains, who towards the end of the last
century first put the continued bass in practice.
Continued Proportion, in Arithmetic, is that where
the consequent of the first ratio is the same with the
antecedent of the second ; as 4 : 8 :: 8 : 16 ; in contra¬
distinction to discrete proportion.
CONTINUITY, is defined by some schoolmen the
immediate cohesion of parts in the same quantum : by
others, a mode of body, whereby its extremities be¬
come one : and by others, a state of body resulting
from the mutual implication of its parts. There are
two kinds of continuity, mathematical and physical.
The first is merely imaginary, since it supposes real
or physical parts where there are none. The other,
or physical continuity, is that state of two or more
particles, in which their parts are so mutually impli¬
cated as to constitute one uninterrupted quantity or
continuum.
CONTINUO, in Music, signifies the thorough bass,
as basso continuo is the continual or thorough bass,
which is sometimes marked in music-books by the let¬
ters B. C.
CONTOBABDITES, a sect in the sixth century.
Their first leader was Severus of Antioch ; who was
succeeded by John the grammarian, surnamed Philo-
ponus, and one Theodosius, whose followers were also
called Theodosians. Part of them, who were willing to
receive a book composed by Theodosius on the I rinity,
made a separate body, and were called Contobabdttes,
from some place, which Nicephorus does not mention,
but which must apparently have been the place where
they held their assemblies. Jhe Contobabdites allow¬
ed of no bishops ; which is the only circumstance given
us concerning them.
CONTOR, Condor, or Cundur, the American
name
CON [ 600 ] CON
Gontor name of a species of VULTURE, See ORNITHOLOGY
|| Index.
Contra- CONTORSION, in general, signifies the action of
ba”^* twisting or wresting a member of the body out ol its
natural situation. Rope-dancers accustom themselves
to contorsions of their limbs from their youth, to render
the fibres of their articulations lax, and supple to all
kinds of postures.
Contorsion, in Medicine, has many significations.
1. It denotes the iliac passion. 2. An incomplete dis¬
location, when a bone is in part, but not entirely, forced
from its articulation. 3. A dislocation of the vertebrae
of the back sidewise, or crookedness of these vertebrse.
And, 4. A disorder of the head, in which it is drawn
towards one side, either by a spasmodic contraction of
the muscles on the same side, or a palsy of the antago¬
nist muscles on the other.
CONTORIYE, the name of the 30th order in Lin¬
naeus’s Fragments of a natural method, consisting of
plants which have a single petal, which is twisted or bent
to one side. This order contains the following genera,
viz. echites, cerbera, gardenia, genipa, nvicrocnemum,
nerium, periploca, rawolfia, tabernaemontana, vinca,
apocynum, asclepias, comeraria, ceropegia, cyoanchum,
plumeria, stapelia. See Botany Index.
CONTOUR, in Painting, the outline, or that which
defines a figure.
A great part of the skill of the painter lies in ma-
». ging the contours well. Contour, with the Italian
pointers, signifies the lineaments of the face.
CONTOURNE, in Heraldry, is used when a beast
•is represented standing or running with its face to
the sinister side of the escutcheon, they being always
supposed to look to the right, if not otherwise ex¬
pressed.
CONTOURNIATED, a term among antiquaries
applied to medals, the edges of which appear as ifturn-
ed in a lathe. This sort of work seems to have had its
origin in Greece ; and to have been designed to perpe¬
tuate the memories of great men, particularly those who
had borne away the prize at the solemn games. Such
are those remaining of Homer, Solon, Euclid, Pytha¬
goras, Socrates, and several athletae.
CONTRA-Harmonical Proportion, is that rela¬
tion of three terms, in which the difference of the first
and second is to the difference of the second and third,
as the third is to the first. Thus, for instance, 3, 3,
and 6, are numbers contra-harmonically proportional j
for 2 : 1 :: 6 : 3.
CoNTRA-Mure, in Fortification, is a little wall built
before another partition wall, to strengthen it, so that
it may receive no damage from the adjacent build¬
ings.
CONTRABAND, in Commerce, a prohibited com¬
modity or merchandise, bought or sold, imported or
exported, in prejudice to the laws and ordinances of a
state, or the public prohibitions of the sovereign. Con¬
traband goods are not only liable to confiscation them¬
selves, but also subject all other allowed merchandise
found with them in the same box, bale, or parcel, to¬
gether with the horses, waggons, &c. which conduct
them. There are contrabands likewise, which, besides
the forfeiture of the goods, are attended with several
penalties and disabilities.
CONTRACT, in a general sense, a mutual consent fontir
of two or more parties, who voluntarily promise and ||
oblige themselves to do something ; pay a certain sum, Contm
or the like. All donations, exchanges, leases, &c. are t01?
so many different contracts. .P"*'11'01
Contract is particularly used, in common law, for
an agreement or covenant between two, with a lawful
consideration or cause. As, if I sell my horse for mo¬
ney ; or covenant, in consideration of 20I. to make you
a lease of a farm $ these are good contracts, because
there is quid pro quo.
Umrious Contract, is a contract to pay more in¬
terest for money than the law allows. See Usury.
Those contracts are said to be null which the law
prohibits the making of j such are all contracts be¬
tween persons incapable of contracting, as minors,
religious, lunatics, wives without consent of their hus¬
bands, &c.
Contract is also used for the instrument in writing,
which serves as a proof of the consent granted, and the
obligation passed between the parties.
Among the ancient Romans, contracts, and all
voluntary acts, were written, either by the parties
themselves, or by one of the witnesses, or by a do¬
mestic secretary of one of the parties, whom they
called a notary, but who was no public person a»
among us.
The contract, when finished, was carried to the ma¬
gistrate, who gave it a public authority by receiving it
inter acta, into the number of acts under his jurisdic¬
tion ; giving each of the parties a copy thereof, trans¬
cribed by his clerks or domestic registers, and sealed
with his seal. Which practice passed into France,
where it obtained a long time.
CONTRACTILE force, that property or power
inherent in certain bodies, whereby, when extended,
they are enabled to draw themselves up again to their
former dimensions.
CONTRACTION, in Physics, the diminishing the
extent or dimensions of a body, or the causing its parts
to approach nearer to each other j in which sense it
stands opposed to dilation or expansion.
CONTRACTION is frequently used by anatomical wri¬
ters, to express the shrinking up of a fibre, or an assem¬
blage of fibres, when extended.
Convulsions and spasms proceed from a preternatural
contraction of the fibres of the muscles of the part con¬
vulsed. On the contrary, paralytic disorders generally
proceed from a too great laxness of the fibres of the
part affected ; or from the want of that degree of con¬
traction necessary to perform the natural motion or ac¬
tion of the part. In the first, therefore, the animal
spirits are supposed to flow, either in too great a quan¬
tity, or irregularly; and, in the last, the animal spirits
are either denied a free passage into the part affected,
or the tension of the fibrillae is supposed insufficient
to promote the circulation.
Contraction, in Grammar, is the reducing of
two syllables into one, as can't for cannot, should'st for
shorddest, &c.
CONTRADICTION, a species of direct opposi¬
tion, wherein one thing is found diametrically opposite
to another.
CONTRADICTORY propositions, are oppo¬
site
CON [ 601 ] CON
tradic-
y l -'i'o-
iilions
II
jntie.
sites, one of which imports a mere and naked denial of
the other.
Seeming contradictories is when the members of a
period quite disagree in appearance and sound, but
perfectly agree and are consistent in sense : thus,
Cowards die many times before their death :
The valiant never taste of death but once.
Shakespeare.
CONTRAFISSURE, in Surgery, a kind of frac¬
ture, or fissure, in the cranium, which sometimes hap¬
pens on the side opposite to that which received the
blow, or at least at some distance irom it.
CONTRAINDICATION, in Medicine, is an in¬
dication which forbids that to be done which the main
scope of a disease points out.
Suppose, e. gr. in the cure of a disease a vomit
were judged proper; if the patient be subject to a vo¬
miting of blood, it is a sufficient contraindication as to
its exhibition.
CONTRARIETY, an opposition between two
things, which imports their being contrary to one
another ; and consists in this, that one of the terms
implies a negation of the other, either mediately or
immediately ; so that contrariety may be said to be
the contrast, or opposition of two things, one of
which imports the absence ol the other, as love and
hatred.
CONTRAST ; opposition or dissimilitude of figures,
by which one contributes to the visibility or eflect of
the others. See Resemblance.
Contrast, in Painting and Sculpture, expresses an
opposition or difference of position, attitude, &c. of
two or more figures, contrived to make variety in a
painting, &c.; as where, in a group of three figures,
one is shown before, another behind, and another side-
wise, they are said to be in contrast.
The contrast is not only to be observed in the posi¬
tion of several figures, but also in that ot the several
members of the same figures : thus, il the right arm
advance farthest, the right leg is to be hindermost ; if
the eye be directed one way, the arm to go to the con¬
trary way, &c. The contrast must be pursued even in
the drapery.
Contrast, in Architecture, is to avoid the repe¬
tition of the same thing, in order to please by va¬
riety.
CONTRATE-WHEEL, in watch-work, that next to
the crown, the teeth and hoop whereof lie contrary to
those of the other wheels, from whence it takes its name.
See Watch Making.
CONTRAVALL ATION, or the Line of Contha-
tallatioh, in Fortification, a trench guarded with a
parapet, and usually cut round about a place by the
besiegers, to secure themselves on that side, and to stop
the sallies of the 'garrison. See FORTIFICATION.
CONTRAVENTION, in Law, a man’s failing to
discharge his word, obligation, duty, or the laws or
customs of the place.
CONTRAYERVA. See Dorstenia, Botany
Index.
CONTRE, in Heraldry, an appellation given to se¬
veral bearings, on account of their cutting the shield
contrary and opposite ways : thus we meet with contre-
Vol. VI. Part II. f
bend, contre-chevron, contre-pale, &c. when there Centre
are two ordinaries of the same nature opposite to each II
other, so as colour may be opposed to metal, and me- ^'ont”inacy-
tal to colour.
CONTRIBUTION, the payment of each person’s
quota of the part he is to bear in some imposition, or
common expence. See Contingent, &c.—Contri¬
butions are either involuntary, as those ot taxes and
imposts; or voluntary, as those of expences for carry¬
ing on some undertaking for the interest of the com¬
munity.
Contributions, in a military sense, are imposi¬
tions paid by frontier countries to secure themselves
from being plundered and ruined by the enemy’s
army. The peasants till their ground under the faith
of contributions, as securely as in the time of profound
peace.
CONTRITION, in Theology, a sorrow for our
sins, resulting from the reflection of having offended
God, from the sole consideration ol his goodness, with¬
out any regard to the punishment due to the trespass,
and attended with a sincere resolution of forsaking
them. The word is derived from the Latin contcrere,
to break or bruise.
CONTROL is properly a double register kept of
acts, issues, &c. of the officers or commissioners in
the revenue, army, &c. in order to perceive the true
state thereof, and to certify the truth, and the due
keeping of (he acts subject to the enregisterment.
CONTROLLER, an officer appointed to control
or oversee the accounts of other officers ; and, on ac-
casion, to certify whether or not things have been con¬
trolled.
In Britain we have several officers of this name;
as controller of the king’s house, controller of the
navy, controller of the customs, controller of the
mint, &c.
Controller of the Ilanaper, an officer who attends
the lord chancellor daily, in term and in seal-time, to
take all things sealed in leathern bags from the clerks
of the hanaper, and to mark the number and effect
thereof, and to enter them in a book, with all the du¬
ties belonging to the king and other officers for the
same, and so charge the clerk of the hanaper with
them.
Controller of the Household, the second officer un¬
der the lord steward. The name of his office comes
from the French word contrerouler. His office is to
control the accounts and reckonings of the Green
Cloth, of which hoard he is always a member. He
carries a white staff, and is always one of the privy-
council. He has 107I. 17s. 6d. a-year wages, and
JO92I. 2s. 6d. board wages.
Controller of the Pipe, an officer of the exchequer,
wdio makes out a summons twice every year, to levy
the farms and debts of the pipe. See Pipe and Ex¬
chequer .
Controllers of the Pells, two officers of the ex¬
chequer who are the chamberlain’s clerks, and keep a
control of pell of the receipts and goings out.
CONTUMACY, in Law, a refusal to appear in
court when legally summoned, or the disobedience to
the rules and orders of a court having power to punish
such offence,
4 G
CONTUSION,
CON [ 60
Contusion
Conven-
tide.
CONTUSION, in Medicine anil Surgeri/, any hurt
of the body that is inflicted by a blunt instrument.
See Surgery.
CONVALESCENCE, in Medicine, the insensible
recovery of health j or that state in which, after the
cure of a disorder, the body which has been reduced,
has not yet regained its vigour, but begins to resume
its powers. Proper aliments conduce to the re-esta¬
blishment of the languid faculties j but as the tone of
the bowels is weakened, the digestive faculty is not
equal to its office, which is shown by light sweats
over the whole body ; and the smallest excess in this
respect is oftentimes the occasion of dangerous re¬
lapses. A person in this state is like a taper relumin-
ed, which the least degree of wind is sufficient to ex¬
tinguish.
CQNVALLARIA, or Lily of the Valley, in
Botany, a genus of plants, belonging to the hexandria
class ; and in the natural method ranking under Sai'-
mentacece. See Botany Itidex.
CONYENA11U.M urbs, or Lugdunum, in Ancient
Geography, a town of the Convenae, a people of Gal¬
lia Narbonensis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Its ori¬
gin was owing to the Sertorian war, Pompey compel¬
ling the robbers of the Pyrenees and fugitive slaves to
settle there, (Pliny.) It stood near the head of the
Garonne. Now St Bertrand, in Gascony. E. Long.
30. Lat. 43. 15.
CONVENTICLE, a diminutive of convent} de¬
noting, properly, a cabal, or secret assembly, of a part
of the monks of a convent, to make a brigue or party
in the election of an abbot. From the ill use of these
assemblies, the word is come into disrepute ; and now
stands for any mischievous, seditious, or irregular as¬
sembly. F. Doucine observes, the occidentals always
esteemed the fifth general council an unlawful conven¬
ticle.
The term conventicle is said, by some, to have been
first applied in England to the schools of Wickliff, and
has been since used to signify the religious assemblies
of all in that country who do not conform to the esta¬
blished doctrines and worship of the church of Eng¬
land.
By 22 Car. II. cap. 1. it is enacted, That if any
persons of the age of 16 years, subjects of this king¬
dom, shall be present at any conventicle, where there
are five or more assembled, they shall be fined 5s. for
the first offence, and 10s. for the second $ and per¬
sons preaching incur a penalty of 20I. Also suffer¬
ing a meeting to be held in a house, &c. is liable to
20I. penalty. Justices of peace have power to enter
such houses, and seize persons assembled, &c. And if
they neglect their duty, they shall forfeit look And
if any constable, &c. know ol such meetings, and do
not inform a justice of peace, or chief magistrate, &c.
he shall forfeit 5I. But the 1st W. and M. cap. 18.
ordains, that protestant dissenters shall be exempt from
penalties : though, if they meet in a house with the
doors locked, barred, or bolted, such dissenters shall
have no benefit from I W. and M. Officers of the
government, &c. present at any conventicle, at which
there shall be ten persons, if the royal family be not
prayed for in express words, shall forfeit 40I. and be
disabled (Stat. 10 Anne, cap. 2.)
3
]
CON
CONVENTION, a treaty, contract, or agreement Conven 1
between two or more parties. n |
Convention is also a name given to an extraordi- Convei
nary assembly of parliament, or the estates of the realm, , tl°n
held without the king’s writ. Of this kind was the ^
convention parliament which restored Charles II. This
parliament met above a month before his return, and
sat full seven months after his restoration, and enacted
several laws still in force, which were confirmed by
stat. 13 Car. II. c. 7* and c. 14. Such also was the
convention of estates in 1688, who upon the retreat of
King James II. came to a conclusion that he had abdi¬
cated the throne, and that the right of succession de¬
volved to King William and Queen Mary ; whereupon
their assembly expired as a convention, and was con¬
verted into a parliament.
Convention of Estates, in Scotland, was partly of
the nature of a parliament $ but difl'ering in this, that
the former could only lay on taxes, while parliament
could both impose taxes and make laws.
CONVENTUAL, something belonging to a con¬
vent or monastery. See Monastery, and Coenobite.
Conventual, is particularly used for a religious
who actually resides in a convent j in contradistinction
to those who are only guests, or are entertained there,
or are in possession of benefices depending on the house.
See Monk.
CONVENTUS Juridici, were courts of justice
established in the Roman provinces ; with a resort or
extent of jurisdiction, circumscribed and confined with¬
in certain limits of district, whither all who were of the
resort were to repair for justice. The unseasonable af¬
fectation of changing forms of war into forms of civil
courts, proved the ruin of Varus and of three legions in
Germany, (Florus). Conventum agere is to hold a
court of justice.
CONVERGING or Convergent Lines, in Geo-
meti'y, are such as continually approach nearer one ano¬
ther, or whose distances become still less and less. These
are opposed to divergent lines, the distances of which
become continually greater : those lines which converge
one way, diverge the other.
Converging Bays, in Optics, those rays that is¬
suing from divers points of an object, incline towards
one another, till at last they meet and cross, and then
become diverging rays.
Converging Series, a series of terms or quantities
that always decrease the farther they proceed, or which
tend to a certain magnitude or limit: i ; position to
diverging series, or such as become cor umally larger
and larger.
CONVERSATION, or Discourse, signifies an
interlocution between two, or among more persons :
with this distinction, that conversation is used for any
general intercourse of sentiments whatever, whereas a
discourse means a conversation liriited to some particu¬
lar subject.
There is no part, perhaps, of oci?l life, which af¬
fords more real satisfaction than those hours which one
passes in rational and unreserved conversation. That
conversation, however, may answer the ends for which
it was designed, the parties who are to join in it must
come together with a determined resolution to please,
and to be pleased.
In
CON t 603 ] CON
iversa- In ^ie conduct of it, be not eager to interrupt
ion, others, or uneasy at being yourself interrupted ; since
iTerse. y0U Speak either to amuse or instruct the company, or
to receive those benefits from it. Give all, therefore,
leave to speak in turn. Hear with patience, and an¬
swer with precision. Inattention is ill manners $ it
shows contempt $ and contempt is never forgiven.
Trouble not the company with your own private
concerns, as you do not love to be troubled with those
of others. Yours are as little to them as theirs are to
you. You will need no other rule whereby to judge of
this matter.
Contrive, but with dexterity and propriety, that
each person may have an opportunity of discoursing
on the subject with which he is best acquainted. He
will be pleased, and you will be informed. By obser¬
ving this rule, every one has it in his power to assist
in rendering conversation agreeable 5 since, though he
may not choose, or be qualified, to say much himself,
be can propose questions to those who are able to an¬
swer them.
Avoid stories, unless short, pointed, and quite «-
propos. He who deals in them, says Swift, must either
have a very large stock, or a good memory, or must
often change his company. Some have a set of them
strung together like onions $ they take possession of
the conversation by an early introduction of one, and
then you must have the whole rope; and there is an
end of every thing else, perhaps, for that meet¬
ing, though you may have heard all twenty times be¬
fore.
Talk often, but not long. The talent of harangue-
ing private company is insupportable. Senators and
barristers are apt to be guilty of this fault j and mem¬
bers who never harangue in the house will often do
it out of the house. If the majority of the company
be naturally silent, or cautious, the conversation will
flag, unless it be often renewed by one among them
who can start new subjects. Forbear, however, if pos¬
sible, to broach a second before the first is out, lest
your stock should not last, and you should be obliged
to come back to the old barrel. There are those who
will repeatedly cross upon and break into the conversa¬
tion with a fresh topic, till they have touched upon all
and exhausted none. Economy here is necessary for
most people.
Laugh not at your own wit and humour $ leave that
to the company.
When the conversation is flowing in a serious and
useful channel, never interrupt it by an ill-timed jest.
The stream is scattered, and cannot be again collected.
Discourse not in a whisper or half-voice, to your
next neighbour. It is ill-breeding, and, in some degree,
a fraud; conversation-stock being, as one has well ob¬
served, a joint and common property.
In reflections on absent people, go no farther than
you would go if they were present. “ I resolve (says
Bishop Beveridge) never to speak of a man’s virtues to
his face, nor of his faults behind his back:”—A golden
rule ! the observation of which would, at one stroke,
banish flattery and defamation from the earth.
CONVERSE, in Mathematics. Onfe proposition is
called the converse of another, when, after a conclu¬
sion is drawn from something supposed in the converse
proposition, that conclusion is supposed j and then, that Converse
which in the other was supposed, is now drawn as a !l
conclusion from it : thus when two sides of a triangle Convexity,
are equal, the angles under these sides are equal j and, v
on the converse, if these angles are equal, the two sides
are equal.
CONVERSION, in a moral sense, implies a re¬
pentance for a temper and conduct unworthy our na¬
ture, and unbecoming our obligations to its Author,
and a resolution to act a wiser and a better part for the
future.
Conversion, in TFar, a military motion, whereby
the front of a battalion is turned where the flank was,
in case the battalion is attacked in the flank.
Conversion of Equations, the same with reduction
of equations by multiplication. See Algebra.
CONVERT, a person who has undergone a conver¬
sion.
Convert is chiefly used in respect of changes from
one religion, or religious sect, to another. Converts
with relation to the religion turned to, are denomi¬
nated apostates with regard to that they have relin¬
quished.
The Jews formerly converted to Christianity in Eng¬
land, were called converses. Henry III. built them a
house in London, and allowed them a competent sub¬
sistence for their lives j which house was called domus
conversoi'um. But the number afterwards increasing,
they grew a burden to the crown j upon which they
were distributed among the monasteries : and after the
expulsion of the Jews under Edward III. the domus
convcrsorum was given for keeping of the rolls.
Converts, in a monastic sense, are lay-friars, or
brothers, admitted for the service of the house $ with¬
out orders, and not allowed to sing in the choir. Till
the eleventh century, the word was used for persons
who embraced the monkish life at the age of discre¬
tion ; by which they were distinguished from those de¬
voted in their childhood by their parents, called oblati.
But in the eleventh century, when they began to re¬
ceive into monasteries illiterate persons, incapable of
being clerks, and only destined for bodily labour, the
signification of the word was necessarily changed.
F. Mabillon observes, that it was John first abbot of
Vallombrosa who first introduced these brother con¬
verts, distinguished by their state from the monks of
the choir, who were then either clerks or capable of
becoming so.
CONVEX, an appellation given to the exterior sur¬
face of gibbous or globular bodies j in opposition to
the hollow inner surface of such bodies, which is called
concave; thus we say, a convex frieze, lens, mirror,
superfices, &c.
CONVEXITY, the exterior surface of a convex,
i. e. gibbous and globular thing 5 in opposition to con¬
cavity, or the inner surface, which is hollow or de¬
pressed. See Concave.
The word is of particular import in catoptrics and
dioptrics $ where it is applied to mirrors and lenses.
A convex mirror represents its images smaller than
the objectsj as a concave one represents them larger:
a convex mirror reflects the rays from it, diverging :
and therefore disperses and weakens their effect: as
a concave one reflects them converging 3 so as they
4 G 2 concur
CON [ 604 1 CON
Convexity concur in a point, and have their effect increased j and
IE by how much the mirror is a portion of a smaller sphere
Conviction, jjy so muc|j does it diminish the objects, and disperse the
rays the more. See Mirror.
A convex lens is either convex on both sides, called
a convexo-convex ; or it is plain on one side and convex
on the other, called a plano-convex ; or concave on one
side and convex on the other, called a convexo-concave,
or concavo-convex, as theoneor the other surface prevails,
i. e. as this or that is a portion of a smaller sphere. All
convex lenses inflect the rays of light in their passage,
i. e. send them out from their convex surface converg¬
ing, so that they concur in a point or focus. Hence
all convex lenses magnify, i. e. represent their images
larger than their objects ; and this the more as they are
portions of smaller spheres.
CONVEYANCE, in Law, a deed or instrument
that passes land, &c. from one person to another.
CONVICT, in common law, a person that is found
guilty of an offence by the verdict of a jury. See the
following article.
CONVICTION, in Law. When a jury has given
a verdict upon trial, finding the prisoner guilty, he is
said to be convicted of the crime whereof he stands
indicted. See Trial.
When the ofiVnder is thus convicted, there are two
collateral circumstances that immediately arise. 1. On
a conviction in general for any felony, the reasonable
expences of prosecution are by stat. 25 Ceo. II. c. 36.
to he allowed the prosecutor out of the country-stock,
if he petitions the judge for that purpose ; and by
statute 17 Geo. II. c. 3. poor persons, hound over
to give evidence, are likewise entitled, to be paid their
charges, as well without conviction as with it. 2. On
a conviction of larceny in particular, the prosecutor
shall have restitution of his goods by virtue of the
statute 21 Hem VIII. c. it. For by the common law
there was no restitution of goods upon an indictment j
because it is at the suit of the king only \ and there¬
fore the party was enforced to bring an appeal of
robbery, in order to have his goods again. .But, it
being considered that the party prosecuting the offender
by indictment, deserves to the full as much encou¬
ragement as he who prosecutes by appeal, this statute
was made, which enacts, that if any person he convict¬
ed of larceny by the evidence of the party robbed, he
shall have full restitution of his money, goods, and
chattels, or the value of them out of the offender’s
goods, if he has any, by a writ to be granted by the
justices. And the construction of this act having been
in great measure conformable to the law of appeals,
it has therefore in practice superseded the use of ap¬
peals of larceny. For instance, as formerly upon ap¬
peals, so now upon indictments of larceny, this writ of
restitution shall reach the goods so stolen, notwithstand¬
ing the property of them is endeavoured to lie altered
by sale in market overt. And though this may seem
somewhat hard upon the buyer, yet the rule of law is,
that spoliatus debet ante omnia restituti, especially when
be has used all the diligence in his power to convict
the felon. And, since the case is reduced to this
hard necessity, that either the owner or the buyer
must suffer, the law prefers the right of the owner,
■who has done a meritorious act by pursuing a felon to
a
condign punishment, to the right of the buyer, whose Convict;
merit is only negative, that he has been guilty of no Convot
unfair transaction. And it is now usual for the court, don.
upon the conviction of a felon, to order, without any'"^^:
writ, immediate restitution of such goods as are brought
into court, to be made to the several prosecutors. Or
else, secondly, without such writ of restitution, the party
may peaceably retake his goods wherever he happens
to find them, unless a new property be fairly acquired
therein. Or, lastly, if lire felon he convicted and par¬
doned, or be allowed his clergy, the party robbed may.
bring his action of trover against him for his goods, and
recover a satisfaction in damages. But such action lies
not before prosecution $ for so felonies would he made
up and healed : and also recaption is unlawful, if it be
done with intention to smother and compound the lar¬
ceny $ it then becoming the heinous offence of theft-
bote*
It is not uncommon, when a person is convicted of
a misdemeanour, which principally and more immedi¬
ately affects some individual, as a battery, imprison¬
ment or the like, for the court to permit the defendant
to speak with the prosecutor, before any judgment is
pronounced ; and if the prosecutor declares himself sa¬
tisfied, to inflict but a trivial punishment. This is done
to reimburse the prosecutor his expences, and make him
some private amends, without the trouble and circuity
of a civil action. But it is surely a dangerous prac¬
tice j and, though it may he entrusted to the prudence
and discretion of the judges in the superior courts of
record, it ought never to be allowed in local or inferior
jurisdictions, such as the quarter-sessions ; where pro¬
secutions for assaults are by this means too frequently
commenced, rather for private lucre than for the great
ends of public justice. Above all, it should never be
suffered, where the testimony of the prosecutor himself
is necessary to convict the defendant $ for by this
means the rules of evidence are entirely subverted $
the prosecutor becomes in effect a plaintiff, and yet is
suffered to bear witness for himself. Nay, even a vo¬
luntary forgiveness by the party injured, ought not, in
true policy, to intercept the stroke of justice. “ This
(says an elegant writer who pleads with equal strength
for the certainty, as for the lenity of punishment) may
be an act of good nature and humanity, but it is con¬
trary to the good of the public. For although a pri-r
vate citizen may dispense with satisfaction for his pri¬
vate injury, he cannot remove the necessity of public
example. The right of punishing belongs not to any
one individual or particular, hut to the society in gene¬
ral, or to the sovereign who represents that society 5
and a man may renounce his own portion of this right,
but he cannot give up that of others.”
Conviction, in Theology, expresses the first degree
of repentance, wherein the sinner becomes sensible of
his guilt, of the evil nature of sin, and of the danger of
his own ways.
CONVOCATION, an assembly of the clergy of
England, by their representatives, to consult of eccle¬
siastical matters. It is held during the session of par¬
liament, and consists of an upper and a lower house*
In the upper sit the bishops, and in the lower the infe¬
rior clergy, who are represented by their proctors j con¬
sisting of all the deans and archdeacons, of one proctor
CON [ 60s ] COO
ivoca
foi* every chapter, and two for the clergy of every di¬
ocese, in all 143 divines $ viz. 22 deans, 53 archdea¬
cons, 24 prebendaries, and 44 proctors of the diocesan
' clergy. The lower house chooses its prolocutor \ whose
business it is to take care that the members attend, to
collect their debates and votes, and to carry their reso¬
lutions to the upper house. The convocation is sum¬
moned by the king’s writ, directed to the archbishop
of each province, requiring him to summon all bishops,
deans, archdeacons, &c.
The power of the convocation is limited by a statute
of Henry VIII. They are not to make any canons or
ecclesiastical laws without the king’s license j nor when
permitted to make any, can they put them in execution,
but under several restrictions. They have the examin¬
ing and censuring all heretical and schismatical books
and persons, &c. but there lies an appeal to the king
in chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy in convo¬
cation, and their servants, have the same privileges as
members of parliament.
Since the year 1665, when the convocation of the
clergy gave up the privilege of taxing themselves to
the house of commons, they seldom have been allowed
to do any business $ and are generally prorogued from
time to time till dissolved, a new one being generally
called along with a new parliament. The only equi-?
valent for giving up the privilege of taxing themselves,
was their being allowed to vote at elections for mem¬
bers to the house of commons, which they had not be¬
fore.
CONVOLUTION, a winding motion, proper to
the trunks of some plants, as the convolvulus, or bind¬
weed ; the clampers of vines, bryony, &c.
CONVOLVULUS, Bind-weed 5 a genus of plants
of the pentandria class, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 20th order, Campanacece* See Botany
and Materia Medica Index.
CONVOY, in naval affairs, one or more ships of
war, employed to accompany and protect merchant
ships, and prevent their being insulted by pirates, or
the enemies of the state in time of war.
Convoy, in military matters, a body of men that
guard any supply of men, money, ammunition, or pro¬
visions, conveyed by land into a town, army, or the
like, in time of war.
CONUS, a Cone, in Botany ; a species of fruit or
scaly seed-vessel, so termed by Tournefort and other
botanists. Linnaeus has substituted Strobilus in its
place.
Conus, the Corae-sfo//, a genus of shells. See Con-
CHOLOGY Index.
CONVULSION, a preternatural and violent con¬
traction of the membranous and muscular parts of the
body. See Medicine Index.
CONWAY, a market-town of Caernarvonshire in
North Wales, situated near the mouth of a river of
the same name, 15 miles west of St Asaph. W. Long.
3. 50. N. Lat. 53. 20.
CONYZA, Fleabane 5 a genus of plants of the
syngenesia class, ranking under the 49th natural order,
Co?7ipositce. See Botany Index.
CONZA, a town of the kingdom of Naples in
Italy, situated in the farther principate, on the river
Offanto, 50 miles south-east of the city of Naples.
E. Long. 15. 39. N. Lat. 41. o. It is the see of an Conza,
archbishop. Cook.
COOK, Sir Anthony, descended from Sir Thomas
Cook lord mayor of London, was born in 1506, and
supposed to have been educated at Cambridge. He
was so eminent for his learning, piety, and prudence,
that the guardians of King Edward VI. appointed him
to be his chief instructor in learning, and to form his
manners. He had four daughters ; and being resolved
to have sons by education, lest he should have none by
birth, he taught his daughters those lessons by night
that he had instilled into the prince by day j he was
happy in his endeavours, as they proved learned in
Greek and Latin, and equally distinguished by virtue,
piety, and good fortune. Mildred was married to the
great Lord Burleigh : Ann to Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord
keeper of the great seal 5 Elizabeth tc* Sir John Russel,
son and heir of Francis earl of Bedford 5 and Catha¬
rine to Sir Henry Kiliigrew. He lived in exile during
the Marian persecution j and returning on the accession
of Queen Elizabeth, spent the rest of his days in peace
and honour, dying in 1576.
Cook, Captain lames, one of the ablest and most
celebrated navigators of any country, was the son of
James Cook, a labourer or servant in husbandry, and
supposed to have been a native of the county of Nor¬
thumberland, and was born on the 27th of October
1728, at the village of Marton in the north riding of
Yorkshire. He was one of nine children, all of whom
are now dead except a daughter, who married a fisher¬
man of Redcar. He received the first rudiments of
education from the schoolmistress of the village j and
afterwards, on his father’s removal to Great Ayton, he
was put to a day-school, at the expence of Mr Skot-
tow his father’s employer, where he was instructed in
writing and in a few of the first rules of arithmetic.
Before the age of thirteen he was bound apprentice to
Mr W. Sanderson, haberdasher or shopkeeper at
Straiths, about ten miles from Whitby : but some dis¬
agreement taking place between him and his master,
he indulged his own inclination in binding himself ap¬
prentice to Messrs Walkers of Whitby, who had se¬
veral vessels in the coal trade; and after serving a few
years longer in the situation of a common sailor, he
was at length raised to be mate of one of Mr Walker’s
ships. During all this period it is not recollected that
he exhibited any thing peculiar either in his abilities or
conduct.
Early in the year 1755, when hostilities broke ouD
between France and England, Cook entered on board
the Eagle of sixty guns, to which vessel Sir Hugh Pal-,
liser was soon after appointed, who soon distinguished-
him as an active and diligent seaman j and his promo¬
tion was forwarded by a letter of recommendation-
which was written by Mr Osbaldeston, member for
Scarborough, at the request of several neighbours, in
Mr Cook’s favour. On the 15th of May 1759, he
was appointed master of the Mercury, which soon after
sailed to America, and joined the fleet under Sir
Charles Saunders at the memorable siege of Quebec.
His interest with the admiralty appears even then to
have been very strong j. for on Mr Osbaldeston’s letter
he was appointed master of the Grampus sloop ; but
the proper master having unexpectedly returned to
heiy
COO [ 606 ] coo
lier, the appointment did not take place. Four days
alter, he was made master of the Garland j when upon
inquiry it was found that he could not join her, as the
vessel had already sailed : and the next day, May 15th
3759, he was made master of the Mercury. On this
occasion he was recommended by Captain Palliser to a
difficult and dangerous service, viz. to take the sound¬
ings of the river St Lawrence, between the island of
Orleans and the north shore, which he performed in the
most complete manner ; and soon afterwards he was
employed to survey the most dangerous parts of the
river below Quebec : these were his first efforts with
the pencil. After this expedition ,he was appointed,
on the 22d of September, master of the Northumber¬
land, stationed at Halifax, where he first read Euclid,
and applied to astronomy and other branches of science.
In the year 1762, he was with the Northumberland,
assisting at the recapture of Newfoundland •, and in the
latter end of the same year he returned to England, and
married, at Barking in Essex, Miss Elizabeth Batts.
Early in I763> when Admiral (then Captain) Greaves
was appointed governor of Newfoundland, Mr Cook
went out with him to survey the coasts of that island.
At the end of the season he returned to England ;
but in the beginning of 1764, Sir Hugh Palliser being
appointed governor of Newfoundland and Labradore,
Mr Cook accompanied him in the same capacity of
surveyor, and had the Granville schooner to attend
him on that business : in this situation he continued till
i767* t
While Mr Cook remained on this station, he had an
opportunity of exhibiting publicly a specimen of his
progress in the study of astronomy, in a short paper
printed in the 57th volume of the Philosophical Trans¬
actions, entitled “ An observation of an eclipse of the
sun at the island of Newfoundland, August 5. 1766,
with the longitude of the place of observation de¬
duced from it.” Mr Cook’s observation was made at
one of the Burgeo islands near Cape Kay, in N. Lat.
470 56' 19" ; and by the comparisons of it made by
Mr Mitchel, with an observation of Dr Hornsby at
Oxford, it appeared to have been accurately done ;
and Mr Cook at that time obtained the character of
an able astronomer.
In the mean time, a spirit for geographical disco¬
veries, which had gradually declined since the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, began to discover itself anew.
Iwo voyages of this kind had been performed in the
reign of George II. the one under Captain Middleton,
the other by Captains Moore and Smyth, with a view
to discover a north-west passage through Hudson’s Bay
to the East Indies. Two others, under Captains Byron,
VY all is, and Carteret, had been undertaken soon after
tne conclusion of the peace in 1763, by order of his
present majesty j and before the return of these navio-a-
tors, who were ordered to sail round the world, another
voyage was resolved upon for astronomical purposes.
It having been calculated that a transit of Venus over
the sun’s disk would happen in 1767, a long memorial
to his majesty was presented by the Royal Society; in
which they set forth the great importance of making
proper observations on this phenomenon; the regard that
had been paid to it by the different courts of Europe j
and intreating, among other things, that a vessel might
be fitted out, at the expence of government, for con¬
veying proper persons to some of the Friendly islands,
in order to make the necessary observations. This
being complied with on the part of his majesty, Alex¬
ander Dalrymple, Esq. an eminent member of the
Royal Society, was appointed to take the command of
the bark appropriated for the purpose. In the execu-
tion of the project, however, an unexpected difficulty
occurred. Mr Dalrymple, sensible of the impossibility
of guiding a vessel through unknown and dangerous
seas without any proper command over the crew, de¬
manded a brevet commission as captain of the vessel,
in the same manner as had formerly been granted to
Dr Halley in a voyage of discovery made by him.
This commission Sir Edward Hawke absolutely refused
to sign ; declaring, when pressed upon the subject, that
he would rather suffer his right hand to be cut off, than
trust any of his majesty’s ships to a person who had not
been properly bred to the service j and in this pro¬
ceeding he seemed to be justified by the mutinous
behaviour of Dr Halley’s crew ; who, denying the le¬
gality of his authority over them, had involved him in
a very disagreeable dispute, and which was attended
with pernicious consequences. Mr Dalrymple, on the
other hand, being equally determined in his refusal to
proceed without the authority in question, there was
a necessity for finding out some person of science who
might also be free from the objection made by Sir
Edward Hawke. Mr Cook therefore was proposed
by Mr Stephens ; and his recommendation being se¬
conded by Sir Hugh Palliser, he was immediately ap¬
pointed to direct the expedition $ and on this occasion
was pi-omoted to the rank of lieutenant in his majesty’s
service.
Mr Cook’s commission as lieutenant was dated May
25. 1768 ; a vessel of 370 tons, named the Endeavour,
was provided for him j and while the necessary prepa¬
rations were making for the voyage, Captain Wallis
returned. It having been recommended to this gentle¬
man to fix upon a proper place for making the astrono¬
mical observations, he had accordingly chosen the island
named by him George's Island, but since known by the
name of Otaheite; also that Port Royal harbour
in it would afford an eligible situation. This proposal
being accepted, directions for the purpose were accord-
ingly given to Mr Cook, with whom Mr Charles Green
was joined in the astronomical part $ the latter having
been assistant to Dr Bradley in the royal observatory
at Greenwich, and thus judged to be every way quali¬
fied for the office. The lieutenant was likewise accom¬
panied by Mr Banks, now Sir Joseph Banks, Dr So-
lander, &c. The principal design of the voyage was,
as has already been hinted, to make observations on
the transit of Venus ; but this being done, Mr Cook
was directed to make further discoveries in the Pacific
ocean ; and on the 30th of July 1768, he set sail on
his expedition. An account of the voyage, and the
discoveries made during the time of it, is given in the
next article; here it is sufficient to observe, that
throughout the whole Mr Cook approved himself an
able seaman ; and from his behaviour both to his own
people and to the savage nations he occasionally met
with, showed a most exact regard to the rules both of
justice and humanity. On his first arrival at Otaheite,
the following regulations were drawn up for his people,
which he took care should be punctually obeyed.
Cook.
COO [ 607 ] coo
,0k. I. To endeavour, by every fair means, to cultivate a
t y—friendship with the natives, and to treat them with all
imaginable humanity. 2. A proper person or persons
to be appointed to treat with the natives for provi¬
sions, fruits, &c. and no other person belonging to
the ship to do so without leave. 3. Every person on
shore to attend punctually to his duty, and to pay pro¬
per attention to his tools or arms; and if lost through
negligence, to have the full value charged against his
pay, with such farther punishment inflicted as occa¬
sion might require. 4. The same penalty to be in¬
flicted on every one who should embezzle, trade with
or offer to trade with, any part of the ship’s stores; and,
5. No iron to be given in exchange for any thing but
provisions. His rigid adherence to these rules was
manifested in several instances, particularly by severely
punishing the ship’s butcher, who had threatened the
life of a woman, wife to one of the chiefs of the
island, for refusing a stone hatchet on the terms he
proposed. On erecting their observatory, in order to
go through the astronomical operations, an accident
happened which had like to have disconcerted the
whole scheme. This was the loss of their quadrant,
which had been stolen by some of the natives ; but,
chiefly through the exertions of Mr Banks, it was
recovered, and the observations made accordingly.
Scarce was this accomplished, however, before ano¬
ther theft of the natives demanded the most serious
consideration of the commander. Some of them tak¬
ing advantage of the attention of the officers being
otherwise engaged, took the opportunity of breaking
into one of the store-rooms, and stealing from thence
a bag of spike nails of no less than an hundred weight.
This was a most important affair ; for as those nails
were of great estimation among the Indians, the pos¬
session of such a quantity must undoubtedly have much
lessened their value, and thus rendered provisions of
every kind greatly dearer on the island than before.
One of the thieves therefore being discovered, was pu¬
nished with 200 lashes; notwithstanding which he ob¬
stinately refused to discover any of his accomplices.
Repeated thefts committed afterwards required all the
wisdom and resolution of Mr Cook to conduct him¬
self in a proper manner. After due consideration, he
judged it to be a matter of importance to put an end
to these practices at once, by doing something which
might engage the natives themselves to prevent them
for their common interest. This, however, he was
not at present able to accomplish ; nor indeed did it
seem possible to prevent them without using fire¬
arms, which from motives of humanity he still deter¬
mined to avoid. At last, after a stay of three months,
when preparing to take his leave, the most disagree¬
able adventure took place that he had hitherto met
with. This was the desertion of two oi his people,
who having married young women of tiiat country, de¬
termined to take up their residence in it. Mr Cook
was now obliged to seize some of the chiefs, and to in¬
form them that they could not obtain their liberty un¬
less the deserters were recovered. This at last produ¬
ced the desired effect ; the deserters were given up,
and Mr Cook set sail, along with Tupia, (who had
formerly been the prime minister to Oberea, a princess
of the island) and a boy of 13 years of age, both
of whom were desirous of accompanying him to Eng- Cook,
land. y—
While Mr Cook proceeded to visit others of the
South sea islands, Tupia occasionally served as an in¬
terpreter. On his arrival in New Zealand, Mr Cook
found the people extremely hostile and insolent. At
their very first meeting one of the natives having
threatened to dart his lance into the boat, was shot
dead. Another, having carried off Mr Green’s hanger,
was fired at with small shot; and upon his still refusing
to restore it, was fired at with ball and killed. This,
however, produced very little effect on the rest, who
offered to make an attack upon them, till several mus¬
kets were fired with small shot, which wounded three
or four more. Next day the commander, having de¬
termined to force some of the natives on board, in or¬
der to conciliate their affections by kind treatment,
directed his men to follow two canoes whom he per¬
ceived under way before him. One made her escape,
but the other not observing the boats in pursuit was
overtaken ; on which the savages plied their oars so
briskly, that the ship’s boats were not able to keep up
with them. Tupia, whose language the New Zealan¬
ders understood, called to them to return, with assur¬
ances that no hurt should be done them ; but they con¬
tinued their flight without minding him. A musket
was then fired over their heads with a view to intimidate
them, but upon this they prepared to fight ; and on
the coming up of the boats began the attack with so
much vigour, that the lieutenant’s jieople were obli¬
ged to fire upon them with ball, by which four out of
seven that were in the boat uTere killed, and the other
three jumped into the water, and wrere taken on
board.
This part of Mr Cook’s conduct seems inconsistent
with that humanity for which he was in general so
eminently distinguished ; he was aware of the censure,
and makes the following apology. “ These people
certainly did not deserve death for not choosing to con¬
fide in my promises, or not consenting to come on
board my boat, even if they had apprehended no dan¬
ger ; but the nature of my service required me to ob¬
tain a knowledge of their country, which I could no
otherwise obtain but by forcing into it in an hostile
mariner, or gaining admission through the confidence
and good will of the people. I had already tried the
power of presents without effect ; and I was now
prompted by my desire to avoid farther hostilities, to
attempt to get some of them on board ; the only me¬
thod we had left of convincing them that we intended
them no harm, and had it in our power to contribute
to their gratification and convenience. Thus far my
intentions certainly were not criminal ; and though in
the contest, which I had not the least reason to expect,
our victory might have been complete without so great
an expence of life ; yet in such situations, when the
command to fire has once been given, no man can pre¬
tend to restrain its excess, or prescribe its effect.”
Notwithstanding the disaster just mentioned, to which
the three New Zealanders, who were taken on board,
had been witnesses, they were soon conciliated, and
began to sing with a degree of taste that surprised the
English gentlemen. They were boys, the oldest about
19 and the youngest about 11; but no kindness
which
COO [ 608 ] coo
ook. which could be shown them was in any degree effec-
■ tua! to bring about a reconciliation with the rest. On
the contrary, having perceived the ship in some di¬
stress, they instantly showed a disposition to make an
attack 3 and from this they were only prevented by
the firing of a four-pounder charged with grape-shot.
Even this did not prod-uce any permanent effect; ano¬
ther attack was determined upon, and would undoubt¬
edly have been made, bad not Tupia informed them,
that if they persisted in their attempt, the arms of their
adversaries, like thunder, would destroy every one of
them. This was enforced by the fire of another four-
pounder with grape-shot, which spreading wide in the
water, terrified them to such a degree that they be¬
gan to paddle away as fast as possible. Notwithstand¬
ing this, however, some intercourse began to take
place ; but in every instance the New Zealanders
manifested their hostility and treachery in such a man¬
ner as showed that they were not to he gained by fair
means. At last an attempt to carry off Tayeto, Tu-
pia’s boy, rendered it absolutely necessary to fire upon
them in order to rescue him from certain destruction,
some of the savages having got him into a canoe,
where they held him down by violence. In conse¬
quence of this, one of the savages was ki’Ied on the
spot, and several more wounded, by the discharge of
muskets from the boats ; Tayeto recovered his liberty,
jumped into the water, and swam to the ship. Some
partial intercourse again took place : but still it ap¬
peared that the innate rancour of these savages was
not to be subdued by any fair means ; and it was only
by the powerful arguments of cannon and musketry
that they could be kept from attempting to do mis¬
chief.
I rom the account of this voyage published by Dr
Ilawksewortli, indeed, it appears, that a considerable
number of savages perished in a similar manner to that
above mentioned, and they seem to have manifested a
more hostile behaviour than afterwards: on those me¬
lancholy occasions, however, it is observed to the ho¬
nour oi Mr Cook, that bis humanity was eminently
conspicuous beyond that of the common people, who
all along showed as much inclination to destroy the
Indians as a sportsman does to kill the game he pur¬
sues.
While Mr Cook coasted the islands of New Zealand,
he was sometimes in the most imminent danger of be¬
ing shipwrecked. In the latitude of 350 south, and
in the midst of summer in that climate, he met with
such a gale of wind as he scarce ever experienced be¬
fore ; so that he was no less than three weeks in get¬
ting ten leagues to the westward, and two more before
he could get 30 leagues farther. Fortunately, how¬
ever, they were all this time a considerable way from
land, otherwise it is probable that the storm must have
proved fatal.
Mr Cook having spent six months in circumnaviga¬
ting and fully exploring the islands of New Zealand,^he
sailed from thence on the 31st of March 1770. It must
he observed, however, that the extreme hostility ma¬
nifested by the inhabitants in that part of the island
where he first arrived, was not universally diffused; but
that a friendly intercourse was for a long time main¬
tained with those about Queen Charlotte’s Sound.
From New Zealand he proceeded to New Holland, and
on the 28th of April came in sight of Botany Bay. coclJi;
Here all their endeavours to induce the natives to have
any intercourse with them proved ineffectual, though
happily there was no blood spilt in any quarrel.
During their navigation round New Holland, the
coasts of which are full of dangerous rocks and shoals,
our navigators were brought into a more perilous si¬
tuation than ever ; and from which the escape was so
extraordinary, that it deserves a particular relation.
This happened on the 10th of June 1770, as they
pursued their course from Trinity Bay, and nearly in
the latitude assigned to the islands discovered by Qui-
ros. At that time they had the advantage of a fine
breeze and a clear moonlight ; and in standing olf
from six till near nine o’clock, the ship had deepened
her water from 14 to 21 fathoms; but while the na¬
vigators were at supper, it suddenly shoaled to 12, 10,
and 8 fathoms in the space of a few minutes. Every
thing was then ready for putting the ship about, when
they suddenly got into deep water again, and continued
in 20 and 21 fathoms for some time, so that the gentle¬
men went to bed in perfect security. A little before
eleven, however, the water shoaled at once from 20 to
17 fathoms ; and before the lead could be heaved again,
the ship struck, and remained immoveable, excepting
as far as she was heaved up and down, and dashed
against the rocks by the surge. The alarm was now
universal, and not indeed without the greatest reason.
It appeax-ed that the vessel had been lifted over the
ledge of a rock, and lay in a hollow within it, where
there were in some places from three to four fathoms
water, and in others scarcely as many feet: the sheath¬
ing boards were disjoined, and floating round the ship
in great numbers ; and at last the false keel also was
desti-oyed, while the rock kept gx-ating her bottom
with such force as to he heard in the fore store-room. It
was now necessary to lighten the ship as much as pos¬
sible : and this was done with all expedition to the
amount of more than 50 tons. In the morning of the
Ilth of June they discovered the land at about eight
leagues distance, without any island between, on which
they could have been sent ashore in the event of the
ship going to pieces, that so they might have been car¬
ried to the main land by turns. To add to their dis¬
tress, the ship drew so much water, that it was with dif¬
ficulty kept under with three pumps. Lastly, it appear¬
ed, that even the rising of the tide, on which they had
ultimately depended for relief, was insufficient to
answer the purpose, as the day-tide fell considerably
short of that in the night-time. Having therefore
lightened the ship still farther, by throwing out every
thing that could possibly he spared, they waited with
patience for the next tide ; when, after incredible ex¬
ertion, the ship righted, and they got her over the
ledge of the rock into deep water. By continual la¬
bour, however, the men were at last so much exhausted,
that they could not stand to the pumps more than five
or six minutes at a time; after which they threw
themselves flat on the deck, though a stream of wa¬
ter between three and four inches deep ran over it;
and in this situation, they lay till others, exhausted
as well as themselves, took their places, on which they
started up again, and renewed their exertions, in
this dreadful extremity, Mr Monkhouse, a midshipman,
proposed the expedient of fothering the ship, as it is
called.
COO [ 609 ] coo
40k. called, by which means he said that he had seen a mer-
■V"’^ chant ship brought from Virginia to London after she
had sprung a leak that admitted more than four feet
water in an hour. The expedient being approved of,
it was put in execution in the following manner. He
took a lower studding-sail, and having mixed a large
quantity of oakum and wool together, stitched them
down by handfuls as lightly as possible; the whole be¬
ing afterwards spread over with the dung of the sheep
and other filth. The sail was then hauled under the
ship’s bottom by means of ropes which kept it ex¬
tended. When it came under the leak, the wool and
oakum, with part of the sail, were forced inwards by
the pressure of the water, which thus prevented its
own ingress in such an effectual manner, that one
pump, instead of three, was now sufficient to keep it
under. Thus they got the ship into a convenient port
on the coast of New Holland, where they had an op¬
portunity of impairing the injury. Here they disco¬
vered that their preservation had not been owing en¬
tirely to the expedient above mentioned j for one of the
holes was in a great measure filled up by a piece of rock
which had broken off and stuck in it; and this hole was
so large, that had it not been filled up in the manner
just mentioned, they must undoubtedly have perished
notwithstanding all the assistance that could have been
derived from the pumps.
The dangers they sustained in navigating this coast
were innumerable, insomuch, that for very near three
months they were obliged to have a man constantly
in the chains heaving the lead. They were always
entangled among x-ocks and shoals, which could not
have failed to destroy a less experienced navigator j and
even Mr Cook, with all his sagacity, could not some¬
times have extricated himself, had it not been for the
-favourable interposition of some natural events, which
no human penetration could foresee or have the least
dependence upon. Of this we shall only give the fol¬
lowing instance. Having at last, as they thought,
got safely over the vast reefs of sunk rocks with
which the coast of New Holland is surrounded, they
flattered themselves that all danger was past, and
the vast swell of the water convinced them that they
were now in the open ocean. The remembrance of
former dangers, however, induced them frequently to
take the precaution of sounding j notwithstanding
which, in the latitude of about S. they found
themselves one morning only about a mile distant from
the most hideous breakers, though the sea all around
was unfathomable. Their situation was rendered the
more dreadful by its being a dead calm, at the same
time that they were carried towards the rock with
such rapidity, that by the time they had got the ship’s
head turned by means of the boats, she was scarcely
loo yards distant from it. Their only resource then
was to tow the ship, if possible, by means of the boats
and pinnace, out of a situation so very perilous j but
all their efforts would have been unsuccessful, had not
a breeze of wind sprung up, which, though too light
to have been noticed at any other time, was found to
second their efforts so effectually, that the ship began
to move perceptibly from the reef in an oblique di¬
rection : during the time that this breeze lasted,
which was not more than ten minutes, they had made
a considerable way. A dead calm succeeding, they
Vol. VI. Part II. -J.
began to lose ground, and in a little time Were dri- Cook,
ven within 200 yards of the rocks: but fortunate-
ly the breeze returned, and lasted ten minutes more j
dui'ing which time a small opening was perceived in
the reef at the distance of about a quarter of a
mile. The mate being sent out to examine this open¬
ing, reported that it was not more than the length of
the ship in breadth, but that there was smooth water
within. On this it was determined to push into it by
all means. The attempt failed of success 5 as just,
when they had brought the ship with great labour to
the mouth of the opening, they found a current setting
out from it by reason of the tide now beginning to ebb.
But though their hopes were disappointed in getting
th rough the opening, they were, by the current setting
out from it, driven in a very short time to the distance
of a quarter of a mile from the rocks j and by dint of
towing and other exertions, they were got by noon to
the distance of two miles. This temporary deliverance,
however, afforded but small prospect of being ultimate¬
ly relieved. They bad still no other expectation than
of being forced back into their former situation by the
return of the tide; but happily they now perceived
another opening about a mile to the westward. Mr
Hicks the lieutenant being sent to examine this open¬
ing, returned with an account of its being narrow and
hazardous, but capable of being passed. To this
place therefore the ship was directed by every possible
means •, and a light breeze happening to spring up,
they fortunately reached it, and were instantly hurried
through with great rapidity by the current of the re-
turning tide j which, had it not been for this opening,
would undoubtedly have dashed them to pieces against
the rocks.
From the time they quitted the coast of New Hol¬
land till their arrival at Batavia in the island of Java,
our navigators met with no other danger but what is
common in sea voyages. They were obliged to stay
for some time at this place to repair their damages $
and on viewing the condition of the ship, found they
had more reason than ever to admire the manner in
which they had been preserved. Both the false keel
and main-keel wex-e greatly injured ; great part of the
sheathing was torn off; several of the planks were much
damaged, and among these there were two, and half of
another, which for six feet in length were not above
the eighth part of an inch in thickness, besides being
penetrated with T)vorms quite to the timbers. Here
the crew were q^cessively annoyed by sickness, which
obliged them £0 remain much longer than they would
otherwise have done: and it is worthy of notice, that
every one of the crew was ill excepting the sail-maker,
an old man between 70 and 80 years of age, and who
was drunk every night. Poor Tupia, with his boy
Tayeto, fell sacrifices to the unhealthiness of the cli¬
mate, as well as the surgeon, three seamen, and Mr
Green’s servant. Nor did the evil stop here ; for on
their setting out from Batavia, the seeds of disease
which had been received there broke out in the most
violent and fatal manner, insomuch that in the course
of about six weeks there died one of Mr Bank’s as^
sistants, by name Mr Sporing, Mr Parkinson his na¬
tural history painter, Mr Green the astronomer, the
boatswain, carpenter, and mate, Mr Monkhouse the
midshipman, the corporal of the marines, two of the
4 H carpenter’s
COO [6
CooJu carpenter’s crew, and nine seamen. Even the jolly old
—v——sail-maker could now hold out no longer $ but whether
his death might not in some measure be attributed to his
being less plentifully supplied with liquors than formerly,
might have deserved inquiry. These unfortunate events
probably made a considerable impression on Mr Cook’s
mind ; and perhaps induced him to direct his attention
to those methods of preserving the health of seamen
which he afterwards put in execution with so much
success. After touching at St Helena, they continued
their voyage for England, where they arrived on the
nth of June 1771 ; and on the 29th of August the
same year, his majesty testified his approbation of Mr
Cook’s conduct by appointing him a captain in the navy.
On this occasion Mr Cook wished to have been advanced
to the rank of post-captain, which though not more pro¬
fitable than the other, is more honourable } but this being
inconsistent with the rules of preferment in the navy,
the earl of Sandwich, at that time at the head of the
admiralty, could not agree to it.
Captain Cook was not allowed to remain long in¬
active. The idea of a southern continent had long
been entertained, and Mr Dairymple had renewed the
attention of the public towards the question, by his
historical collection of voyages to the Pacific ocean,
published in two quarto volumes, one in I77°> the
other in 1771. To determine the matter finally, Cap¬
tain Cook was again sent out: and the object of this
voyage was not merely to settle the question just men¬
tioned, but to extend the geography of the globe to its
utmost limits. That the undertaking might be carried
on with the greater advantage, it was determined to
employ two ships, on the choice and equipment of which
the utmost attention was bestowed. The successful
voyage which had already been made in the Endeavour,
suggested the idea of that ship being a proper model for
the two which were to be sent out ; and the opinion of
Lord Sandwich concurring with the general idea, two
vessels, constructed by the same person who had built
the Endeavour, were purchased for the voyage. These
were about 14 or 16 months old at the time they were
purchased ; and, in the opinion of Captain Cook, were
as fit for the purpose as if they had been but newly built.
The larger of the two, of 462 tons burden, was named
the Resolution; the smaller, of 336 tons, had the name
of the Adventure: the complement of men on board
the former, of which Captain Cook was commander,
being 1X2 j on the latter, commanded by Mr Tobias
Eurneaux, 81. In their equipment, every article that
could be supposed necessary, however much out of the
common line, was procured, and every circumstance
that could be supposed to contribute to the success of
the voyage was attended to in the most scrupulous
manner. Besides the usual stores and provisions, all
of which were of the best kinds, the ships were fur¬
nished with malt, sour krout, salted cabbage, portable
soup, salop, mustard, marmalade of carrots, beer, and
inspissated wort. Mr Hodges, an excellent landscape
painter, was engaged to make drawings and paintings
of such objects as required them. Mr John Reinhold
Eorsfer, with his son, were both engaged, in order to
explore and collect the natural history of the countries
through which they passed 5 and, lastly, that nothing
might be wanting to render the voyage as complete as
o ] COO
possible, Mr William Wales, and Mr William Bayley Cook,
were engaged by the board of longitude to make ce- v—
lestial observations. They were furnished with the
best instruments of every kind, and among the rest
with four time-pieces ; three constructed by Mr Ar¬
nold, and one by Mr Kendal on Mr Harrison’s prin¬
ciples.
At Plymouth Captain Cook received his instruc¬
tions j which were not only to sail round the globe,
but to sail round it in high southern latitudes, and to
make such traverses as might finally resolve the question
concerning the southern continent. In pursuance of
these instructions he set sail on the 13th of July 1772*
and on the 29th of the same month reached the Ma-
deiras. As he proceeded afterwards in his voyage, he
made three puncheons of beer from the inspissated wort
carried out along with him, and found it excellently
to answer the purpose, provided the material could
have been kept without fermentation in its inspissated
state j but as this was found impossible, the expedient
seems to have failed. In this voyage, however, the
captain used with the greatest success such methods as
appeared likely to contribute to the preservation of the
health of his men. In rainy weather, he took care
that the ship should be aired and dried by means of
fires made between the decks, the damp places were
smoked, and the people were ordered to air their bed¬
ding, and wash and dry their clothes, whenever an op¬
portunity offered. Thus he reached the Cape of Good
Hope without having a single man sick. Having left
it and kept on his course to the southward, he soon
began to meet with cold and stormy weather, by which
he lost almost the whole of his live stock of sheep, hogs,
and geese. The bad effects of this stormy weather
upon the men were guarded against by an addition to
their clothing, and giving them a dram on particular
occasions. On the sixth of December, being in the
latitude of 50° 40', he fell in with islands of ice, and
continued among them in various latitudes till the 17th
of January 1773 ; whqn he set sail for New Zealand,
which he reached on the 27th.
The reception of our navigator by the New Zea¬
landers was now much more friendly than in the for¬
mer voyage, so that there were no contests with the
natives j nor did Captain Cook observe any of those
whom he had seen before, neither was there the smallest
remembrance of former hostilities. Having staid in
this country till the seventh of June, our navigators set
sail for Otaheite j but during the voyage the crews of
both ships were attacked by the scurvy. Those of the
Adventure were in a very sickly state ; the cook was
dead, and 28 of her best men incapable of duty. On
board the Rosolution matters were much better; and
the only reason that could be conjectured for the dif¬
ference was,- that the people of the Adventure had
been in a habit of body more inclined to the scurvy
than those of the Resolution, and had eaten fewer ve¬
getables. Here it was observed, that the aversion of
seamen to a change of diet is so great, that it can on¬
ly be overcome by the steady and persevering example
of a commander. While he remained at New Zea¬
land, the captain had discovered a tree which great¬
ly resembled the American black spruce. Persuad¬
ed, therefore, that it would be attended with effects
equally
COO [ 611 1 COO
equally salutary on the health of the people, he em¬
ployed them in brewing beer from it. I his was
done while they continued at Dusky Bay, in order to
supply the want of vegetables, which were not to be
procured there ; but on removing to Queen Charlotte’s
Sound, they were more fortunate. Captain Cook him¬
self went to look out for antiscorbutic vegetables $ and
returned in a very short time with a boat-load ol scurvy-
grass, celery, &c. These were boiled with the pease
and wheat; and though some of the people disliked
them at first, they soon became so sensible of their
good efleets, that they cheerfully followed the example
of the rest: and the freedom of the crew from the
scurvy and other distempers was by every one attri¬
buted to the New Zealand spruce beer and vegetables.
From this time forward the captain had scarce occasion
to give orders for gathering vegetables when they came
to any land.
During this voyage Captain Cook experienced ano¬
ther narrow escape from shipwreck. Being becalmed
at the distance of half a league from a reef of rocks
near Osnaburgh island, it was found necessary to order
out the boats to tow otf the ships; but this was found
impossible. The calm continuing, and the situation
of our navigators becoming every moment more dan¬
gerous, the captain attempted to get through an
opening in the reef which he had judged practicable ;
but on approaching it, found that there was not suf¬
ficient depth of water ; at the same time that the
draught of the tide through it forced the ship thither in
a manner scarce to be resisted. One of the warping
machines, with about 400 fathoms of rope, was then or¬
dered out, but did not produce any effect. They were
within two cables length of the breakers, and no bot¬
tom could be found for casting anchor. Having no
other resource, however, they did drop an anchor;
but before it took hold, the Resolution was in less
than three fathoms water, and struck at every fall of
the sea, which broke violently close under her stern,
threatening destruction to every one on board. At
last the tide ceasing to act in the same direction, the
boats were ordered to try to tow off the vessel ; in
which being assisted by the land breeze, which fortu¬
nately sprung up at that instant, they with much labour
succeeded.
Having spent a considerable time in the South Sea
islands, Captain Cook returned to New Zealand, and
from thence set sail for the southern part of the conti¬
nent of America. Here he explored all the islands in
the neighbourhood, and then returned to England,
where he arrived in safety on the 30th of July 1774,
having been absent three years and 18 days ; and in all
that time lost only one man, who died of a consump¬
tion probably begun before he set out on the voy-
age-
The reception our navigator now met with was suit¬
ed to his merit. He was immediately raised to the
rank of post captain, and soon after unanimously elect¬
ed a member of the Royal Society ; from whom he
received the prize of the gold medal for the best expe¬
rimental paper that had appeared throughout the year.
It was the custom of Sir John Pringle, at the delivery
of this medal, annually, to make an elaborate discourse,
containing the history of that part of science for which
the medal was given ; and, as the subject of Captain
/
Cook’s paper (the means of preserving the health of
seamen) was analogous to the profession of Sir John
Pringle himself as a physician, he had the greater op¬
portunity of displaying his eloquence on the occasion.
The speech he made was in the highest degree honour¬
able to Captain Cook. He remarked that the society
had never more meritoriously bestowed the medal than
on the person who now received it. “ If (says he)
Rome decreed the civic crown to him who saved the
life of a single citizen, what wreaths are due to the
man who, having himself saved many, perpetuates in
your Transactions the means by which Britain may
now in the most distant voyages, preserve numbers of
her intrepid sons, her mariners ; who braving every
danger, have so liberally contributed to the fame, to.
the opulence, and to the maritime empire of the coun¬
try.” These honourable testimonies of the public re¬
gard, however, Captain Cook did not receive, being
already embarked on another voyage, from which he
never returned.
The third voyage of this celebrated navigator was
not undertaken by any express command of his ma¬
jesty. Captain Cook had already done so much, that
it was thought but reasonable he should now spend the
remainder of his life in quiet; and in order to enable
him to do this in a more comfortable manner, besides
his rank of post-captain in the navy, he was also made
a captain in Greenwich. Still, however, there were
some points in the science of geography which had very
much engaged the attention of the public, and w'ere in¬
deed of such importance as to become a national con¬
cern. These were to discover the connection between
Asia and America, and to determine whether there was
not a possibility of shortening the passage to the East
Indies by sailing round the northern parts of the conti¬
nents of Europe and Asia. Many attempts, indeed,
had already been made by various navigators of differ¬
ent nations', but all of them had failed, and, what was
worse, had left the point still undetermined. An act of
parliament had been passed in 1745, by which a reward
of 20,oool. was held out to the ships of any of his ma¬
jesty’s subjects for accomplishing this important voy¬
age, but without mentioning any thing of those be¬
longing to his majesty ; and this reward was further
confined to the finding out of the north- west passage
to the East Indies through Hudson’s bay. In the
year 1776, however, both the errors just mentioned
were corrected. It was now enacted, “ That if any
ship belonging to any of his majesty’s subjects, or to
his majesty, shall find out, and sail through, any pas¬
sage by sea between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,
in any direction or parallel of the northern hemisphere,
to the northward of the 52d degree of northern lati¬
tude ; the owners of such ships if belonging to any
of his majesty’s subjects, or the commanders, officers,
and seamen, of such ships belonging to his majesty,
shall receive, as a reward for such discovery, the sum
of 20,000l.
It was not, as has already been hinted, now deem¬
ed proper to solicit Captain Cook to undergo Iresh
dangers by undertaking a voyage of this kind ; ne¬
vertheless, as he was universally looked upon to be
the fittest person in the kingdom for the purpose, the
eyes of every one were tacitly fixed upon him: he
was consulted on every thing relating to it, and soli-
4 H 2 cited
COO t 612 ] coo
Cook, cited to name the person whom he judged most proper
•“-y™*'-'' to conduct it. To determine this point, Captain Cook,
Sir Hugh Palliser, and Mr Stephens, were invited to
the house of Lord Sandwich to dinner; where, besides
the consideration of the proper officer for conducting
the expedition, many things were said concerning the
nature of the design. They enlarged upon its gran¬
deur and dignity, its consequences to navigation and
science, and the completeness it would give to the
whole system of discoveries ; until gt last Captain Cook
was so much inflamed by the representation of the im¬
portance of the voyage, that he started up, and declared
that he would conduct it himself. This was what the
parties present had desired, and probably expected ;
his ofler was therefore instantly laid before the king,
and Captain Cook appointed commander of the ex¬
pedition by the 10th of February 1776. At the same
time it was agreed, that on his return from the voyage,
he should be restored to his place at Greenwich ; and
if no vacancy occurred during the interval, the officer
■who succeeded him was to resign in his favour. The
instructions he now received were, that he should at¬
tempt the high latitudes between the continents of
Asia and America, and if possible return to England
along the northern coasts of Asia and Europe. This
was most probably the result of the captain’s own deli¬
berations, and what had been suggested by him to Lord
Sandwich and other people in power. He rvas parti¬
cularly desired to sail first into the Pacific ocean through
the chain of newly discovered islands which he had
lately visited. After having crossed the equator, and
passed into the northern parts of the ocean just men¬
tioned, he was then to hold such a course as might
tend to settle many interesting points of geography,
and produce some intermediate discoveries, before he
arrived at the main scene of operation. With regard
to this principal object, he was ordered, immediately
on his arrival on the coast of New Albion, to proceed
northward as far as the latitude of 65 degrees, without
losing any time in exploring creeks or rivers previous
to his arrival in that latitude ; and for his further en¬
couragement, the act of 1745, offering a premium for
the discovery of the passage, was amended in the man¬
ner above mentioned. That nothing might be want¬
ing which could promote the success of the grand ex¬
pedition, Lieutenant Pickersgill was sent out, in 1776,
with directions to explore the coasts of Baffin’s bav ;
and the next year Lieutenant Young was commissioned
not only to examine the western parts of that bay, but
to endeavour to find a passage on that side from the
Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Nothing, however, was
performed by either of these gentlemen which in the
least could promote Captain Cook’s success. Two
vessels were provided as in the former voyage, viz. the
Resolution and the Discovery ; the command of the
former being given to Captain Cook, and of the latter
to Captain Charles Clerke. The only thing in which
the appointment of the Discovery diflered from that
of the Resolution was, that the former had no marine
officer on board. Every degree of attention was be¬
stowed, as in the former voyage, upon the proper
victualling and other necessaries for the two ships ;
and that the inhabitants of those countries which our
navigator intended to visit might derive some perma¬
nent benefit from the intercourse they had with him,
it was determined to send abroad a breed of domestic
animals, and likewise a quantity of useful seeds, to be
left in proper places. With this view, a bull, two
cows with their calves, and several sheep, with hay and
corn for their subsistence, were taken on board ; and
it was likewise proposed to take in others at the Cape
of Good Hope. A large assortment of iron tools and
trinkets was also sent out ; and, in short, every thing
that could be judged proper either to conciliate the
good will of the natives or to prove serviceable to
them, was provided for the voyage, as well as every
convenience for the ship’s companies. In the former
voyage Captain Cook had brought along with him a
native of one of the South sea islands, named Omait
who resided in England during the interval between
the second and third voyages, and was now happy at
getting an opportunity of returning to his own coun¬
try. Though he could by no means complain of the
entertainment he had met with in England, the idea
of returning home loaded with treasure, which might
enable him to make a figure among his countrymen,
soon overcame all uneasy sensations, which the leaving
of his English friends might excite. His majesty had
taken care to furnish him with every thing that could
possibly be of use when he came to his native country ;
and he had besides received several valuable presents
from Lord Sandwich, Sir Joseph Banks, and several
ladies and gentlemen of his acquaintance; so that
nothing was omitted which could possibly be done to
convey, by his means, to the inhabitants of the South
Sea islands, an idea of the British power and great¬
ness.
Every thing being prepared for the voyage, our na¬
vigator set sail from the Nore on the 25th of June
1776 ; but by reason of some delay in receiving his in¬
structions, did not leave Plymouth till the 12th of July.
He had not been long at sea before he began his ope¬
rations for preserving the health of his people; which
were found equally efficacious in this as in the for¬
mer voyage. Finding his stock of provender for the
animals on board likely to run short, he touched at
Teneriffe, in order to procure a supply, having judged
that to be a more proper place than Madeira for the
purpose. On sailing from thence he ran a great risk
of running upon some sunk rocks on the island of
Bonavista; but in this, as well as on other occa¬
sions of danger, he behaved with the same judgment,
coolness, and presence of mind, that distinguished him
throughout the whole course of his life. On the 12th
of August he arrived before Port Praya, in one of
the Cape de Verd islands named St Jago; but not
finding it necessary to go in there, he continued his
voyage to the southward. The weather now be¬
coming gloomy and rainy, required a continuance of
the methods he had already practised for preserving
the health of his people; and, as formerly, they were
attended with the greatest success. In this voyage;
the effect of these precautions was the more remark¬
able, as at this time the seams of the vessel were opened
to such a degree as to admit the rain, so that scarce
any person on board could lie dry in his bed ; and all
the officers in the gun room were driven out of their
cabins by the water which came through the sides.
Such was the humanity of the commander, however,
that while the ships continued at sea, he would not
trust
Cook
COO [6
trust the workmen over their sides to repair the de¬
fects, though caulkers were employed in the inside as
soon as settled weather returned. On the 1st of
September our navigators crossed the equator, and on
the 18th of October anchored in Table bay at the
Cape of Good Hope. Here they met with a violent
tempest, the effects of which were felt both on sea and
land. It lasted three days, and the Resolution was the
only ship in the bay that rode out the storm without
dragging her anchors. On shore the tents and obser¬
vatory were destroyed, and the astronomical quadrant
narrowly escaped irreparable damage. The Discovery,
which had been some time later in sailing from Eng¬
land, was driven off the coast, and did not arrive till
the 10th of November.
While they remained in this place, a disaster happen¬
ed which threatened the loss of most of their live stock.
The bull and two cows had been put ashore to graze
among other cattle j but Captain Cook had been advi¬
sed to keep the sheep, 16 in number, near the tents,
where they were penned in every night. Some dogs
having got in among them in the night-time, killed
four, and dispersed the rest. Six of them were reco¬
vered the next day, but the two rams and two of the
finest ewes in the flock were missing. The captain applied
to Baron Plettenberg the governor j but all his endea¬
vours w'ere ussuccessful, until he employed some of the
meanest and lowest of the people, fellows whose cha¬
racter was, that for a ducatoon they would cut their
master’s throat, burn the house over his head, and bury
him and his whole family in ashes. This is mentioned as
an instance how far the boasted policy of the Dutch go¬
vernment at the Cape of Good Hope falls short of its
alleged perfection. After all, two of the finest ewes
in the flock were missing, and never could be recover¬
ed. The captain, therefore, to repair this loss, and
to make an addition to his original stock, purchased
two young bulls, two stone horses, two mares, two
heifers, two rams, several ewes and goats, with some
rabbits and poultry j when, having finished all his bu¬
siness, he set sail on the 30th of November, though it
was not till the 3d of December that he got clear of
land. Soon after his putting to sea, he had the mis¬
fortune to lose several of the goats, especially the males,
together with some sheep j and it was with the utmost
difficulty that the rest of the cattle were preserved, by
reason of the ship tossing and tumbling about in a very
heavy sea. Having explored some desolate islands in the
southern seas, Captain Cook set sail for New Zealand.
During this part of the voyage, our navigators were
involved in so thick a fog, that, according to the au¬
thors of Captain Cook’s life, “ they sailed 300 leagues
in the dark.” The first land they afterwards reached
was New Holland ; where having remained till the 30th
of January 1777, they set sail for New Zealand, and on
the 12th of February they anchored in Queen Charlotte’s
Sound. Here the people were shy and timorous, on
account of their having formerly destroyed 10 of Cap¬
tain Furneaux’s people, who had been sent ashore to
gather vegetables. The cause of the quarrel could not
be known, as none of the party were left alive to tell
the news. Lieutenant Burney, who went ashore in
quest of them, found only some fragments of their bo¬
dies 5 from which it appeared that they had been kill-
3 ] coo
ed and eaten by -the savages. It was not the intention Cook,
of Captain Cook, at this distance of time, to resent the —v~”
injury } he even refused to put to death a chief named
Kahoora, who, as he was informed by the natives them¬
selves, had killed Mr Rowe the commander ot the par¬
ty. He was, however, particularly careful that no
opportunity should now be given the savages ol com¬
mitting such an action with impunity 5 and with this
view a boat was never sent on shore without being well
armed, and the men under the command of such offi¬
cers as could be depended upon. The New Zealanders
were no sooner assured of Captain Cook’s pacific dis¬
position, than they threw aside their fears and suspi¬
cions, and entered into a commercial intercourse with
the people. It would have been the less excusable in
Captain Cook to have revenged at this time the mas¬
sacre of Mr Rowe’s party, as he was assured that the
quarrel originated from some petty thefts of the savages,
which were too hastily resented on the part of the Bri¬
tish 5 and had it not been for this, no mischief would
have happened.
On the 25th of February our navigator left New
Zealand, taking with him, at the request of Omai,
two boys, the eldest about 18 and the youngest about
10. These were soon cured of their passion for tra¬
velling, being both violently sea-sick j but as it was
then too late to repent, they expressed their grief in
loud and almost continual lamentation •, and this in a
kind of song which seemed to consist of the praises of
their native country, whence they were now to be se¬
parated for ever. By degrees, however, the sea-sick¬
ness abated, their lamentations became less frequent,
and at last ceased entirely j their native country rvas
forgotten, and they appeared to be as firmly attached
to their new friends the English as if they had been
born among them.
So much time was now spent in sailing up and down
in the Pacific ocean, where several new islands were
discovered, that Captain Cook judged it impossible to
accomplish any thing for this year in the high northern
latitudes •, for which reason he determined to bear away
for the Friendly islands, in order to supply himself with
those necessaries which he had found impossible to be
got at any of the islands which he had just discovered.
In his run thither several new islands were visited 5 and
in prosecuting these discoveries our navigator once more
narrowly escaped being shipwrecked. The danger at
this time arose from a low sandy island, which the Re¬
solution was very near running upon. From this she
was only saved by the circumstance of all the men hav¬
ing been accidentally called upon deck to put the ves¬
sel about, and most of them being at their stations when
the danger was discovered. Soon after this both ships
struck upon some sunk coral rocks, but happily were
got off without damage.
After a stay of between two and three months,
Captain Cook took leave of the Friendly islands on the
13th of July 1777 ; and on the 12th ol August
reached Otaheite, where he introduced Omai to his
country people, and whose reception by them is par¬
ticularly related under the next article. Here the
captain found the people of Otaheite ready to engage
in a war with those of Eimeo j but though strongly
solicited by the former to assist them in an expedition
against.
coo
Cook.
against their enemies, he refused to take any concern
i in the affair, alleging, by way of excuse, that the
people of Eimeo had never offended him. This seemed
to satisfy most of the chiefs $ hut one, named Tow/ia,
was so much displeased, that Captain Cook could ne¬
ver regain his favour. He even threatened, that as
soon as the captain should be gone, he would make
war upon Otoo, one of the princes of these islands whom
lie knew to be in strict friendship with himj but from
this he was deterred by the captain’s threatening to
return and chastise him if he made any such attemut.
As a mark of Otoo’s friendship, he gave our navigator
a canoe, which he desired him to carry to the king of
Britain, having nothing else, as he said, worth his"ac¬
ceptance.
From Otaheite Captain Cook proceeded to Eimeo,
where, on account of some thefts committed by the
natives, he was obliged to commence hostilities, by
burning a number of their war canoes, and even some
houses. These transactions gave him much concern j
and the more that he had been so much solicited to
make war on these people by his friends at Otaheite,
to whose intreaties he had refused to listen. From
Eimeo he proceeded to Huaheine, where he saw Omai
finally settled, and left with him the two New Zealand
youths already mentioned. The youngest of these was
so much attached to the English, that it was necessary
to carry him out of the ship and put him ashore by
force. During his stay on this island, the captain was
obliged to punish a thief with greater severity than he
had ever done before, viz. by causing his head and
beard to be shaved, and his ears cut off. Some other
disagreeable transactions took place, particularly the
desertion of tw7o of his people, who were not recovered
without the greatest difficulty. In the course of his
exertions for their recovery, he found it necessary to
detain the son, daughter, and son-in-law of the chief
of an island named Otaha. This had almost produced
very serious consequences, the natives having formed
a plot for carrying off Captain Cook himself, as well
as Captain Clerk and Air Core. With regard to the
commander, they were disappointed by his own cau¬
tion and vigilance : but Messrs Clerke and Gore were
in particular danger j and it was only owing to the
circumstance of one of them having a pistol in his hand
as. they walked together on shore, that they were not
seized.
Having left the Society islands, and discovered
a new group, which in honour of his patron the
earl of Sandwich, our commander named the Sand¬
wich hies, he set out on the 2d of January 1778 on
,ns voyage .northward. In this he was very success¬
ful, ascertaining the vicinity of the continents of Asia
and America, which had never been done, or but very
imperfectly, before. From these desolate regions he
returned to the island of Oonalashka j whence, having
lelitted and taken in provisions, he returned to the
southward, and on the 26th of November reached
the Sandwich islands, where he discovered a new one
named Mowee, and on the 30th of the same month
another of much larger extent, named O-why hee. Se¬
ven weeks were spent in exploring the coasts of this
island; and during all this time he continued to have
the most friendly intercourse with the people, who
however, appeared to be much more numerous and
3
t 614 ]
coo
powerful than those of any island our navigators had
yet touched at. Several of the chiefs and principal1
people had attached themselves greatly to the com¬
mander, and in general the people appeared to be
much more honest in their dispositions than any whom
he had ever visited. But by the time he had 'finished
his circumnavigation of the island and cast anchor
in a bay called Karakakooa, matters were greatly al¬
tered. An universal disposition to theft and plunder
had now taken place; and in this it was evident that
the common people were encouraged by their chiefs,
who shared the booty with them. Still, hoivever, no
hostilities were commenced : the greatest honours were
paid to the commander ; and, on his going ashore, he
wras received with ceremonies little short of adoration.
A vast quantity of hogs and other provisions were
procured for the ships ; and on the 4th of February
1779* they fh® island, not without most magni¬
ficent presents from the chiefs, and such as they had
never before received in any part of the world. Un¬
luckily they met with a storm on the sixth and seventh
of the same month ; during which the Resolution
sprung the head of her foremast in such a manner that
they were obliged to return to Karakakooa bay to
have it repaired. As they returned, Captain Cook
had an opportunity of showing his humanity to the
people, by the relief he afforded to some of their canoes
which had suffered in the storm. The same friendly
intercourse which had formerly been held with the na¬
tives now commenced, and Captain Cook was treated
with the usual honours ; but on the 13th of this month
it was unhappily broken off on the following account.
One of the natives being detected in stealing the
tongs from the armourer’s forge in the Discovery, was
dismissed with a pretty severe flogging; but this example
was so far from being attended with any good effect,
that in the afternoon another, having snatched up the
tongs and a chissel, jumped overboard with them and
swam for the shore. Fhe master and midshipman were
instantly dispatched in pursuit of him ; but he escaped
on board a canoe, which paddled away so quickly that
the cutter could not come near it. A chief named Pa-
reah, who was at this time on board the Resolution, un¬
derstanding what had happened, promised to go ahore,
and get back the stolen goods ; but before this could
be done, the thief had made his escape into the coun¬
try. Captain Cook, who was at that time ashore,
had endeavoured to intercept ihe canoe when it land¬
ed, but was led out of the way by some of the na¬
tives who pretended to be his guides. The tongs and
chissel, however, were brought back to the master as
he advanced to the landing place, but he being now
joined by some of the rest of the people in the pin¬
nace, could not be satisfied with the recovery of the
stolen goods, but insisted upon having the thief or the
canoe which carried him by way of reprisal. On
his preparing to launch this last into the water, he was
interrupted by Pareah, who insisted that it was his
property, and that he should not take it away. As
the officer paid no regard to his remonstrances, Pa¬
reah, who seems to have been a very strong man, sei¬
zed him, pinioned his arms behind, and held him
fast by the hair of the head. On this one of the sailors
struck the chief with an oar ; on which, quitting the
officer, he instantly snatched the oar out of the man’s
fiand,
Cook
COO [6
hand, and broke it in two across his knee. The In¬
dians then attacked the sailors with stones, and soon
drove them to their boats, to which they were forced
to swim, as they lay at some distance from the shore.
The officers who could not swim retired to a small
rock, where they were closely pursued by the Indians j
and here the master narrowly escaped with his life,
till Pareah returned and obliged the Indians to give
over their attacks. The gentlemen, sensible that Pa-
reah’s presence alone could protect them, entreated
him to remain with them til! they could be brought
off in the boats. On his refusal, the master set out to
the place where the observatories had been erected, for
farther assistance j but Pareah, who met him, and sus¬
pected his errand, obliged him to return. In the
mean time, the multitude had begun to break in pieces
the pinnace, after having taken every thing out of her
that was loose : on the return of Pareah, however,
they were again dispersed, and some of the oars re¬
stored, after which the gentlemen were glad to get off
in safety. Before they reached the ship Pareah over¬
took them in a canoe, and delivered the midshipman’s
cap which had been taken from him in the scuffle ; he
also joined noses with them in token of friendship, and
desired to know whether Captain Cook would kill him
on account of what had happened. They assured
him that he would not, and made signs of reconcilia¬
tion on their part. On this he left them and pad-
died over to the town of Kavaroah ; and that was the
last time that he was seen by the English. In the night¬
time the sentinels were much alarmed by shrill and
melancholy sounds from the adjacent villages, which
they took to be the lamentations of the women. Next
day it was found that the large cutter of the Disco¬
very had been carried off in the night-time ; on which
Captain Cook ordered the launch and small cutter to
go under the command of the second lieutenant, and
to lie off the east point of the hay in order to intercept
all the canoes that might attempt to get out, and if
necessary to fire upon them. The third lieutenant of
the Resolution was despatched to the western part of
the bay on the same service ; while the master was
sent in pursuit of a large double canoe already under
sail, and making the best of her way out of the har¬
bour. He soon came up with her, and by firing a
few shots, obliged her to run on shore, and the In¬
dians to leave her. This was the canoe belonging to
a chief named Omea, whose person was reckoned
equally sacred with that of the king ; and to the ne¬
glect of securing him we may attribute the succeeding
disaster. Captain Cook now formed the resolution of
going in person to seize the king himself in his capi¬
tal of Kavaroah j and as there was reason to suppose
that he had fled, it was his design to secure the large
canoes, which on that account he caused to be hauled
up on the beach. With this view he left the ship
about seven o’clock in the morning of Sunday the 14th
of February, being attended by the lieutenant of ma¬
rines, a serjeant, corporal, and seven private men.
The crew of the pinnace, under the command of Mr
Roberts, were also armed : and as they rowed towards
the shore, the captain ordered the launch to leave her
station, at the opposite point of the bay, in order to
assist his own boat. Having landed with the marines
at the upper end of the town, the Indians flocked
5 1 coo
round him, and prostrated themselves before him. No
sign of hostility, nor even much alarm, appeared ; the
king’s sons waited on the commander as soon as he
sent for them, and by their means he was introduced
to the king, who readily consented to go on board ;
but in a little time the Indians began to arm them¬
selves with long spears, clubs, and daggers, and to
put on thick mats which they use as defensive armour.
This hostile appearance was greatly augmented by an
unlucky piece of news which was just now brought by
a canoe, viz. that one of the Indian chiefs had been
killed by the people in the Discovery’s boats. On this
the women, who had hitherto sat on the beach con¬
versing familiarly, and taking their breakfasts, re¬
moved, and a confused murmur ran through the
crowd. An old priest now appeared with a cocoa-nut
in his hand, which he held out as a present to Captain
Cook, singing all the while, and making a most
troublesome noise, as if he meant to divert the atten¬
tion of the captain and his people from observing the
motions of the Indians, who were now everywhere put¬
ting on their armour. Captain Cook beginning to
think his situation dangerous, ordered the lieutenant
of the marines to march towards the shore, as he
himself did, having all the while hold of the king’s
hand, who very readily accompanied him, attended
by his wife, two sons, and several chiefs. The In¬
dians made a lane for them to pass •, and as the di¬
stance they had to go was only about 50 or 60 yards,
and the boats lay at no more than five or six yards
distance from land, there was not the least apprehen¬
sion of the catastrophe which ensued. The king’s
youngest son Keowa went on board the pinnace with¬
out the least hesitation, and the king was about to
follow, when his wife threw her arms about his neck,
and, with the assistance of two chiefs, forced him to
sit down. The captain might now have safely got
aboard, but did not immediately relinquish the design
of taking the king along with him. Finding at last,
however, that this could not be accomplished with¬
out a great deal of bloodshed, he was on the point of
giving orders for the people to reimbark, when one
of the Indians threw a stone at him. This insult was
returned by the captain, who had a double barrelled
piece, by a discharge of small shot from one of the bar¬
rels. This had little effect, as the man had a thick
mat before him j and as he now brandished his spear,
the captain knocked him down with his musket. The
king’s son, Keowa, still remaining in the pinnace,
the detaining him would have been a great check up¬
on the Indians ; but unluckily Mr Roberts, who com¬
manded the pinnace, set him ashore at his own re¬
quest soon after the first fire. In the mean time ano¬
ther Indian was observed in the act of brandishing his
spear at the commander ; who thereupon was obliged
to fire upon him in his own defence. Missing his
aim, however, he killed one close by his side : upon
which the serjeant observing that he had missed the
man he aimed at, received orders to fire also, which
he did, and killed him on the spot. This repressed
the foremost of the Indians, and made them fall back
in a body •, but they were urged on again by those be¬
hind, and discharged a volley of stones among the ma¬
rines, who immediately returned it by a general dis¬
charge of their muskets j and this was instantly follow-
coo
ed by a fire from the boats. Captain Cook expressed
his astonishment at their firing, waved his hand to
them to cease, and called to the people in the boats
to come nearer to receive the marines. This order
was obeyed by Mr Roberts j but the lieutenant who
commanded the launch, instead of coming nearer, put
olf to a greater distance *, and by this preposterous
conduct deprived the unfortunate commander of the
only chance he had for his life : for now the Indians,
exasperated by the fire of the marines, rushed in upon
them and drove them into the water, leaving the cap¬
tain alone upon the rock. A fire indeed was kept up
by both boats; but the one was too far off, and the
other crowded with the marines, so that they could
not direct their fire with proper effect. Captain Cook,
was then observed making for the pinnace, carrying
his musket under his arm, and holding his other hand
on the back-part of his head to guard it from the
stones. An Indian was seen following him, but with
marks of fear, as he stopped once or twice seemingly
undetermined to proceed. At last he struck the cap¬
tain on the back of the head with a club, and then
precipitately retreated. The latter staggered a few paces,
and then fell on his hand and one knee, and dropped his
musket. Before he could recover himself, another In¬
dian stabbed him with a dagger in the neck, though
still without putting an end to his life. He then fell
into a pool of water knee-deep, where others crowded
upon him : but still he struggled violently with them,
got up his head, and looked towards the pinnace as
if soliciting assistance. The boat was not above five
or six yards distant j but such was the confused and
crowded state of the crew, that no assistance could be
given him. The Indians then got him under again,
but in deeper water, though he still continued to strug¬
gle, and once more got his head up j but being quite
spent lie turned towards the rock as if to suppoi't
himself by it, when a savage struck him with a club,
which probably put an end to his life, as he was never
seen to struggle any more. The savages hauled his
lifeless body upon the rocks, and used it in the most
barbarous manner, snatching the daggers out of one
another’s hands, in order to have the pleasure of
mangling it. If any thing could add to the misfor¬
tune of this celebrated navigator’s death, it was, that
even his mangled remains were not saved from the
hands of the barbarians. The lieutenant already
mentioned, who, by his removing to a distance when
he ought to have come on shore, seemed to have been
the occasion of his death, returned on board without
making any attempt to recover his body j though it
appeared from the testimonies of four or five midship¬
men who arrived soon after at the fatal spot, that
the beach was almost deserted by the Indians, they
having at last yielded to the continual fire from the
boats. The officer alleged in his own excuse for re¬
moving at first from the shore, that he mistook the
signals j but be this as it will, the complaints against
him were so many and so great, that Captain Clerke
was obliged publicly to take notice of them, and to
take the depositions of his accusers in writing. These
papers, however, were not found, and it is supposed
that the captain’s bad state of health had induced him
to destroy them. After all, we are informed that,
ia the opinion of Captain Philips who commanded
coo
the marines, it is very doubtful whether any effectual
relief could have been given to the commander, even
if no mistake had been committed on the part of the
lieutenant. The author of all the mischief was Pa-
reah, the chief already mentioned, who had employ¬
ed people to steal the boat in the night-time. The
king was entirely innocent both of the theft and the
murder of Captain Cook; but the latter was perpe¬
trated by some chiefs who were his uear relations.
The chief who first struck him with a club was na¬
med Karimans raha, and he who stabbed him with the
dagger was called Nooak. The latter, Mr Samwell,
from whose narrative this account is taken, observes,
was stout and tall, had a fierce look and demeanour,
and united in his person the two properties of strength
and agility more than he had ever observed in any other
person.—Both of them were held in great estimation by
their countrymen on account of the hand they had in
his death.
By reason of the barbarous disposition of the Indians,
it was found impossible to recover Captain Cook’s body
after the first opportunity already mentioned was lost.
By dint of threats and negotiations, however, some of
the principal parts were procured with great difficulty j
by which means the navigators were enabled to perform
the last offices to their much respected, commander.
These being put into a coffin, and the service read
over them, were committed to the deep with the usual
military honours on the 21st of February 1779. Soon
after his death a letter was issued by M. de Sartine,
secretary to the marine department of France, and sent
to all the commanders of French ships, importing,
that Captain Cook should be treated as the commander
of a neutral and allied power j and that all captains
of armed vessels who might meet with him, should
make him acquainted with the king’s order, but at
the same time let him know, that on his part he
must refrain from hostilities. This humane and gene-
rous proceeding, with regard to France, originated
from M. Turgot *, but the thought seems first to have
struck Dr Franklin. This much at least is certain,
that the doctor, while ambassador from the United
States, wrote a circular letter to the American naval
commanders something to the purport of that already
mentioned ; but in this he was not supported by Con¬
gress ; for an edict was instantly issued, that special care
should be taken to seize Captain Cook if an oppor¬
tunity of doing it occurred. The Spaniards proceed¬
ed in the same manner, and both acted on a princi¬
ple equally mean and absurd, that the obtaining a
knowledge of the western coast of Amex-ica, or of a
northern passage into the Pacific ocean, might be at¬
tended with some bad consequence to their respective
states.
Captain Cook was a man of plain address and ap¬
pearance, but well looked, and upwards of six feet
high. His head was small, and he wore his hair,
which was brown, tied behind. His face was full of
expression j his nose exceedingly well shaped ; his eyes,
which were small and of a brown cast, were quick
and piercing j his eyebrows prominent, which gave
his countenance altogether an air of austerity. Not¬
withstanding this, it was impossible for any one to ex¬
cel him in humanity, as is evident from the whole te¬
nor of his behaviour both to his own people and the
many
[ 616 ]
COO [ 617 ] coo
>ok. many savage nations with whom he had occasion to in-
YmmmJ terfere. This amiable property discovered itself even in
the final catastrophe of his life j his utmost care being
directed to the preservation of his people, and the pro¬
curing them a safe retreat to their boats. And it can¬
not be enough lamented, that he who took so much
care of others, should have perished in such a miserable
manner for want of being properly supported by them.
The perseverance with which he pursued every object
which happened to be pointed out as his duty was un¬
equalled* Nothing ever could divert him from what
he had once undertaken j and he persevered in the
midst of dangers and difficulties rvhich would have dis¬
heartened persons of very considerable strength and
firmness of mind. For this he was adapted by nature,
having a strong constitution, inured to labour, and ca¬
pable of undergoing the greatest hardships. His sto¬
mach bore without difficulty the coarsest and most
ungrateful food 5 and he submitted to every kind of
self-denial with the greatest indifference. To this
strength of constitution he joined an invincible forti¬
tude of mind, of which the circumnavigation of New
Holland, and his voyage towards the South Pole, fur¬
nish innumerable instances. He was master of him¬
self on every trying occasion j and the greater the
emergency, the greater always appeared his calmness
and recollection : so that in the most dangerous situa¬
tions, after giving proper directions to his people, he
could sleep soundly the hours that he had allotted to
himself. That he possessed genius in an eminent de¬
gree cannot be questioned j his invention was ready,
and capable not only of suggesting the most noble ob¬
jects of pursuit, but the most proper methods of at¬
taining them. His knowledge of his own profession
was unequalled ; and to this he added a very consider¬
able proficiency in other sciences. In astronomy, he
became so eminent, that he was at length enabled to
take the lead in making the astronomical observations
during the course of his voyages. In general learning
he likewise attained to such a proficiency as to be able
to express himself with clearness and propriety ; and
thus became respectable as the narrator, as well as the
performer, of great actions. He was an excellent hus¬
band and father, sincere and steady in his friendship,
and possessed of a general sobriety and virtue of charac¬
ter. In conversation he was unaffected and unassum¬
ing $ rather backward in pushing discourse, but oblig¬
ing and communicative to those who wished for infor¬
mation : and he was distinguished by a simplicity of
manners almost universally the attendant of truly great
men. With all these amiable qualities, the captain
was occasionally subject to a hastiness of temper, which
has been set forth in its utmost extent, if not exag¬
gerated by some, though but few, who are not his
friends : but even these, as well as others, when taking
a general view of his character, are obliged to ac¬
knowledge that he was undoubtedly one of the greatest
men of his age.
Captain Cook is distinguished as an author, by an ac¬
count of his second voyage written by himself. His first
voyage, as well as that of several other navigators, had
been recorded by Dr Hawkesworth j but on the present
occasion it was not judged necessary to have recourse
to any other than the pen of the author himself j and
his journal, with a few occasional alterations, and be-
Vol. VI. Part II. f
ing divided into chapters, was sufficient for the pur- Cook,
pose. The style is clear, natural, and manly ; and it—y—-
is not improbable, that even a pen of more studied ele¬
gance could not have made it appear to more advan¬
tage. When it appeared, which was not till some time
after the author had left England, the book rvas recom¬
mended by the accuracy and excellency of its charts, and
by a numerous collection of fine engravings done from
the original drawings of Mr Hodges.
We cannot conclude this article without taking some
notice of the honours paid to our celebrated navigator
after his death, both by his own countrymen and those
of other nations. Perhaps indeed it may be said with
justice, that foreigners hold his memory in an estimation
unequalled even in this country ; a remarkable proof of
which occurs in the eulogy upon him by Michael
Angelo Gianetti, read in the Florentine academy, on
the 9th of June 1785, and published at Florence the
same year. It is said also, that one of the French
literary academies proposed a prize for the best eulogium
on Captain Cook ; and many poetical testimonies of his
merit appeared in our own language. The Royal
Society of London resolved to testify their respect to
him by a medal, for which purpose a voluntary subscrip¬
tion was opened. A gold medal was given to such of
the fellows as subscribed 20 guineas, and a silver one
to those who subscribed smaller sums j and each of the
other members received one of bronze. Those who
subscribed 20 guineas were, Sir Joseph Banks, president,
the prince of Anspach, the duke of Montague, Lord
Mulgrave, and Messrs Cavendish, Peachey, Perrin,
Poli, and Shuttleworth. Many designs were proposed
on the occasion ; but the following was that which wras
actually struck. On one side was the head of Captain
Cook in profile, with this inscription round it, Jac.
Cook oceani investigator acerrimusj and on the
exergue, Reg. Soc. Lond. socio suo. On the re¬
verse is a representation of Britannia holding a globe,
with this inscription round her, Nil* intentatum
NOSTRI liqjjere ; and on the exergue, Auspiciis
Georgii Ilf. One of the gold medals struck on this
occasion, was presented to the king, another to the
queen, and a third to the prince of Wales. Another
was sent to the French king on account of the protec¬
tion he had granted to the ships j and a second to the
empress of Russia, in whose dominions they had been
treated with every expression of friendship and kind¬
ness. Both these great personages condescended to
accept of the present with marks of satisfaction. The
French king wrote a handsome letter to the Society,
signed by himself, and undersigned by the marquis de
Vergennesj and the empress of Russia commissioned
Count Osterman to signify to Mr Fitzherbert the sense
she had of the value of the present, and that she had
caused it to be deposited in the museum of the Imperial
Academy of Sciences. As a further testimony of the
pleasure she derived from it, the empress presented to
the Royal Society a large and beautiful gold medal,
containing on one side the effigies of herself, and on the
other a representation of the statue of Peter the Great.
After the general assignment of the medals, which took
place in 1784, there being a surplus of money still
remaining, it was resolved by the president and council,
that an additional number of medals should be thrown
off, to be disposed of in presents to Mrs Cook, the earl
4 I of
COO [ 618
Cook, of Sandwich, Dr Benjamin Franklin, Dr Cook, pro-
Cook’s Dis- vost of King’s College Caml)ridge, and MrPlanta. At
covenes. t|}e same tjme Jt Was agreed that Mr Aubert should be
allowed to have a gold medal of Captain Cook, on his
paying for the gold, and the expence of striking it, in
consideration of his intention to present it to the king
of Poland.
During the two visits of the ships at Kamtschatka,
Major Behm, the commandant of that province, had
bestowed, in the most liberal manner, every kind of as¬
sistance which it was in his power to bestow } and such
was the sense entertained by the lords of the admiralty
of the kindness he had showed, that they determined to
make him a present of a magnificent piece of plate with
an inscription expressive of his humane and generous
conduct. The inscription was drawn up by Dr Cook, and
afterwards submitted to the opinion and correction of
some gentlemen of the first eminence in classical taste.
Sir Hugh Palliser, who had all along displayed an
uncommon respect and kindness for Captain Cook,
likewise displayed his regard for his memory in a most
eminent manner. On his estate in Buckinghamshire,
he constructed a small building with a pillar, contain¬
ing the character of Captain Cook, which is given at the
end of the introduction to the last voyage. This was
drawn up by the honourable Admiral Forbes, admiral
of the fleet, and general of the marines 5 to whom Cap¬
tain Cook was known only by his merit and extraordi¬
nary actions.
Amidst all these expressions of unavailing praise, it
was not forgotten to show some essential service to the
widow and family of our celebrated navigator. A
memorial for a pension of 200I. per annum was given
in to the king from the commissioners of the admiralty,
and signed by the earl of Sandwich, Mr Butler, the
earl of Lisburne, Mr Penton, Lord Mulgrave, and
Mr Mann. His majesty complied with the request
of the memorial, and the grant was passed through the
usual forms with all possible speed. By this 200I. per
annum was settled on the widow during life ; and 25I.
a-year on each of her three sons. After her death
the 200I. was to be divided between her children ; a
fourth was allotted to Captain King, and the remaining
fourth to Mr Bligh and the representatives of Captain
Clerke.
The last honour paid to the memory of Captain
Cook was the granting a coat of arms to the family,
which was done by patent on the 3d of September
1785: and of this ■we have the following description.
Azure, between the two polar stars, Or, a sphere on
the plane of the meridian j north pole elevated, circles
of latitude for every ten degrees, and of longitude for
every 15 ; showing the Pacific ocean between 6o° and
240* west, bounded on one side by America, and on
the other by Asia and New Holland ; in memory of
the discoveries made by him in that ocean, so very far
bevond all former navigators. His track thereon is
marked with red lines ; and for crest, in a wreath of
the colour is an arm imbowed, vested in the uniform of
a captain of the royal navy. In the hand is the union
jack, on a stall' proper. The arm is encircled by a
wreath of palm and laurel.
CoaK's Discoveries.—The number of countries dis¬
covered by Captain Cook, and which had never before
]
COO
been visited by any European, is very considerable ; Cook’s I
but it was a remarkable property of our celebrated na- coverid
vigator, that, wherever he touched, every thing rela-
tive to the place was determined with such accuracy
and precision, that all former accounts seemed to go
for nothing, and the discovery to belong entirely to
Captain Cook. Thus it was not unusual with him to
make discoveries in places already well known ; and
thus his voyages have conveyed a vast fund of know¬
ledge perfectly original. Though the accounts of the
difl'erent places, therefore, at which he touched, are
particularly given under their names in the order of
the alphabet, we shall in this article endeavour to
join the whole together in such a manner as to give
the reader some idea of the benefit which has accrued
to science from voyages attended not only with much
expence and labour, but even with the loss of the cele¬
brated navigator’s life.
When he set out in the Endeavour in the year 1768, ^fa(|e[ra
the first place he touched at was Madeira. Here Mravolcani
Banks and Dr Solander, besides some additions to the island,
science of botany, discovered undoubted marks of the
island having a volcanic origin. On leaving this place,
they found it necessary to touch at Rio de Janeiro for
provisions, and during the run thither, the commander
had an opportunity of determining the cause of the lu- 9
minous appearance of the sea. On the 29th of Oc-Lumin«*i
tober they observed that the water frequently emitted a^arl1”
flashes like lightning, though much smaller ; but suchot *•
was their irequency, that eight or ten or them were^y gnima
visible almost at the same moment. This appearance
they found, both at this time and afterwards, to arise
from a small kind of animal with which the water
abounded. Whilst staying at Rio de Janeiro, a melan¬
choly observation was made of the prodigious waste of
human lives with which the working of the Portu- 3
guese gold mines was attended, no fewer than 40,000 Vait noir
negroes being annually imported for this purpose, nonebersofn<
of whom, it seems, survive the labour of the year ; and^r°®^e‘
our navigator was informed, that in 1766 this number worji
was so far short, that they were obliged to draughting the
20,000 more from the town of Rio itself. Proceed-gold ml111
ing from thence to the southern coasts of America, he
had an opportunity of determining a question of great
importance to navigation, viz. whether in sailing to 4
the Pacific ocean, it is better to pass through the^8*?*'
straits of Magellan, or to double Cape Horn, and sail ^ psci
through those of Le Maire ? From Captain Cook’s ocean
voyage it appears, contrary to the opinion of former through
navigators, that the latter is the preferable passage.
Through this he was only 33 days in coming round the
land of Terra del Fuego from the east entrance of the
straight of Le Maire till he advanced about 12 de¬
grees to the westward, and three and a half to the
northward of Magellan’s straits. During all this
time the ship scarcely received any damage, though if
he had passed the other way he could not have accom¬
plished his passage in less than three months, besides
immense fatigue to his people and damage to the ship. 5
In these stormy regions, however, he experienced theExceisi'
same inconveniencies felt by other navigators } such a storm5 5
sea being met with off Cape Diego, that the sh‘P fre" ,”utheri
quently pitched her bowsprit under water. Here also rCgion,,
the excessive cold and mutability of weather in these
southern
coo
t 619 3
coo
l ;’g Dis-southern regions was experienced in such a manner as
erie«. had nearly proved fatal to some of the gentlemen who
k sailed along with him. Dr Solander, Mr Banks, Mr
Monkhouse the surgeon, and Mr Green the astronomer,
with their attendants and servants, set out on a botani¬
cal expedition while the ship lay at anchor in the bay
of Good Success. It was then the middle of summer,
and the morning on which they set out was as mild
and warm as it usually is in the month of May in Kng-
land : but having ascended a mountain for the purpose
of botanizing, they were surprised by such storms of
snow and hail that they could not get back that night.
Dr Solander, who warned them of their danger, that
people when about to perish with cold were seized with
a violent inclination to sleep, was the first who seemed
likely to fall a victim to it; and it wfts not in the power
of his companions to keep him from sitting down
for that purpose* He was awakened in a few minutes j
but during this short interval his feet had become so
much diminished by the contraction of the vessels, that
his shoes fell off from them when he was again made
6 to rise. Even these dreary regions, however, are not
l ;rabie without inhabitants, whom our voyagers justly con-
1 :oi tliec]ut|e(j to be the lowest of the human species. Indeed,
1 rei‘ considering the little convenience they have, it is won¬
derful how they can resist the severity of the climate,
for they are almost without clothing} they dwell in
miserable hovels, which admit both the wind and snow
or rain } and they have not any utensil for dressing their
food. Nevertheless, these miserable creatures, as they
appeared to our navigators, seemed to have no wish to
possess more than they enjoyed } and they were abso¬
lutely indifferent about every thing that was offered
them, except large beads, which they would take as
ornaments. Hence Dr Hawkesworth, who wrote the
account of the voyage, concludes, that these people
may be on a level with ourselves with respect to the
^ real happiness they enjoy.
I ididi*- On the 26th of January 1769 our navigators left
< red be-Cape Horn ; and from that time to the first of March,
1 *aTduri0S thpy run no 'ess t*ian 660 leagues, met
( |iejte with no current by which the ship was affected. Hence
it is probable, that during all this time they had never
been near any land, the currents of the ocean being
usually met with in the neighbourhood of islands. Se¬
veral islands, however, were discovered before they
reached Otaheite, on which they bestowed the names
of Lagoon Island, Thrumb-cap, Bow Island, the
Groups, Bird Island, and Chain Island. All these
seemed to be inhabited, and were covered with a most
delightful verdure } which appeared to the greater ad¬
vantage, as our navigators had for a long time seen no
land but the dreary hills and wastes of Terra del Fue-
3 go. Having arrived at Otaheite, they set about ob-
nsitof serving the transit of Venus over the sun, which indeed
mi ob- was the main purpose for which the voyage had been
j undertaken. The anxiety which they underwent when
the time of the expected phenomenon approached may
easily be imagined, as the whole depended on the cir¬
cumstance of a clear sky, which though more readily to
be expected in that climate than one more to the north¬
ward, was still a matter of uncertainty. In consequence
of some hints which had been given by the earl of
Morton, Captain Cook determined to send out two par¬
ties to different places to make the observations } by
which means there would be a chance of success, even Cook’* Ois-
if those at Otaheite should fail. For this purpose he coveries.
sent Mr Gore in the long boat to Eimeo, a neighbour- v ^
ing island, along with Mr Monkhouse, Mr Banks, and
Mr Sporing, who were furnished with proper instru¬
ments by Mr Green the astronomer. Messrs Hicks,
Clerke, Pickersgill, and Saunders, were sent in the
pinnace to a convenient spot to the eastward of the
main observatory, where they were likewise ordered to
make observations with such instruments as they had.
The day on which the transit happened was the 3d °f
June 1769, when they had the satisfaction to see the
sun rise without a cloud } and as the weather continued
equally clear throughout the day, there was the best
opportunity of making the observations in a proper
manner. All of them saw an atmosphere or dusky
cloud round the planet, which disturbed their observa¬
tion, and probably caused them to differ from each
other more considerably than they would otherwise
have done. According to Mr Green, the times of
ingress and egress of the planet were as follow :
Morning. h. min.
First external contact, - - 9 25
First internal contact, or total immersion, 9 44
Afternoon.
Second internal contact,
Second external contact, or end of the 1
transit, $
H
32
sec.
42
4
10
From these observations the latitude of the obser¬
vatory was found to be 170 29' 15" S. and the longi¬
tude 1490 32' 30" W. of Greenwich. Several curious
remarks were made both on the country itself, and on 9
the inhabitants. Mr Banks, in an excursion up the Otaheite
country, discovered many traces of volcanic fire ; the » volcanic
stones, like those of Madeira, had evidently the ap-
pearance of being burnt, and the very clay on the hills 10
had the same appearance. The natives, though ad-Accoun.t of
dieted to thieving, appeared in general harmless and ^ nat‘Te*’
friendly, and very ready to supply the ship with ne¬
cessaries in exchange for such things as they wanted.
The articles on which they set the greatest value were
hatchets, axes, large nails, spikes, looking-glasses, and
beads. They were also fond of fine linen, whether
white or printed} but an axe of the value of half a
cicwn would buy more provisions than a piece of cloth
of the value of 20 shillings. They are very fickle and
inattentive ; so that it was not possible to engage them
to pay any regard to the worship of the Deity which
they saw performed before them } nor would they at¬
tend to any explanation of it that was given them.
They are not, however, destitute of a religion of their
own ; and are particularly careful of the repositories
ot the dead, which they will not allow to be violated
on any account. Of this Captain Cook had an in¬
stance, when some of his people offered to take down
an inclosure of one of those repositories. They were
violently opposed by the natives, who sent a messenger
to acquaint them that they would never suffer any
such thing} and the only insult that ever was offered to
an Englishman by the people of this island was on a
similar account. From Otaheite our navigators carried
* 4 I a vitli
COO [620
Cook’s Dis-with them Tupia, formerly high priest of the country,
covtries. and prime minister to Queen Oberea. From his prac-
l~‘” "v tice it appeared, that the priests of Otaheite, as well as
elsewhere, take care to place themselves a step nearer
the Deity than the common people, and to use the de¬
ceptions too frequently put in practice by such media¬
tors. While on board the Endeavour, he frequently
prayed to his god l'a7ie for a wind 5 and according to
his own account never failed of success. This, how¬
ever, he took care to ensure ; for he never began his
prayers till he perceived the breeze already on the
water, and so near that it must reach the ship before
they could well be ended. It was observed likewise of
the people of Otaheite, that they had their bards or
minstrels, who went about the country with musical
instruments. The band whom they saw at this time
consisted ol two players on flutes and three drummers $
the latter accompanying the flutes with their voices.
Their songs were made extempore, and the English
x 1 themselves were generally the subject.
Society From Otaheite our navigators sailed towards a neigh
12
Wretched
13
Oheteroa
island dis
covered.
ccvenes
*4
bouring island named Tethuora; but finding it small,
eoveie low, and without any settled inhabitants, the captain
chose rather to direct his course towards Huaheine and
Ulietea, which he was informed were well inhabited.
These had never been visited by any European ship 5
hut the inhabitants, though peaceable and friendly,
were very slow and cautious in trading, so that the
captain was obliged to bring out his hatchets to mar¬
ket ; a commodity which he had hoped might have
been concealed from those who had never seen an Eu¬
ropean ship before. On his arrival at Ulietea he found,
by the discourse of Tupia, that the inhabitants of a
neighbouring island named Tiolabola were of such a
martial disposition as to be the terror of those of Flua-
he ine, Ulietea, and others j insomuch, that he appre¬
hended great danger to our navigators should they
touch at an island which the Bolabola men had lately
conquered. This, however, had so little effect upon
Captain Cook, that he not only landed on the island
already mentioned, but took possession, in his majesty’s
name, of Bolabola itself, together with Ulietea, Hua¬
heine, and another named. Otaha, which were all vi¬
sible at once. During their stay here they paid a visit
-rjaranceto Opoony, the formidable monarch of Bolabola j
®f BoteS.w!10m’ t0 tlie‘r surprise, they found a feeble wretch,
withered and decrepid, half blind with age, and so
stupid that he seemed scarce to be possessed of a com¬
mon degree of understanding. About these islands
they spent six weeks, bestowing upon them the name
of the Society Isles, on account of their being so near
to each other. They are six in number, Ulietea, Flua-
heine, Bolabola, Otaha, Tubai, and Maurna. The
smaller ones in their neighbourhood are Tethuora, Ei-
meo, Tapoamanoa, Oatara, Opururu, Tamou, Toaho-
atu, and Whennuaia.
Leaving the Society Islands, which are situated be¬
tween Lat. 16. 10. and 16. 55* and between 150.
57. and 152. W. from the meridian of Greenwich, they
fell in with the island of Oheteroa, situated in S. Lat.
22. 27. and W. Long. 150. 47.5 but this was found
to be destitute of any harbour or safe anchorage, and
the disposition of the inhabitants so hostile that they
could not by any means he conciliated, so that no
attempts were made to land. From Tupia Captain
] COO
Cook learned that there were several islands in the Cook’* D
neighbourhood, which our navigator conjectured to
be Boscawen and Keppel’s islands, discovered by Cap¬
tain Wallis j but without spending more time in ex¬
ploring these, he set sail to the southward in search of
a continent.
Our voyagers left Oheteroa on the 15th of August Csim of
1769, and on the 30th had a view of the comet which I7<59 °M
appeared that year j its tail subtending an angle ofsem<,‘
42 degrees. This proved a new source of apprehen¬
sion to Tupia, who instantly cried out, that as soon as
it was seen at Bolabola, the people of that country
would attack those of Ulietea, who would undoubted¬
ly be obliged to fly with precipitation to the mountains
to save their lives. On the 6th of October they dis¬
covered land, which, from its size, and the enormous
mountains observable on it, was supposed by the gentle¬
men on board to be part of 'Terra Australis incognita ;
but, on farther examination, it was found to be part of ij
New Zealand. Here the inhabitants were found to^y^f-
speak a dialect of the language of Otaheite, so that”^8^ &
they could understand Tupia, and he them j yet soiani ^
extremely hostile were their dispositions, that not the
smallest intercourse could be held with them } nor
could any thing necessary for the ships be procured
excepting wood ; so that the name Captain Cook
thought proper to bestow on this part of the country
was Poverty Bay. By the natives it is called Taone-
roa, and lies in S. Lat. 38. 42. and W. Long. 181. 36.
During the time of his stay in this part of the world,
the captain circumnavigated almost the whole country
of New Zealand, which he found to consist of twa
islands separated from each other by a narrow strait,
which, from its discoverer, has obtained the name of
CooPs Strait. In some places the disposition of the in¬
habitants was as favourable as could be wished j so that
Dr Solander, Mr Banks, and other gentlemen, had an
opportunity of exploring the country in some degree, ,5
with a view to discover its natural productions. InRockofi
one of their excursions, as they passed through a val-extraordi.
ley, the hills on each side of which were very steep,nary
they were suddenly struck with the sight of a very ex¬
traordinary natural curiosity. It was a rock perfo¬
rated through its whole substance, so as to form a rude
but stupendous arch or cavern, opening directly to the
sea. This aperture was 75 feet long, 27 broad, and
45 in height, commanding a view of the bay and the
hills on the other side, which were seen through it 5
and opening at once to the view, produced an effect
far superior to any of the contrivances of art. On Natural
that part of the coast, which, from having observed a products
transit of Mercury, they named Mercury Bay, oysters l'ie c0,m
were found in such plenty, that they might have loadedtr3r‘
not only their boats, but even their ships, with them.
They were about the same size with those met with in
this country 5 and on account of their being found in
such plenty, and likewise that the adjacent country
abounds with conveniencies, Captain Cook was at great
pains to point out the situation of the place. By his
observations the latitude of Mercury Bay is 36. 48.
28. S.
Leaving this bay, our commander proceeded to ex¬
plore other parts of the country, which by his ac¬
count seems to abound with rivers. Two large ones
were met with in Mercury Bay j one of which, from
the
COO [ 621 ] coo
Ct s Dis-the abundance of oysters found at its mouth, was call-
c l‘e> . ed Oyster river; the other they named Mangrove ri-
^ ver, from the number of mangrove trees growing there.
A third, which they called Thames, was met with in
that part called the Ray of Islands, up which they sail¬
ed 14 miles. Its banks were everywhere adorned
with lofty trees, which they had likewise observed in
other parts of the country. They were too heavy for
masts, but would make the finest planks imaginable ;
and as they resembled the pitch pine, the timber of
which is lightened by tapping, the carpenter was of
opinion, that they might thus be rendered more pro¬
per for masts than any European timber. One of
these trees measured 19 feet 8 inches in circumference
at the height of six feet from the ground, and was no
less than 89, with very little taper, to the branches :
so that the lieutenant supposed it must contain 356
feet of solid timber. In Queen Charlotte’s Sound the
country was little more than one vast forest, with plen¬
ty of excellent water, and the coast abounding with fish.
As the ship lay at the distance of only a quarter of a
mile from the shore, they were agreeably entertained
with the singing of an infinite number of small birds,
which formed a melody greatly superior to any thing
they had ever heard before. The music of these little
choristers seemed to be like small bells, most exquisitely
tuned, though probably the distance and intervention
of the water had a considerable effect in heightening
it. They began to sing about two in the morning,
and continued their song till sunrise, after which they
were silent all the day, resembling in this respect the
,8 nightingales of our country.
( eral The time which Captain Cook spent in exploring the
< inption coasts of New Zealand was not less than six months.
< ieooun-By j,js researches it was shown to consist of two large
islands, the most northerly of which is called Eaheino-
mauwe, and the most southerly Tovy or Tavai Poe-
nammoo ; though it is not certain whether the whole
southern island or only a part of it is comprehended
under this name. This island seems to be barren and
mountainous, but Eaheinomauwe has a much better ap¬
pearance ; and it was universally believed by the gen¬
tlemen on board, that all kinds of European grain, as
well as garden plants and fruits, would flourish in the
greatest abundance and perfection 5 and from the ve¬
getables found here it was concluded that the winters
are not more severe than those of England, and it was
known by experience, that the summer was not hotter,
though the heat was more equal than in this country.
Here are no quadrupeds except dogs and rats ; and
the latter are so scarce, that they escaped the notice of
many on board. The birds are not numerous, and the
gannet is the only one of the European kind that was
observed. The insects are equally scarce $ but the sea
makes abundant recompense for this scarcity of land
animals ; every creek swarms with fish, equally deli¬
cious with those in this country. The forests are of vast
extent, and filled with excellent timber trees j the lar¬
gest, straightest, and cleanest that Mr Cook had ever
j seen. There is here one plant which answers the pur-
j e f0f poses of both hemp and ftax, and excels all others of the
1 ling a kin(l that have been met with in any other part of the
‘ ny world. If the settling of New Zealand therefore should
e' ever be deemed an object worthy of the attention of
Great Britain, Captain Cook was of opinion, that the
be§t place for establishing a colony would be either on Cook's Dis-
the banks of the Thames or in the Bay of Islands j each coveries.
of these places having the advantage of an excellent v—'
harbour. Settlements might be extended, and a com¬
munication made with the inland parts of the country
by means of the river j and vessels easily constructed
of the excellent timber with which the country every¬
where abounds. , ao
The inhabitants of New Zealand are in a very bar-Account of
barous state, and have a degree of ferocity unknown t^le
to the inhabitants of the South Sea islands, though tanls‘
they seem to have the same origin. During their re¬
sidence there, our navigators had the most convincing
evidences of their being cannibals, and accustomed to
devour the bodies of their slain enemies. Notwith¬
standing these barbarous practices, however, they
seemed to enjoy a state of uninterrupted health. In
all the visits made to their towns, none was ever per¬
ceived who had the least bodily complaint, not even
the slightest eruption on the skin. This extraordinary
degree of health was likewise manifested by the ease
with which their wounds were healed without the smal¬
lest application, as well as by the number of old men
with which the island abounded. Many of these, by
the loss of their hair and teeth, seemed to be extremely
old, but none of them were decrepid 5 and though in¬
ferior in strength to the young men, they came not
behind them in the least with regard to cheerfulness
and vivacity. The universal and only drink of the
New Zealanders is water.
Our navigator had now explored three-fourths of
that part of the globe where the southern continent
was supposed talie, without being able to find it j and
his voyage had demonstrated, that the lands seen by
former navigators could not have been parts of such a
continent, though, as he had never proceeded farther
to the southward than 40 degrees, the arguments for it 2r
were not as yet entirely overthrown. Mr Cook, how-Discove-
ever, did not at this time proceed farther in the search ”es ^
of such a continent, but sailed from New Zealand to^j
the coast of New Holland, where he anchored in Bo¬
tany Bay on the 20th of April. Here he found a few
savage inhabitants more barbarous and degenerate than
any that had yet been observed. Their language was
harsh and dissonant, totally unintelligible even to Tu-
pia : they appeared to have little curiosity, and set no
value upon any present that could be made them. The
most remarkable circumstance in this country seems to
be its extreme scarcity of water j not a single stream
of any consequence having ever been observed by any
navigator. Some were of opinion indeed, that More-
ton’s bay, in S. Lat. 26. 59. and W. Long. 206. 28.
opens into a river ; though the only reason they had
for this opinion was, that the sea looked paler in that
part than usual, and the land at the bottom part of the
bay could not be seen. At this time, however,, the
matter could not be determined by experiment, on ac¬
count of the wind being contrary. The scarcity of
water here is the more surprising, on account ol the
vast extent of the country, and likewise its having,
abundance of tolerably high hills. In this island there
were found many curious plants and animals ; and it 2*
was found, that in several places the magnetical needle JIsSneiic
was affected to such a degree, as tovary its position r'
even to 30 degrees. At one time it varied no less a&cuu.
thah
trv.
C O O [622
Cook’s D:s-than two points on being removed to the distance of
coreries. on|y feet. Some of the loose stones being taken up
' * and applied to the needle produced no effect ; but Mr
Cook was of opinion that the whole phenomenon was
to be ascribed to iron ore in some of the mountains,
and of which traces had been already met with. This
irregularity continued in some degree even at sea ; for
when the ship was close under Cape Upstart, the varia¬
tion of the needle in the evening of the 4th of June
was 90 east, and next morning only 50 35'; and this
was in like manner accounted for from iron ore, or
some magnetical matter below the surface of the
ground. The great island has many other small
2, ones round it, several of which were visited by our na-
Birds nests vigators. One of them, named Eagle Island, seemed to
of an ini- he inhabited by a monstrous kind of birds, the nest of
niense size. one 0f vvl);c|, measured no less than 26 feet in circum¬
ference, and two feet eight inches in height; and in
the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xx. there is an ac¬
count of one of these nests still larger j but the bird
to which it belonged was not seen. That which
our navigators saw was built of sticks, and lay upon
the ground.
Vast extent ^ l,e country, which goes by the name of New Hol-
efthe coun-/oW, is by far the largest island in the world. Its east¬
ern part, called New South Wales, now first explored
by Captain Cook, extends upwards of 2000 miles in
length, if the coast were reduced to a straight line.
Though inhabited, as we have already said, by very
barbarous savages, their number appears to bear no
proportion to the extent of their territory. The in¬
tercourse they had with our navigators was so small,
that they could pick up but a few words of their lan¬
guage. As a British settlement is now made in that
country, there is no doubt that much more exact ac¬
counts will soon be obtained than even the diligence
and attention of Captain Cook could collect on such a
transient visit.
In this voyage our navigator, besides exploring the
eastern part of the island, which had never been done
before, discovered that it was separated from the island
of New Guinea, to which it had formerly been thought
to join. The two countries are separated by a strait,
to which the commander gave the name of Endeavour
Strait. The north entrance of this lies in S. Lat. 10.
39. and W. Long. 218. 36.; the passage is formed by
the main land and a congeries of islands to the north,
on which our navigator bestowed the name of Prince
of Wales's Islands. These are very different both in
height and extent j and the captain was of opinion,
^ that several passages might be found out among them.
Cockles of 0,1 tlle coast of New Holland opposite to New Guinea
vast size, are found cockles of an immense size j some of them
being as much as two men could move, and containing
20 pounds of good meat. In these seas, as well as on
the coasts of Brazil, our navigators found the surface of
the water covered with a kind of scum called by the
sailors sea-spawn. It was examined by Mr Banks and
Dr Solander; but they could determine nothing far¬
ther than that it was of vegetable origin.
The natives of New Guinea were so hostile that no
discoveries of any consequence could be made. They
resembled the New Hollanders in stature, and having
short cropped hair. Like them too they were abso¬
lutely naked, but somewhat less black and dirty. They
3
]
coo
~ ’5
Separated
by straits
from New
Guinea.
26
sea-scura,
&.C.
had a surprising method of letting off a kind of fires, Cook’s Jit
exactly resembling the flashes of fire-arms, but without coverie
any explosion. It was not known in what manner '■““v—
this was done, as they were never near enough tojjna^
make a particular observation. Those who discharged able nie-
them had a short piece of stick which they swung side-thod of tl
wise from them, from which there issued the fire and1nat|vesoj
smoke just mentioned. This seems to have been
in" firei"8 °£
tended as a defiance } for they had no effect as offen¬
sive weapons, and others were armed with bows and
arrows. The country appeared extremely pleasant
and fertile. The place at which they touched lies in
S. Lat. 6. 15.
As the condition of the Endeavour was now very
much shattered by having sailed so long in these dan¬
gerous seas, the commander determined to make the
best of his way for Batavia in order to refit. In this
voyage he first passed two unknown islands without
touching at either of them. They were supposed to
belong to the Aurora islands ; but if this be the case,
the latter must be laid down at too great a distance
from New Guinea. The Weasel isles, laid down by
former navigators at about 28 or 25 leagues from the
coast of New Holland, were not seen ; for which rea¬
son Mr Cook is of opinion that they are erroneously
laid down.
Passing by the islands of Timor, Timor-lavet, Rot-
ta, and Seman, they next arrived at the island of Sa-
vu, where a settlement had lately been made by the
Dutch. In this voyage they had the satisfaction of Aurora
observing the aurora australis, which here seemed toaustral'1
differ in some respects from that in the northern hemi¬
sphere. It consisted of a dull reddish light, extend¬
ing about 20 degrees above the horizon j and though
it varied sometimes in extent, it was never less than
eight or ten degrees. From this general mass of
light there sometimes issued rays of a brighter colour,
which vanished and were renewed like those of the au¬
rora borealis, but without any of that tumultuous mo¬
tion observed in the aurora borealis. The body of the
light bore S. S. E. from the ship, and continued with¬
out any diminution of its brightness from 10 to 12 at
night. _ . . t9
The middle part of the island of Savu lies in 10. 35. Excelleul
south, and 237. 30. west longitude, and afforded a most character
beautiful prospect from the ship. The people are re-®!^®^
markable for the purity of their morals, which are said
to be irreproachable, even on the principles of Chris¬
tianity. Though no man is allowed to have more
than one wife, instances of illicit commerce betwixt
the sexes are scarcely known among them. Instances
of theft are likewise very rare; and so far are they
fiom revenging a supposed injury by murder, that
when any differences arise among them, they are im¬
mediately and implicitly referred to the determination
of the king. They will not even make it the subject
of private debate, lest they should be provoked to re¬
sentment and ill-nature; and the delicacy and cleanli¬
ness of their persons are said to be proportionable to ^00^°e(-
the purity of their morals. fects of t
On the arrival of the Endeavour at Batavia, our na-electric®!
vigator had an opportunity of observing the good cf-cbaiu^ic
fects of the electrical chains applied to ships, in securing t)M.
them from the effects of lightning. A dreadful storm effect6 of
of thunder happened one evening, during which the lightning
main-mast
coo
31
] ih of
1 a..
3*
I ce’i
i id, a
I ier
l e for
1 t to
1 li at.
, 33
* nd
.main mast of one of the Dutch East Indiamen was
split and carried away dose by the deck, the main¬
top-mast and top-gallant-mast being shivered to pie¬
ces. This ship lay so near the Endeavour, that the
latter would probably have shared the same fate, had
it not been for the conducting chain, which fortu¬
nately was just put up. The explosion shook her like
an earthquake, the chain at the same time appearing
like a line of fire. The stroke seemed to have been
directed to the Dutch vessel by an iron spindle at the
mast head : which practice our commander discom¬
mends, but strongly inculcates the use of the electrical
chain.
On their landing at Batavia, Tupia was confined by
sickness, so that he appeared quite lifeless and dejected
when put into the boat: but on his arrival at land re¬
covered his spirits surprisingly. The scene, to him so
new and extraordinary, seemed to produce an effect
similar to what is produced by enchantment. His at¬
tention was particularly engaged by the various dresses
of the people : and being informed that at Batavia
every one appeared in the dress of his own country, he
expressed a desire of likewise appearing in the garb of
Otaheite. Having therefore been furnished with South
sea cloth from the ship, he equipped himself with
great quickness and dexterity. After the first flow of
spirits had subsided, however, he soon began to feel
the fatal effects of the climate ; and his boy Tayeto,
whose spirits had been still more elevated on his ar¬
rival, was attacked with an inflammation of the lungs,
and in a little time fell a victim to the disease. Tu¬
pia himself did not long survive him, and his death
was not attributed solely to the unwholesomeness of
the climate. Having been accustomed from his in¬
fancy to subsist chiefly upon vegetable food, and par¬
ticularly on ripe fruit, he had soon contracted the dis¬
orders incident to a sea life, and could scarce have
been expected to reach England, even if the un¬
wholesome climate of Batavia had been out of the
question.
The Endeavour left Batavia on the 27th of De¬
cember 1770, and on the 5th of January 1771 reach¬
ed Prince’s island. This place had been formerly
much frequented by the India ships, but of late en¬
tirely deserted on account of the supposed bad quality
of the water: but this our navigator has discovered to
be a mistake j and that, though the water near the
sea is brackish, it may be had of excellent quality by
going a little way up the country. He is of opinion,
that this island is a more proper place for ships to touch
at than either North Island or New Bay, because neither
of these can afford other refreshments, which may be
had at Prince’s island.
The rest of the voyage affords but little interesting
matter. The Cape of Good Hope, which was their
next stage, has been so fully described by former na¬
vigators that there was little room for addition. At
St Helena the commander made seme remarks on the
rigorous treatment of the slaves, which was represent¬
ed as w'orse than that of the Dutch either at Batavia
or the Cape of Good Hope. In the account of his-
second voyage, however, this accusation was retract-
ed.
Captain Cook’s second voyage was undertaken in
an especial manner to determine finally the question
[ 623 ]
c o o
concerning the existence of a southern continent. It Cook’s Dw-
commenced in the year 17723 and, as in the former, coveries.^
he proceeded first to Madeira. From thence he pro- v ^
ceeded to St Jago, one of the Cape de Verd islands j
where an opportunity was taken of delineating and gi¬
ving such a description of Port Praya, and the supplies
to be there obtained, as might be of use to future navi¬
gators. On the 8th of September he crossed the line
in 8° west longitude, and had the satisfaction to meet
with good weather, though he had been informed that
he had sailed at an improper time of the year, in con¬
sequence of which he would probably be becalmed.
From his account, however, it appears, that though
some years such weather may be expected, it is by no alwayg to
means universally the case. In this part of the ocean be feared
he had also an opportunity of observing the cause of near the
the luminous property of sea-water, which in his for-c<l'”ni)ctial.
mer voyage had been attributed to insects. Mr Jor-
ster being of a different opinion, the matter was again
particularly inquired into, but the result was entirely 35
conformable to the former determination. Some buc- laiminoti*
kets of water being drawn up from alongside the ship,
were found to be filled with those insects of a globular further dc_
form, and about the size of a small pin’s head. No life termined.
indeed could be perceived in them *, but Mr Forster
was thoroughly convinced of their being living animals
when in their proper element. 36
Proceeding southward in quest of a continent, they Ice island*,
fell in with ice islands in S. Eat. 50. 40. and two
degrees of longitude east from the Cape of Good
Hope. One of these was so much concealed by the
haziness of the weather, that it could not be seen at the
distance of more than a mile. Captain Cook judged
it to be about 50 feet in height and half a mile in cir¬
cumference } ita sides rising in a perpendicular direc¬
tion, and the sea breaking against them with great vio¬
lence. Two days after, they passed six others, some of
which were two miles in circumference and 60 feet in
height ; yet such was the strength and violence of the
waves that the sea broke quite over them. On the 14th
they were stopped by a vast field of low ice, of which
they could perceive no end. In different parts ol this
field there were seen islands, or hills of ice like those
already described, and some of the people imagined
that they saw land over them ; but upon a narrow ex¬
amination this was found to be a mistake. On getting
clear of the field of ice they again fell in with loose
islands ; and as it was a general opinion that these are
only formed in bays and rivers, our navigators con¬
cluded that they could not be at a great distance from
land. They were now in the latitude of 55°4o' south ;
and as they had sailed for more than 30 leagues along
the edge of the ice without finding any opening, the
captain determined to run 30 or 40 leagues farther to
the eastward, in hopes of then getting to the south¬
ward. If in this attempt he met with no land or other
impediment, his design was to stretch behind the ice
altogether, and thus determine the matter at once. In
a short time, however, it became evident that the
field of ice along which they had sailed so long, did
not join with any land ; and the captain now came to
a resolution of running as far to the west as the meri¬
dian of Cape Circumcision. In the prosecution of this
design he met with a very severe storm, which was
rendered the more dangerous by the pieces of loose ice
among
COO [624
Cook’s Dis- among winch they w'ere still entangled, and a vast
coveries. field, of which they could not perceive the boundaries,
about three miles to the northward. Of this they
could not get clear without receiving some severe
strokes ; and after all, when they arrived at the place
where they ought to have found Cape Circumcision,
it could not be discovered ; so that the captain con¬
cluded that what Bouvet took, for land could have
.7 been nothing but ice.
Ice not til- During this run the fallacy of the general opinion
ways found )ia{l been discovered, that the ice with which the polar
nit ^ of land reS'ons abound has been formed in the vicinity of
’land. It was found likewise, that the water produced
from the melting of ice, even though formed in the
ocean, was perfectly sweet and well tasted. Of this
circumstance the captain took advantage to supply
himself with water; and gave it as his opinion that it
was the most expeditious method of watering he had
ever known. He had likewise an opportunity of de¬
tecting another popular error, viz. that penguins, al¬
batrosses, and other birds of that kind, never go far
from land. This indeed may be the case in open seas,
but in such as are covered with ice it is very different;
for they then inhabit the ice islands, and float out with
them to sea to a great distance.
When in the latitude of 49. 13. S. some signs of
land were perceived ; but as the wind did not admit of
any search being made in the direction where it was
3S , supposed to lie, the captain proceeded in his voyage to
u^nt^tbe eastward. A very remarkable alteration in the
direction of the needle was now perceived, and which
could not be supposed owing to the vicinity of any
magnetic mattei's, as it happened while the ships were
far out at sea. The circumstance was, that when the
sun was on the starboard side of the ship the variation
was least, hut greatest when on the opposite side. An
aurora australis was again observed, which broke out in
spiral or circular rays, and had a beautiful appearance ;
but did not seem to have any particular direction, be¬
ing conspicuous at various times in different parts of
the heavens, and diffusing its light over the whole at¬
mosphere.
The extreme cold and stormy weather which now
began to take place, determined Captain Cook not to
cross the antarctic circle a second time, as he bad once
designed. His observations confirmed the accounts of
former navigators, that the cold of the southern seas is
much more intense than in equal latitudes in the nor¬
thern hemisphere 5 but at the same time it showed that
this cold cannot be owing to the vicinity of a con¬
tinent, as bad been formerly imagined. On the con¬
trary, it was now determined beyond dispute, that if
any such continent existed in the eastern part of the
southern ocean, it must be confined within the latitude
of 60 degrees. No farther discoveries therefore being
practicable in higher latitudes, as the winter season
was approaching, the commander steered for New
Zealand, where he anchored in Dusky Bay on the 25th
of March, having been at sea 117 days without once
coming in sight of land. Here the time was spent in
account of procuring proper refreshments for the people, and ex-
Ncw- Zea- ploring the sea-coast and country for the benefit of
future navigators. Nor was our commander unmind¬
ful of the inhabitants. Here he left the five geese
which yet remained, choosing for them a place where
]
coo
of the mag¬
netic
needle.
39
Extreme
cold of the
southern
seas.
40
Further
Had.
there were no people at the time to disturb them ; and Cook’s!
as they had there great plenty of food, he had no doubt coverieJ
of their breeding, and in a short time spreading over '"T-
the country. Some days after a piece of ground was
cleared by setting fire to the topwood, after which it
was dug up and sowed with garden seeds. Dusky Bay
is situated in the western island of New Zealand, called
Tavm Poenammoo, which, as has already been said, is
less fertile than the other. The inland part is full of
rugged mountains of a vast height : hut the sea coast
is covered with trees, among which is the true spruce,
which was lound to be of great use. It was remark¬
ed, that though a vast quantity of rain fell during the
time of residence here, it was not attended with any
bad effects on the health of the people : which fur¬
nishes an additional argument for the healthiness of tire
place. Dusky Bay is reckoned by Captain Cook to
he the most proper place in New Zealand for the pro¬
curing of refreshments, though it is attended with some
disagreeable circumstances, particularly being infested
with great numbers of black sand-flies, which were
troublesome to an extreme degree. The natives seen
at Dusky Bay were apparently of the same race with
those seen in other parts of the country, and led a
wandering life, without any appearance of being united
in the bonds of society or friendship.
From Dusky Bay the captain proceeded to Queen
Charlotte’s Sound, where he met with the Adventure,
which had been separated from the Resolution for 4i
above 14 weeks. In his passage thither he had an Water
opportunity of observing six water-spouts, one of which sP0Ul8*
passed within 50 yards of the Resolution. It has been
a common opinion, that these meteors are dissipated
by the firing of a gun, and the captain was sorry he
had not made the experiment j but he acknowledges,
that though he had a gun ready for the purpose, and
was near enough, his attention was so much engaged
in viewing them, that he forgot to give the necessary
orders.
Having planted another garden in this part of the
country, and left two goats, two breeding sows and a
hoar, in as private a situation as possible, that they
might be for some time out of the reach of the natives, . 4* j
the captain set sail for Otaheite. During the longDlgOT"j
absence of the Adventure, Captain Furneaux had vi- p^eaux
sited the coast of New Flolland, and discovered that
there was no probability of Van Diemen’s land being
separated from it by straits : he had likewise found
additional proofs that the natives of New Zealand
were accustomed to eat human flesh. Captain Cook
also remarked with concern, that the morals of the
New Zealanders were by no means mended by the
visit he had formerly paid them. At that time he
looked upon the women to be more chaste than those
of most of the nations he had visited 3 hut now they
were ready to prostitute themselves for a spikenail,
and the men to force them to such an infamous traffic,
whether agreeable to the inclination of the females
or not.
In the run from New Zealand to Otaheite, our
commander passed very near the situation assigned by
Captain Carteret to Pitcairn’s island, discovered by him
in 1767, hut without being able to find it, though a
sight of it would have been useful for correcting its
longitude as well as that of others in the neighbour¬
hood ;
coo
[ 625 ]
coo
4
M .ke
Jj. DU-liood ; but there was not at present any time to spend
c ries. in searching for it. Proceeding farther on in his
H voyage, however, he fell in with a cluster of islands,
, supposed to be those discovered by M. Bougainville;
jje .landsand named by him the Dangerous Archipelago. To
dis ered. four of these Captain Cook gave the names of Reso~
lution, Doubtful, Furneaux, and Adventure Islands.
Kesolution Island is situated in S. Lat. 17.24. W. Long.
141. 39. Doubtful Island in S. Lat. 17. 20. W. Long.
141. 38. Furneaux Island in S. Lat. 17. 5. W. Long.
143. 16. and Adventure Island in S. Lat. 17. 14. and
W. Long. 144. 30.
No discovery of any great consequence was made at
co rning the island of Otaheite or those in its neighbourhood,
th omen excepting that the captain had an opportunity of
of ‘l16116,correcting the opinion, which till now had prevailed,
of the excessive dissoluteness and immodesty of the
women of Otaheite ; and which had been enlarged up¬
on by Dr Hawkesworth more than seemed to be con¬
sistent with decency. The charge, however, according
to the accounts of this second voyage, is far from being
indiscriminately true, even of the unmarried females
of the lower class. Some additions were made to the
knowledge of the geography of those islands ; and
from Huaheine Captain Furneaux took on board of
his ship one of the natives of Ulietea, named Omai,
afterwards so much spoken of in England. Captain
Cook at first appeared dissatisfied with his choice of
this youth, as being inferior in rank to many others,
and having no particular advantage in shape, figure, or
complexion ; however, he had afterwards reason to be
better pleased. During the captain’s residence at
Otaheite, he used his utmost endeavours to discover
whether the venereal disease was endemic among them,
or whether itj,had been imported by Europeans 5 but in
this he could not meet with any perfectly satisfactory
account, though it was universally agreed, that if it
had been introduced by Europeans, it must have been
by the French under M. Bougainville.
Captain Cook having left Ulietea on the 17 th of Sep¬
tember 1773, directed his course westward, with an in-
15 clination to the south. In this course he discovered
>s Ur ^ani^ *n I9- 8. and W. Long. 138. 54. to which
co e(jIS” he gave the name of Harvey's Island. From thence
he proceeded to the island of Middieburg, where he
was treated in the most hospitable manner possible.
To such an excess did the people carry their generosi¬
ty, that they seemed to be more fond of giving away
their goods than in receiving any thing for them ; in¬
somuch that many, who had not an opportunity of com¬
ing near the boats, threw over the heads of others whole
bales of cloth, and then retired, without either waiting
or asking for any thing in return. From Middieburg
he proceeded to Amsterdam island, where the beauty
and cultivation of the island afforded the most enchant¬
ing prospect. There was not an inch of waste ground ;
the roads were no wider than what was absolutely ne¬
cessary, and the fences were not above four inches thick.
Even this was not absolutely lost j for many of these
6 contained useful trees or plants.
| ‘ea It is observable of the isles of Middieburg and Am-
#( sterdam, as w'ell as of most others in the South sea,
ro|[e(| they are guarded from the waves by a reef of
V'1 coral coral rocks, which extend about one hundred fathoms
!• from the shore. Thus they are effectually secured
Vol. YI. Part II. . f
from the encroachments of the ocean $ by which they Cook’s Dis
would probably soon be swallowed up, as most of them coveries.
are mere points in comparison of the vast quantity of' ^''' 1
water which surrounds them. Here he left a quan¬
tity of garden vegetable seeds and pulse, which it was
not doubted would be taken care of by the industrious
inhabitants. In the last-mentioned islands our navi¬
gators found no animals but hogs and fowls j the for¬
mer being of the same kind with those usually seen
in the other islands of the South sea j but the latter
greatly preferable, equalling those of Europe in their
size, and even preferable in respect of the goodness of
their flesh.
On the 7th of October, Captain Cook left the island
of Amsterdam, with a design to pay another visit to
New Zealand, in order to take in wood and water for
his voyage in quest of a southern continent. The day
after he left Amsterdam he fell in with the island of
Pilstart, formerly discovered by Tasman, and situated
in S. Lat. 26'. W. Long. 175. 59. thirty-two leagues 4„
distant from the east end of Middieburg. On his arrival Another
at New Zealand, he exerted himself as much as possible visit to
to leave a proper assortment of vegetables and animals Zea*
for the benefit of the inhabitants. One of the first
things he did, therefore, was to make a present to a
chief, who had come off in a canoe, of a quantity of
the most useful garden seeds, such as cabbage, turnips,
onions, carrots, parsneps, and yams j together with some
wheat, French and kidney beans, and pease. With
the same person also he left two boars, twro sows, four
hens, and two cocks. This present, however valuable
in itself, seems to have been but indifferently recei¬
ved ; for the chief was much better satisfied with a
spikenail half the length of his arm than with all the
rest; notwithstanding which, he promised to take care
of the seeds, and not to kill any of the animals. On
inquiring about those animals left in the country in the
former part of his voyage, the captain was informed,
that the boar and one of the sows had been separated,
but not killed. The other he saw in good condition,
and very tame. The two goats, he was informed, had
been killed by a native of the name of Gaubiah.
The gardens had met with a better fate ; all the articles
being in a very flourishing condition, though left en¬
tirely to nature, excepting the potatoes. Captain Cook,
however, still determined to supply these islanders
with useful animals, put on shore a boar, a young sow,
two cocks and two hens, which he made a present
of to the adjacent inhabitants. Three other sows and a
boar, with two cocks and hens, he ordered to be left
in the country without the knowledge of the Indians.
They were carried a little way into the woods, and
there left with as much food as would serve them
for 10 or 12 days, in order to prevent them from
coming down to the coast in quest of it, and thus being-
discovered. g
A second separation from the Adventure had now Voyage in
taken place*, notwithstanding, which, Captain Cook qliest 0f a
set out alone with his vessel in quest of a southern con-southern
tinent; and such was the confidence put in him by the continent,
sailors, that all of them expressed as much satisfaction
and alacrity as if not only the Adventure, but ever so
many ships had been in company.
On the 26th of November the captain set sail from
New Zealand; and on the 12th of December began to
4 K fall
✓
COO [ 626 ] coo
Cook’s Di- fall In with the ice, hut considerably farther to the
coveries southward than they had met with it in the former part
'“"■"■"V ' of iiis voyage } being now in the Lat. of 62. 10. S.
and 1720 W. Long. As they proceeded southward,
the number of ice islands increased prodigiously ; and
in Lat. 67. 31. and W. Long- 142. 54. they all at
once got in among such a cluster of these islands, that
it became a matter of the utmost difficulty and danger
to keep clear of them. Finding it impossible, there¬
fore, to get any farther to the southward at present,
the captain determined to explore a considerable tract
of sea to the north of his present situation, and then
again to stand to the south. But in this he was still
unsuccessful ; no land being discovered either in sail¬
ing northward, eastward, westward, or southward ;
40 though he proceeded as far in the last direction as
Is stopped 71. 10. S. Lat. and 106. 54. W. It was now impos-
by icc. sible to proceed ; and the opinion of the captain him¬
self, as well as most of the gentlemen on board, was
that the ice by which they were now stopped extend¬
ed as far as the pole. As there was still room, how¬
ever, in parts of the ocean entirely unexplored, for
very large islands, our commander determined not to
abandon the pursuit in which he was engaged until
there should not he any possibility of doing more : and
besides the possibility of making new discoveries, he
was conscious that many of the islands already disco¬
vered -were so obscurely known, that it was of conse¬
quence to pay them a second visit. With this view he
proposed to go in quest of Easter or Davis’s Island ;
the situation of which was known with so little certain¬
ty, that none of the attempts lately made to discover it
had been successful. He next intended to get within
the tropic, and then to proceed to the west, touching
at any islands he might meet with, and settling their
situations, until he should arrive at Otaheite, where it
was necessary for him to make some stay in order to
look for the Adventure. It was part of his design also
to run to the#eastward as far as Terra Austral del E-
spiritu Santo, discovered by Quiros, and which M.
Bougainville had named The Great Cyclades. From
this land he proposed to sail to the southward, and
from thence to the east between the latitude of 50°
and 60®. In the execution of this design, he deter¬
mined if possible to reach Cape Horn, during the en¬
suing November, when he would have the best part of
the summer before him to explore the southern part of
the Atlantic ocean.
In pursuing his course to the northward, it had been
part of his design to find out the land said to have been
discovered by Juan Fernandez in about the latitude of
38° j hut he was soon convinced, that if any such
land existed, it could only he a very small island 5 but
the prosecution of the design was for some little time
interrupted by a violent bilious disorder by which the
captain was attacked. In this, when he began to re-
20 cover, as there was no fresh meat cn board, he was ob-
Nutritive gliged to have recourse to dog’s flesh ; and a favourite
property of animal belonging to Mr Forster was sacrificed on
^ s wS ’ the occasion. The captain was able to eat not only of
the broth made of this, but likewise of the flesh, when
his stomach could bear nothing else. On J:be nth of
March they arrived at Easter Island, before which time
the captain was tolerably recovered. Here they made
but few discoveries farther than determining the si¬
tuation of it to he in S. Lat. 27. 5. 30. and W. Long.cQ^ ^
109. 46. 20. The island itself was found barren and coyerie
desolate, having every appearance of being lately ruin-“"v—
ed by a volcanic eruption ; without either wood, fuel,
cr fresh water worth taking on board. The inhabi-VisitEa.
tants were few in number; and the women in veryer^an^
small proportion to the men, but remarkable for their
lewdness. A. number of gigantic statues were observed,
which had also been taken notice of by Commodore
Roggewein, and the origin of which could not be ac¬
counted for.
On leaving Easter Island, Captain Cook was again
attacked by his bilious disorder ; but happily reco¬
vered befox-e he reached the Marquesas, which they ^
did on the 6th and 7th of April. One of these, and tk
being a new discovery, received the name of -Hood’s^ar<laes:
Island, from the young gentleman by whom it was
first observed. These are five in number ; situated
between 9 and 10 degrees of south latitude, and be¬
tween 138. 47. and 139. 13. of west longitude. They
were discovered by Mendana a Spaniard ; and their
names are, La Magdalena, St Pedro, La Dominica,
Santa Christina, and Hood’s Island. The inhabitants
are, without exception, the finest race of people in the
South sea, surpassing all others in that part of the
world in the symmetry of their persons and regularity
of their features. Their origin, however, from the
affinity of language, was evidently the same with that
of Otaheite. It was in St Christina that our comman¬
der anchored ; and he has left particular directions for
finding a particular cove in Resolution bay in that
island, which is the most convenient for procuring wood
and water.
In the passage from the Marquesas to Otaheite, our
navigators passed several low and small islands connect¬
ed together by reefs of coral rocks. One of these,
named by the inhabitants Tiookea, was visited by Lieu- ^
tenant Cooper. It was discovered and visited by Cap-Island
tain Byron ; and is situated in S. Lat. 27- 30, W.Tiookea.
Long. 144. 56. The inhabitants are much darker in
their complexion, and seem to be of a fiercer disposi¬
tion than those of the neighbouring islands. They
have the figure of a fish marked upon their bodies ; a
very proper emblem of their profession, deriving their
subsistence almost entirely from the sea. Passing by
St George’s islands, which had been also discovered
and named by Captain Byron, our commander now 54
discovered four others, which he named Palllser's Pallis”’'
Islands. One of these is situated in S. Lat. 15. 26. * 811
and W. Long. 146. 20. another in S. Lat. 15. 27.
and W. Long. 146. 3. They wrere inhabited by peo¬
ple resembling those of Tiookea, and like them were
armed with long pikes. Here our navigator observes,
that from W. Long. 138° to 148° or 150°, the sea is
so full of small low islands, that one cannot proceed
with too much caution. 55
On his arrival at Otaheite, provisions were met with A^va^
in great plenty ; and they were now very acceptable,
by reason of the long time the ship had been at sea
without obtaining any considerable supply. Two
goats which had been given by Captain Furneaux to a
chief named Otoo, appeared to be in a very promising
situation. The female had brought forth two kids*
which were almost large enough to propagate ; and as
she was again with kid, there was little doubt that the
island
coo
[ 627 ]
coo
Co > D‘s'
island would soon be stocked with these useful animals;
j figs, though it was otherwise with the sheep, all of which
«* had died except one. On this occasion, also, the cap¬
tain furnished the natives with cats, of which he gave
away twenty ; so that there was little danger of the
stock of these animals decaying. Dining his resi¬
dence at this time, he had an opportunity of making
some computation of the number of inhabitants on
the island, which he supposed to be no less than
g 200,000.
H eine, Huaheine and Ulietea islands were next visited, but
U ea, without any remarkable occurrence. From the latter
H|i onr commander set sail on the 5th of June 1774 5 an^
isl !, &e. nexl came Jn sJght of Howe island, discovered by
Captain Wallis, and situated in S. Lat. 16. 46. and
W. Long, x <14. 8. On the 16th a new island, named
Palmerstone Island, was discovered, in S. Lat. 18. 4.
W. Long. 163. 10.; and four days after, another was
observed in S. Lat. 19. 1. W. Long. 169. 37. As it
was evidently inhabited, the captain determined to
land ; but found the people so extremely hostile, that
no intercourse could be had: nay, he himself was in
danger of losing his life by a lance thrown by one of
the natives, which passed close over his shoulder. From
the extreme hostility of the people of this island, it was
named by Captain Cook Savage Island. It is of a
round shape, pretty high, and has deep water close to
the shore, but has no good harbour.
E erdam Passing by a number of small islands, Captain Cook
is 3. next anchored at that of Anamocka or Rotterdam,
discovered by Tasman. It is situated in 20. 15. S.
Lat. and 174. 31. W. Long. Its form is triangular,
each side extending about three and a half or four
miles. From the north-west to the south it is encom¬
passed by a number of small islands, sand banks, and
breakers ; of which no end can be seen from the island
on the northern side, and may possibly be as far ex¬
tended as Amsterdam or Tongataboo. While the
captain remained on this island, he learned the names
of more than 20 of the adjacent isles, some of which
were in sight, between the north-west and north-east.
Two of these, which lie more to the eastward than
the others, are named Amatiafoa and Oghoo. They
are remarkable for their height; and from a great
jS smoke visible about the middle of Ammatafoa, it was
S osed supposed to have a volcano. The island of Rotterdam,
v mo. Middleburg, or Eaoowe, with Pilstart, form a group
extending about three degrees of longitude, and two of
latitude. The whole group was named The Friendly
Isles by Captain Cook, on account of the friendship
which seemed to subsist among the inhabitants, and
their courteous behaviour to strangers. The people
of Rotterdam island are similar to those of Amster¬
dam ; but the island is not in such a high state of cul¬
tivation as Amsterdam, nor do its fruits come to such
perfection. It is also inferior in the articles of cloth,
matting, &c. which are accounted the wealth of these
59 PartS* . . • , , •
- He- From Rotterdam island our navigator continued his
visit-course to the westward, where he first discovered a
small island in S. Lat. 19. 48. W. Long. 178. 2. It
was named Turtle island, from the great number of
these animals found upon it. Sixteen days after he
fell in with the cluster of islands named by M. Bou¬
gainville the Great Cyclades. The first island on which
he landed was Mallicollo, where, though the people Cook’s Dis-
were at first very hostile, they were soon conciliated, toveries.
and a friendly intercouise took place. The language "“"'v"——
of these people is considerably different from that of
the other South sea islands ; they are diminutive in
their persons, and of ugly features ; their hair black
or brown, short and curling, but less soft than that of
the negroes. They had no name for a dog in their lan¬
guage, and had never seen the animal ; so that they
were extremely fond of a dog and bitch, of which
Captain Cook made them a present. The harbour in
this island, in which the ship came to an anchor, was
named Sandwich harbour, and lies on the north-east
side, in S. Lat. 16. 25. 2Q, E. Long. 167. 57. 53. It
is very commodious for the carrying on any operations
at land, having a good depth of water, and many other
advantages. £0
The next discovery was that of the group named Shephetd’s
Shepherd's Isles, in honour of Dr Shepherd, PlumiarJsles.
professor of astronomy at Oxford. Numbers more
were every day observed ; of which one peaked rock,
named the Monument, was uninhabited, being appa¬
rently inaccessible to any other creature but birds.
Sandwich island is of a considerable extent, and exhi¬
bits a most beautiful prospect. It is surrounded with
other smaller islands, the principal of which were na¬
med Montague and Hinchinbrooke. At Erromango
they found the people hostile and treacherous ; and
from a skirmish they had with them near a promontory
on the north-east point of the island, it was named
Traitor's Head. Its situation is in S. Lat. 10. 43. E.
Long. 169. 28. ,5,
From Erromango our navigators proceeded to Tan-Tanna
na, an island they had formerly discovered at a ili- island,
stance, and which is surrounded by some others, three
of which are named Immer, Footoona or Frronav, and
Anatom. At Tanna they staid for some time, on ac- ^
count of their wanting some quantity of wood. A vol-y0icaao,
cano was seen about the middle of this island, which
burned with great violence, particularly'in moist and
wet weather ; but notwithstanding the friendly terms
on which they were with the natives, the latter would
never allow them to approach this mountain. There
were some spots on the sea-coast which emitted a hot
and sulphureous smoke and the people also expressed
much uneasiness when these were approached or med¬
dled with. The port which the ship entered in this
island was named Resolution Harbour, and is situated
in S. Lat. 19. 32. 25J. E. Long. 169. 44. 35. It is
a small creek three quarters of a mile long, and about
half as broad. It is extremely convenient, having
plenty of wood and water close to the shore. Among
the vegetable productions of this island, there is reason
to suspect the nutmeg tree to be’one, a pigeon ha¬
ving been shot, in the craw of which evas a wild nut¬
meg. The inhabitants are two distinct races of peo¬
ple, and speak two different languages ; one that oi
the Friendly Islands, the other peculiar to Tanna and ^
those in the neighbourhood. The people are very Dexterity
expert in the use of their weapons; on which Mroftheinha-
Wales makes the following remarks: “ 1 must con-bkants in
fess I have often been led to think the feats which
Homer represents his heroes as performing with their
spears, a little too much of the marvellous to be ad¬
mitted in an heroic poem, I mean when confined
4 K 2 within
64
New Cale¬
donia dis¬
covered.
COO [628
• within the strait stays of Aristotle ; nay, even so great
an advocate for him as Mr Pope acknowledges them
to be surprising ; but since I have seen what these
people can do with their wooden spears, and them
badly pointed, and not of an hard nature, I have not
the least exception to any one passage in that great
poet on this account. But if I see fewer exceptions,
I can find infinitely more beauties in him, as he has,
I think, scarcely an action, circumstance, or descrip¬
tion of any kind whatever relating to a spear, which I
have not seen and recognised among these people;
as their whirling motion and whistling noise as they
fly ; their quivering motion in the ground when they
fall ; their meditating their aim when they are going
to throw; and their shaking them in their hand as they
go along.”
The archipelago, in which Captain Cook had now
remained a considerable time, is situated between 14.
29. and 20. 4. S. Lat. and between 166. 41. and 170.
21. E. Long, extending 125 leagues in the direction
of N. N. W, W. and S. S. E. 4 E. The principal
islands are the Peak of the Etoile, Terra del Espiri-
tu Santo, Mallicollo, St Bartholomew, the isle of Le¬
pers, Aurora, Whitsuntide isle, Ambrym, Paoom,
Apee, Three Hills, Sandwich, Erromango, Tanna,
Immer, and Anatom. They were first discovered in
1606 by Quiros, who supposed them to be part of a
southern continent ; nor were they visited from that
time till the year 1768, when M. Bougainville bestow¬
ed upon them the name of the Great Cyclades, as al¬
ready mentioned. This gentleman, however, besides
landing in the isle of Lepers, only discovered that the
country was not connected, but consisted of islands.
Captain Cook examined the whole in such an accu¬
rate manner, ascertaining the situation of many of the
islands, and discovering such numbers of new ones,
that he thought he had an undoubted right to impose
a new name upon them, and therefore called them the
'Mew Hebrides.
From the New Hebrides Captain Cook set sail for
New Zealand, in order to prosecute his voyage in
search of a southern continent, but in three days dis¬
covered a large island, which he named New Caledo¬
nia; and which, next to New Zealand, is the largest
in the Pacific ocean. It lies between 19. 37. and 22.
30. S. Lat. and between 163. 37. and 167. 14. E.
Long, lying N. W. 4 W. and S. E. 4 E. extending
about 87 leagues in that direction, though its breadth
does not anywhere exceed 10 leagues. The natives
are strong, active, well made, and seem to be a middle
race between those of Tanna and the Friendly Isles ;
and the women were more chaste than those of the
islands farther to the eastward. The island afforded a
considerable variety of plants for the botanists, and
some excellent timbers of the species of the pitch pine,
for masts and spars. 1 he wrood is close-grained, white,
and tough ; and very fit for the purpose. One of the
small islands surrounding the large one was named the
Isle oj Pines, from the quantity of these trees found
upun it ; and another, from the number and variety of
plants it afforded, had the name of Botany Island. The
coast, however, was so dangerous, that our navigator,
having no more time to spare, was obliged to leave
some part of it unexplored, though the extent tvas de¬
termined, as has been already related. Mx Forster was
]
coo
of opinion, that the language of this people is totally cook>s j
different from that of any other of the South Sea coverie
islands.
Proceeding from New Caledonia, our navigator next T ^
fell in with an island about five leagues in circumfe-
rence, and of a good height, situated in S. Lat. 29. '
2. 30. and E. Long. 168. 16. ; on which he bestowed
the name of Norfolk Island. It was entirely uninhabit¬
ed. Various trees and plants common in New Zealand
were observed here, particularly the flax plant, which
is more luxuriant in this island than in any part of
Ne w Zealand. The chief produce of the island is a
kind of spruce-pine, many of the trees of which are
10 or 12 feet in circumference. The palm cabbage
likewise abounds here ; and the coasts are well stocked
with excellent fish. On the 18th of October they ar-
rived at Queen Charlotte’s Sound in New Zealand ; Arrival a
the situation of which was now ascertained by Mr New Ze;
Wales with the utmost accuracy, its latitude being^an^’
found 41. 5. 364. S. and its longitude 174. 25. 74. E.
On examining the gardens which had been made, it
was found that they were in a thriving condition,
though they had been entirely neglected by the natives.
Some of the cocks and hens were supposed to be still
in existence, as a new laid hen’s egg was found, though
none were seen.
On the 10th of November Captain Cook set sail
from New Zealand in search of a southern continent;
but having traversed a vast extent of sea for 17 days,
from S. Lat. 43. o. to 55. 48. he gave up all thoughts
of finding any more land in this part of the ocean,
and therefore determined to steer directly for the west
entrance of the straits of Magellan, with a design of
coasting the southern part of Terra del Fuego quite
round Cape Horn to Le Maire’s Straits. As the
world had hitherto received but very imperfect ac¬
counts of this coast, he thought a survey of it would
be of more advantage to navigation and geography than
any thing he could expect to meet with in a higher
latitude. Ou the 17th of December he reached the ^
coast of Terra del Fuego, and in three days more an-at Terra
chored in a place to which he gave the name of Christ-
mas Sound. The land appeared desolate beyond any
thing he had hitherto experienced. It seems to be
entirely composed of rocky mountains, without the
least appearance of vegetation. These mountains ter¬
minate in horrid precipices, the craggy summits of
which spire up to a vast height; so that scarcely any
thing in nature can have a more barren and savage
prospect than the whole of the country. In the course
of his voyage along this coast, he could not but ob¬
serve, that at no time had he ever made one of such
length where so little occurred of an interesting na¬
ture. Barren aud dreary, however, as the coast was,
it was not totally destitute of accommodations about
Christmas Sound. Fresh water and wood for fuel
were found about every harbour; and the country
everywhere abounds with fowl, particularly geese.—
A considerable number of plants were also found upon
it, almost every species of which was new to the bo¬
tanists. In passing by Cape Horn, it was wished to <55
determine whether it belonged to the land of Ter-Remarks
ra del Fuego, or to a small island south from it ; butonavo)'
this was found impracticable on account of the fog-1^
gy weather and dangerous sea. Its latitude was
now
round Ca
Horn.
coo
[ 629 ]
coo
69
rprising
ncord of
f animals
these
rts.
70
rtherdis-
veries in
e south-
1 regions.
now determined to be 55. 58. S. and its longitude 67.
46. W. The coast appeared less dreary here Chan on
the western side of Terra del Fuego; for thouglr the
summits of some of the hills were rocky, the sides and
valleys seemed covered with a green turf and wooded
in tufts. In passing this cape a remark was made by
the captain, that if he were on a voyage round Cape
Horn, to the west, and not in want of wood or water,
or any other thing which might make it necessary to
put into port, he would sail a considerable way to the
southward, so as to he out of the reach of land alto¬
gether. By this method he would avoid the currents,
whose force, he was of opinion, would be broken at 10
or 12 leagues distance from the shore, and farther off
would he entirely destroyed. The extent of Terra del
Fuego, and consequently of Magellan’s Straits, was
found to be less than what is commonly laid down in
maps and charts, and the coasts, in general, less dan¬
gerous than has been usually represented j though this
must undoubtedly have been owing in a great measure
to the weather, which happened to be remarkably tem¬
perate. In one of the small islands near Staten Land,
and which, from their being discovered on new year’s
day, were called Neiv Yeai'^s Isles, a remarkable har¬
mony was observed among the animals of different
species with which these desolate regions abound.
The sea-lions occupy the greatest part of the sea coast;
the bears occupy the* inland 5 the shags are posted
in the highest cliffs j the penguins in such places as
have the best access to and from the sea; and the
other birds choose more retired places. Occasionally,
however, all these animals were seen to mix together
like domestic cattle and poultry in a farm yard, with¬
out one attempting to hurt the other in the least.
Even the eagles and vultures were frequently observed
sitting together on the hills among the shags, while
none of the latter, either old or young, appeared to be
disturbed at their presence. It is probable, therefore,
that these birds of prey subsist by feeding on the car¬
cases of the animals which die naturally or by various
accidents, and which must he very numerous, from the
immense quantity existing on the island.
Our navigator now set out in quest of that extensive
coast laid down in Mr Dalrymple’s chart, and in which
is marked the gulf of St Sebastian ; but when he
came into the place where it is supposed to lie, neither
land nor any certain signs of it could he met with.
Some islands, however, were discovered, particularly
Will is’s island, in S. Lat. 54. o. W. Long. 38. 23.;
another namedIsland and South Georgia, situated
between 53. 57. and 54. 57. S. Lat. and between 38. Cook’s Dis-
13. and 35. 34. W. Long. All these were covered covcrieb.
with snow and ice to a great height. Not a tree ''—“'v-"-*-'
was to be seen, not even a shrub, nor were there any
rivulets or streams of water : the only vegetables to
be met with were a coarse strong-hladed grass, wild
burnet, and a kind of moss. A considerable quantity
of seals and penguins were met with, whose flesh, though
very coarse, was preferred by the ship’s company, even
by Captain Cook himself, to the salt provisions, which
were now greatly decayed. The most southerly land
discovered by our navigator was that on which he be¬
stowed the name of Southern Thule, and which is
situated in S. Lat. 59. 13. 30. W. Long. 27. 45. This
was still more desolate than South Georgia, being for¬
saken even by the seals and penguins which abounded on
it. Not a single herb of any kind was seen upon it, but
vast high and barren mountains, th:: tops of some of
which reached above the clouds ; and it may he remark¬
ed, that this seems to he the only part of the world, hither¬
to discovered, entirely unfit for the support of animal
life. < 7I
Southern Thule was discovered on the 3ist of Ja-Of the ex-
nuary 1775 J and from this to the 6th of February istence of a
several other islands were discovered, and named *0*0linent
Bristol, Cape Montague, Saunders'1 s Isles, Candlemas
Isle, and Sandwich's Land. With regard to this last,
Captain Cook was undetermined whether it was a group
of islands or part of a continent lying near the pole, as,
after all his disappointments, he was still inclined to
think that such a continent has an existence, on ac¬
count of the vast quantity of ice met with in the
southern seas, and which from its great height appears
to be formed in bays and gulfs of the land, and not in
the ocean itself. The greatest part of the southern con¬
tinent, however, if it has any existence, must be within
the polar circle, where the sea is so encumbered with
ice, that the land must be inaccessible (a.) One thing
only remained to complete what he wished to accomplish,
and that was to determine the existence of Bouvet’s land.
In this inquiry he spent 16 days 5 hut having run for 13 Voyage in
of these directly in the latitude assigned to that land, quest of
and found no appearance of it, or of Cape Circumci- *
sion, he concluded that neither of them had any exist¬
ence, hut that the navigators had been deceived by the
appearance ofice islands. On his way home, however, he
determined to direct his course in such a manner as to
fall in with the islands of Denia and Marseveen. These of the isles
are laid down in Hr Halley’s variation chart in lati-of Denia
tude 41. 30. B. and about 4. o. E. from the meridian*1111* Mar-
^ ^ 0£seveen.
(a) The existence of a southern continent, however, which Cook’s voyage was supposed to have nearly dis¬
proved, seems to have been at length ascertained. In February 1819, Mr William Smith, master of the brig
Williams of Blvthe, in a voyage from Buenos Ayres to Valparaiso, conceiving that Cape Horn might be more
easily weathered by preserving a more southerly course than usual, proceeded as far as Lat. 62° 40'. Here,
in 6o° of west longitude, he observed high land ; but fearing to risk the ship by remaining on the coast, he
proceeded on his voyage. On a second voyage to the Pacific, following the same course, he again found the
land. The place first observed was an island, behind which, at the distance of three leagues, he saw an exten¬
sive range of high land, which he concluded to be a continent. He afterwards went ashore on the main land,
and observed the general direction of the coast from longitude 56° to 65°, about 250 miles. He named the
country New South Shetland. On the coast he found the spermaceti whale in abundance ; and seals and sea
otters were numerous. Besides penguin, and various sea fowls, there were also abundance of land fowls, and
fresh-water ducks were observed. The soil was hare and rocky, but at a distance from the water he saw trees
growing, which seemed to resemble the Norway pine. The climate was found to be less severe than Captain Cook’s ,
observations had led them to expect. See Edinburgh Ehilosophical Journal, No 6. October 1820.
coo
[ 63° 1
COO
distiiii?!^
sea-water,
Tliird voy¬
age.
Visits the
isle of Te¬
nerife.
Cook’s Dis-of the Cape of Good Hope. None of these islands
coreries, could he found ; and therefore our commander having
V'~^v^w very little time to spare either in searching for them
or attempting to disprove their existence, made tae
best of his way to the Cape of Good Hope, and from
thence to England. In his passage thither, he visited
74 the isles of St Helena, Ascension, and Fernando de
Of the use-Noronha. An experiment was made on the use of the
falness of gj-jj} f01. procuring fresh water at sea 5 the result of which
was, that though the invention was useful upon the
whole, yet it would not by any means be advisable to
trust entirely to it. Provided indeed that there was
not a scarcity of fuel, and that the coppers were good,
as much might thus be procured as would support life j
hut that no efforts would be sufficient to procure the
quantity necessary for the preservation of health, espe¬
cially in hot climates. He was likewise convinced
that nothing contributes more to the health of seamen
than having plenty of fresh water. Elis last stage in
this second voyage before his arrival in England was
at Fayal, one of the Azores islands •, and his only de¬
sign in stopping here was to give Mr Wales an oppor¬
tunity of finding the rate of the watches going, that so
he might be enabled to find the longitude of these
islands with the greater certainty.
In our commander’s third voyage he touched at the
island of Teneriffe instead of Madeira, looking upon
the former to be a better place for procuring refresh¬
ments $ and was convinced of the justness of his con¬
jecture by the facility with which provisions of all
kinds were obtained. The air of the country is ex¬
ceedingly healthy, and proper for those subject to pul¬
monary complaints. This was accounted for by a
gentleman of the place from the great height of the
island, by which it was in the power of any person to
change the temperature of the air as he pleased ; and
he expressed his surprise that physicians, instead of
sending their patients to Nice or Lisbon, did not send
Tea shrub, them to Teneriffe. From the same gentleman it was
learned, that the tea shrub grows in that island as a
common weed, which is constantly exterminated in
large quantities. The Spaniards, however, sometimes
use it as tea, and ascribe to it all the qualities of that
-brought from the East Indies. They gave it also the
name of tea, and say that it was found in the country
Impregna- when the islands were first discovered. Another bota-
ted lemon, nical curiosity is the fruit called impregnated lemon,
which is a perfect and distinct lemon inclosed within
another, and differing from the outer only in being a
little more globular.
Prince Ed- From Teneriffe Captain Cook proceeded to the Cape
ward’s of Good Hope, and from thence to the southward,
islands d:s-where he fell in with two islands, the larger of which
is about 15 leagues in circuit, and the smaller about
nine ; their distance from one another being about five
leagues. The one of these islands lies in S. Lat. 46.
53. and E. Long. 37. 46 ; the other in S. Lat. 46. 4.
E. Long. 38. 8. As the ships passed through between
them, they could not discern either tree or shrub upon
any of them, even with the assistance of their best
glasses. The shore seemed to be hold and rocky, their
internal parts full of mountains, whose sides and sum¬
mits were covered with snow. These two, with four
others, which lie from 9 to 12 degrees of longitude
more to the east, and nearly in the same latitude, had
2
772
covered.
been discovered in the year 1772 by Captain Marion Cook’* DL<
du Fresne and Crozet, two French navigators, in eoveries. i
their passage from the Cape of Good Hope to the Phi-
lippines. As no names had been assigned to them in
a chart of the Southern ocean communicated to Cap¬
tain Cook in 1775, the two larger ones were by him
distinguished by the name of Prince Edward"1 s Islands,
in honour of his majesty’s fourth son ; the other four,
with a view to commemorate the discoverers, were cal¬
led Marion's and Crofteds islands s0
From these our commander steered to the southward Voyageia ?
in search of Kerguelen’s land, which he had been in-TJ6810!-
structed to touch at, in order to discover, if possible,
a good harbour there. In his passage to it several new
islands were discovered ; one, to which Kerguelen had
given the name of the Island of Rendezvous, Captain
Cook, on account of its shape, changed to that of gr
Blight's Cap. It is situated in S. Lat. 48. 29. E. Descriptioi
Long. 68. 40. and is a high round rock, inaccessible toof that
all creatures but birds. Next day he fell in with Ker-*!!and.
guelen’s land, at first thought to be a part of the south¬
ern continent, but afterwards found by Kerguelen him¬
self to be an island. The extent of it, however, was
not determined either by the French navigator or by
Captain Cook. The former reckons it at 200 leagues
in circumference, but Captain Cook estimates it at much
less. Our navigator could not get any extensive view
of it on account of the foggy weather j but as far as
could be discovered, it was barren and desolate, inso¬
much that there was neither food nor covering for cat¬
tle of any kind, so that they would inevitably perish if
any were left. Even the sea-coasts were in a great
measure destitute of fish ; but the shore was covered
with innumerable multitudes of seals, together with
penguins and other birds j all of which were so void of
fear that any quantity whatever might be killed with¬
out any difficulty. Not a single tree nor shrub could
be seen, nor a piece of drift wood on the shore ; and
herbage of every kind was likewise very scarce. A
prodigious quantity of the sea-weed called by Sir Joseph
Banks fucus giganteus was found in one of the bays.
The whole variety of plants found in this island did
not exceed sixteen or eighteen species. The harbour
in which our navigator made his longest stay on this de¬
solate coast was named Port Palhser, and is situated
in S. Lat. 49. 3. E. Long. 69. 37. In this voyage our
navigator undoubtedly displayed superior nautical abi¬
lities to those of M. Kerguelen, who in two voyages to
the place had never been able to bring his ships to an¬
chor on any part of the coast.
From Kerguelen’s land, our navigator proceeded to of Van
the coast of New Holland, where he now touched atDiemefl’s
the southern part, called Van Diemen's Land, where heliind’
anchored in Adventure Bay. Here they found plenty
of wood and water, with abundance of grass, coarse
indeed, where they went first ashore, but afterwards
much finer and proper for the cattle. Here, as every¬
where else, the -latitudes and longitudes were settled
with the greatest exactness. The bottom of Adven¬
ture Bay was found to lie in S. Lat. 43. 21. 6. j E.
Long. 147. 29. The inhabitants visited them in a
friendly manner, but seemed as stupid and insensible as
those they had formerly seen. They seemed to be
totally ignorant of the use of iron, and set no value
upon any thing in the ornamental way excepting
beads $
COO [ 631 ] coo
i ok’s Di»-beads ; nor clicl they seem to be acquainted even with
oTeries. the use of fish-hooks. Here they found the stories of
--y-—'' the ancient fauns and satyrs lying in hollow trees rea¬
lized. Some huts covered with bark, and of a most
wretched construction, were indeed found near the
shore ; but the most commodious habitations were af¬
forded by the largest trees. These had their trunks
hollowed out by fire to the height of six or seven feet j
and there was room enough in one of them for three
or four persons to sit round a hearth made of clay $ and
it may justly seem surprising, that notwithstanding the
extreme violence offered to the vegetative powers of
the tree by forming this habitation, it still continued
to flourish in consequence of one side being left entire.
The people, notwithstanding their extreme barbarity,
were supposed to proceed from the same stock with
those of the South sea islands. As in one of their
visits the natives had seized upon two pigs which had
been brought ashore, apparently with an intention to
kill them, the commander determined to make them a
present of those animals ; though from their excessive
stupidity and inattention there was no probability of
their allowing them to propagate, if they had been
put directly into their hands. To prevent this, Cap¬
tain Cook ordered the two they had attempted to seize,
being a boar and a sow, to be carried about a mile
within the head of the bay, and saw them left by the
side of a fresh-water rivulet. He was prevented from
leaving any other species by a consideration of the bar-
83 barity of the inhabitants.
isitto From New Holland our navigator pi’oceeded to New
bw Zea- Zealand, where he arrived on the 12th of February
1777, and anchored in Queen Charlotte’s sound.
Here he was desirous of leaving a further supply of a-
nimals j hut the inhabitants had hitherto shown such
carelessness about those which had been left, that he
durst not venture to leave any other than two goats,
a male and female with kid, and two hogs, a boar
and sow. He was informed, however, that one chief
had several cocks and hens in his possession, so that
there was some probability of these animals being al¬
lowed to multiply *, and as ten or a dozen hogs had at
different times been left by Captain Cook, besides
those put on shore by Captain Furneaux, it seems also
to be likely that this race of creatures will increase ei¬
ther in a wild or domestic state, or both. The gar¬
dens had still been almost totally neglected, and some
of them destroyed. Those which remained, however,
produced cabbages, onions, leeks, purslain, radishes,
and a few potatoes. These last had been brought
from the Cape of Good Hope, and were so greatly
meliorated by the change of soil, that with proper cul¬
tivation they seemed to bid fair for excelling those of
other countries.
Our navigator’s next course was towards the island
of Otaheite; in the run to which he discovered the
island of Mangea, situated iu S. Lat. 22. 57. E. Long.
201. 53. From thence he proceeded to Wateoa,
where Omai, on his way home, recognised three
84 of Ins countrymen, natives of the Society islands, who
rtraordi- had arrived here by the following accident. About
lypre- 12 years before, 20 of the natives of Otaheite had
ng^j^embarked in a canoe, in order to visit the neighbour-
fives of *ng island of Ulietea. A violent storm arose, which
aheite, drove them out of their course, and they suffered in¬
credible hardship by famine and fatigue, so that the Cook’s Dis-
greatest part of them perished. Four men continued eovevies.
hanging by the side of the vessel for four days after it
was overset, when they were at last brought within
sight of the people of this island. The latter imme¬
diately sent out their canoes, and brought them ashore,
treating them afterwards with so much kindness, that
the three who now survived expressed no desire of re¬
turning to their own country, though they had now
an opportunity, but chose rather to remain where they
were. This island is situated in S. Lat. 20. I. E.
Long. 201. 45. and is about 6 leagues in circumfe¬
rence. The inhabitants are said to be equally amiable
in their persons and dispositions.
Visiting a small island named Wenooa-etey or Ofa-
kootaia, situated in S. Lat. 19. 15. and E. Long. 201.
37. our commander found it without inhabitants, though
there were undoubted marks of its being occasionally
frequented. Harvey’s island, which in his former voy¬
age had been destitute of inhabitants, was now found
to be well peopled j but the inhabitants showed such
an hostile disposition that no refreshments could be pro¬
cured $ for which reason it was determined to steer for
the Friendly islands, where there was a certainty of 85
meeting with an abundant supply. In his way thither
he touched at Palmerstone island, from a small i3le st°neisland
near which a supply of 1200 cocoa nuts was obtain-piace^of
ed, besides abundance of fish and birds of various kinds. reiVesb-
Had this island been capable of furnishing water, the ment, but
captain would have preferred it to any of the inhabit-Wil^ollt
ed ones for the purpose of procuring refreshments, aswater’
they could be had in any quantity without molestation
from the petulance of the inhabitants. As water at
this time happened to be a scarce article, our naviga¬
tor was obliged to supply himself from the showers
which fell, and which afforded as much in an hour as
he could procure by distillation in a month.
During the time of residence at the Friendly islands,
our navigator visited one named Hepaee, at which no
European ship had ever touched before. Here he was
entertained in a friendly manner, supplied with refresh¬
ments, and left some useful animals. Great additions
were made to the geography of these islands, and many
curious remarks made on the inhabitants and natural
products. It was observed by Mr Anderson, that the
people had very proper notions of the immateriality
and immortality of the human soul j and he thought
himself authorized to assert, that they did not worship
any part of the visible creation.
Passing by a small island named Toobouai, about five Reception
or six miles in extent, and situated in S. Lat. 23. 25.of 0mai at
E. Long. 210. 37. our navigator now arrived at Ota-01^'16,
heite. Here Omai met with his relations, some of
whom received him with apparent indifference ^ but
his meeting with an aunt and a sister was marked with
expressions of the most tender regard. It was Hua-
heine, however, that was destined for the place of O-
mai’s final residence, and thither the captain repaired
on purpose to settle him. The affair was conducted
with great solemnity $ and Omai brought with him
a suitable assortment of presents to the chiefs, went
through a great number of religious ceremonies,
and made a speech, the subject of which had been S7
dictated to him by Captain Cook. The result of the He is set-
negotiation was, that a spot of ground was assigned ^e/JatH"a‘
COO [ 632 ] coo
Cook’s Dis- him, extending about two hundred yards along the
coveiies. shore of the harbour, with a proportionable part of
' “-v~ " ■' an adjacent hill. The carpenters of both ships were
then employed in constructing a house for him, in
which he might secure his European commodities.
At the same time a garden was made for his use, in
which were planted shaddocks, vines, pine-apples, me¬
lons, and several other garden vegetables. Here he
met with a brother, sister, and sister-in-law, by whom
he was very affectionately received j but it was disco¬
vered with concern, that none of his relations were
able to protect him in case of any attack on his person
or property ; so that there was too much reason to
fear that he would be plundered immediately on the
departure of the English. To prevent this, if possible,
Captain Cook advised him to conciliate the favour
and engage the patronage and protection of some of the
most powerful chiefs by proper presents ; at the same
time that he himself took every opportunity of letting
the inhabitants know that it w^as his intention to return
to the island again, and if he did not find Omai in
the same state of security in which he left him, those
by whom he had been injured would certainly feel
the weight of his resentment. About a fortnight after
leaving Huaheine, the captain had a message from
Omai; in which he informed him that every thing
went well, only that his goat had died in kidding,
for which he desired another might be sent j and
accompanied this request with another for two axes,
SS which were sent along with a couple of kids, male
oi^the an^ fema^e* On taking his final leave of the Society
Society islands, Captain Cook observes that it would have been
islands. far better for these poor people never to have known
the superiority of the Europeans in such arts as render
life comfortable, than after once being acquainted with
it, to be again abandoned to their original incapacity
of improvement; as, if the intercourse between them
and us should be wholly discontinued, they could not
be restored to that happy state of mediocrity in which
they were found. It seemed to him that it was be¬
come in a manner incumbent on the Europeans to visit
these islands once in three or four years, in order to
supply them with those conveniences of which they
have taught them the use. It is indeed to be appre¬
hended, that by the time the iron tools which were then
among them are worn out, they will have forgotten the
use of their own $ as in this last voyage it was observed
that Abe use of their former tools was almost totally
abolished.
Christmas Having left the Society Islands, Captain Cook now
island dis- proceeded to the northward, crossing the equator on
coveret. 22(1 an[j 23d of December j and on the 24th dis¬
covered a low uninhabited island about 15 or 20 leagues
in circumference. Here tbe longitude and latitude
were exactly determined by means of an eclipse of the
sun. The west side of it, where the eclipse was observ¬
ed, lies in N. Lat. 1. 59. E. Long. 202.30. From the
time of its discovery it obtained the name of Christmas
Island. Plenty of turtle was found upon it, and the
captain caused the seeds of the cocoa-nut, yams, and
melons, to be planted.
Sandwich Proceeding still to the northward, our navigator
isles. Dext fell in with five islands, to which he gave the ge¬
neral name of Sandwich Isles, in honour of his patron.
Iheir names in the language of the country are Woa-
3
hoo, Atooi, Oneeheeow, Oreehoua, and Tehoora. Cook’s Dij
They are situated between latitude 21. 30. and 22. 15. coveries.
North, and between 199. 20. and 201. 30. E. Long.v ■
The longitude was deduced from no fewer than 72 sets
of lunar observations. The largest of these islands is
Atooi, and does not in the least resemble the other
islands of the South sea formerly visited by our na¬
vigator, excepting only that it has hills near the
centre, which slope gradually towards the sea-side.
The only domestic animals found upon it were hogs,
dogs, and fowls. Captain Cook designed to have
made the inhabitants of this island a present of some
others 5 hut being driven out of it by stress of weather,
he was obliged to land them upon a smaller one named
Oneeheeow. They were a he-goat and two females,
and a boar and sow of the English breed, which is
much superior to that of the South Sea islands. He
left also the seeds of melons, pumkins, and onions. The
soil of this island seemed in general to be poor : it was
observable that the ground was covered with shrubs
and plants, some of which had a more delicious fra-
grancy than had been experienced before. The in¬
habitants of these islands are much commended, not¬
withstanding their horrid custom of eating human flesh.
In every thing manufactured by them there is an
ingenuity and neatness in an uncommon degree ; and
the elegant form and polish of some of their fishing-
hooks could not be exceeded by an European artist,
even assisted by all his proper tools. From what was
seen of their agriculture also, it appeared that they
were by no means novices in that art, and that the
quantity and goodness of their vegetable productions
might with propriety be attributed as much to their
skilful culture as to the fertility «f the soil. The lan¬
guage of the Sandwich isles is almost identically the
same with that of Otaheite.
Proceeding farther to the northward, onr navigators
discovered the coast of New Albion on the 7 th of March f0^stdisco-
1778. Its appearance was very different from that ofTered.
the countries with which they had been hitherto conver¬
sant. The land was full of mountains, the tops of which
were covered with snow j while the valleys between
them, and the grounds on the sea-coast, high as well
as low, were covered with trees, which formed a beau¬
tiful prospect as of one vast forest. The place where
they landed was situated in N. Lat. 44. 33. E. Long.
235. 20. At first the natives seemed to prefer iron
to every other article of commerce ; but at last they
showed such a predilection for brass, that scarcely a bit
of it was left in the ships, except what belonged to the
necessary instruments. It was observed also, that these
people Avere much’ more tenacious of their property
than any of the savage nations that had hitherto been
met with, insomuch that they Avould part neither with
wood, water, grass, nor the most trifling article, Avithout
a compensation, aud Avere sometimes very unreasonable
in their demands •, Avith which, hoAvever, the captain
always complied as far as Avas in his power.
The place where the Resolution Avas now anchored ^()0t^
Avas by our navigator called St George's Sound, but hesoun(}.
afterwards understood that the natives gave it the name
of Nootka. Its entrance is situated in the east corner
of Hope Bay, in N. Lat. 49. 33. E. Long. 233. 12. ^
The climate, as far as they had an opportunity of ob-Vji]dneSs <1
serAring it, was much milder than that on the eastern the clim*1
coast
coo
[ 633 ]
coo
, i’s Dis.
veiies.
94
lives ac
iated
h the
of
lals.
I 95
ince
illiara’s
wd.
96
lok’s
fer.
coast of the American continent in the same parallel of
latitude 5 and it was remarkable that the thermometer,
even in the night, never fell lower than 420, while in
the day time it frequently rose to 6o°. The trees met
with here are chiefly the Canadian pine, white cypress,
and some other kinds of pine. There seemed to be a
scarcity of birds, which are much harassed by the na¬
tives, who ornament their clothes with the feathers, and
use the flesh for food. The people are no strangers to
the use of metals, having iron tools in general use among
them ; and Mr Gore procured two silver spoons, of a
construction similar to what may be observed in some
Flemish pictures, from a native who wore them round
his neck as an ornament. It is most probable that
these metals have been conveyed to them by the way of
Hudson’s bay and Canada: nor is it improbable that
some of them hare been introduced from the north¬
western parts of Mexico.
While Captain Cook sailed along this coast, he kept
always at a distance from land when the wind blew
strongly upon it j whence several large gaps were left
unexplored, particularly between the latitudes of 50°
and 550. The exact situation of the supposed straits
of Anian was not ascertained, though there is not the
least doubt, that if he had lived to return by the same
way in 1779, he would have examined every part
with bis usual accuracy. On departing from Nootka
sound, our navigator first fell in with an island in N.
Lat. 59. 49. E. Long. 216. 58. to which he gave the
name of Kay's Island. Several others were discover¬
ed in the neighbourhood ; and the ship came to an an¬
chor in an inlet named by the captain Prince William's
sound. Here he had an opportunity of making several
observations on the inhabitants, as well as on the na¬
ture of the country. From every thing relative to the
former, it was concluded, that the inhabitants were ot
the same race with the Esquimaux or Greenlanders.
The animals were much the same with those met with
at Nootka, and a beautiful skin of one animal, which
seemed to be peculiar to the place, was offered to sale.
Mr Anderson was inclined to think that it was the same
to which Mr Pennant has given the name of the casan
marmot. The alcedo, or great king’s-fisher, was found
here, having very fine and bright colours. The hum¬
ming bird also came frequently, and flew about the
ship when at anchor •, though it is scarce to be supposed
that it can live throughout the winter on account of the
extreme cold. The water-fowl were in considerable
plenty ; and there is a species of diver which seemed
to be peculiar to the place. Almost the only kinds
of fish met with in the place were torsk and holibut.
The trees were chiefly the Canadian and spruce pine,
some of which were of a considerable height and thick¬
ness. The sound is judged by Captain Cook to occupy
a degree and a half of latitude and two of longitude,
exclusively of its arms and branches, which were not
explored. There was every reason to believe that the
inhabitants had never been vLited by any European
vessel before ; but our navigator found them in posses¬
sion not only of iron but of beads, which it is probable
are conveyed to them across the continent from Hud¬
son’s bay.
Soon after leaving Prince William’s sound, our
navigators fell in with another inlet, which it was
expected would lead either to the northern sea or to
Vol. VI. Part II. f
Hudson’s or Baffin’s bay ; but upon examination it Cook's Dis-
was found to end in a large river. This was traced coveries. ^
for 210 miles from the mouth, as high as N. Lat. — ^
61. 30. and promises to vie with the most considerable
ones already known, as it lies open by means of its
various branches to a very considerable inland com¬
munication. As no name was given by our commander
to this river, it was ordered by Lord Sandwich to be
named Cook's river. The inhabitants seemed to be
of the same race with those ot Prince William’s sound j
and like them had glass beads and knives ; they were
also clothed in very fine furs j so that it seemed probable
that a valuable fur trade might be carried on from that
country. Several attempts have accordingly been made
from the British settlements in the East Indies to es¬
tablish a traffic of that kind j but little benefit accrued
from it except to the proprietors of the first vessel, her
cargo having greatly lowered the price ot that commo¬
dity in the Chinese market. It must be observed, that
on the western side of the American continent, the only
valuable skins met with are those of the sea-otter $ those
of the other animals, especially foxes and martens, be¬
ing of an inferior quality to such as are met with in
other parts. ^
Proceeding farther to the northward, our navigators They fall ia
now fell in with a race of people who had evidently ^vith the
been visited by the Russians, and seemed to have ^
adopted from them some improvements in dress, &c. In Ljie j^us_
the prosecution of this part of their voyage, it appeared Kians.
that they had been providentially conveyed in the dark
through a passage so dangerous, that our commander
would not have ventured upon it in the day-time.
They were now got in among those islands which had
lately been discovered by Captain Beering and other
Russian navigators, and came to an anchor in a har¬
bour of Oonalashka, situated in N. Lat. 53. 55. E.
Long. 193. 30. Here it was remarked that the inha¬
bitants had as yet profited very little by their inter¬
course with the Russians *, so that they did not even dress
the fish they used for their food, but devoured them
quite raw.
From Oonalashka our navigator proceeded again to¬
wards the continent, which he continued to trace as far
as possible to the northward. In N. Lat. 54. 48. E. 95
Long. 195. 45. is a volcano of the shape of a perfect A volcano,
cone, having the crater at the very summit. On the
coast farther to the north the soil appears very barren,
producing neither tree nor shrub, though the lower
grounds are not destitute of grass and some other plants.
To a rocky point of considerable height, situated in N.
Lat. 58. 42. E. Long. 197. 36. our commander gave
the name of Cape Newnham.
Here Mr Anderson, the surgeon of the Resolution,
died of a consumption, under which he had laboured for
more than twelve months. Boon after he had breathed
his last, land being seen at a distance, it was named
Anderson's Island; and on the 9th of August the ship
anchored under a point of the continent, which he named 99
Cape Prince of Wales. This is remarkable for being Cape
the most westerly point of the American continent ot
hitherto known. It is situated in N. Lat. 65. 46.
E. Long. 191. 4^. It is only 39 miles distant from the }oo
eastern coast of Siberia ; so that our commander had °f
the pleasure of ascertaining the vicinity of the twoliel)t!iof‘
continents to each other, which had only been imper-Asia and
4 L fectly /imerica.
coo
IOX
Their pro¬
gress north'
ward stop¬
ped by ice.
ic*
Arrival at
Oonalash-
.ta.
fectly clone by the Russian navigators. Setting sail
from this point next day, he steered to the west and
north, when he soon fell in with the country of the
Tschutski, which had been explored by Beering in
1728. Here he had an opportunity of correcting M.
Stoehlin’s map, who had placed in these seas an ima¬
ginary island, on which he bestowed the name of A-
laschka. Being convinced that the land he had now
reached was part of the Asiatic continent, our com¬
mander directed his course eastward, in order to fall
in with that of America 5 and on the 17th reached
the latitude of 70. 33. and E. Long. 197. 41. Here
they began to perceive that brightness in the horizon
called by mariners the blink of the ice ; and in 70. 41.
they had got quite up to it, so that no farther pro¬
gress could be made. Next day they made a shift to
"get as far as 70. 44. y but the ice was now as compact
as a wall, and about ten or twelve feet in height. Its
surface was extremely rugged, and farther to the
northward appeared much higher. Its surface was
covered with pools of water ; and great numbers of
sea-lions lay upon it, whose flesh they were now glad
to use as food. Our commander continued to tra¬
verse the Icy sea till the 29th 5 but the obstructions
becoming every day greater and greater, it was
thought proper to give over all further attempts of
finding a passage to Europe for that year. He did
not, however, omit the investigation of the Asiatic
and American coasts until he had fully ascertained the
accuracy of Captain Beering’s accounts as far as he
went, and corrected the errors of M. Stoehlin. Great
additions were thus made to the geographical know¬
ledge of this part of the globe ; and Mr Coxe observes,
that “ it reflects no small honour upon the British
name, that our great navigator extended his discoveries
much farther in one expedition, and at so great a distance
from the point of his departure, than the Russians ac¬
complished in a long series of years, and in parts belong¬
ing or contiguous to their own empire.”
An end of this celebrated navigator’s discoveries,
however, was now at hand. From Beering’s straits
he sailed for Oonalashka, where he arrived on the
2d of October, and staid for some time in order to
repair his ships. While the carpenters were employed
in this work, one-third of the people had permission
to_ go on shore by turns, in order to gather berries,
with which the island abounds, and which, though
now beginning to decay, were of great service, in con¬
junction with the spruce beer, to preserve the people
from the scurvy. Such a quantity of fish was like¬
wise procured, as not only served to supply the ships
for the present, but likewise allowed a great number
to be carried out to sea 5 so that hence a considerable
saving was made of the provisions of the ships, which
was an article of very considerable consequence. On
the 8th of the month our commander received a very
singular present from some persons unknown, by the
hands of an Oonalashka man named Tierramoushk. It
consisted of a rye-loaf, or rather a salmon-pye in the
form of a loaf, and highly seasoned with pepper. This
man had the like present for Captain Clerke, and each
of them was accompanied with a note which none on
board could understand : a few bottles of rum, with
some wine and porter^ were sent in exchange : it be-
2
[ 634 ]
coo
ing supposed that such a present would be more aecep-cook. tv!
table than any other thing that could be spared. Cor- coveries!
poral Lediard of the marines, an intelligent man, was v-—
at the same time directed to accompany Derramoushk,
for the purpose of gaining a more satisfactory account
of the country. On the tenth of the month he re¬
turned with three Russian seamen or furriers, who with
several others resided at Egooshac, where they had a
dwelling-house, some store-houses, and a sloop about
30 tons burden. One of these people was either ma¬
ster or mate of the vessel, and all of them were very
sober and decent in their behaviour. The greatest di£.
ficulty arose from the want of an interpreter j for
which reason the conversation was carried on by signs.
However, the captain obtained a sight of two sea-
charts, both of which he was allowed to copy. One
of them included the sea of Penshinsk, part of the coast
of Tartary down to the latitude 41°, the Kurile
islands, and the peninsula of Kamtschatka. The other
comprehended all the discoveries that had been made
from the time of Captain Beering to the year 1777 y,
but these were found to be very trifling. Indeed our
navigator was assured by all the Russians whom he had
occasion to see, that they knew of no other islands
than those laid down in the charts just mentioned, and
that none of them had ever seen any part of the A-
merican continent, excepting what lies opposite to the
country of the 1 schutski. With regard to the natives Character
of Oonalashka, they are to appearance the most inof-of theinb
fensive and peaceable people in the world, not to beW141118-
in a state of civilization y though perhaps this may be
owing in some measure to the connection they have
long had with the Russians. From the affinity observ¬
ed between the language of the Esquimaux Green¬
landers, and those of Norton’s sound in N. Lat. 64. 55.
there is great reason to believe that all those nations
are of the same extraction j and if that be the case, A
there is little reason to doubt that a communication by njcation
sea exists between the eastern and western sides of the probable
American continent j which, hmvever, mav verv nro-betwist th
bably he shut up by ice in the winter time,
the most part throughout the year.
The return of Captain Cook to the
islands, with the lamentable catastrophe that ensued, Gonsequea
have been already related under the former article. ce.s
We shall now briefly enumerate the consequences of^0T°ri£
his discoveries with respect to the advancement of
science. These are principally his having overthrown
the hypothesis of a southern continent of immense ex¬
tent, usually spoken of under the name of Terra australis
incognita ; his demonstration of the impracticability of
a northern passage either by Asia or America to the
East Indies ; and his having established a sure method
of preserving the health of seamen through the long¬
est sea voyages. It is remarked by the bishop of
Carlisle, that one great advantage resulting from the *
late surveys of the globe, is the refutation of fanciful
theories, too likely to give birth to impracticable un¬
dertakings. The ingenious reveries of speculative
philosophers will now be obliged to submit, perhaps
with reluctance, to the sober dictates of truth and ex¬
perience j nor is it only by discouraging future unpro¬
fitable searches that the late voyages are likely to be
of service to mankind, but likewise by lessening the
dangers
104
. conmni-
„r.venfor“«-
of Americi
Sandwich ioj
COO [635
t t’s Dis-dangers and distresses formerly experienced in those
eries. seas which are within the actual line of commerce and
'   ' navigation.
The interests of science, as well as of commerce,
are highly indebted to the labours of our illustrious
navigator. Before his time almost half the surface of
the globe was involved in obscurity and confusion : but
now such improvements have been made, that geogra¬
phy has assumed a new face, and become in a manner
a new science; having attained such completeness as
to leave only some less important parts to be explored
by future voyagers. Other sciences besides geography
have been advanced at the same time. Nautical astro¬
nomy, which was in its infancy when the late voyages
were undertaken, is now brought to much greater per¬
fection j and, during Captain Cook’s last expedition,
many even of the petty officers could take the distance
of the moon from the sun, or from a star, the most de¬
licate of all observations, with sufficient accuracy j and
the officers of superior rank would have been ashamed
to have it thought that they did not know how to ob¬
serve for, and compute, the time at sea: a thing before
hardly mentioned among seamen. It must, however,
he remembered, that a great part of the merit in this
respect is due to the board of longitude. In consequence
of the attention of that board to the important object
just mentioned, liberal rew'ards have been given to ma¬
thematicians for perfecting the lunar tables and facili¬
tating calculations: and artists have been amply en¬
couraged in the construction of watches, and other in¬
struments better adapted to the purposes of navigation
than any that formerly existed.
A vast addition of knowledge has been gained with
respect to the ebbing and flowing of the tides j the di¬
rection and force of the currents at sea; the nature of
the polarity of the needle, and the cause of its varia¬
tions. Natural knowledge has been increased by ex¬
periments on the effects of gravity in different and
very distant places j and from Captain Cook’s having
penetrated so far into the southern regions, it is now
ascertained, that the phenomenon usually called the
aurora borealis^ is not peculiar to high northern lati¬
tudes, but belongs equally to all cold climates, whether
north or south.
No science, however, perhaps stands more indebted
to these voyages than that of botany. At least 1200
new species of plants have been added to those former¬
ly known j and every other department of natural
history has received large additions. Besides all this,
there have been a vast many opportunities of observing
human nature in its different situations. The islands
visited in the middle of the Pacific ocean are inhabited
by people who, as far as could be observed, have con¬
tinued unmixed with any dift’erent tribe since their first
settlement. Hence a variety of important facts may
be collected with respect to the attainments and defi¬
ciencies of the human race in an uncultivated state, and
in certain periods of society. Even the curiosities
brought from the newly discovered islands, and which
enrich the British museum and the late Sir Ashton Le¬
ver’s (now Mr Parkinson’s) repository, may be consi¬
dered as a valuable acquisition to this country, and af¬
fording no small fund of instruction and entertainment.
There are few inquiries more generally interesting
than those which relate to the migrations of the vari-
]
coo
ous colonies by which the different parts of the earth Cook’s Dis¬
have been peopled. It was known in general, that coveries,
the Asiatic nation called the Malayans^ possessed in for- *
mer times much the greatest trade of the Indies, and
that their ships frequented not only all the coasts of
Asia, but even those of Africa likewise, and particu¬
larly the large island of Madagascar; but that from
Madagascar to the Marquesas and Easter island, that
is, nearly from the east side of Africa till we approach
the west coast of America, a space including almost
half the circumference of the globe, the same nation
of the oriental world should have made their settle¬
ments, and founded colonies throughout almost every
intermediate stage of this immense tract, in islands at
amazing distances from the mother continent, is a hi¬
storical fact that before Captain Cook’s voyages could
not be known, or at least but very imperfectly. This
is proved, not only by a similarity of manners and cu¬
stoms, but likewise by the affinity of language j and
the collections of words which have been made from
all the widely diffused islands and countries visited by
Captain Cook, cannot fail to throw much light on the
origin of nations, and the manner in which the earth
was at first peopled.
Besides this, information has been derived concern¬
ing another family of the earth formerly very much
unknown. This was the nation of the Esquimaux or
Greenlanders, who had formerly been known to exist
only on the north-eastern part of the American con¬
tinent. From Captain Cook’s accounts, however, it
appears, that these people now inhabit also the coasts
and islands on the west side of America opposite to
Kamtschatka. From these accounts it appears also, that
the people we speak of have extended their migrations
to Norton sound, Oonalashka, and Prince William’s
sound j that is, nearly to the distance of 1500 leagues
from their stations in Greenland and the coast of La-
bradore. Nor does this curious fact rest merely on
the evidence arising from the similitude of manners j
for it stands confirmed by a table of words, exhibiting
such an affinity of language as must remove every doubt
from the mind of the most scrupulous inquirer.
From the full confirmation of the vicinity of the
two great continents of Asia and America, it can no
longer be supposed ridiculous to believe, that the latter
received its inhabitants from the former j and by the
facts x’ecently discovered, a degree of further evidence
is added to those which might formerly be derived
from nature concerning the authenticity of the Mosaic
accounts. It is not indeed to be doubted, that the
inspired writings will stand the test of the most rigor¬
ous investigation j nor will it ever be found, that true
philosophy and divine revelation, can militate against
each other. The rational friends of religion are so
far from dreading the spirit of inquiry, that they wish
for nothing more than a candid and impartial exami¬
nation of the subject, according to all the lights which
the improved reason and enlarged science of man can
afford.
Another good effect of the voyages of Captain Cook
is, that they have excited in other nations a zeal for
similar undertakings. By order of the French govern¬
ment, Mess, de la Peyrouse and de Langle sailed from
Brest in August 1785, in the frigates Boussole and
Astrolabe, on an enterprise, the purpose of which was
4 L 2 to
C -O O [63
Cook's Dis-to improve geography, astronomy, natural history, and
coveries. philosophy, and to collect an account of the customs
and manners of different nations. For the more ef¬
fectual prosecution of the design, several gentlemen
were appointed to go out upon the voyage, who were
known to excel in different kinds of literature. The
officers of the Boussole were men of the best informa¬
tion and firmest resolution 5 and the crew contained a
number of artificers in various branches of mechanics.
Marine watches, &c. were provided, and M. Dagelet
the astronomer was particularly directed to make ob¬
servations with M. Condamine’s invariable pendulum,
to determine the difference in gravity, and to ascer¬
tain the true proportion of the equatorial to the polar
diameter of the earth. It has likewise been made evi¬
dent, that notwithstanding all that has been done by
Captain Cook, there is still room for a farther inves¬
tigation of the geography of the northern parts of the
world. The object accordingly was taken up by the
empress of Russia, who committed the care of the
enterprise to Captain Billings, an Englishman in her
majesty’s service. We shall only make one observa¬
tion more concerning the benefits likely to accrue
from the voyages of Captain Cook, and that is relative
to the settlement in Botany bay. Whatever may be
supposed to accrue to the nation itself from the settle¬
ment, it must undoubtedly give the highest satisfaction
to every friend to humanity to be informed, that thus
a number of unhappy wretches will be effectually pre¬
vented from returning to their former scenes of temp¬
tation and guilt, which may open to them the means
of industrious subsistence and moral reformation. If
the settlement be conducted with wisdom and pru¬
dence, indeed it is hard to say what beneficial conse¬
quences may be derived from it, or to what height it
may arise. Rome, the greatest empire the world ever
saw, proceeded from an origin little, if at all, superior
to Botany bay. For an account of this settlement see
the article Ncw-Holland.
One other object remains only farther to be consi¬
dered with regard to these voyages, and that is the ad¬
vantages which may result from them to the discovered
people. Here, however, it may perhaps be difficult to
settle matters with precision. From the preceding ac¬
counts, it must be evident that the intentions of Cap¬
tain Cook were in the highest degree benevolent ; and
if at any time the people were the sufferers, it must
have been through their own fault. In one instance
indeed it might be otherwise, and that is with respect
to the venereal disease. The evidence in this case can¬
not be altogether satisfactory. Mr Samwell, who suc¬
ceeded Mr Anderson as surgeon of the Resolution, has
endeavoured to show, that the natives of the lately ex¬
plored parts of the world, and especially of the Sand¬
wich islands, were not injured by the English j and it
was the constant care and solicitude of Captain Cook
to prevent any infection from being communicated to
the people where he came. But whether he was uni¬
versally successful in this respect or not, it is evident
that the late voyages were undertaken with a view ex¬
ceedingly different from those of former times. The
horrid cruelties of the Spanish conquerors of America
cannot be remembered without concern for the cause
of religion and human nature ; but to undertake ex¬
peditions with a design of civiliz.Lng the world., and
6 ] coo
meliorating its condition, is certainly a noble object. Cook’s Di
From the long continued intercourse betwixt this coun- coverits,;
try and the South sea islands, there cannot be any '—“"V"-
doubt that some degree of knowledge must already
have been communicated to them. Their stock of
ideas must naturally be enlarged by the number of un¬
common observations which has been presented to them,
and new materials furnished for the exercise of their
rational faculties. A considerable addition must be
made to their immediate comfort and enjoyment by
the introduction of useful animals and vegetables j and
if the only benefit they should ever receive from Bri¬
tain should be the having obtained fresh means of sub¬
sistence, this of itself must be considered as a valuable
acquisition. Great consequences, however, may soon
be expected. The connection formed with these peo¬
ple may be considered as the first step towards their im¬
provement $ and thus the blessings of civilization may
be spread among the various tribes of Indians in the
Pacific ocean, which in time may prepare them for
holding an honourable place among the nations of the
earth.
As a supplement to this account of the discoveriesACC0UIlt cjj
made by Captain Cook himself, we shall here subjoin a Captain
narrative of the subsequent part of the voyage by Cap-el£1'ie'8
tain Clerke, &c. until the return of the ships to Eng-™^®’
land. At the time of Captain Cook’s death, the great
point of a north-west passage remained in some measure
to be still determined : for though, by the event of
the former attempt, it had been rendered highly im¬
probable that they should succeed in this, it was still
resolved to try whether or not, at certain seasons of
the year, the ice might not be more open than they
had hitherto found it. The first object that naturally I0„
occurred, however, was the recovery of Captain Cook’s Methods
body; for which Mr King was of opinion that some taken fm
vigorous measure ought instantly to be pursued. Histhereco-
motives for this, besides the personal regard he had
for the captain, were to abate the confidence which to
must be supposed to ensue on the part of the natives, dy.
which would probably incline them to dangerous at¬
tempts j and this the more particularly, as they had
hitherto discovered much less fear of the fire-arms than
other savage nations were accustomed to do. Mr Sam-
well also takes notice of the intrepidity of the natives
in this respect j but ascribes it, in the first instance, to
ignorance of their effects $ and in the next, to a no¬
tion, that as the effects of these arms were occasioned
by fire, they might be counteracted by water. For
this purpose they dipped their war-mats in water}
but finding themselves equally vulnerable after this
method had been pursued, they became more timid and
cautious.
As matters stood at present, there was even reason
to dread the consequences of a general attack upon the
ships; and therefore Mr King was the more confirm¬
ed in his opinion of the necessity of doing something to
convince them of the prowess of their adversaries. In
these apprehensions he was seconded by the opinion of
the greater part of the officers on board ; and nothing
seemed more likely to encourage the islanders to make
the attempt than an appearance of being inclined to
an accommodation, which they would certainly attri¬
bute to weakness or fear. Captain Clerke, however,
and those who were in favour of conciliatory measures,
urged,
€00 [ 637 ] COO
( i’s Dis-urged, that the mischief was already irreparable j that
feiies. the natives, by reason of their former friendship, had
k a strong claim to the regard of the English ; and that
the more particularly, as the late calamitous accident
did not appear to have taken its rise from any preme¬
ditated design ; they urged also the ignorance of the
king concerning the theft, and the mistake of the
islanders who had armed themselves on a supposition
that some attempt would be made to carry off the
king. To all this was added, that the ships were in
want of refreshments, particularly water j that the
Resolution’s foremast would require seven or eight days
before it could be properly repaired ; and as the spring
was fast advancing, the speedy prosecution of the
voyage to the northward ought now to be the only
object ; that a vindictive contest with the natives might
not only justify an imputation of needless cruelty, but
would occasion great delay in the equipment of the
ships.
In consequence of the prevalence of these sentiments
lenient measures were adopted, though the behaviour
of the natives continued to be very insolent. A great
body still kept possession of the shore ; many of whom
came oft' in their canoes within pistol-shot of the ships,
and provoking the people by every kind of insult and
defiance. A train of negotiations for Captain Cook’s
body took place in which the natives showed the most
hostile and treacherous disposition, and, as afterwards
appeared, had cut the flesh from the bones and burnt
it. A piece of about ten pounds weight was brought
by two natives at the hazard of their lives, who gave
information that the rest had been burnt, and that
the bones were in the possession of the king and some
of the principal chiefs. Information was given, at
the same time, that the chiefs were very desirous of
war, in order to revenge the death of their country¬
men.
Thus it appeared that the pacific plan had answered
no good purpose. No satisfactory answer had been
given to the demands made of the bodies of the slain ;
nor was any progress made in the great work intend¬
ed, viz. a reconciliation with the natives ; they still
remained on shore in an hostile posture, as if determined
to oppose any endeavours that might be made by our
people to land ; at the same time that a landing was
become absolutely necessary, in order to complete the
stock of water. Had this spiritless conduct been per¬
sisted in, there is not the least doubt that neither this
purpose or any other could have been effected. The
insolence of the natives became every day greater and
greater: insomuch that one of them had the audacity
to come within mnsket shot of the Resolution, and af¬
ter throwing several stones, waved Captain Cook’s hat
over his head, while his countrymen on shore were ex¬
ulting and encouraging his audacity. By this insult
the people were so highly enraged, that coming on
the quarter-deck in a body, they begged that they
might no longer be obliged to put up with such reite¬
rated provocation, but might be allowed to make use
of the first opportunity of revenging the death of their
captain. The necessity of more vigorous measures,
therefore, being now apparent, a few discharges of the
108 great guns, with the burning of a village and some
l‘^ma*n*other acts of severity, at last produced the mangled re-
mcd°b' mains.of Captain Cook, They were wrapped up in a
bundle, in which were found both his hands entire, c00k’s Dis-
which were easily known by a scar in one of them di- coveiies.
viding the fore-finger fiom the thumb the whole length  v"-"-*
of the metacarpal bone. Along with these was the
skull, but with the scalp separated from it, and the
bones of the face wanting j the scalp, with the ears
adhering to it, and the hair cut short; the bones of
both the arms, and the skin of the fore-arms hanging
to them j the bones of the thighs and legs joined to¬
gether, but without the feet. The ligaments of the
joints were observed to be entire $ the whole showing
evident marks of being in the fire, except the hands,
which had the flesh remaining upon them, and were
cut in several places and crammed with salt, most pro¬
bably for the purpose of preserving them. The skull
was not fractured j but the scalp had a cut in the back
part of it. The lower jaw and feet were wanting, ha¬
ving been seized by difl'erent chiefs.
Having accomplished the purposes of their stay in Umatccesf.-
this place, Captain Clerke set sail from Karakakooa bay fai attempts
in O-why-hee towards Mowee, with a design to ex-to make
plore the coasts of that island more fully than had been fai t^®r
done, but were unable to accomplish their purpose $ C0Tenes‘
nor indeed was it in their power to accomplish any
discovery of consequence among these islands. The on¬
ly intelligence worth mentioning which they were able
to procure was, that wars had ensued about the pro¬
perty of the goats which were left by Captain Cook
on the island of Oneeheow, as has been already men¬
tioned, and that during the contest all these poor
animals, who had already begun to multiply, were de¬
stroyed ; so that the benevolent attempts of our illustri¬
ous navigator in favour of these islanders had proved
abortive.
On quitting the island of Oneeheow, our navigators
set sail for another named Modoopappa, which they
were assured by the natives lay within five hours sail¬
ing of Tahoora, a small island in the neighbourhood of
Oneeheow. In this they proved unsuccessful $ on which
it was determined to steer for the coast of Kamtschat-
ka. In the passage thither they arrived at the place
where De Gama is said to have discovered a great ex¬
tent of land; but of this they could discover no ap¬
pearance. This imaginary continent is said to have
been discovered by a navigator called John de Gama,
but who seems also to have been imaginary, as no per¬
son can find out either the country where he lived, or
the time when he made the discovery. We are in¬
formed by Muller, that the first account of it was pub¬
lished by Texeira in a chart of 1649, vv^10 places it be¬
tween the latitude of 44 arid 45 degrees, and about
160. east longitude, and calls it “ land seen by John
de Gama, in a voyage from China to New Spain.”
By the French geographers it is removed five de¬
grees farther to the east. When they arrived at xhcif1 fa
Kamtschatka they were entertained in the most hos-vourabie
pitable manner, and furnished with every thing that reception
could he procured in that desert and barren region.at Kami
“ In this wretched extremity of the earth (says theschalka’
narrator of the voyage), beyond conception barba¬
rous and inhospitable, out of the reach of civilization,
bound and barricaded with ice, and covered with sum¬
mer snow, we experienced the tenderest feelings of
humanity, joined to a nobleness of mind and elevation
of sentiment which would have done honour to any
clime
coo
III
Tsehutski
submit to
the em¬
press.
Cook’s Dis.clime or nation.” From Major Behm, in particular,
eoyenes, tliey received so many and so great obligations, that
y- ■ handsome acknowledgment was made him by the
Royal Society, as has been already observed. Even
the sailors were so struck with gratitude, that they
voluntarily requested that their allowance of grog
might be withheld, in order to compliment the garri¬
son of Bolcheretsk with the spirits ; saying, that they
knew brandy was extremely scarce in that country,
the soldiers on shore having offered four roubles a
bottle for it. The officers, however, would not
allow them to suffer by their generosity in this in¬
clement country and season of the year (the month
of March not being yet expired) j but in room of
the small quantity of brandy which Major Behm
consented to accept, substituted an equal quantity of
rum.
It is worth observing, that the kindness with which
the empress had ordered the British navigators to be
treated in this part of her dominions was amply re¬
warded, even with no less than the addition of a new
kingdom to the Russian empire, which hitherto her
arms had not been able to subdue. Among the north¬
ern Asiatics none had been able to maintain their in¬
dependence except the Tschustki, who inhabit the
north-east extremity of the continent. No attempt to
subdue these people had been made since the year 1750,
when the Russian forces had at last been obliged to re¬
treat, after having lost their commanding officer. The
Russians afterwards removed their frontier fortress from
the river Anadyr to the Ingiga, which runs into the
northern extremity of the sea of Okotsk, and gives its
name to a gulf to the west of the sea of Penshinsk.
On the day that Captains Clerke and Gore arrived at
Bolcheretsk, Major Behm received dispatches from this
fort, acquainting him that a party of the Tschutski
had been there with voluntary offers of friendship and
a tribute. That on asking the reason of such an un¬
expected alteration in their sentiments, they had ac¬
quainted his people that two large Russian boats had
visited them towards the end of the preceding summer j
that they had been shown the greatest kindness hy the
people who vyere in them, and had entered into a
league of amity with them ; and that, in consequence
of this, they came to the Russian fort in order to set-
tle ^ a treaty upon terms agreeable to both nations.
This incident had occasioned much speculation, and
could never have been understood without the assist¬
ance of those who were now present j the large Rus¬
sian boats having been in truth no other than the
Resolution and Discovery, under Captains Cook and
Clerke.
About tne middle of May the snow began to melt
very fast in this inhospitable region, and the ships be¬
ing now on their passage northward, met with an ex¬
cellent opportunity of supplying themselves with fish.
The beach was cleared of ice on the 15th of the
month ; from which time vast quantities came in from
every quarter. Major Behm had ordered all the Kamt-
schadales to employ themselves in the service of the
English ships *, so that often they found it impossible
to take on board the quantities that were sent. They
chiefly consisted of herrings, trout, flat fish, and cod.
These fish were here found in such plenty, that once
the people of the Discovery surrounded such an ama-
[ 638 ]
coo
II!*
Vast quail,
tity of fiili.
zing quantity with the seine, that they were obliged Cook’gD I
to throw out a very considerable number, lest the net coverie!
should have been broken to pieces j and the cargo was '"“Y*-
still so abundant, that, besides having a stock for im¬
mediate use, they filled as many casks as they could
conveniently spare for salting 5 and after sending on
board the Resolution a tolerable quantity for the
same purpose, they left behind several bushels on the
beach.
. While they remained in this country an opportu-SpirSu,
nity offered of observing the pernicious effects of spi-liquors pe
rituous liquors in producing the sea-scurvy. All thenicious il1
Russian soldiers were in a greater or lesser degree af.thesea‘
flicted with that disorder, some of them being in the8™^’
last stage of it j and it was particularly observed that
a serjeant, with whom our people had kept up a most
friendly intercourse, had, in the course of a few days,
brought upon himself the most alarming scorbutic
symptoms, by drinking too freely of the liquors with
which he had been presented by the English. Cap¬
tain Clerke soon relieved them by putting them under
the care of the surgeons of the ships, and supply¬
ing them with sour-krout, and malt for sweet-wort.
In consequence of this a surprising alteration was soon
observed in the figures of most of them; and their
speedy recovery was principally attributed to the sweet-
wort. „4
On the 12th of June they began to proceed north-Eruption
ward along the coast of Kamtschatka, and three daysof a Tol‘
after had an opportunity of observing an eruption of03510,
one of the volcanoes of that peninsula. On the 15th
before day-light, they were surprised with a rumbling
noise like distant thunder j and when the day appear¬
ed, found the decks and sides of the ships covered near
an inch thick with fine dust like emery. The air was
at the same time loaded and obscured with this sub¬
stance $ and in the neighbourhood of the volcano it¬
self it was so thick that the body of the hill could not
be discovered. The explosion became more loud at
12 o’clock, and during the afternoon, being succeed¬
ed by showers of cinders, generally of the size of pease,
though some were as large as hazel-nuts. Along
with these there also fell some small stones which had
undergone no alteration from the action of the fire.
In the evening there were dreadful claps of thunder,
with bright flashes of lightning, which, with the dark¬
ness of the sky, and the sulphureous smell of the air,
produced a most awful and tremendous effect. The
ships were at this time about 24 miles distant from the
volcano ; and it appeared that the volcanic shower had
been carried to a still greater distance, as they next
day found the bottom of the sea to consist of such small
stones as had fallen upon the decks of the ships. The
mountain was still observed to be in a state of eruption
on the 18th. 115
For some time Captain Clerke kept the coast of^0^®* *
Kamtschatka in view, with a design to make an accu-^.^011’
tate survey of it; but in this he was disappointed by
foggy and squally weather j however, he determined
the position of some remarkable promontories, and at
last finding the season too far advanced to accomplish
his design, set sail for Beering’s straits, chiefly with a
vieiv to ascertain the situation of the projecting points
of the coast.
On the 3d of July our navigator* came in sight of
the
COO [ 639 ] coo
ci;’* Dis-tlie island of St Lawrence, and another which was sup-
'eries. posed to lie between it and Anderson’s island. The
^ ^   latter being entirely unknown to Captain Clerke, he
was inclined to have approached it, but was unable to
effect his purpose. All these islands, as well as the
coast of the Tschutski on the continent, were covered
with snow, and had a dismal appearance.
In the preceding year Captain Cook had determined
the situation of the islands of St Diomede to be in 65°
48' latitude j but now being somewhat at a loss to re¬
concile this with the position of the continent, they
stood for some time over to the latter, till fully con¬
vinced of the accuracy of the former observation. At
this time they approached within two or three leagues
of the eastern cape of Asia, which is an elevated
round head of land extending about five miles from
north to south, and forms a peninsula connected with
the continent by a narrow isthmus of low land. It
has a bold shore, and three lofty detached spiral rocks
are seen off its northern part. It was still encom¬
passed with ice, and covered with snow. Here they
found a strong current setting to the northward, which
at noon had occasioned an error in the computation of
the latitude of no less than 20 miles. A similar effect
had been observed the preceding year in passing this
strait. On steering to the north-east the weather clear¬
ed up, so that they had a view of the eastern cape of
Asia, Cape Prince of Wales on the western coast of
America, with a remarkable peaked hill on the latter,
and the two islands of St Diomede lying between them.
Here they met with great numbers of very small hawks,
having a compressed bill rather large in proportion to
the body j the colour dark brown, or rather black, the
breast whitish, and towards the abdomen of a reddish
u6 hue*
i stop- On the 6th of July, at 12 o’clock, the ships were in
f by the N. Lat. 67- O. E. Long. ipt. 6. when having already
passed many large pieces of ice, and observed that in
several places it adhered to the continent of Asia, they
were suddenly stopped about three in the afternoon by
an extensive body, which stretched towards the west.
By this their hopes of reaching any higher latitude
than what had been attained last year were considerably
diminished j but finding the course obstructed on the
Asiatic side, they proceeded to the north-eastward, in
order to explore the continent of America between the
latitudes of 68 and 69° $ which had last year been
found impracticable on account of the foggy weather j
but in this also they were partly disappointed j for on
the 7th, about six in the morning, they met with an¬
other large body of ice stretching from north-west to
south-east j but not long afterwards, the horizon be¬
coming clear, they had a view of the American coast
at the distance of about ten leagues, extending from
north-east by east, to east, and lying between N. Lat.
68° and 68° 20'. As the ice was not very high, the
view extended a great way over it, so that they could
perceive it exhibiting a compact solid surface, and ap¬
parently adhering to the land. Soon after the wea¬
ther became hazy, so that they lost sight of the land j
and it being impossible to get nearer, they continued
to steer northward close by the side of the ice. This
course was continued till next morning, during which
time the ships passed some drift wood $ but the morn¬
ing following, the winding shifting to the north, they were
obliged to stand to the westward. At two in the af- Cook’s Dis-
ternoon they were again close to an immense expanse coveries.
of ice ; which from the mast-head seemed to consist of w v""" ■'
very large compact bodies, united towards the exterior
edge, though in the interior parts some pieces floated in
the water j it extended from west-south-west to north¬
east by north. There was now a necessity for steering
towards the south, as the strong northerly winds had
drifted down such numbers of loose pieces that they
had encompassed the ships for some time, and it was
impossible to avoid very severe strokes while sailing
among them. Thus, however, they reached the lati¬
tude of 69. 12. and E. Long. 188. 5.; but having
now sailed almost 40 leagues to the west along the edge
of the ice without perceiving any opening, Captain
Clerke determined to bear away south by east, the
only quarter which was clear at present, and to wait
till the season was somewhat farther advanced before
any further attempts were made. The intermediate
time he proposed to employ in surveying the bay of
St Lawrence, and the coast situated to the southward
of it j as it must be a great satisfaction to have a
harbour so near in case of the ship’s receiving any da¬
mage from the ice 5 and the captain was also desirous
of paying another visit to the Tschutski, especially in
consequence of the accounts of them that had been 117
given by Major Behm. In this navigation they killed Remark-
several sea-horses, and had an opportunity of observ-
ing the strength of parental affection in those monstrous ^.horses
animals. On the approach of the boats towards the towards
ice, all of them took their young ones under their fins, the young,
and attempted to make their escape with them into
the sea. Some whose cubs were killed or wounded,
and left floating upon the surface of the water, rose
again, and carried them down, sometimes just as they
were on the point of being taken into the boat; and
could be traced bearing them to a considerable distance
through the water, which was stained with their blood.
They were afterwards observed bringing them at in¬
tervals above the surface, and again plunging under its
surface with an horrid bellowing ; and one female, whose
young one had been killed and taken on board, became
so furious, that she struck her tusks through the bottom
of the cutter. llS
Our navigators still found themselves disappointed The ships
in their attempts. On approaching the coast of the finady stop-
Tschutski, they met with a large and compact body of ‘ce*
ice, extending to the north-east, south-west, and south¬
east, as far as the eye could reach } so that they were
again obliged to sail back to the northward. Here
also their course was soon stopped ; for, on the 13th,
being in N. Lat. 69. 37. and about the middle of the
channel between the two continents, they once more
fell in with a compact body of ice, of which they
could perceive no limit. Captain Clerke therefore
determined to make a final attempt on the coast of
America, the passage northward having been found
last year practicable much farther on that than the
Asiatic side. Thus they attained the latitude of 70.
8. at the distance, as was supposed, of 25 leagues from
the coast of America and some days after got about
three minutes farther to the northward, about the di¬
stance of seven or eight leagues from the Icy Cape.
This, however, was the utmost limit of the voyage to
the north-east $ and they were soon obliged to relin¬
quish
COO - [ 640 ] coo
CJook's Dis-quish all hopes of proceeding farther on the Ameri-
coveries. can side. Another eftort was still resolved on to try
' v--—' the practicability of a north-west passage ; and for
this purpose our navigators altered their direction on
the 21st of July, passing through a great quantity of
loose ice. About ten at night the main body was dis-
covered at a very small distance, so that they were ob-
Dangerous Hged to proceed to the southward. During this peri-
sitimtion of jous navigation, the Discovery, after having almost got
yie Oisco- c|ear out prom tjie jce? became so entangled by several
large pieces, that her progress was stopped, and she
immediately dropped to leeward, falling broadside
foremost on the edge of a considerable body of ice, on
which she struck with violence, there being an open
sea to windward. At length the mass was either
broken or moved so far, that the crew had an opportu¬
nity of making an effort to escape. But unluckily,
before the ship gathered way sufficiently to be under
command, she fell to leeward a second time upon an¬
other piece of ice ; and the swell rendering it unsafe
to lie to windward, and finding no prospect of get¬
ting clear, they pushed into a small opening, and made
the vessel vast to the ice with hooks. Here the Reso¬
lution for some time lost sight of her consort, which
occasioned no small uneasiness in both vessels j but at
length, on a change of wind, the Discovery, setting
all her sails, forced a passage, though not without lo¬
sing a considerable part of her sheathing, and be¬
coming very leaky by reason of the blows she had re¬
ceived.
Thus the two vessels continued to make every ef¬
fort to penetrate through the immense quantities of
ice with which those seas are filled winter and summer,
but without success. Captain Clerke therefore finding
that it was impossible either to get to the northward,
or even to reach the Asiatic continent, the ships being
also greatly damaged, determined to proceed south¬
ward to the bay of Awatska, on the Kamtschadale
coast, to refit, and afterwards take a survey of the
i ^ coasts of Japan before the winter should set in.
Of the ex- During this navigation, two general conclusions were
tent of the adopted relative to the extent of the Asiatic coast, in
Asiatic opposition to the opinion of Mr Muller. One is, that
the northt0the Promontory> ca^e(^ East Cape, is in reality the
ward. most easterly point of Asia $ and that no part of that
quarter of the globe extends farther than the longitude
of 190° 22' E. The other conclusion is, that the
latitude of the most north-easterly point of Asia does
not exceed ^o0 N. but is rather somewhat below it.
As the present discoveries, however, were terminated
on the Asiatic side on the 68th degree of latitude, the
probable direction of the coast afterwards can onlv be
conjectured. The only sources of knowledge in this
case are the Russian charts and journals, and these in
general are so defective and contradictory, that the
particulars of their real discoveries can scarce be col¬
lected. Hence the Russian geographers are greatly
divided in their opinions concerning the extent and
figure of the peninsula of the Tschntski. Mr Muller,
in a map published 1751, supposes it to extend north¬
east as far as the latitude of 75*, and E. Long. 190°,
ending in a round cape, which he calls TschukotskoiNoss,
To the southward of this cape he supposes the coast to
form a bay to the west, bounded in the latitude of
67° l8/ by Serdz.e Kamen, the most northerly point
3
observed by Beering in his expedition in 1728. Acook’sBl
new form is given to the whole peninsula in a map coverics
published by the academy at Petersburgh in 1776.
Here its most north-easterly extremity is placed in N.
Lat. 730, E. Long. 178. 30. •, and its most easterly
point in N. Lat. 65. E. Long. 189. 30. All the other
maps vary between these two situations : and the only
thing in which all of them agree is the position of the
East cape in N. Lat. 66. The form of the coast, how¬
ever, is very erroneous in the map published by the
academy, and may be entirely disregarded. In Mr
Muller’s map, the northern part of the coast has some
resemblance to that laid down in Captain Cook’s and
Clerke’s survey, as far as the latter extends j only that
Mr Muller does not make it trend sufficiently to the
west, but supposes it to recede only five degrees of lon¬
gitude between the latitudes of 66° and 69° *, whereas
it really recedes almost ten.
We must next examine Mr Muller’s authority for
supposing the coast to bend round to the north and
north-cast in such a manner as to form a large pro¬
montory. Mr Coxe, whose accurate researches into
this matter must give great weight to his opinion,
thinks, that the extremity of the promontory was
never doubled by any person except Deshneff and his
party j who sailed, in the year 1648, from the river
Kovyma, and are imagined to have got round to the
river Anadyr. The account of this voyage, howerer,
gives no geographical delineation of the coast, so that
its figure must be determined by other circumstances ;
and from these it evidently appears, that the Ischu-
kotskoi Noss of Deshneff is in reality the East Cape of
Captain Cook. Speaking of this noss, he says, that a
person, with a favourable wind, may sail from the
isthmus to the Anadyr in three days and three nights.
This agrees entirely with the situation of the East cape,
which is about 120 leagues from the mouth of the ri¬
ver Anadyr} and there being no other isthmus to the
north between that and the latitude of 69*, it seems
evident, that by this description he certainly means
either the East cape or some other situated to the south¬
ward of it. In another place he says, that opposite to
the isthmus there are two islands upon which some
of the Tschutski nation were observed, having pieces
of the teeth of sea-horses fixed in their lips j and
this exactly coincides with the two islands that lie
to the south-east of the East cape. Our navigators
indeed did not observe any inhabitants upon these
islands j but it is by no means improbable, that some
of those of the American coast, whom the above de¬
scription perfectly suits, might have accidentally been
there at the time, and been mistaken for a tribe of
Tschutski.
Other circumstances, though less decisive than those
just mentioned, concur in the same proof. Deshnelr
says, that in sailing from the Kovyma to the Anadyr, a
great promontory, which projects tar into the sea, must
be doubled *, and that this promontory extends be¬
tween north and north-east. From these expressions,
perhaps, Mr Muller was induced to represent the
country of the Tschutski in the form we find in bis
map j but if he had been acquainted with the position
of the East cape as determined by Captain Cook, and
the striking agreement between that and the promon¬
tory or isthmus in the circumstances above mentioned,
COO [ 641 ] coo
1 k’s Dis-it is most probable that he would not have deemed these
veries. expressions of sufficient weight to authorise his extend-
"'v 1 ing the north-eastern extremity of Asia either as far to
the north or to the east as he has done.
Another authority used by Mr Muller seems to have
been the deposition of the Cossack Popoff, taken at
the Anadirskoi Ostrog in 1711. Popoff was sent by
land, in company with several others, to demand tri¬
bute of the independent Tschutski tribes, who inhabit¬
ed the country about the Noss. In the account of this
journey, the distance betwixt Anadirsk and Tschu-
kotskoi Noss is represented as a journey of ten weeks
with loaded rein-deer. From such a vague account,
indeed, we can judge but very little : but as the di¬
stance between the East cape and Anadirsk does not
exceed 200 leagues, and consequently might be accom¬
plished in the space above mentioned at the rate of 12
or 14 miles a-day, we cannot reckon Popoff’s account
of its situation inconsistent with the supposition of its
being the East cape. It may likewise be observed,
that Popoff’s route lay along the foot of a rock named
Matkol, situated at the bottom of a spacious gulf,
which Muller supposes to have been the bay he lays
down between the latitudes of 66° and 72°*, and he
accordingly places the rock Matkol in the centre of it $
but it seems more probable that it might be a part of
the gulf of Anadyr, which they would undoubtedly
pass in their journey towards the East cape.
But what seems to put the matter beyond all doubt,
and to prove that the cape which Popoff visited cannot
be to the northward of 69° Lat. is that part of his
deposition which relates to an island lying off the Noss,
from whence the opposite coast might be discerned $
for as the opposite continents, in the latitude of 69°,
diverge so far as to be upwards of 100 leagues distant,
it is highly improbable that the Asiatic coast should
again trend eastward in such a manner as to come al¬
most in sight of that of America. As an additional
proof of the position in question, we may observe, that
the Tschukotskoi Noss is constantly laid down as
dividing the sea of Kovyma from that of Anadyr 5
which could not possibly be the case if any large
cape had projected to the north-east in the higher la¬
titudes. \
The next question to be determined is, to what degree
of latitude the northern coast of Asia extends before it
inclines directly westward ? Captain Cook was always
strongly inclined to believe, that the northern coast of
this continent, from the Indigirka eastward, has hi¬
therto been usually laid down above two degrees to the
northward of its true situation ; for which reason, and
on the authority of a map that was in his possession,
as well as from intelligence received at Oonalashka, he
placed the mouth of the Kovyma in the latitude of 68°.
Should he be right in his conjecture, it is probable
that the coast of Asia does not anywhere extend be¬
yond the latitude of 70° before it trends to the west;
and consequently our navigators must have been only
one degree from its northern extremity. This seems
to be confirmed by the silence of the Russian naviga¬
tors concerning any extent of continent to the north¬
ward of Shelatskoi Noss j nor do they mention any
remarkable promontory, except the East cape, be¬
tween the Anadyr and the Kovyma. Another parti¬
cular which Deshneff relates may perhaps be deemed a
Vol. VI. Part II. f
farther confirmation of this opinion, viz. that he met Cook’s Dis-
with no obstruction from ice in sailing round the coveries.
northern extremity of Asia 5 though he adds, that 1—-v—^
this sea is not at all times so free of it, which indeed
appears evidently to be the case. That part of the
continent which lies between Cape North and the
mouth of the Kovyma is about 125 leagues in extent.
A third part of this space, from Kovyma eastward,
was explored in the year 1723 by Feodot Amossoff,
who informed Mr Muller that its direction was east¬
erly. Since that time it has been surveyed with some
accuracy by Shalauroff, whose chart makes it trend
north-east-by-east as far as Shelatskoi Noss, which he
places at the distance of about 43 leagues east of the
Kovyma. The space, therefore, between the Noss and
Cape North, somewhat more than 80 leagues, is the
only part of the Russian dominions now remaining
unexplored. But if the Kovyma be erroneously laid
down in point of longitude as well as latitude, a sup¬
position far from being improbable, the extent of the
undiscovered coast will be considerably diminished.
The following are the reasons why it may be sup¬
posed that the mouth of the Kovyma is placed too far
to the westward in the Russian charts: 1. Because the
accounts that have been given of the navigation of the
Frozen ocean from that river round the north-eastern
extremity of Asia to the gulf of Anadyr, do not
agree with the supposed distance between those places.
2. Because the distance from the Anadyr to the Ko¬
vyma over land is by some Russian travellers represent¬
ed as a journey of no very great length, and easily per¬
formed. 3. Because the coast from the Shelatskoi Noss
of Shalauroff appears to trend directly south-east to¬
wards the East cape. From all which it may be infer¬
red, with some degree of probability, that only 60 miles
of the northern Asiatic coast remain to be explored.
With regard to a north-west passage from the At-
lantic into the Pacific ocean, the discoveries of Lieu- cability of
tenant Parry have rendered it almost certain that such a north-
a passage exists, but they also shew it is too much ob- wesl or
structed by ice to be of any value for commercial pur- °assa"eTnto
poses. That officer proceeding through Lancaster [^pacific
straits, in Lat. 740 (1819), reached 1130 47'of W. ocean.
Long.; but was unable from the quantity of ice to pe¬
netrate farther. He observed a number of inlets on
on both sides of Lancaster sound, which gave reason to
conclude, that most of the land between Baffin’s and
Hudson’s bays, as well as that farther westward, con¬
sists of islands separated by arms of the Polar sea. It
appears, that the sea to the northward of Beering’s
straits is more free from ice in August than in July,
and perhaps may be still more so in some part of
September. But after the autumnal equinox the
length of the day diminishes so fast, that no farther
thaw can be expected $ and it would be unreasonable
to attribute so great an efiect to the warmth of the last
fortnight of September as to imagine it capable of dis¬
persing the ice from the most northern part of the
American coast. Even admitting this to be possible,
it must at least be allowed that it would be highly im¬
prudent to endeavour to avoid the Icy cape, by run¬
ning to the known parts of Baffin’s bay, a distance of
about 1260 miles, in so short a time as that passage
can be supposed to be open. On the side of Asia there
appears still less probability of success, as appears from
4 M the
COO [ 642 ] coo
Cook’s Dis the testimony of the Russian as well as the English na-
coveries. vigators. The voyage of Deshneff indeed proves the
' ~v possibility of circumnavigating the north-eastern ex¬
tremity of Asia •, but even this affords a very slen¬
der foundation to hope for any great benefit, as no
person besides himself appears to have succeeded in
the attempt, though more than a century and a half
has now elapsed since the time of his voyage. But
even supposing that, in some very favourable sea¬
son, this cape might be doubled, still the cape of Tai-
mura remains, extending as far as the 78th degree of
latitude, and round which none pretend ever to have
sailed.
These arguments seem conclusive against any ex¬
pectation of a north-west or north-east passage to the
East Indies, unless on the supposition of an open sea
very near the polar regions. The probability of get¬
ting into the polar seas is considered under the article
Pole ; and indeed from what has already been ad¬
vanced must appear very little. Waving this sub¬
ject therefore at present, we shall return to the re¬
marks made by our navigators during their second
122 voyage. _
Remarks In this they did little more than confirm what had
during the been observed during the first : for it never was in
Ca^ahi^ ^le’r Power 1° approach the continent of Asia in any
Clerke to- hJg!,ei' latitude than 67°, nor that of America in any
wards the part, excepting a few leagues, between 68° and 68° 20',
Icy sea. which they had not seen before. In both years the
ice was met with sooner on the Asiatic than the A-
merican coast-, but in 1779 they met with it in lower
latitudes than in 1778. As they proceeded north¬
ward, the ice was found universally more compact and
solid, though they were ascertained at the same time
that the greatest part of what they met with was move-
able. Its height on a medium was estimated at eight
or ten feet; though some of the highest might be about
16 or 18. The currents were generally at the rate of
one mile in the hour, and more generally set from the
south-west than from any other quarter. Their force,
however, was so inconsiderable, whatever their direc¬
tion might be, that no conclusion could possibly be
drawn from them concerning the existence or non¬
existence of a northern passage. With regard to the
temperature of the weather, July was found much
colder than August. In the former, the thermometer
was once at 20f>, and very frequently at 30° ; whereas
during the last year it was very uncommon in August
to have it as low as the freezing point. High winds
were experienced in both seasons, all of which blew
from the south-west. The air was foggy whenever
the weather became calm ; but the fogs were observ¬
ed to accompany southerly winds much more than
others.
The straits, in the nearest approach of the conti¬
nents to each other, in the latitude of 66°, are about
33 leagues over ; beyond which they diverge to N.
E. by E. and W. N. W.} so that in the latitude of
69°, their distance from each other is about 300 miles.
A great resemblance is observed betwixt the continents
on both sides of the straits. Both are destitute of
wood j the shores are low, with mountains further in¬
land, rising to a great height. The soundings in the
mid way between them were from 29 to 30 fathoms,
gradually decreasing as either continent was approach-
a
ed ; with this difference, however, that the water was Cook’s Dis
somewhat shallower on the coast of America than that coveries.
of Asia, at an equal distance from land. The bottom,y-—.
towards the middle, was a soft slimy mud ; and near
either shore was a brownish sand intermixed with a few
shells and small fragments of bones. There was but
little tide or current, and what there was came from
the west.
Before the ships could reach the peninsula of Kamt-Dgsu^f
schalka, Captain Clerke expired j in consequence of Captain
which the command of the Discovery devolved upon ^erite* Set
Mr King, Captain Gore being now the superior 0f-^r*e-
ficer. On the return to Kamtschatka, Captain Clerke
was buried in the spot on which a church was to be
erected $ it having been his own desire to be interred
in the church.
By the time they arrived at this peninsula, the faceRel”^to
of the country was greatly improved j the fields being Kamtschat-
covered with the most lively verdure, and every plant ka, with a
in the most flourishing state. The eruption of the c^r’P|'0«
volcano which they had observed on their last depar-Awattka
ture from Kamtschatka, had done little or no damage,
notwithstanding its violence. Several stones had fallen
about the size of a goose’s egg, but none larger. At
this visit it was observed by our navigators, that the
complexions of the Russians seemed to be much more
unhealthy and sallow than when they saw them for¬
merly ; and the Russians made the same observationr
upon the complexions of their guests. As no certain
cause for this alteration could be perceived, the blame
was by both parties laid on the verdure of the country 5
which, by contrasting itself with the colour of the peo¬
ple, made the latter appear to disadvantage.
Having repaired as well as they could the damages
sustained by the ships among the ice, our navigators
now began to proceed on their voyage southward y
but the shattered condition of their vessels, with the
little time they had now to spare on voyages of dis¬
covery, after having been so long at sea, now render¬
ed them much less successful than formerly. Before
leaving the peninsula, however, they took care to give
such a description of the bay of Awatska as must be
of great service to future navigators. This bay lies
in 52. 51. N. Lat. and 158. 48. E. Long, in the
bight of another bay formed by Cape Gavareea to the
south, and Cheeponskoi Noss to the north. The lat¬
ter of these bears from the former N. E. by N. and is
32 leagues distant. From Cape Gavareea to the en¬
trance of Awatska bay the coast takes a northerly di¬
rection, and extends about II leagues. It consists of
a chain of rugged cliffs and rocks, and in many parts
presents an appearance of bays or inlets ; but on a
nearer view, low grounds were perceived by which the
headlands were connected. From the entrance of
Awatska bay, Cheeponskoi Noss bears E. N» E. di¬
stant 17 leagues. The shore on this side is flat and low,,
with hills behind gradually rising to a considerable
height. The latitude of Cape Gavareea is 52. 21.
By this remarkable diflerence of the land on both sides
the cape, navigators may be directed in their course
towards it from the southward. When they approach
it from the northward, Cheeponskoi Noss becomes
very conspicuous; it being a high projecting headland,
and united to the continent by a large extent of level
ground lower than the Noss : and presents the same
appearance
COO [ 643 ] coo
k’s Dis-aPPearance whether viewed from the north or south,
jveries. Should the weather happen to be sufficiently clear to
-v—' admit a view of the mountains both on the sea coast
and in the neighbourhood, the situation of Awatska
bay, may be known by the two high ones to the south
of it. That nearest the bay is in the form of a sugar-
loaf, the other flat at top, and not quite so high. Three
very conspicuous mountains appear on the north side
of the bay ; of which that to the west appears to be
the highest; the next, being a volcano, is readily
known by the smoke which it emits ; the third is the
most northerly, and might properly be called a cluster
of mountains, as it presents several flat tops to view.
When got within the capes, the entrance of the bay
of Awatska to the north is pointed out by a light¬
house on a perpendicular headland. Many sunken
rocks lie to the eastward of this headland, stretching
two or three miles into the sea; and which with a
moderate sea or swell will always show themselves.
A small round island lies four miles to the south of
the entrance, principally composed of high pointed
rocks, one of which is very remarkable. The en¬
trance into the bay is at first about three miles wide,
and one and a half in the narrowest part 5 the length
is four miles in a north-west direction. Within the
mouth is a noble bason about 25 miles in circumfe¬
rence j in which are the harbours of Rakoweera to the
east, Tarcinska, the west, and St Peter and St Paul
to the north.
count of On leaving Kamtschatka, it was unanimously judged
iYoyage improper to make any attempt to navigate the seas
ra the between the continent of Asia and Japan. Instead of
ic of lea-wag pr0p0Se(j t0 steer to the eastward of that
iatka. island, and in the way thither to sail along the Kuriles ;
examining particularly those that are situated nearest
to the northern coast of Japan, which are said to be
considerable, and neither subject to the Russians nor
Japanese. In case they should have the good fortune
to meet with some secure and commodious harbour in
one of these islands, it tvas supposed that they might
prove of considerable importance, as convenient places
for shelter for subsequent navigators, who might be
employed in exploring these seas, as the means of pro¬
ducing a commercial intercourse among the adjacent
dominions of the two above mentioned empires. The
next object was to take a survey of the coasts of the
islands of Japan ; after which they designed to sail for
the coasts of China as far north as possible, and then
sail along it southward to Macao.
In pursuance of this plan, they sailed along the
coast of Kamtschatka, till they came to the southern
point called Cape Lopatka, whose situation they deter¬
mined to be in Lat. 51. o. E. Long. 156. 45. To the
north-west they observed a very lofty mountain, whose
summit was lost in the clouds; and the same instant
the first of the Kurile islands, named Shoomska, made
its appearance in the direction of west, half south.
The passage betwixt the southern extremity of Cape
Lopatka and the island of Shoomska, though only one
league in breadth, is extremely dangerous, both on ac¬
count of the rapidity of the tides, and of the sunk rocks
which lie off the cape. In the course of this voyage,
they had occasion to observe, that a violent swell from
the north-west frequently took place, though the wind
had been for some time in the western quarter; a cir-Cook’s Dis-
cumstance for which they seem to have been altogether coveries
unable to account. H
The tempestuous weather which now occurred, pre- ■ ,
vented any discoveries from being made among the
Kurile isles ; however, they again sailed over the space
assigned to the land of De Gama, without being able
to find it ; and, from comparing several accounts of
the Russian navigators with one another, it was judged
extremely probable, that the land of Jeso, so frequently
laid down in former maps, is no other than the most
southerly of the Kurile isles. On coming in view of
the coast of Japan, they had the mortification to find
that they could not approach the land by reason of
the tempestuous weather and bad state of the ships ; the
coasts of these islands being extremely dangerous. Pas¬
sing from thence in quest of the Bashee islands, they -
found amazing quantities of pumice-stone floating in
the sea; so that they seemed inclined to believe, with
Mr Muller, that if there had formerly been any part
of the continent, or large island, called the Land of
Jeso, it must have disappeared in a volcanic convulsion ;
which also must have been the case with that called
the Company's Land and Staten Island. Though they
had not the good fortune to find the Bashee islands,
they discovered one in 24. 48. N. Lat. 141. 20. E.
Long, which from its appearance, and the sulphureous
smell emitted by it, they named Sulphur island.
After this nothing remarkable occurred till their
arrival at Canton in China, where having staid for
some time in order to put their ships in repair, they at
last set sail for Britain ; but through stress of weather
were driven as far north as Stromness in Orkney.
From thence Captain Gore sent a dispatch to the lords
of the admiralty to inform them of his arrival; and on
the 4th of October 1780, the ships reached the Nore,
after an absence of four years, two months, and twen¬
ty-two days.
COOKERY, the art of preparing and dressing
victuals for the table : An art, in its simplest and
ordinary modes, sufficiently familiar to every house¬
keeper ; and, in its luxurious refinements, too copious¬
ly detailed in manuals and directories published for the
purpose, to require any enlargement here, were it even
a topic that at all deserved consideration in a work of
this nature.
COOLERS, in Medicine, those remedies which were
supposed to produce an immediate sense of cold, being
such as have their parts in less motion than those of
the organs of feeling ; as fruits and all acid liquors.
Or they are such as were supposed, by a particular vis¬
cidity or grossness of parts, to give the animal fluids a
greater consistency than they had before, and conse¬
quently retard their motion, having less of that intestine
force on which their heat depends : this property was
ascribed to cucumbers and similar substances.
COOM, a term applied to the soot that gathers over
an oven’s mouth ; and also to the black, greasy sub¬
stance, which works out of the wheels of carriages.
COOMB, or Comb, of corn, a dry measure contain¬
ing four bushels, or half a quai’ter.
COOP, in Husbandry, a tumbrel or cart enclosed
with boards, and used to carry dung, grains, &c.
Coop, is also the name of a pen, or enclosed place,
4 M 2 where
COO [644] coo
Coop, where lambs, poultry, &c. are shut up in order to be
Coopw. fed.
'—V“ ■■■' COOPER, an artificer who makes casks, coops
tubs and barrels, and all kinds of wooden vessels which
are bound together with hoops. It would appear,
that the art of the cooper is of great antiquity, and
soon attained all the perfection which it at present
possesses.
But although this art is very ancient, there are some
countries in which it is yet unknown j and in other
countries, fiom the scarcity of wood, or from some
other causes, earthen vessels and skins lined with pitch
are used for containing liquors. The Latin word r/o/z'zm,
is usually translated “ cask $” but it was employed by the
Romans to denote earthen vessels used lor the same
purposes. The word dolare, to “ plane, or smooth,”
from which dolium is derived, and the word dolarius,
“ a cooper,” may be naturally enough applied, the
former to the construction of casks, which are made of
several pieces of the same tree planed and fitted for
joining together, and the latter to the artificer him¬
self.
Pliny ascribes the invention of casks to the people who
lived at the foot of the Alps. In his time they lined
them with pitch. From the year 70 of the Christian
era, in the time of Tiberius and Vespasian, the art of
constructing vessels of different pieces of wood seems to
have been well known. Indeed, previous to this pe¬
riod, Varro and Columella, in detailing the precepts of
rural economy, speak distinctly of vessels formed of dif¬
ferent pieces, and bound together with circles of wood
or hoops. The description which they have given ac¬
cords exactly with the construction of casks. The fa¬
brication of casks, on account ol the great abundance
of wood, was probably very early introduced into
France. When this art was first practised in Britain
is unknown } but it seems not improbable that it was
derived from the French.
The figure of a cask is that of two truncated cones,
or rather conoids, joined together; for the lines are
not straight, as in the cone, but are curved from the
vertex to the base. As the place where the junction
seems to take place is the most capacious, it is com¬
monly called the belly of the cask. In the choice of
wood, old, thick, and straight trees are preferred, from
which thin planks are hewn which are to be formed
into staves. In France, the wood is prepared in win¬
ter ; the staves and bottoms are then formed, and they
are put together, or, in the language of the artificer,
the cask is mounted, in summer. Planing the staves
is one of the most difficult parts of the work; and it is
at the same time one of the most important in the fa¬
brication of casks. In dressing staves with the plane,
the workman is directed to cut across the wood ; the
reason of which is probably to prevent the instrument
following the course of the fibres, which may not al¬
ways be in tbe same plane with the surface of the
stave, and thus render it of unequal thickness.
In the formation of the staves, it ought to be recol¬
lected, that each is to constitute part of a double co¬
noid. It must therefore be broader at the middle, and
must gradually become narrower, but not in straight
lines, towards the extremities. The outside of the
staves, across the wood, must be wrought into the seg¬
ment of a circle ; and it must he thickest near the
middle, growing gradually thinner towards the ends.
Great experience, it is obvious, must be requisite for
the nice adjustment of the different curves to the size
and shape ol the cask. Less attention, as it is less ne¬
cessary, is paid to the rounding or dressing of the inside
of the stave.
After the staves are dressed and ready to be arranged
in a circular form, it might be supposed necessary, for
the purpose ot making the seams tight, to trim the thin
edges in such a manner, that the contiguous staves may
be brought into firm contact throughout the whole
joint, or sloped similar to the arch-stones of a bridge.
But this is not the practice which is usually followed
by the artificer. Without attempting to slope them,
so that the whole surface of the edge may touch in
every point, he brings the contiguous staves into con¬
tact only at the inner surface; and in this way, by
driving the hoops hard, he can make a closer joint
than could be done by sloping them from the outer to
the inner side. In this, perhaps, with giving the pro¬
per curvature to the staves, consists the principal part
ol the cooper’s art.
Cooper, Anthony Ashley^ first earl of Shaftesbury,
a most able statesman, was the son ol Sir John Cooper,
Bart, of Rockburn in Hampshire, and was born in
1621. He was elected member for Tewkesbury, at
19 years of age, in the short parliament that met April
13. 1640. He seems to have been well affected to the
king’s service at the beginning of the civil wars ; for
he repaired to the king at Oxford with offers of assist¬
ance : but Prince Maurice breaking articles to a town
in Dorsetshire that he had got to receive him,
furnished him with a pretence lor going over to the
parliament, from which he accepted a commission.
When Richard Cromwell was deposed, and the Rump
came again into power, they nominated Sir Anthony
one ol the council of state, and a commissioner for
managing the army. At that very time he had enga¬
ged in a secret correspondence for restoring Charles II.
and, upon the king’s coming over, was sworn of his
privy council. He was one of the commissioners for
the trial of the regicides ; was soon after made chan¬
cellor of the exchequer, then a commissioner of the
treasury; in 1672 was created earl of Shaftesbury;
and soon after was raised to the post of lord chancel¬
lor. He filled this office with great ability and inte¬
grity ; and though the short time he was at the helm
was in a tempestuous season, it is doing him justice
to say, nothing could either distract or affright him.
The great seal was taken from him in 1673, 12 months
after his receiving it; but though out of office, he still
made a distinguished figure in parliament, for it was
not in his nature to remain inactive. He drew upon
himself the implacable hatred of the duke of York, by
steadily promoting, if not originally inventing, the fa¬
mous project of an exclusion-bill. When his enemies
came into power, he found it necessary to consult hi&
safety, by retiring into Holland, where he died six
weeks after his arrival, in 1683. While his great abi¬
lities are confessed by all, it has been his misfortune
to have his history recorded by his enemies, who stu¬
died to render him odious. Butler has given a very
severe character of him in his Hudibras. ,
Cooper, Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, was
son of Anthony earl of Shaftesbury, and grandson of
Anthony
COO [ 645 ] coo
0peP. Anthony first earl of Shaftesbury, lord high chancel-
k-y——' lor of England. He was born in 1671, at Exeter-
house in London, where his grandfather lived, who
from the time of his birth conceived so great an allec-
tion for him, that he undertook the care of his educa¬
tion ; and he made so good a progress in learning,
that he could read with ease both the Latin and Greek
languages when only 11 years old. In 1683, his fa¬
ther carried him to the school at Winchester, where he
was often insulted on his grandfather’s account, whose
memory was odious to the zealots for despotic power:
he therefore prevailed with his father to consent to his
desire of going abroad. After three years stay abroad,
he returned to England in 1689, and was ofl’ered a
seat in parliament in some of those boroughs where his
family had an interest. But this offer he did not now
accept, that he might not be interrupted in the course
of his studies, which he prosecuted five years more
with great vigour and success j till, on Sir John Tren-
chard’s death, he was elected burgess for Pool. Soon
after his coming into parliament, he had an opportu-
nity given him of expressing that spirit of liberty by
which he uniformly directed his conduct on all occa¬
sions. It was the bringing in and promoting “ the
act for regulating trials in cases of high treason.”
But the fatigues of attending the house of commons
in a few years so impaired his health, that he was ob¬
liged to decline coming again into parliament after the
dissolution in 1698. He then went to Holland, where
the conversation of Mr Bayle, M. le Clerc, and seve¬
ral other learned and ingenious men, induced him to
reside a twelvemonth. During this time, there was
printed at London, in 8vo, an imperfect edition of
Lord Ashley’s Inquiry concerning Virtue. It had been
surreptitiously taken from a rough draught, sketched
when he was no more than 20 years of age. His lord-
ship, who was greatly chagrined at this event, immedi¬
ately bought up the impression before many books were
sold, and set about completing the treatise, as it af¬
terwards appeared in the second volume of the Charac¬
teristics. Soon after Lord Ashley’s return to Eng¬
land, he became, by the decease of his father, earl of
Shaftesbury. But his own private affairs hindered
him from attending the house of lords till the se¬
cond year of his peerage, when he was very earnest
to support King William’s measures, who was at that
time projecting the grand alliance. So much was he
in favour with King William, that he had the offer of
secretary of state ; but his declining constitution would
not allow him to accept of it. Though he was disabled
from engaging in business, the king consulted him on
matters of very high importance ; and it is pretty well
known that he had the greatest share in composing that
celebrated last speech of King William, December 3t.
1701. On Queen Anne’s accession to the throne, he
returned to his retired manner of life, being no longer
advised with concerning the public ; and was then re¬
moved from the vice-admiralty of Dorset, which had
been in the family for three generations. In 1703, be
made a second journey to Holland, and returned to
England the year following. The French prophets,
soon after this, having by their enthusiastic extrava¬
gancies made a great noise throughout the nation, and
among different opinions, some advising a prosecution,
the lord Shaftesbury apprehended that such, measures
tended rather to inflame than to cure the disease. This Cooper,
was the origin of bis Letter concerning Enthusiasm,'
which he sent to Lord Somers then president of the
council ; and which being approved of by that noble¬
man and other gentlemen to whom it was shown, was
published in 1708, though without the name of the
author, or that of the person to whom it was addressed.
His Moralist, a philosophical Rhapsody, being a reci¬
tal of certain conversations on natural and moral sub¬
jects, appeared in January 1709; and in the May fol¬
lowing his Sensus Communis, an essay upon the freedom
of Wit and Humour, in a letter to a Friend. It was
in the same year that he entered into the marriage state
with Mrs Jane Ewer, the youngest daughter of Tho¬
mas Ewer, Esq. of Lee in Hertfordshire. By this la¬
dy, to whom his lordship was related, he had an only
son, Anthony the late earl of Shaftesbury. In 1710,
his Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author, was published
at London in 8vo. While he was thus employing
himself in literary composition, his health declined so
fast, that it was recommended to him to seek assistance
from a warmer climate. Accordingly, in July 1711,
he set out for Naples, and pursuing his journey by way
of France, was obliged to pass through the duke of
Berwick’s army which at that time lay encamped near
the borders of Piedmont. Here he was entertained by
that famous general in the most friendly manner, and
every assistance was given him to conduct him in safety
to the duke of Savoy’s dominions. Our noble author’s
removal to Italy was of no service to the re-establish¬
ment of his health $ for after having resided at Naples
about a year and a half, he departed this life on the
4th of February, O. S. 1712-13, in the 42d year of
his age. The only pieces which he finished after he
Came to this city, were the Judgment of Hercules,
and the Letter concerning Design, which last was add¬
ed to that impression of the Characteristics which ap¬
peared in 1732. It was in 1711 that the first edition
was published of all the Characteristics together, and
in the order in which they now stand. But this pub¬
lication not being entirely to his lordship’s satisfaction,
he chiefly employed the latter part of his life in prepa¬
ring his writings for a more elegant edition ; which
was given to the world in 1713, soon after his decease.
The several prints that were then first interspersed
through the volumes were all invented by himself, and
designed under his immediate inspection j and for this
purpose lie was at the pains of drawing up a most ac¬
curate set of instructions, the manuscript of which is
still preserved in the family. That no mistakes might
be committed, the earl did not leave to any other
hands so much as the drudgery of correcting the press.
In the three volumes of the Characteristics of Men,
Manners, Opinions, and Times, he completed the
whole of his works which he intended for the public
eye. Not long before his death he had formed a
scheme of writing a discourse on painting, sculpture,
and the other arts of design, which, if he had lived
to have finished it, might have proved a very pleasing
and useful work, as he had a fine taste in subjects of that
kind : but his premature decease prevented his making
any great progress in the undertaking. The earl of
Shaftesbury had an esteem for the works of the best
English divines j one remarkable instance of which was
displayed in his writing a Preface to a volume of Dr.
Whichcot’s.
COO [ 646 ] coo
cfoower. Whichcoi’s Sermons, publislietl in 1698. Copies of
 vr~—' tliese sermons had been taken in short-hand, as they
were delivered from the pulpit ; and the earl had so
high an opinion of them, that he not only introduced
them to the world by his preface, but had them print¬
ed under his own particular inspection. In his Letters
to a Young Man at the university, he speaks of Bi¬
shop Burnet and Lr Hoadly in terms of great applause,
and has done justice to the merits of Tillotson, Bar-
row, Chillingworth, and Hammond, as the chief pil¬
lars of the church against fanaticism. But whatever
regard his lordship might have for some of our divines,
it was to the writings of antiquity that his admiration
was principally directed. These were the constant ob¬
jects of his study, and from them he formed his system
of philosophy, which was of the civil, social, and theistic
kind.
Of Lord Shaftesbury’s character, as a writer, differ¬
ent accounts have been given. As one of his greatest
admirers, may be mentioned Lord Monboddo ; who,
speaking of his Rhapsodist in particular, does not hesi¬
tate to pronounce it not only the best dialogue in Eng¬
lish, out of all degree of comparison, but the sublimest
philosophy : and, if we will join with it the Inquiry,
the completest system both of morality and theology,
that we have in our language, and, at the same time,
of the greatest beauty and elegance for the style and
composition.
Even several of the authors who have distinguished
themselves by their direct opposition to many of the
sentiments which occur in the Characteristics, have ne¬
vertheless mixed no small degree of applause with their
censures. “ I have again perused, with fresh pleasure
and fresh concern (says Mr Balguy, in his Letter to a
Deist), the volumes of Characteristics—I heartily wish
the noble author had been as unprejudiced in writing
as I was in reading. If he had, I am persuaded his
readers would have found double pleasure and double
instruction. It seems to me, that his lordship had little
or no temptation to pursue any singularities of opi¬
nion by way of distinction. His fine genius would suf¬
ficiently have distinguished him from vulgar authors in
the high road of truth and sense ; on which account
his deviations seem the more to be lamented. The pu¬
rity and politeness of his style, and the delicacy of his
sentiments, are and must be acknowledged by all read¬
ers of taste and sincerity. But nevertheless, as his beau¬
ties are not easy to be overlooked, so neither are his
blemishes. His works appear to be stained with so
many gross errors, and his fine thoughts are so often
mingled with absurdities, that however we may be
charmed with the one, we are forced to condemn the
other.” Mr Balguy hath farther observed, with re¬
gard to the Inquiry concerning Virtue, which is the
immediate object of his animadversion, that though he
cannot agree in every particular contained in it, he
finds little more to do than to tell how much he ad¬
mires ; and that he thinks it indeed, in the main, a
performance so just and exact as to deserve higher
praises than he is able to give it.
Dr Brown, in his essay on the Characteristics, ob¬
serves that the earl of Shaftesbury hath in that per¬
formance mingled beauties and blots, faults and ex¬
cellencies, with a liberal and unsparing hand. At the
same time, the doctor applauds that generous spirit of
C ooper
freedom which shines throughout the whole. Another
direct antagonist of the earl of Shaftesbury, Dr Le-
land, has observed, that no impartial man will deny
him the praise of a fine genius. “ The quality of the
writer (continues the doctor), his lively and beautiful
imagination, the delicacy of taste he hath shown in
many instances, and the graces and embellishments of
his style, though perhaps sometimes too affected, have
procured him many admirers. To which may be add¬
ed his refined sentiments on the beauty and excellency
of virtue, and that he hath often spoken honourably of
a just and good Providence, which ministers and go¬
verns the whole in the best manner j and hath strong¬
ly asserted, in opposition to Mr Hobbes, the natural
difference between good and evil j and that man was
originally formed for society, and the exercise of mu¬
tual kindness and benevolence $ and not only so, but
for religion and piety too. These things have very
much prejudiced many persons in his favour, and pre¬
pared them for receiving, almost implicitly, whatever
he hath advanced.” Dr Johnson, as we are informed
by Sir John Hawkins, bore no good-will to Lord
Shaftesbury $ neither did he seem at all to relish the
cant of the Shaftesburian school, nor inclined to admit
the pretensions of those who professed it, to tastes and
perceptions which are not common to all men j a taste
in morals, in poetry and prose writing, in painting, in
sculpture, in music, in architecture, and in government!
A taste that censured every production, and induced
them to reprobate every effort of genius that fell short
of their own capricious standard.
The grand point in which our noble author has ren-^^. jj,
dered himself justly obnoxious to the friends of reli-vol. iv.
gion, is his having interspersed through the Characte¬
ristics a number of insinuations that appear to be unfa¬
vourable to the cause of revelation. There have not
however been wanting many among his admirers, who
have thought that he ought not to be reckoned among
the deistical writers. The author of animadversions
upon Dr Brown’s three Essays on the Characteristics,
observes, that it is “ imprudent, to say no worse, in
some sincere advocates for Christianity, to reject the
friendly advice and assistance of so masterly a writer as
the lord Shaftesbury, and to give him up to the Deists
as a patron of infidelity.” But it is matter of fact,
and not considerations of prudence or imprudence, that
must determine the question. In support of his lord¬
ship’s having been a believer in our holy religion, may
be alleged, his preface to Whichcot’s Sermons, and his
Letters to a Student at the university : in both which
works he constantly expresses himself in such language
as seems to indicate that he was really a Christian.
And with regard to the letters, it may be remarked,
that they were written in 1707, 1708, and 1709, not
many years before his lordship’s death. Nevertheless
there are in the Characteristics so many sceptical pas¬
sages, thatjjie must be considered as having been a
doubter at least, if not an absolute disbeliever, with
respect to revelation. But if he must be ranked a-
mong the Deists, we agree with the observation of
one of his biographers, that he is a very different Deist
from numbers who have appeared in that character}
his general principles being much less exceptionable.
The style of Lord Shaftesbury’s compositions is also
a point upon which various and contradictory senti¬
ments
>oper.
COO [647
ments have been entertained. But for the fullest and
-■ most judicious criticism that has appeared upon that
subject, we may refer the reader to Dr Blair’s Lec¬
tures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, vol. i. p. 192,
193, 207, 208, 234, 263, and 396—398.
Cooper, Samuel, a very eminent English miniature
painter, born in 1609, and bred under the care of
his uncle John Hoskins. He derived, however, his
principal excellence from the study of the works of Van-
dyck, in whose time he lived; insomuch that he was
commonly styled “ Vandyck in little.” His pencil was
chiefly confined to the head, in which, with all its de¬
pendencies, especially the hair, he was inimitable 5 but
if he descended lower, his incorrectness was notorious.
He died in 16725 and his pieces are universally ad¬
mired all over Europe, selling for incredible prices.—
He had a brother, Alexander, likewise a good minia¬
ture painter, who became limner to Christina queen of
Sweden.
Cooper, Thomas, a pious and learned prelate in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Oxford a-
bout the year 1517. He was educated in the school
adjoining to Magdalene college, of which he was a cho¬
rister, where also, in 1539, he was elected probation-
and fellow in the following year. About the year
1546, quitting his fellowship, he applied himself to the
study of physic, in 1556 took the degree of bachelor in
that faculty, and practised as physician at Oxford. Be¬
ing inclined to the Protestant religion, probably this
was only a prudent suspension of his final intentions
during the popish reign of Queen Mary; for, on the
accession of Elizabeth, he resumed the study of divini¬
ty, became a celebrated preacher, was made dean of
Christ-church, and vice-chancellor of the university,
having accumulated the degrees of bachelor and doc¬
tor in divinity. In 1569 he was made dean of Glouce¬
ster 5 and the year following, bishop of Lincoln : whence,
in 1584, he was translated to the see of Winchester,
in which city he died on the 28th of April 1594, and
was buried in the cathedral there, on the south side of
the choir. The several writers who have mentioned
Dr Cooper, unanimously gave him the character of an
eloquent preacher, a learned divine, and a good man.
He had the misfortune, while at Oxford, to marry a
lady whose gallantries became notorious : nevertheless
he would not be divorced from her 5 knowing that he
could not live without a wife, he did not choose “ to
charge his conscience with the scandal of a second
marriage.”—He wrote, 1. The Epitome of Chronicles
from the 17th year after Christ to 1540, and thence
after to 1560. 2. Thesaurus lingua Romance et Bri~
tannicce. This dictionary, which is an improvement
upon Elyot’s, was much admired by Queen Elizabeth,
who thenceforward determined to promote the au¬
thor. 3. A brief exposition of such chapters of the
Old Testament as usually are read in the church, at
common prayer, on Sundays throughout the year.
4. An admonition to the people of England. 5. Ser¬
mons.
Cooper, John Gilbert, a polite modern writer,
was born in 1723 j and was descended from an an¬
cient family in the county of Nottingham, whose for¬
tune was injured in the last century by their at¬
tachment to the principles of monarchy. He resided
at Thurgarton priory in Nottinghamshire, which was
] COP
granted by King Henry YIII. to William Cooper, one
of his ancestors. This mansion Mr Cooper inherited
from his father, who in 1739 was high sheriff of the
county ; and transmitted it to his son, who filled the
same respectable office in 1783. After passing through
Westminster school under Dr John Nicoll, along with
the late Lord Albemarle, Lord Buckinghamshire, Ma¬
jor Johnson, Mr George Ashby, and many other emi¬
nent and ingenious men, he became in 1743 a fellow-
commoner of Trinity-college, Cambridge, and resided
there two or three years ; but quitted the university
on his marriage with Susanna the daughter of William
Wrighte, Esq. son to the lord keeper of that name,
and recorder of Leicester 1729—1763. In the year
1745 he commenced author, by the publication of The
Power of Harmony, a poem in 410 ; and in 1746 and
1747 he produced several Essays and Poems under the
signature of Philalethes, in a periodical work called
The Museum, published by Mr Dodsley. In the same
year he came forward as an author, with his name, bv
a work which received much assistance from his friend
the Reverend John Jackson of Leicester, who commu¬
nicated several learned notes, in which he contrived to
manifest bis dislike to his formidable antagonist Mr
Warburton. It was entitled The Life of Socrates,
collected from the Memorabilia of Xenophon and the
Dialogues of Plato, and illustrated farther by Ari¬
stotle, Diodorus Siculus, Cicero, Proclus, Apuleius,
Maximus Tyrius, Boethius, Diogenes Laertius, Au-
lus Gellius, and others : 1749, 8vo. In this work Mr
Cooper gave evident marks of superior genius 5 warm,
impetuous, and impatient of restraint. In 1754, Mr
Cooper published his Letters on Taste, 8vo ; an ele¬
gant little volume, on which no small share of his re¬
putation is founded j and in 1755, The Tomb of
Shakespeare, a Vision, 4to 5 a decent performance, but
in which there is more of wit and application than of
nature or genius. In 1756 he assisted Mr Moore, by
writing some numbers of the World 5 and attempted
to rouse the indignation of his countrymen against the
Hessians, at that juncture brought over to defend the
nation, in a poem called the Genius of Britain, ad¬
dressed to Mr Pitt. In 1758, he published Epistles to
the Great, from Aristippus in Retirement, 410 5 and
The Call of Aristippus, Epistle IV. to Mark Akenside,
M. D. Also, A Father’s Advice to his Son, in 4to.
In the Annual Register of the same year is his Transla¬
tion of an Epistle from the King of Prussia to Monsieur
Voltaire. In 1759, he published Ver Vert; or the
Nunnery Parrot ; an Heroic Poem, in four cantos, in¬
scribed to the Abbess of D*** ; translated from the
French of Monsieur Cresset, 410 : reprinted in the first
volume of Dilly’s Repository, 1777; and, in 1764,
Poems on several subjects, by the Author of the Life
of Socrates ; with a prefatory Advertisement by Mr
Dodsley. In this little volume were included all the
separate poetical pieces which have been already men¬
tioned, excepting Ver Vert, which is a sprightly com¬
position. Mr Cooper died at his father’s house in
May Fair, after a long and excruciating illness ari¬
sing from the stone, April 14th 1769.
CO-ORDINATE, something of equal order, rank,
or degree with another.
COOT. See Fueica, Ornithology Index.
COPAIBA, or Balsam of Copaiba, a liquid resi¬
nous
Cooper
11
Copaiba.
COP [ 648 1 COP
Copaiba nous juice) flowing from incisions made in the trunk
{] of the copaifera balsamum. See Materia Medica
Copenha- Index.
8<'IU . COPAIFERA, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the clecandria class. See Botany Index.
COPAL, improperly called gum copal, is a gum of
the resinous kind brought from New Spain, being the
concrete juice of the Rhus Copallinum. It is employed
as a varnish. See Varnishing and Chemistry Index.
COPARCENARY, the share or quota of a copar¬
cener.
COPARCENERS, (from con, a.x\& particeps, “ part¬
ner”), or Parceners ; such as have equal portions in
the inheritance of their ancestor.
Coparceners are so either by law or custom. Co¬
parceners by law, are the issue female $ which, in de¬
fault of a male or heir, come equally to the lands of
their ancestors. Coparceners by custom, are those
who, by some peculiar custom of the country, challenge
equal parts in such lands ; as in Kent, by the custom
of gavelkind. The crown of England is not subject to
coparcenary.
COPE, an ecclesiastical ornament, usually worn by
chanters and subchanters, when they officiate in so¬
lemnity. It reaches from the shoulders to the feet.
The ancients called it Pluviale.—The word is also used
for the roof or covering of a house, &c.
Cope is also the name of an ancient custom or tri¬
bute due to the king or lord of the soil, out of the lead
mines in some part of Derbyshire j of which Manlove
saith thus:
Egress and regress to the king’s highway,
The miners have $ and lot and cope they pay $
The thirteenth dish of ore within their mine,
To the lord for lot, they pay at measuring time}
Sixpence a load for cope the lord demands,
And that is paid to the burghmaster's hands.
This word by Doomsday-book, as Mr Hagar hath in¬
terpreted it, signifies a hill : and cope is taken for the
supreme cover, as the cope of heaven.
COPEL. See Cupel.
COPENHAGEN, the capital of the kingdom of
Denmark, situated on the eastern shore of the island of
Zealand, upon a fine bay of the Baltic sea, not far
from the strait called the Sound. E. Long. 12. 35. N.
Lat. 55. 41.
The precise date of the foundation of this city is dis¬
puted } but the most probable account is, that it took
its rise from a castle built on the spot in the year 1168,
as a protection against the pirates which at that time
swarmed in the Baltic. The conveniency of the situa¬
tion, and the security afforded by the castle, soon in¬
duced a number of the inhabitants of Zealand to resort
thither \ but it was not distinguished by the royal resi¬
dence until 1443, during the reign of Christopher of
Bavaria-, since which time it has been gradually en¬
larged and beautified, and is become the capital of
Denmark.
Copenhagen is the best built city of the north ; for
although Petersburg!! excels it in superb edifices, yet,
as it contains no wooden houses, it does not display
that striking contrast of meanness and magnificence }
but in general exhibits a more equable and uniform ap¬
pearance. The town is surrounded towards the land
3
with regular ramparts and bastions, a broad ditch full Copenir
of water, and a few outworks : its circumference mea- gen
sures between four and five miles. The streets are B
well paved, with a foot-way on each side, but too nar- f°Pernk',
row and inconvenient for general use. The greatest
part of the buildings are of brick } and a few are of
free-stone brought from Germany. The houses of the
nobility are in general splendid, and constructed in the
Italian style of architecture: the palace, which was
erected by Christian VI. is a large pile of building }
the front is of stone, and the wings of brick stuccoed}
the suit of apartments is princely } but the external ap¬
pearance is more grand than elegant.
The busy spirit of commerce is visible in this city.
The haven is always crowded with merchant ships:
and the streets are intersected by broad canals, which
bring the merchandise close to the warehouses that line
the quays. This city owes its principal beauty to a
dreadful fire in 1728, that destroyed five churches and
67 streets, which have been since rebuilt in the modem
style. The new part of the town, raised by the late king
Frederic V. is extremely beautiful, scarcely inferior to
Bath. It consists of an octagon, containing four uni¬
form and elegant buildings of hewn stone, and of four
broad streets leading to it in opposite directions. In
the middle of the area stands an equestrian statue of
Frederic V. in bronze, as big as life, which cost 8o,oool.
The Royal Museum, or Cabinet of Rarities, merits the
attention of travellers.
Copenhagen contained 90,000 inhabitants in 1801,
and at present is supposed to contain 105,000. It suf¬
fered by a great fire in 1794 } and in 1807, when the
town was bombarded by the British, about 300 houses
were destroyed, including the cathedral and part of the
university, and double the number were damaged.
Part of Copenhagen, which is called Christianshafen,
is built upon the isle of Amak, which generally attracts
the curiosity of foreigners } (see Amak). From this
place, to which the main city is joined by a bridge, the
markets are supplied with fowl, beef, mutton, venison,
corn, and culinary vegetables.
COPERNICAN, in general, something belonging
to Copernicus. Hence
Copernican System or Hypothesis, that system of the
world wherein the sun is supposed to rest in the centre,
and the planets, with the earth, to move in ellipses
round him. See Copernicus.
COPERNICUS, Nicolaus, an eminent astrono¬
mer, was born at Thorn in Prussia, Jan. 10. 1472.
He was taught the Latin and Greek languages at
home } and afterwards sent to Cracovia, where he stu¬
died philosophy and physic. His genius in the mean
time was naturally turned to mathematics, which he
pursued through all its various branches. He set out
for Italy when he was 23 years of age} but staid at
Bononia some time, for the sake of being with the ce¬
lebrated astronomer of that place, Dominicus Maria :
whose conversation, however, and company, he affect¬
ed, not so much as a learner, as an assistant to him in
making his observations. From thence he passed to
Rome, where he was no sooner arrived than he was
considered as not inferior to the famous Regiomonta¬
nus } and acquired, in short, so great a reputation, that
he was chosen professor of mathematics, which he
taught for a long time with great applause. Fie also
COP [ 649 ] COP
ernicus.made some astronomical observations there about the
-y—w year 1500. Returning to his own country some years
after, he began to apply his vast knowledge in mathe¬
matics to correct the system of astronomy which then
prevailed. He set himself to collect all the books
which had been written by philosophers and astrono¬
mers, and to examine all the various hypotheses they
had invented for the solution of the celestial pheno¬
mena, to try if a more symmetrical order and consti¬
tution of the parts of the world could not be discover¬
ed, and a more just and exquisite harmony in its mo¬
tions established, than what the astronomers of those
times so easily admitted. But of all their hypotheses
none pleased him so well as the Pythagorean, which
made the sun to be the centre of the system, and sup¬
posed the earth to move not only round the sun, but
round its own axis also. Pie thought he discerned much
beautiful order and proportion in this j and that all
that embarrassment and perplexity from epicycles and
excentrics which attended the Ptolemaic hypothesis,
would here be entirely removed.
This system, then, he began to consider, and to write
upon, when he was about 35 years of age. He em¬
ployed himself in contemplating the phenomena care¬
fully ; in making mathematical calculations j in exa¬
mining the observations of the ancients, and in making
new ones of his own j and after more than 20 years
chiefly spent in this manner, he brought his scheme to
perfection, and established that system of the world
which goes by his name, and is now universally re¬
ceived, (see Astronomy Index}. His system, how¬
ever, was then looked upon as a most dangerous here¬
sy $ for which he was thrown into prison by Pope
Urban VIII. and not suffered to come out till he had
recanted his opinion ; that is, till he had renounced
the testimony of his senses, tie died the 24th of May
1543, in the 70th year of his age.
This extraordinary man had been made canon of
Worms by his mother’s brother, Lucas Wazelrodius,
who was bishop of that place. He was not only the
greatest of astronomers, but a perfect master of the
Greek and Latin tongues j to all which he joined the
greatest piety and innocence of manners.
The following is the account of the discoveries of
Copernicus, by Dr Smith, in his Essays on Philosophi¬
cal Subjects.
“ The confusion (says Dr Smith) in which the old
hypothesis represented the heavenly bodies, was, as Co¬
pernicus himself tells us, what first suggested to him the
design of forming a new system, that these, the noblest
works of nature, might no longer appear devoid of that
harmony and proportion which discover themselves in
her meanest productions. What most of all dissatisfied
him was, the notion of the equalizing circle, which, by
representing the revolutions of the celestial spheres as
equable only when surveyed from a point that was dif¬
ferent from their centres, introduced a real inequality
into their motions 5 contrary to that most natural, and
indeed fundamental idea, with which all the authors of
astronomical systems, Plato, Eudoxus, Aristotle, even
Hipparchus and Ptolemy themselves, had hitherto set
out, that the real motions of such beautiful and divine
objects must necessarily be perfectly regular, and go on
in a manner as agreeable to the imagination as the ob¬
jects themselves are to the senses. He began to con-
Vol. VI. Part II. t
sider, therefore, whether, by supposing the heavenly Copernicus.
bodies to be arranged in a different order from that in  '
which Aristotle and Hipparchus had placed them, this
so much sought for uniformity might not be bestowed
upon their motions. To discover this arrangement,
he examined all- the obscure traditions delivered down
to us, concerning every other hypothesis which the
ancients had invented for the same purpose. He
found, in Plutarch, that some Pythagoreans had repre¬
sented the earth as revolving in the centre of the uni¬
verse, like a wheel round its own axis 5 and that others,
of the same sect had removed it from the centre, and
represented it as revolving in the ecliptic like a star
round the central fire. By this central fire he suppo¬
sed they meant the sun ; and though in this he was
very widely mistaken, it was, it seems, upon this in¬
terpretation that he began to consider how such an hy¬
pothesis might be made to correspond to the appear¬
ances. The supposed authority of those old philoso¬
phers, if it did not originally suggest to him his system,
seems at least to have confirmed him in an opinion
which, it is not improbable, he had beforehand other
reasons for embracing, notwithstanding what he himself
would affirm to the contrary.
“ It then occurred to him, that if the earth was sup¬
posed to revolve every day round its axis, from west to
east, all the heavenly bodies would appear to revolve,
in a contrary direction, from east to west. The diurnal
revolution of the heavens, upon this hypothesis, might
be only apparent; the firmament, which has no other
sensible motion, might be perfectly at rest} while the
sun, the moon, and the five planets, might have no
ether movement beside that eastward revolution which
is peculiar to themselves. That, by supposing the
earth to revolve with the planets round the sun, in an
orbit, which comprehended within it the orbits of Ve¬
nus and Mercury, but was comprehended within those
of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, he could, without the
embarrassment of epicycles, connect together the appa¬
rent annual revolutions of the sun, and the direct, re¬
trograde, and stationary appearances of the planets }
that while the earth really revolved round the sun on
one side of the heavens, the sun would appear to re¬
volve round the earth on the other ; that while she
really advanced in her annual course, he would appear
to advance eastward in that movement which is peculiar
to himself. That, by supposing the axis of the earth
to be always parallel to itself, not to be quite perpen¬
dicular, but somewhat inclined to the plane of her or¬
bit, and consequently to present to the sun the one
pole when on the one side of him, and the other when
on the other, he would account for the obliquity of the
ecliptic } the sun’s seemingly alternate progression from
north to south, and from south to north} the consequent
change of the seasons, and different lengths of days and
nights in the different seasons.
“ If this new hypothesis thus connected together all
these appearances as happily as that of Ptolemy, there
were others which it connected together much better.
The three superior planets, when nearly in conjunction
with the sun, appear always at tbe greatest distance from
the earth} are smallest, and least Sensible to the eye; and
seem to revolve forward in their direct motion with the
greatest rapidity. On the contrary, when, in opposi¬
tion to the sun, that is, when in their meridian about
4 N midnight,
COP [ 650 ] COP
Copernicus, midnight, they appear nearest the earth, are largest, and
most sensible to the eye, and seem to revolve backwards
in their retrograde motion. To explain these appear¬
ances, the system of Ptolemy supposed each of these
planets to be at the upper part of their several epi¬
cycles in the one case, and at the lower in the other.
But it afforded no satisfactory principle of connection,
which could lead the mind easily to conceive how the
epicycles of those planets, whose spheres were so distant
from the sphere of the sun, should thus, if one may say
so, keep time to his motion. The system of Coperni¬
cus afforded this easily ; and like a more simple machine,
without the assistances of epicycles, connected together,
by fewer movements, the complex appearances of the
heavens. When the superior planets appear nearly in
conjunction with the sun, they are then in the side of
their orbits, which is almost opposite to, and most di¬
stant from the earth, and therefore appear smallest and
least sensible to the eye. But as they then revolve in
a direction which is almost contrary to that of the earth,
they appear to advance forward with double velocity j
as a ship that sails in a contrary direction to another
appears from that other to sail both with its own velo¬
city and the velocity of that from which it is seen. On
the contrary, when those planets are in opposition to
the sun, they are on the same side of the sun with the
earth, are nearest it, most sensible to the eye, and re¬
volve in the same direction with it; but as their revo¬
lutions round the sun are slower than that of the earth,
they are necessarily left behind it, and therefore seem
to revolve backwards ; as a ship which sails slower than
another, though it sails in the same direction, appears
from that other to sail backwards. After the same
manner, by the same annual revolution of the earth, he
connected together the direct and retrograde motions
of the two inferior planets, as well as the stationary ap¬
pearances of all the five.
“ Thus far did this new account of things render the
appearances of the heavens more completely coherent
than had been done by any of the former systems. It
did this, too, by a more simple and intelligible, as well
as more beautiful machinery. It represented the sun,
the great enlightener of the universe, whose body was
alone larger than all the planets taken together, as esta¬
blished immoveable in the centre, shedding light and
heat on all the worlds that circulated around him in
one uniform direction, but in longer or shorter periods
according to their different distances. It took away
the diurnal revolution of the firmament, whose rapidity,
upon the old hypothesis, was beyond what even thought
could conceive. It not only delivered the imagination
from the embarrassment of epicycles, but from the diffi¬
culty of conceiving these two opposite motions going
on at the same time, which the system of Ptolemy and
Aristotle bestowed upon all the planets ; I mean, their
diurnal westward, and periodical eastward revolutions.
The earth’s revolution round its own axis took away
the necessity for supposing the first, and the second was
easily conceived when by itself. The five planets, which
seem, upon all other systems, to he objects of a species
by themselves, unlike to every thing to which the ima¬
gination has been accustomed, when supposed to revolve
along with the earth round the sun, were naturally ap¬
prehended to be objects of the same kind with the earth,
habitable, opaque, and enlightened only by the rays of
the sun. And thus this hypothesis, by classing them in Copemiei
the same species of things, with an object that is of all Coplni.
others the most familiar to us, took oft that wonder and""v—
uncertainty which the strangeness and singularity of
the appearance had excited ; and thus far, too, better
answered the great end of philosophy.
“ Neither did the beauty and simplicity of this system
alone recommend it to the imagination ; the novelty
and unexpectedness of that view of nature which it
opened to the fancy, excited more wonder and surprise
than the strangest of those appearances, which it had
been invented to render natural and familiar, and these
sentiments still more endeared it. For though it is the
end of philosophy to allay that wonder which either the
unusual or seemingly disjointed appearances of nature
excite, yet she never triumphs so much as when, in or¬
der to connect together a few, in themselves perhaps
inconsiderable objects, she has, if I may say so, created
another constitution of things, more natural indeed, and
such as the imagination can more easily attend to, but
more new, more contrary to common opinion and ex¬
pectation, than any of those appearances themselves.
As in the instance before us, in order to connect to¬
gether some seeming irregularities in the motions of
the planets, the most inconsiderable objects in the
heavens, and of which the greater part of mankind
have no occasion to take any notice during the whole
course of their lives, she has, to talk in the hyperbo¬
lical language of Tycho Brahe, moved the earth from
its foundations, stopt the revolution of the firmament,
made the sun stand still, and subverted the whole order
of the universe.
“ Such were the advantages of this new hypothesis,
as they appeared to its author, when he first invented it.
But though that love of paradox, so natural to the
learned, and that pleasure which they are so apt to take
in exciting, by the novelty of their supposed discoveries,
the amazement of mankind, may, notwithstanding what
one of his disciples tells us to the contrary, have had
its weight in prompting Copernicus to adopt this sys¬
tem ; yet when he had completed his Treatise of Re¬
volutions, and began coolly to consider what a strange
doctrine he was about to offer to the world, he so
much dreaded the prejudice of mankind against it,
that, by a species of continence of all others the most
difficult to a philosopher, he detained it in his closet
for thirty years together. At last, in the extremity
of old age, he allowed it to be extorted from him,
but died as soon as it was printed, and before it was
published.”
Copernicus, the name of an astronomical instru¬
ment, invented by Mr Whiston, to exhibit the motion
and phenomena of the planets, both primary and se¬
condary. It is built upon the Copernican system, and
for that reason called by his name.
COPHTI, Cophts, or Copti, a name given to
the Christians of Egypt, who are of the sect of Jaco¬
bites.
The critics are extremely divided about the origin
and orthography of the word ; some write it Cophti,
others Cophtites, Cophtitse, Copts, &c. Scaliger de¬
rives the name from Coptos, an anciently celebrated
town of Egyptj the metropolis of the Thebaid. Kir-
cher refutes this opinion, and maintains, that the word
originally signifies “ cut” and “ circumscribed and
was
COP [ 651 ] COP
was given these people by the Mahometans, by way of
J reproach, because of their practice of circumcising :
but P. Sollier, another Jesuit, refutes this opinion.
Scaliger afterwards changed his opinion, and derived
the word from AiyvTrrog, the ancient name of Egypt,
by retrenching the first syllable : but this opinion, too,
P. Sollier disputes. John de Leo and others say, that
the Egyptians anciently called their country Elchibth,
or Cibth, from Cibth their first king, whence Cophtite,
&c.; others say from Cobtim second king of Egypt.
Vansleb derives the word Copht from Copt, son of
Misraim, grandson of Noah. All these etymologies
P. Sollier rejects, on this principle, that were they true,
the Egyptians ought all equally to be called Cophti;
whereas, in effect, none but the Christians, and among
those none but the Jacobites, bear the name, the Mel-
chites not being comprehended under it. Hence he
chooses to derive the word from the name Jacobite,
retrenching the first syllable ; whence Cobite, Cobea,
Copta, and Cophta.
The Cophts have a patriarch who resides at Cairo,
but he takes his title from Alexandria: he has no
archbishop under him, but 11 or 12 bishops. The
rest of the clergy, whether secular or regular, is com¬
posed of the orders of St Anthony, St Paul, and St
Macarius, who have each their monasteries. Besides
the orders of priests, deacons, and subdeacons, the
Cophts have likewise archimandrites, the dignity
whereof they confer with all the prayers and ceremo¬
nies of a strict ordination. This makes a considerable
difference among the priests j and besides the rank
and authority it gives them with regard to the religi¬
ous, it comprehends the degree and functions of arch¬
priests. By a custom of 600 years standing, if a priest
elected bishop be not already archimandrite, that dig¬
nity must be conferred on him before episcopal ordi¬
nation. The second person among the clergy, after
the patriarch, is the titular patriarch of Jerusalem, who
also resides at Cairo, because of the few Cophts at Jeru¬
salem ; he is, in effect, little more than the bishop of
Cairo: only he goes to Jerusalem every Easter, and
visits some other places in Palestine near Egypt, which
own his jurisdiction. To him belongs the government
of the Cophtic church, during the vacancy of the pa¬
triarchal see.
To he elected patriarch, it is necessary the person
have lived all his life in continence 5 it is he confers
the bishoprics. To be elected bishop, the person must
be in the celibate $ or, if he has been married, it
must not be above once. The priests and inferior
ministers are allowed to be married before ordination j
but are not obliged to it, as Ludolphus erroneously
observes. They have a great number of deacons, and
even confer the dignity frequently on children. None
but the lowest rank among the people commence eccle¬
siastics $ whence arises that excessive ignorance found
among them 5 yet the respect of the laity towards
the clergy is very extraordinary. Their office is longer
than the Roman office, and never changes in any
thing: they have three liturgies, which they vary occa¬
sionally.
The monastic life is in great esteem among the
Cophts: to be admitted into it, there is always re¬
quired the consent of the bishop. The religious
Cophts make a vow of perpetual chastity j renounce
the world, and live with great austerity in deserts ; Copliti,
they are obliged to sleep in their clothes and their t’oplitic.
girdle, on a mat stretched on the ground $ and to
prostrate themselves every evening 150 times, with
their face and breast on the ground. They are all, both
men and women, of the lowest class of the people j
and live on alms. The nunneries are properly hospitals j
and few enter but widows reduced to beggary.
F. Roderic reduces the errors and opinions of the
Cophts to the following heads : 1. That they put away
their wives, and espouse others while the first are
living. 2. That they have seven sacraments, viz. bap¬
tism, the eucharist, confirmation, ordination, faith, fast¬
ing, and prayer. 3. That they deny the Holy Spirit to
proceed from the Son. 4. That they only allow of three
(ecumenical councils those of Nice, Constantinople,
and Ephesus. 5. That they only allow of one nature,
will, and operation, in Jesus Christ, after the union of
the humanity with the divinity. For their errors in
discipline, they may be reduced, 1. To the practice
of circumcising their children before baptism, which
has obtained among them from the 12th century.
2. To their ordaining deacons at five years of age.
3. To their allowing of marriage in the second degree.
4. To their forbearing to eat blood $ to which some
add their belief of a baptism by fire, which they confer
by applying a hot iron to their forehead or cheeks.
—Others palliate these errors, and show that many of
them are rather abuses of particular persons than
doctrines of the sect. This seems to be the case with
regard to their polygamy, eating of blood, marrying
in the second degree, and the baptism of fire j for cir¬
cumcision, it is not practised as a ceremony of reli¬
gion, nor as of any divine appointment, but merely
as a custom, which they derive from the Ishmael-
ites ; and which, perhaps, may have had its origin
from a view to health and decency in these hot coun¬
tries.
The Cophts, at different times, have made several
reunions with the Latins ; but always in appearance
only, and under some necessity of their affairs. In the
time of Pope Paul IV. a Syrian was despatched to
Rome from the patriarch of Alexandria, with letters to
that pope ; wherein he acknowledged his authority, and
promised obedience ; desiring a person might be dis¬
patched to Alexandria, to treat about a reunion of his
church to that of Rome j pursuant to which, Pius IV.
successor to Paul, chose F. Roderic, a Jesuit, whom he
dispatched in 1561, in quality of apostolical nuncio.
But the Jesuit, upon a conference with two Cophts de¬
puted for that purpose by the patriarch, was made to
know, that the titles of father of fathers, pastor of pas¬
tors, and master of all churches, which the patriarch
had bestowed on the pope in his letters, were no more
than mere matters of civility and compliment j and that
it was in this manner the patriarch used to write to his
friends : they added, that since the council of Chalce-
don, and the establishment of several patriarchs indepen¬
dent of one another, each was chief and master of his
own church. This was the answer the patriarch gave
the pope, after he had received a sum of money remit¬
ted to him from Rome, by the hands of the Venetian
consul.
COPHTIC, or Coptic, the language of the Cophts,
the ancient language of the Egyptians, mixed with
4 N 2 a
COP [6
Cophlic a great deal of Greek, the characters it is written in
ii being all Greek. It has a form and construction pecu-
Copng. |jar t0 Jtself: it has no inflections of the nouns or verbs ;
,~"v but expresses number, case, gender, person, mood, tense,
and possessive pronouns, by letters and particles pre¬
fixed.
F. Kircher is the first who published a grammar and
vocabulary of the Copbtic. There is not known any
book extant in the Cophtic, except translations of the
Holy Scriptures, or of ecclesiastical offices ; or others
that have relation thereto, as dictionaries, &c.
The ancient Copbtic is now no longer found but
in books ; the language now used throughout the
country is Arabic. The old Cophtic, which Kircher
maintains to be a mother-tongue, and independent of
all others, had been much altered by the Greeks : for
besides that it has borrowed all its character’s from the
Greek, with a very little variation, a great number of
the words are pure Greek. Vossius, indeed, asserts,
that there was no Cophtic language till after Egypt
became “subject to the Arabs. The language, accord¬
ing to him, is a mixture of Greek and Arabic: the very
name thereof not being in the world till after the Arabs
were masters of the country. But this, M. Simon ob¬
serves, proves nothing $ except that what was ancient¬
ly called Egyptian, has since by the Arabs been called
Cophtic, by a corruption of speech. There are, it is
true, Arabic words in the Cophtic ; yet this by no
means proves but that there was a language before
that time, either Cophtic or Egyptian. Pietro de la
Valle observes, that the Cophts have entirely lost their
ancient tongue $ that it is now no longer understood
among them 5 that they have nothing extant therein
but some sacred books j and that they still say mass
in it.
All their other books have been translated into Ara¬
bic, which is their vulgar tongue 5 and this has occa¬
sioned the originals to be lost : it is added, that they
rehearse the epistles and gospels in the mass twice 5
once in Arabic and once in Copbtic. Indeed, if we
believe F. Vansleb, the Cophts say the mass in Arabic,
all but the epistles and gospels, which they rehearse both
in that and Cophtic.
Cophtic Bible. See Bible.
Cophtic Liturgies are three •, one attributed to Ba¬
sil, another to St Gregory, and the third to Cyril: they
are translated into Arabic for the use of the priests and
people.
COPIATA, under the western empire, a grave-dig¬
ger. In the first ages of the church there were clerks
destined for this employment. In the year 357 Con¬
stantine made a law in favour of the priests copiatse,
i. e. of those who had the care of interments ; where¬
by he exempts them from the lustral contribution
which all other traders paid. It was under him also
that they first began to be called copiatcc, q. d. clerks
destined for bodily labour, from or kottw scindo,
cedo, ferio, “ I cut, beat,” &c. Before that time they
were called decani and lecticarii; perhaps because they
were divided by decades or tens, each whereof had a
bier or litter for the carriage of the dead bodies. Their
place among the clerks was the next in order before the
chanters.
COPING of a wall, the top or cover of a wall,
made sloping to carry oft’ the water.
52 ] COP
Coping over, in Carpentry, a sort of hanging over, C01
not square to its upright, but bevelling on its under side
till it end in an edge. Copj
COPIST, in diplomatic science, signifies a transcri- , (
her or copier of deeds, books, &c.
COPPA, in Law, a cop or cock of grass, hay, or
corn, divided into titheable portions j as the tenth
cock, &c. This word in strictness denotes the ga¬
thering or laying up the corn in cops or heaps, as the
method is for barley or oats, &c. not bound up, that it
may be the more fairly and justly tithed : and in Kent
they still retain the word, a cop or cap of hay, straw,
C.
COPPEL. See Cupel.
COPPER, one of the metals, called by the alche¬
mists Venus, on account of its facility of uniting with a
great number of metallic substances. Its colour, when
pure, is pale red, and its specific gravity from 8.7 to
9.3, which depends not only on its degree of purity, but
also on its condensation by hammering. See Chemis¬
try Lndex, and COPPER, SUPPLEMENT.
COPPERAS, a name given to the factitious sul¬
phate of iron. See CHEMISTRY Index.
COPPERPLATE. See Engraving.
COPPICE, or Copse, a little wood, consisting of
under-woods, or such as may be raised either by sowing
or planting.
COPTOS, in Ancient Geography, a famous trading
town of the Thebais, inhabited by Egyptians and
Arabs, some distance from the Nile *, others place it in
a small island in the Nile, on which, however, it had
a port. Here Isis, on hearing of the death of Osiris,
cut one of her locks, and put on mourning j and hence
the name Copios, signifying privation. A proof this
of the antiquity of the place. And for this reason
the Isiaci, or priests of Isis, were bald, according to
Juvenal.
COPULATION, the act of generation, or the con¬
gress of the male and female, otherwise called coition.
See Generation.
COPY, in a law sense, a transcript of a writing or
instrument, made for the use and satisfaction of some of
the parties concerned, or in order to preserve the me¬
mory thereof.
Copy is also used for an imitation of any original
work ; particularly a painting, draught, figure, &c.
Copy, among printers, denotes the manuscript or
original of a book given to print from.
CopY-Hold, a tenure for which a tenant has nothing
to show but the copy of the rolls made by the steward
of the lord’s court.
It is called a base tenure; because the tenant holds
the land at the will of the lord. However, it is not
simply at the will of the lord, but according to the cus¬
tom of the manor by which such estate is descendible,
and the tenant’s heirs may inherit it 5 and acopy-bolck-
er, so long as he does his services, and does not break
the custom, cannot be ejected by the lord $ and if he
be, he shall have trespass against him. See the articles
Tenure and Villenage.
CopY-Holder, one who is admitted tenant of lands
or tenements within a manor, which time out of mind,
by use and custom of the manor, have been demisable,
and demised to such as will take them in fee-simple,
or fee-tail, for life, years, or at will, according to the
custom
COP [6
opy. custom of the manor by copy of court-roll ; hut is ge-
>lder nerally where the tenant has such estate either in lee or
il. for three lives.
~n" 1CoPY-Right, the right which an author may he sup¬
posed to have in his own original literary compositions •,
so that no other person, without his leave, may publish
or make profit of the copies. When a man by the ex¬
ertion of his rational powers lias produced an original
work, he has clearly a right to dispose of that identical
work as he pleases ; and any attempt to take it from
him, or vary the disposition he has made of it, is an
invasion of his right of property. Now the identity ol
a literary composition consists entirely in the sentiment
and the language ; the same conceptions clothed in the
same words, must necessarily be the same composition:
and whatever method be taken of conveying that com¬
position to the ear, or to the eye of another, by recital,
by writing, or by printing, in any number ot copies,
or at any period of time, it is always the identical
work of the author which is so conveyed ; and no other
man (it hath been thought) can have a right to convey
or transfer it without his consent, either tacitly or ex¬
pressly given. This consent may perhaps be tacitly
given when an author permits his work to be publish¬
ed without any reserve of right, and without stamping
on it any marks of ownership ; it is then a present
to the public, like the building of a church, or the
laying out anew highway 5 but in case of a bargain for
a single impression, or a total sale or gift of the copy¬
right ; in the one case the reversion hath been thought
to continue in the original proprietor 5 in the other
the whole property, with its exclusive rights, to be
perpetually transferred to the grantee. On the other
hand, it is urged, that though the exclusive right of
the manuscript, and all which it contains, belongs
undoubtedly to the owner before it is printed or pub¬
lished \ yet from the instant of publication, the exclu¬
sive right of an author, or his assigns, to the sole com¬
munication of his ideas immediately vanishes and eva¬
porates ; as being a right of too subtile and unsub¬
stantial a nature to become the subject ot property
at the common law, and only capable of being guard¬
ed by positive statute and special provisions of the ma¬
gistrate.
The Roman law adjudged, that if one man wrote
any thing, though ever so elegantly, on the paper or
parchment of another, the writing should belong to
the original owner of the materials on which it was
written : meaning certainly nothing more thereby
than the mere mechanical operation of writing, for
which it directed the scribe to receive a satisfaction :
especially as, in works of genius and invention, such
as a picture painted on another man’s- canvas, the
same law gave the canvas to the painter. We find
no other mention in the law of any property in the
works of the understanding, though the sale of literary
copies, for the purposes of recital or multiplication, is
certainly as ancient as the times of Terence, Martial,
and Statius. Neither with us in Britain hath there
been (till very lately) any final determination upon the
right of authors at the common law. It was deter¬
mined in the case of Miller v. Taylor, in B. R. Pasch.
9 Geo. III. 1760, that an exclusive copy-right in au¬
thors subsisted by the common law. But afterwards, in
3 ] COR
the case of Donaldson v. Becket, before the house of Copy-right
lords, which was finally determined 22d February f|
1774, it was held, that no copy-right subsists in au- Cor-meille.
thors, after the expiration of the several terms created
by the stat. 8 Ann. c. 19. This statute declares, that
the author and his assigns shall have the whole liberty
of printing and reprinting his works for the term of 14
years, and no longer ; and also protects that property
by additional penalties and forfeitures ; directing far¬
ther, that, if at the end of that term, the author him¬
self be living, the right shall then return to him for an¬
other term of the same duration. By the act of 1814
this contingent right for the second term of 14 years
was made certain in all cases. See Copy-Right, Sup¬
plement.
COQUES, Gonzalo, an esteemed painter of por¬
traits and conversations, was born at Antwerp in 1618,
and was a disciple of the old David Ryckaert; under
whose direction he applied himself diligently to culti¬
vate those promising talents which he possessed ; not
only bv practising the best rules administered to him by
his instructor, but also by studying nature with singular
attention. He was a great admirer of Vandyck ; and
fixing on the manner of that great artist as his mode),
had the happiness of so far succeeding, that next to him
he was esteemed equal to any other painter of his time.
In the school of Ryckaert he had been accustomed to
paint conversations, and he frequently composed sub¬
jects of fancy like Teniers, Ostade, and his master •, and
by that habit he introduced a very agreeable style of
portrait painting. In that way he composed several
fine pictures for King Charles I. and likewise several
for the archduke Leopold, and the prince of Orange;
which latter prince, as a mark of respect, presented
Coques with a rich gold chain, and a gold medal, on
which the bust of that prince was impressed. He died
in 1684. He had an excellent pencil; his portraits
were well designed, with easy natural attitudes; he
disposed the figures in his composition so as to avoid
confusion or embarrassment: he gave an extraordinary
clearness of colour to his heads and hands ; and his
touch was free, firm, and broad, a circumstance very
uncommon in works of a small size.
COQUIMBO, a port town of Chili, in South Ame¬
rica, situated at the mouth of a river of the same name,
which discharges itself into the Pacific ocean. W.Long.
72. 10. N. Lat. 30. 8.
COR caroli, in Astronomy, an extra-constellated
star in the northern hemisphere, situated between the
Coma Berenicis and Ursa major, so called by Dr Hal¬
ley in honour of King Charles.
CoR-Hydrce, a fixed star of the first magnitude, in
the constellation of Hydra.
Cor Leonis, in Astronomy, a fixed star of the first
magnitude in the constellation Leo.
Con-Meille, a noted plant, common in the highlands
of Scotland. Its roots dried are the support of the
highlanders in long journeys, amidst the barren hills
destitute of the supports of life ; and a small quantity',
like the alimentary powders, will for a long time re¬
pel the attacks of hunger. Infused in liquor it is an
agreeable beverage, and, like the nepenthe of the
Greeks, exhilarates the mind. From the similitude
of sound in the name, it seems to be the same with
chara, ^
COR [ 654 ] COR
Cor-meilte cliara, the root discovered by the soldiers of Caesar, at
!! Dyrrhachium, which steeped in milk was such a relief
, C°ram- to the famished army. Or we may reasonably believe
v it to have been the Caledonian food described by Dio,
of which the quantity of a bean would prevent both
hunger and thirst; and this, says the historian, they
have ready for all occasions.
CORACIAS, the Roller, a genus of birds of the
order of picae. See Ornithology Index.
CORACO-brachialis, in Anatomy, the name of a
muscle in the arm, serving to raise it upwards.
CORACOIDES, in Anatomy, a small short process
of the scapula. See Anatomy Index.
CORACOMANTES, in antiquity, persons who
foretold events from their observations on crows.
CORALLINA, or Coral, in Zoology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of vermes zoophyta. See HEL¬
MINTHOLOGY Index, and Corralliniadje, Supple¬
ment.
CORAL Fishery. Red coral is found in the Me¬
diterranean, on the shores of Provence, from Cape de
la Couronne to that of St Tropez j about the isles of
Majorca and Minorca ; on the south of Sicily $ on the
coasts of Africa ; and lastly, in the Ethiopic ocean,
about Cape Negro.
CoRAL-Stone, a name for a kind of red and white
agate which breaks in veins, and is found in Italy and
some parts of Saxony. That of Rochlitz in Saxony
is the most celebrated, and is found in globules which
have a kind of crust about them.
CORALLINES, a genus belonging to the vermes
zoophyta. See Helminthology Index.
CORALLODENDRON. See Erythrina, Bo¬
tany Index.
r CORALLOIDES (frutices). See Eschara and
Keratophyta.
CORAM, Captain Thomas, a gentleman remark¬
ably distinguished by his humanity, was born about
the year 1668, and spent the early part of his life in
the station of master of a vessel trading to our colonies.
Afterwards residing in the eastern part of the metro¬
polis, among sea-iaring people, where business often
obliged him to come early into the city, and return
late, he frequently saw young children exposed in the
streets through the indigence or cruelty of their pa¬
rents.^ This excited his compassion, and induced him
to project the foundation of an hospital for foundlings.
In this humane design he laboured with indefatigable
diligence for seventeen years •, and by his application
procured a number of the nobility and gentry to pa¬
tronize and carry the scheme into execution, and at
length obtained the royal charter for it. He was also
highly instrumental in'promoting the trade of America,
by procuring a bounty upon naval stores imported from
our colonies. He was likewise eminently concerned
m setting on foot the colonies of Georgia and Nova
Scotia. His last charitable design, in which he lived
to make some progress, was a scheme for uniting the
North American Indians more closely to the British
interest, by an establishment for the education of In¬
dian girls. In short, he spent the greatest part of life
in labouring for the public, and experienced a fate too
common in those who devote their talents to such
laudable purposes j being at last indebted for subsistence
2
to the voluntary subscriptions of some public-spirited Ceram
persons, at the head of whom was the late Frederic ||
prince of Wales. Captain Coram died in 1751 ; and Coranieh
was interred, at his own desire, in a vault under the
chapel of the Foundling Hospital.
CORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran.
CORAX, the trivial name of a species of Corvus.
See Ornithology Index.
CORANICH, among the Scotch and Irish, the cu¬
stom of singing at funerals, anciently prevalent in those
countries, and still practised in several parts. Of this
custom Mr Pennant gives the following account. “ I
had not the fortune to be present at any in North
Britain ; but formerly assisted at one in the south of
Ireland, where it was performed in the fulness of horror.
The cries are called by the Irish the ulogohne and hnl-
lulu ; two words very expressive of the sound uttered on
these occasions ; and being of Celtic stock, etymologists
would swear to be the origin of the cRoXvi'yaiv of the
Greeks and ululatus of the Latins. Virgil is very fond
of using the last whenever any of his females are dis¬
tressed $ as are others of the Roman poets, and general¬
ly on occasions similar to this. It was my fortune to
arrive at a certain town in Kerry at the time that a
person of some distinction departed this life 5 my curio¬
sity led me to the house, where the funeral seemed con¬
ducted in the purest classical form.
Qjuodcunque aspiceret luctus, gemitusque sonabant,
Formaque non tacitifuneris intus erat.
In short, the conclamatio was set up by the friends in
the same manner as Virgil describes that consequential
of Dido’s death j
Lamentis, gcmituque, et fxmineo ululatu
Tecta fremunt.
Immediately after this followed another ceremony, fully
described by Camden in his account of the manners of
the ancient Irish j the earnest expostulations and re¬
proaches given to the deceased for quitting this world,
where she enjoyed so many blessings, so good a husband,
and such fine children. This custom is also of great
antiquity, for Euryalus’s mother makes the same ad¬
dress to her dead son.
 Tunc ilia senectce
Sera mece requies $ potuisti reliquere solam,
Crudelis ?
But when the time approached for carrying out the
corpse, the cry was redoubled,
Tremulis ululatibus cethera complent }
a numerous band of females waiting in the outer court
to attend the hearse, and to pay in chorus the last tri¬
bute of their voices. The habit of this sorrowing train,
and the neglect of their persons, were admirably suited
to the occasion ; their robes were black and flowing,
resembling the ancient palla j their feet naked, their
hair long and dishevelled: I might truly say,
Ut qui conducti plorant in funera, dicunt
Etfaciunt prope plura dolentibus exanimo.
The corpse was carried slowly along the verge of a
most beautiful lake, the ululatus was continued, and
the
COB [ 655 ] COB
milch the "'hole procession ended among the venerable ruins
j] of an old abbey.”
ceJet. CORE AN, in Jewish antiquity, were those offerings
which had life, in opposition to the minchab, or those
which had not. It is derived from the word karab,
which signifies “ to approach j” because the victims
were brought to the door of the tabernacle. The corban
were always looked upon as the most sacred offerings.
The Jews are reproached with defeating, by means of
the corban, the precept of the fifth commandment,
which enjoins the respect due to parents. For when
a child had no mind to relieve the wants of his father
or mother, he would say to them, “ It is a gift {cor¬
ban) by whatsoever thou mightest be profited by me $”
i. e. “ I have devoted that to God which you ask of me,
and it is no longer mine to give.”
Corban is also a ceremony which the Mahometans
perform at the foot of Mount Arrafat in Arabia, near
Mecca. It consists in killing a great number of sheep,
and distributing them among the poor.
CORBEILS, in Fortification, little baskets about a
foot and a half high, eight inches wide at the bottom
and twelve at the top \ which being filled with earth,
are frequently set one against another upon the parapet
or elsewhere, leaving certain port holes, from whence
to fire upon the enemy under covert without being
seen by them.
CORBEL, in Architecture, the representation of a
basket, sometimes seen on the heads of caryatides. The
word is also used for the vase, or tambour, of the Co¬
rinthian column ; so called from its resemblance to a
basket, or because it was first formed on the model of
a basket.
Corbel, or Corbil, is also used, in building, for a
short piece of timber placed in a wall, with its end
sticking out six or eight inches, as occasion serves, in
manner of a shouldering-piece. The under part of the
end thus sticking out is sometimes cut into the form of
a boultin j sometimes of an ogee, and sometimes of a
face, &c. according to the workman’s fancy : the up¬
per side being plain and flat.
Corbel is also used by some architects for a niche
or hollow left in walls for images, figures, or statues to
stand in.
CORBET, Richard, bishop of Norwich, and an
eminent poet, was born at Ewell in Surrey, toward
the latter end of the 16th century 5 and educated at
Oxford, where he was esteemed one of the most cele¬
brated wits of the university. Entering into holy or¬
ders, he became a popular preacher, and was made
chaplain to King James I.: when, after several prefer¬
ments in the church, he was, in 1629, made bishop of
Oxford j and in 1632, was translated to the see of Nor¬
wich. He was very hospitable, and always a generous
encouragerof public designs. He died in 1635* There
have been several editions of his poems published under
the title of Poemata Stromata.
CORBE Y, a town of France, in the department of
Somme, which had formerly a famous abbey of Bene¬
dictine monks. It is seated on the river Somme, 10
miles east of Amiens. E. Long. 2.35. N. Lat. 49. 55.
CORCELET, in Entomology, is that part of the body
of an insect which is analogous in its situation to the
breast in other animals. Many have called it the breast
in these also, but impropeidy ; because the breast of Corcelet
other animals is the place of the lungs and trachea, ||
but these organs are in the fly class distributed through Cord,
the whole body. ' v""
CORCHORUS, a genus of plants belonging to
the polyandria class ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 37th order, Columnece. See Botany
Index.
CORCULUM, a diminutive from cor “ the heart,”
little heart; the essence of a seed, and principle of
life of the future plant, attached to and contained
within the lobes. It consists of two parts, termed by
Linnaeus Plumula and Rostellum. The former is
the radicula of Grew and other naturalists. The cor-
culum is in fact the embryo of the future vegetable ;
and is attached by two trunks of vessels to the lobes at
their union. The first of its two parts mounts upward,
and becomes the trunk. The other strikes into the
ground, and is the rudiment of the root. The lobes
and heart of the seed are distinctly visible in the bean,
and other seeds of that class, especially after remaining
some time in water or earth.
The principle of life is seated either at the summit
or base of the seed. From this circumstance are con¬
structed the two first classes in Caesalpinus’s method,
containing trees and shrubs only.
CORCYRA, in Ancient Geography, an island in the
Ionian sea, opposite to Thesprotia a district of Epi¬
rus, called Scheria and Phceacia by Homer. In Calli¬
machus it is called Drepane ; its most ancient name, ac¬
cording to the Scholiast, from the curvity of its figure.
Famous for the shipwreck of Ulysses and the gardens of
Alcinous. Now Corfu, one of the Ionian islands.
Corcyra, the chief town of the island 5 formerly
powerful, and capable of coping with mighty states j
situated about the middle of the east side of the island,
called The Town of the Phwacians by Homer. Now
Corfu, from the of the middle age, the name
of the citadel. It was a colony of the Corinth¬
ians. Corcyrcei, the people. E. Long. 19. 55. Lat.
39- 4°*
Corcyra Nigra, an island in the Adriatic, on the
coast of Dalmatia (Pliny) ; called Melcena by the
Greeks, to distinguish it from the island in the Ionian
sea. The epithet Nigi'ci was added, from its woods of
tall trees with which it is almost covered. Now Cur-
•zola.
CORD, or Chord, an assemblage of several threads
of hemp, cabled or twisted together by means of a
wheel. See Cordage. The word cornes from the
Greek which properly signifies an intestine or
gut, of which cords may be made. See Chord.
Magical Cord, an instrument in great use among
the Laplanders, and by them supposed to be endued
with a number of virtues. It is a cord or rope with
three knots tied in it. They use many magical rites
and ceremonies in the tying of this cord ; and, when
thus prepared, it is supposed to have power over the
winds ; and they will sell, by means of it, a good wind,
or at least the promise of one, to a ship. If they un¬
tie only one of these knots, a moderate gale succeeds j
if two, it is much stronger j and if three, a storm is
sure to follow.
Cord of Wood, a certain quantity of wood for burn¬
ing,
COR [ 656 ] COR
Coid. ing> so called because formerly measured with a cord.
|j The dimensions of a statute cord of wood are eight
Corded. fee|- long, four feet high, and four feet broad.
Cord - Jf'oody is new wood, and such as, when brought
by water, comes on board a vessel, in opposition to that
which is floated.
CORDAGE, a term used in general, for all sorts
of cord, whether small, middling, or great. See
Rope.
The naval cordage of the earlier ages was in all
probability only thongs of leather. These primitive
ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third
century. The nations to the north of the Baltic had
them in the ninth or tenth centuries : and the iwhabi-
tants of the western isles of Scotland make use of them
at present; cutting the skin of a seal, or the raw and
salted hide of a cow into long pieces, and fastening
the plough to their horses with them, or even twisting
them into strong ropes of 20 or 30 fathoms length.
But these, in the south of our island, and on the conti¬
nent, were early superseded by the use of iron chains.
The very maritime and commercial nation of the Ve-
neti, that were so intimately connected with the Belgas
of Britain, used iron chains for their cables in the days
of Csesar. But in the more distant and refined coun¬
tries of the south, both thongs and these had long given
place to the use of vegetable threads and the arts of
combining them into strength. In this manner the
Greeks appear to have used the common rushes of their
country, and the Carthaginians the spartum or broom
of Spain. And as all the cordage of the Romans was
made of these materials at their last descent on ourisland,
so the art of manufacturing them would be necessarily
introduced with the Roman settlements among the Bri¬
tons. Under the direction of Roman artists their thongs
of leather would naturally be laid aside, and the junci,
or rushes of the plains, worked up into cordage.
And what remarkably coincides with this opinion is,
that the remains of old cables and ropes are still dis¬
tinguished among the British sailors by the name of
old junk.
The nations of Roman Britain, and the tribes of
Caledonia and Ireland, had inherited, from their ear¬
liest ancestors, many of the ruder arts of navigation.
Their ships were large open boats, framed of light
timbers, ribbed with hurdles and lined with hides.
These were furnished with masts and sails. The lat¬
ter were formed of hides, as the tackle was of thongs.
They were actually of hides among the Veneti, as late
as the days of Csesar ; and they were never furled,
but only bound to the mast. But these slight sea-boats,
and their rude furniture, would soon he dismissed by
the provincials for the more substantial vessels and more
artificial sails of the Romans. The Roman sails, which
were composed of flax in the days of Agricola, were af¬
terwards made of hemp ; and our own are therefore de¬
nominated cannabis or canvas by our mariners at pre¬
sent. And about the same period assuredly did the junk
of tbe British cordage give way to the same materials j
the use of hempen ropes upon land, and of hempen nets
for hunting, being very common among the Romans in
the first century.
CORDATED, an appellation frequently given by
naturalists to things somewhat resembling a heart.
CORDED, in Heraldry. A cross corded, some au-
3
thors take for a cross wound or wrenched about with
cords : others, with more probability, take it for a cross
made of two pieces of wood.
CORDELERAS, mountains of South America,
otherwise called Andes.
CORDELIER, a Franciscan, or religious of the
order of St Francis. The Cordeliers are clothed in
thick gray cloth, with a little cowl, a chaperon, and
cloak of tbe same ; having a girdle of rope or cord
tied with three knots j whence the name.—They are
otherwise called Minor Friars, their original name.
The denomination Cordelier is said to have been first
given them in the war of St Louis against the infidels ;
wherein the Friars Minor having repulsed the barba¬
rians, and that king having inquired their name, it
was answered, they were people cordelie’Z, “ tied with
ropes.” The Cordeliers are to a man professed Sco-
lists.
CORDEMOI, Geralde, a learned philosopher and
historian, born at Paris, made himself known to M.
Bossuet, who placed him about the dauphin in the qua¬
lity of reader. He instructed that young prince with
great assiduity; and in 1675 was received into the
French academy. He wrote a general history of France
during the first races of the French kings, in two vols;
and six discourses on the distinction between Body and
Soul, which were printed together in 1702 in quarto.
He died in 1684. M. Cordemoi followed the principles
of Descartes.
Corded
Cordoua
CORDIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria class, and in the natural method ranking
under the 41st order, Asperifolice. See Botany
Index.
CORDIAL, in Medicine, whatever raises the spirits,
and gives them a sudden strength and cheerfulness; as
wine, spirits, the effluvia of flowers, fruit, and many
other substances.
CORDON, in Fortification, a row of stones, made
round on the outside, and set between the wall of the
fortress which lies aslope, and the parapet which stands
perpendicular, after such a manner, that this difference
may not be offensive to the eye ; whence the cordons
serve only as an ornament, ranging round about the
place, being only used in fortifications of stone-work:
for in those made with earth the void space is filled up
with pointed stakes.
CORDUBA, in Ancient Geography, an illustrious <
city of Baetica, on the right or north side of the Bae-
tis. Built by Marcellus, according to Strabo; but
which Marcellus is not so clear. It was the first co¬
lony sent into those parts by the Romans ; and sur-
named Patricia, because at first inhabited by principal
men, both of the Romans and natives. It is men¬
tioned by Sil. Italieus in the second Punic war ; and
hence it is probable the first Marcellus was the foun¬
der, and not the Marcellus engaged in the civil war
between Caesar and Pompey. It was famous for the
birth of the two Senecas and of Lucan (Martial), and
for its rich produce in oil (Statius, Martial). Still
retaining its name a little altered. W. Long. 5. Lat.
37* 45- ...
CORDOUA, or Cordova, a city of Andalusia in
Spain, situated on the river Guadalquiver, in a very
extensive plain. The circumference is large, but it is
not peopled in proportion to its extent, for there are
a
COR [ 657 ] COR
1 dona. a great many orchards and gardens within the walls,
v. There are many superb structures, palaces, churches,
and religious houses ; particularly the cathedral, which
ie very magnificent: It was formerly a mosque when
the Moors possessed the town j for which reason it still
retains the name of Me<zquita, which has the same
meaning. The cathedral is very rich in plate ■, four of
the silver candlesticks cost 850I. a-piece. The re¬
venue of the see amounts to 3500I. per annum $ but as
the bishops cannot devise by will, all they die possessed
of escheats to the crown. The square called the Plaxa
Major is surrounded with very fine houses, under which
are piazzas. The trade is flourishing on account of
the river; and consists of wine, silk, and Cordovan
leather. In the neighbourhood of this place are a vast
number of orange and lemon trees, which renders their
fruits exceeding cheap. The best horses in Spain come
from thence. The population is about 30,000.
Cordova was the ancient Corduba mentioned in the
preceding article. After the fall ot the Roman em¬
pire, it was subjected to the dominion of the Goths 5
but in the eighth century it was raised by the Moorish
princes to a state of splendour unequalled in any other
part of the world. In the year 175, Ahdoulrahman, only
heir-male of the Ommiad line, having passed over from
Africa at the head of a few desperate followers, found
means to raise a rebellion in Spain •, when, after a
battle fought on the banks of the Guadalquiver, in
which he overthrew the lieutenant of the Abassid ca¬
liph of Damascus, he became king of all the Moorish
possessions in the south ol Spain, and in 759 fixed
his royal residence at Cordova. Then began those
flourishing ages of Arabian gallantry and magnificence
which rendered the Moors of Spain superior to all their
contemporaries in arts and arms, and made Cordova
one of the most splendid cities of the world. Agri¬
culture and commerce prospered under the happy sway
of this hero ; and the face of the country was changed
from a scene of desolation, which the long wars and
harsh government of the viceroys had bx*ought on, into
a most populous flourishing state, exceeding in riches,
number of inhabitants, activity, and industry, any
prior or subsequent era ol the Spanish history. He
added new fortifications to the town, built himself a
magnificent palace with delicious gardens, laid cause¬
ways through the marshes, made excellent roads to open
ready communication between the great towns, and in
786 began the great mosque which he did not live to
finish.
During the course of two centuries, this court con¬
tinued to be the resort of all professors of the polite
arts, and of such as valued themselves upon their mili¬
tary and knightly accomplishments •, while the rest of
Europe was buried in ignorance, debased by brutality
of manners, or distracted by superstitious disputes.
England, weakened by its heptarchy, was too inconsi¬
derable even to be mentioned in the politieal history of
the times. France, though it had a gleam of reputa¬
tion under Charlemagne, was still a barbarous unpo¬
lished nation ; and Italy was in utter confusion \ the
frequent revolutions and changes of masters rendering
it impossible for learning, or any thing good, to ac¬
quire a permanent footing in so unstable a soil : Greece,
though still in possession of the arts and luxury of an¬
cient Rome, had lost all vigour, and seemed absorbed
Vol. VI. Part II. f
in the most futile of all pursuits, viz. that of scholastic Cordoua.
argument and religious subtilities. i
The residence of the Ommiad caliphs was long con¬
spicuous for its supreme magnificence, and the crowds
of learned men who were allured to it by the pro¬
tection offered by its sovereigns, the beauty of the
country, the wholesomeness of the climate, and the
variety of pleasures that returned incessantly in one
enchanting round.
Cordova became the centre of politeness, industry,
and genius. Tilts and tournaments, with other costly
shows, were long the darling pastimes of a wealthy
happy people ; and this was the only kingdom in the
west where geometry, astronomy, and physic, were re¬
gularly studied and practised. Music was no less ho¬
noured ; for we find, that in 844 a famous musician
called Ali Tieriab came to settle at Cordova, and form¬
ed several pupils, who were supposed to equal the most
celebrated performers that were ever known even in
the East. That architecture was greatly encouraged*
we need no other proof than the great and expensive
fabrics undertaken and completed by many of these
Spanish monarchs. Whatever faults may be justly
condemned in their manner by the connoisseur, accus¬
tomed to the chaste' noble graces of the Grecian pro¬
portions, certainly nobody can behold what remains of
these Moorish edifices, without being strongly impressed
with a high idea of the genius of the artists, as well as
the grandeur of the prince who carried their plans into
execution.
The sultans not only gave the most distinguished pro¬
tection to arts and sciences, and to the persons learned
in any of them, but were themselves eminently versed
in various branches of knowledge. Alkahem II. col¬
lected so immense a quantity of manuscripts, that before
the end of his reign the royal library contained no less
than 600,000 volumes, of which the very catalogue fill¬
ed 40 huge folios. The university of Cordova was
founded by him, and under such favourable auspices
rose to the highest pitch of celebrity.
Abdoulrahman was succeeded by his son Hissem,
whose passion for glory and architecture was not in the
least inferior to that of his father. He put the finish¬
ing hand to the mosque, which the plunder of the
southern provinces of France enabled him to complete
in the course of a few years. The bridge over the
Guadalquiver was a work of Hissem’s after his own
plan.
Alkahem succeeded Hissem.
Ahdoulrahman II. was also passionately fond of build¬
ing. He was the first that brought the supplies of
water to Cordova by means of leaden pipes laid upon
aqueducts of stone. The quantity was so considerable,
that every part of the palace, the mosques, baths,
squares, and public edifices, had all ol them their
fountains constantly playing. A great many of these
works still subsist. He paved the whole city, and
erected several mosques.
After him reigned Mahomet Almundar, Abdallah,
and Ahdoulrahman HI. who surpassed all his predeces¬
sors in splendour, riches, and expence. His subjects vied
with each other in profusion and magnificence. This
monarch was succeeded by his son Alkahem II. who
left a minor to succeed him, and the kingdom to be
governed by the famous visir Mahomet Abenamir, sur-
4 0 named
C O K [6
Cordon a named Alman%or, or “ the defender,” from his great
ii victories and wise conduct. His descendants inherited
Corea. from him the visirship, and a power as absolute as if
ila(j (jeen caliphs, until the weakness of the sove¬
reigns encouraged, and the insolence of the ministers
provoked, the grandees to disturb the state with their
jealousies and dissensions. These broils occasioned such
a series of civil war and anarchy, as overthrew the
throne of Cordova, and destroyed the whole race of
Abdoulrahman. Thus the glorious edifice, founded by
the valour and prudence of that conqueror, and ce¬
mented by similar virtues in many of his successors,
sunk into nothing as soon as the sceptre devolved upon
weak enervated princes, whose indolence and incapacity
transferred the management of every thing to a visir.
Many petty kingdoms sprung up out of the ruins of this
mighty empire \ and the Christians soon found opportu¬
nities of destroying, by separate attacks, that tremendous
power, which when united had proved an overmatch
for their utmost force.
~Neiv Cordova, a considerable town of South Ame¬
rica, in the province of Tucuman, with a bishop’s see,
175 miles from St Jago. W. Long. 62. 5. S. Lat. 32.
ic.
COXIDOUAN, a famous pharos or light-house of
France, in Guienne, at the mouth of the river Girond.
The architecture is extremely fine 5 and it is placed
there to hinder vessels from running on the sand-banks
at the mouth of the river. W. Long. 1. 9. N. Lat.
45-
CORDUS, Valerius, a learned botanist, was the
son of Ericius Cordus, a physician and poet of Ger¬
many. Having learned the languages, he applied him¬
self to the study of botany, in the prosecution of which
he examined the mountains of Germany, and travelled
into Italy ; but being wounded in the leg by the kick of
a horse, died at Rome in 1534. He wrote Remarks on
Dioscorides, and other works.
CORDWAINERS, or Cordiners, the term where¬
by the statutes denominate shoemakers. The word is
formed from the French cordonnier, which Menage de¬
rives from corduan, a kind of leather brought from
Cordoua, whereof they formerly made the upper lea¬
thers of their shoes. Others derive it from corde,
“ rope,” because anciently shoes were made of cords 5
as they still are in some parts of Spain, under, the
name of alpargates. But the former etymology is bet¬
ter warranted ; for, in effect, the French workmen
who prepare the corduas are still called corduan-
niers.
In Paris they have two pious societies under the
title of fret'es cordonniers, “ brothers shoemakers,”
established by authority towards the middle of the 17th
* See Cm- century ; the one under the protection of St Crispin *,
P,n- the other of St Crispianus, two saints who had formerly
honoured the profession. They live in community, and
under fixed statutes and officers ; by which they are di¬
rected both in their spiritual and secular concerns. The
produce of their shoes goes into a common stock, to fur¬
nish necessaries for their support j the rest to be distri¬
buted among the poor.
COREA, a peninsula lying to the north-east of
China, between 125 and 130 degrees of E. Long, and
between 34 and 40 of N. Lat. The recent voyage
~ of Captains Hall and Maxwell has proved its breadth
2
58 ] COR
to be less than was supposed, as a great part of what Corek.
had been considered its western coast, is found to con-
sist of an immense archipelago of islands, the number
of which baffled all calculation. Its whole length may
be taken at 400 miles, and its average breadth at 150.
The interior, however, is little known, except by ac¬
counts received through China, and by those of Humel,
a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked there in the middle
of the 17th century. The capital of the whole is
Han-ching, where the king resides. The Jesuits say,
the people are well made, of a sweet and tractable
disposition, and fond of learning, music, and dancing,
and in general resemble the Chinese. This is con¬
firmed by Captain Hall, who found the inhabitants ex¬
tremely courteous, kind, and gentle j but the strictest
precautions were taken to prevent the British from pe¬
netrating into the country, or making observations on
its condition. rlhe houses are mean, being covered
with thatch ; and they have no beds, but lie on the
floor. They have little silk, and therefore make use of
linen cloth in its room. Their trade consists in white
paper, pencils, ginseng, gold, silver, iron, yellow var¬
nish, fowls whose tails are three feet long, horses no
more than three feet in height, sable skins, castor, and
mineral salt. In general it is a fertile country, though
abounding in mountains. It is tributary to China.
M. Grosier relates an observation concerning the
natural history of Corea, which, in his opinion, fur¬
nishes a new proof of the revolutions which the surface
of our globe has undergone. An ancient Chinese
book asserts, that the city where Kipe, the king of
Corea, established his court, was built in a place which
forms at present a part of the territories of Ymig-
ping-fou, a city of the first class in the province of
Petcheli. “ If this (says he) be admitted as a fact,
we may from thence conclude, that these territories
formerly belonged to Corea j and that the gulf of
Lea-tong, which at present separates this kingdom
from the province of Petcheli, did not then exist, and
that it has been formed since; for it is not probable
that the sovereign would have fixed his residence with¬
out the boundaries of his kingdom, or in a place where
he was separated from it by a wide and extensive sea.
This conjecture is confirmed by certain facts admitted
by the Chinese. Thus when Ya, surnamed the Great,
undertook to drain and carry off the waters which
had inundated the low grounds of several provinces,
he began by the river Hoang-ho, the overflowing of
which caused the greatest devastation. He went in
search of its source to the bosom of Tartary, from
whence he directed its course across the provinces of
Chan-si, Chen-si, Honan, and Petcheli. Towards its
mouth, in order to weaken the rapidity of its waters,
he divided them into nine channels, through which he
caused the river discharge itself into the eastern sea
near the mountain of Kie-che-ehan, which then formed
a promontory. Since that time to the present, that is,
about 3950 years, the river Hoang-ho has departed
so much from its ancient course, that its mouth at
present is about six degrees farther south. If the sea
has been able to cover with its waters that extent ol
territory which at present forms part of the gulf of
Leatong, may we not be allowed to suppose that like
inundations may have formed successively the whole of
that gulf, the ancient existence of which seems so ill
to
COR [ 659 ] COR
rea. 1° agree with the residence of the kings of Corea in
v*——' the territory of Yong-ping-fon P
Corea chiefly produces wheat, rice, and ginseng,
with a kind of palm tree which yields a gum capable of
producing a yellowish varnish little inferior to gilding.
Hence also are exported castor and sable skins $ al¬
so gold, silver, iron, and fossil salt: a kind of small
brushes for painting, made of the hair of a wolf’s tail,
are likewise manufactured here, which are exported
to China, and highly esteemed there. The sea coasts
abound in fish, and great numbers of whales are found
there every year towards the north-east. Several
of these, it is said, have in their bodies the harpoons
of the French and Dutch, from whom they have
' escaped in the northern extremities of Europe ; which
seems to indicate a passage from the European into
, the Asiatic seas round the continents of Europe and
Asia.
A considerable quantity of the paper of Corea is
annually imported into China $ indeed the tribute due
-to the emperor is partly paid with it every year. It
is made of cotton, and is as strong as cloth, being writ¬
ten upon with a small hair-brush or pencil j but must
be done over with alum-water before it can be written
upon in the European manner. It is not purchased
by the Chinese for writing, but for filling up the
squares of their sash windows $ because, when oiled, it
resists the wind and rain better than that of China. It
is used likewise as wrapping paper; and is serviceable
to the tailors, who rub it between their hands until it
becomes as soft and flexible as the finest cotton cloth,
instead of which it is often employed in lining clothes.
It has also this singular property, that if it be too thick
for the purpose intended, it may be easily split into two
or three leaves, each of which is even stronger than
the best paper of China.
The Coreans are well made, ingenious, brave, and
tractable; are fond of dancing, and show great docility
in acquiring the sciences, to which they apply with great
ardour, and which they honour in a particular manner.
The northern Coreans are larger sized and more ro¬
bust than those of the south ; have a taste for arms,
and become excellent soldiers. Their arms are cross¬
bows and long sabres. Men of learning are distinguish¬
ed from other classes of people by two plumes of fea¬
thers in their caps ; and when merchants present the
Coreans with any books for sale, they dress themselves
in the richest attire, and burn perfumes before they
treat concerning the price.
The Coreans mourn three years, as in China, for a
father or mother: but the time of mourning for a bro¬
ther is confined to three months. Their dead are not
interred until three years after their decease ; and when
the ceremony of interment is performed, they place
around the tomb the clothes, chariot and horses of
the deceased, with whatever else he showed the great¬
est fondness for while alive ; all which they leave to
be carried off by the assistants. Their houses, as in
China, consist only of one story, and are very ill built;
in the country being composed of earth, and in cities
generally of brick, but all thatched with straw; the
walls of their cities are constructed after the Chinese
manner, with square turrets, battlements, and arched
gates. Their writing, dress, religious ceremonies, and
creed, as well as the greater part of their customs, are Corea
borrowed from the Chinese. Their women, however, ij
are less confined, and have the liberty of appearing in CordJI.
public with the other sex, for which they are often ridi- "v
culed by their neighbours. They differ from the Chi¬
nese also in their ceremonies of marriage, and in the
manner of contracting it; the parties in this country
taking the liberty to choose for themselves, without
consulting the inclinations of their parents, or suffering
them to throw any obstacles in their way.
COREIA, in antiquity, a festival in honour of Pro¬
serpine, named Core, Kag?i, which, in the Molossian dia¬
lect signifies a beautiful woman.
CORELLI, Arcangelo, the famous Italian mu¬
sician and composer, a native of Fusignano, in the ter¬
ritory of Bologna, was born in 1653. He entertain¬
ed an early propensity to the violin; and as he advan¬
ced in years, laboured incessantly in the practice of
that instrument. About the year 1672, his curiosity
led him to visit Paris, probably with a view to attend
the improvements which were making in music under
the influence of Cardinal Mazarin, and in consequence
of the establishment of a royal academy ; but notwith¬
standing the character which he brought with him, he
was driven back to Rome by Lully, whose jealous
temper could not brook so formidable a rival as this il¬
lustrious Italian. In the year 1680 he visited Germany,
and met with a reception suitable to his merit from
most of the German princes, particularly the elector of
Bavaria; in whose service he was retained, and con¬
tinued for some time. After about five years stay
abroad, he returned again to Rome, and there pursued
his studies with great assiduity.
The proficiency of Corelli on his favourite instru¬
ment the violin was so great, that the fame of it spread
throughout Europe. The style of his performance
was learned, elegant, and pathetic; and his tone firm
and even. Mr Geminiani, who was well acquainted
with, and had studied it, used to resemble it to a
sweet trumpet. A person who had heard him per¬
form says, that whilst he was playing on the violin,
it was usual for his countenance to be disturbed, his
eyes to become as red as fire, and his eye-balls to roll
as in agony.
Corelli was highly favoured by that great patron
of poetry and music, Cardinal Ottoboni. Crescembini
says that he regulated the musical academy held at
the palace of his eminence every Monday afternoon.
Here it was that Mr Handel became acquainted with
him ; and in this academy a serenata of Mr Handel,
entitled II Trionfo del Tempo, was performed, the
overture to which was in a style so new and singular,
that Corelli was confounded in his first attempt to play it.
During the residence of Corelli at Rome, besides
those of his own country, many persons were ambi¬
tious of becoming his disciples, and learning the prac¬
tice of the violin from the greatest master on that in¬
strument the world had then heard of. Of these it is
said the late Lord Edgecumbe was one : and that the
fine mezzotinto print of Corelli by Smith was scraped
from a picture painted by Mr Hugh Howard at Rome
for that nobleman.
Corelli died at Rome in 1713 ; and was buried in
the church of the Rotunda, otherwise called the Pan-
4 O 2 theon,
COR [ 660 ] COR
Corelli, tbeon, in the first chapel on the left hand of the en-
trance. Over the place of his interment is a sepul¬
chral monument to his honour, with a marble bust there¬
on, erected at the expence of Philip William, count
palatine of the Tlhine, under the care and direction of
Cardinal Ottoboni.
For many years after his decease, this excellent mu¬
sician was commemorated by a solemn musical per¬
formance in the Pantheon, on the anniversary of his
death. In the year 1730 an eminent master, now liv¬
ing, was present at that solemnity, who relates that
at it the third and eighth of his concertos were per¬
formed by a numerous band, among whom were many
who had been the pupils of the author. He adds, that
these two pieces were performed in a slow, distinct,
and firm manner, without graces, and just as they are
wrote j and from hence concludes, that this was the
manner in which they were played by the author him¬
self.
He died possessed of about 6000I. sterling. He
was a passionate admirer of pictures, and lived in an
uninterrupted friendship with Carlo Cignani and Carlo
Marat: these two eminent painters were rivals for his
favour ; and for a series of years presented him at times
with pictures, as well of other masters as of their own
painting. The consequence was, that Corelli became
possessed of a large and valuable collection of original
paintings ; all which, together with the sum above-
mentioned, he bequeathed to his dear friend and pa¬
tron Cardinal Ottoboni, who, reserving the pictures to
himself, generously distributed the rest of his effects
among the relations of the testator.
Corelli is said to have been remarkable for the
mildness of his temper and the modesty of his deport¬
ment ; nevertheless, he was not insensible of the re¬
spect due to his skill and exquisite performance. Cib¬
ber, in the Apology for his liife, p. 340. relates, that
when he was playing a solo at Cardinal Ottoboni’s, he
discovered ^the cardinal and another person engaged
in discourse, upon which he laid down his instrument;
and being asked the reason, gave for answer, that he
feared the music interrupted their conversation.
The compositions of Corelli are celebrated for the
harmony resulting from the union of all the parts ;
but the fineness of the airs is another distinguishing
characteristic of them; the allemand in the 10th solo
is as remarkable for spirit and force, as that in the
nth is for its enchanting delicacy: his jigs are in a
style peculiarly his own ; and that in the 5th solo was
never equalled. In the gavot movements in the 2d
and 4th operas, the melody is distributed with great
judgment among the several parts. In his minuets
alone he seems to fail j Bononcini, Mr Handel, and
Guiseppe Martini, have excelled him in this kind of
airs.
It is said there is in every nation a style both in
speaking and writing, which never becomes obsolete j
a certain mode of phraseology, so consonant and con¬
genial to the analogy and principles of its respective
language, as to remain settled and unaltered. This,
hut with much greater latitude, may be said of music 5
and accordingly it may be observed of the composi¬
tions of Corelli, not only that they are equally intelli¬
gible to the learned and unlearned, but that the im¬
pressions made by them have been found to be as du¬
rable as general. His music is the language of na-
ture ; and, for a series of years, all that heard it be- ‘
came sensible of its effects : of this there cannot be a co‘ft
stronger proof than that amidst all the innovations' *—
which the love of change had introduced, it continued
to be performed, and was heard with delight, in
churches, in theatres, at public solemnities and festi¬
vities, in all the cities of Europe, for near 40 years.
Men remembered, and would refer to passages in it as
to a classic author ; and even at this day, the masters
ot the science do not hesitate to pronounce of the com¬
positions of Corelli, that of fine harmony and elegant
modulation, they are the most perfect exemplars.
COREOPSIS, Tick-seeded Sunflower ; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the syngenesia class 5 and
in the natural method ranking under the 49th order,
Compositce. See Botany Index.
CORFE castle, a borough-town in Dorsetshire in
England, which takes its name from a strong castle, be¬
longing to the crown, that stood there, but which is now
in ruins. It sends two members to parliament. TV.,
Long. 2. 8. N. Lat. 50. 33.
CORFU, an island in the Ionian sea, at the mouth,
of the gulf of Venice, formerly called Corcyra and
Pheeacia, famous for the gardens of Alcinous. It be¬
longed formerly to the Venetians j but was transferred
to France in 1797. It was reduced by the Turks and
Russians jointly in 1799> was again given up to France
in 1807, an(l in 1814 was given up to Great Britain,
as protector of the Ionian islands. This island forms
the seat of the government, and contained 60,000 in¬
habitants in 1807. See Ionian Isla?idst Supplement.
The inhabitants are of the Greek church. The soil is
very fruitful, and produces a great deal of wine, olives,
and several other fruits, particularly figs, which are ex¬
ceedingly good.
During the Venetian government this island was the
residence of the governor general, whose jurisdiction
extended over all the islands subject to the republic of
Venice, in the Levant seas, and was considered as one
of the greatest honours they could confer on a subject.
He was always a nobleman of the first rank,{and had his
appointment for three years only, in which time he
made a tolerable addition to his fortune, and on his re¬
turn to Venice was generally advanced to the honours
of the senate.
Corfu, the chief city of the island of that name.
It is situated on the east side of the island, and is built
in the form of an amphitheatre on the northern slope of
a promontory, at the foot of which the port opens. It
is neither large nor well built, but is extremely strong.
It has two citadels ; the one the residence of the go¬
vernor, separated from the city by an esplanade, and
the other, called the fort, situated a little to the west.
The harbour is rather small, admitting only merchant
vessels and sloops of war, but the road is capacious and
secure. Part of the suburb Kastrados stands on the
site of the ancient town. In front of Corfu, at the
distance of a mile, is the island of Vido, anciently call¬
ed Ptichia, where the lazaretto is kept. It is pro¬
tected by a triple range of batteries, and forms a strong
outwork to the fortifications of the harbour. The inha¬
bitants of the town amount to 15,000, and carry on a
considerable trade. In the war the Venetians had
with the Turks in I7I6, this town was attacked by an
army
COR [ 661 ] COR
lovfu army of 80,000 men, and attempted to be stormed se¬
ll veral times by the enemy; but the garrison, which con-
t ddor- s[st:ej 0f 12,000 men, under the command of Count
Schulenburg, made so brave and gallant a defence, that
they always repulsed them, and obliged them to raise
the siege, and abandon the place with considerable loss.
For this piece of service the republic caused a magnifi¬
cent statue to be erected in memory of the count, with
an elegant Latin inscription, setting forth the many
eminent services of his military achievements. In
the city are many handsome Greek churches, the
principal of which is that of St Speridione, or the ca¬
thedral. It is embellished with some excellent paint¬
ings, and most superbly ornamented. The body of the
saint from whom it was named, is preserved entire in
a rich shrine within the church. The Greeks are most
of them such fanatics as to be continually ofi’ering their
devotions at this shrine, believing that through the in¬
tercession of the saint they will obtain all their wants ;
and that by offerings of money their sins will be for¬
given them ; by which means the church has amassed
an immense treasure. The relic of the saint is depo¬
sited in a silver coffin, richly decorated with precious
stones. It is in an amazing state of preservation : he
having died in the island of Cyprus upwards of 700
years ago; and after remaining 400 years there, was
transported to this place. The chief diversions of this
place in the winter are operas ; they have always a
company of comedians for the season from Naples. In
the summer they pass their time in walking upon the
ramparts ; few except the governor and great officers of
state are permitted to keep carriages. The Corfu people
perfectly resemble the Zanteots in their manners (see
Zante) ; thought it must be observed, in praise of the
former, that assassinations are uncommon among them,
their laws being too severe to permit such practices with
impunity. E. Long. 19. 58. N. Lat. 39. 50.
CORIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon
and province of Estremadura, towards the confines of
Portugal, with a bishop’s see. It is seated on a little
river called Alagon, in a very fertile plain. There is
nothing remarkable but the cathedral church, except
at a little distance a river without a bridge, and a
bridge without a river. This was caused by an earth¬
quake, which turned the river another way. W. Long.
6. 16. N. Lat. 39. 48.
CORIANDRUM, Coriander; a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria class ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 45th order, UmbMatce. See
Botany Index.
CORIARIA, Tanners or Myrtle-leafed Sumach ;
a genus of plants belonging to the dioecia class ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 54th order,
Miscellanece. See Botany Index. This plant is much
used in the south of France, where it grows naturally,
for tanning of leather, whence its name of tanner',s su¬
mach. It also dyes a beautiful black colour.
CORIDOR, or Corridor, in Fortification, a road
or way along tire edge of the ditch, without side ; en¬
compassing the whole fortification. The word comes
from the Italian coridore, or the Spanish coridor.
It is also called the covert-way, because covered with
a glacis, or esplanade, serving it as a parapet.—The
coridor is about 20 yards broad.
Coridor is also used in architecture for a gallery or Coridor
long aisle around a building, leading to several cham- ||
bers at a distance from each other, sometimes wholly Corinth.
inclosed, and sometimes open on one side.
CORINNA, a Grecian lady, celebrated for her
beauty and poetic talents, was born at Thessu, a city
of Boeotia, and was the disciple of Myrtis another
Grecian lady. Her verses were so esteemed by the
Greeks, that they gave her the name of the hyric
muse. She lived in the time ol Pindar, about 495 years
before Christ ; and is said to have gained the prize of
lyric poetry from that poet ; but Pausanias observes
that her beauty made the judges partial.
CORINTH, a celebrated city of antiquity, for
some time the most illustrious of all the Greek cities.
It is said to have been founded 1514 years before
Christ, by Sisyphus the son of tPoIus, and grandfather
of Ulysses. Various reasons are given for its name, but
most authors derive it from Corinthus the son of Pe-
lops. It was situated on the south part of the isthmus
which joins the Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to the
continent. It consisted of a citadel built upon an emi¬
nence, and thence named Acrocorinthus; besides which
it had two maritime towns subject to it, named Le-
chceum and Cenchrece. The whole state extended scarce
half a degree in length or breadth ; but so advan¬
tageously were the above-mentioned ports situated,
that they might have gained the Corinthians a supe¬
riority, if not a command, over all Greece, had not
their advantageous situation inclined them to com¬
merce rather than war. For their citadel was almost
impregnable; and commanding both the Ionian and
Aigean seas, they could easily cut off all communica¬
tion from one half of Greece with the other ; for
which reason this city was called one of the fetters of
Greece.
But as the genius of the Corinthians led them to
commerce rather than martial exploits, their city be¬
came the finest in all Greece. It was adorned with
the most sumptuous buildings, as temples, palaces,
theatres, porticoes, &c. all of them enriched with a
beautiful kind of columns, which from the city were
called Corinthian. But though the Corinthians seldom
or never engaged in a war with a view of enlarging
but rather of defending their little state, they did
not forget to cultivate a good discipline both in time
of peace and of wrar. Hence many brave and experi¬
enced generals have been furnished by Corinth to the
other Grecian cities, and it was not uncommon for the
latter to prefer a Corinthian general to any of their
own.
This city continued to preserve its liberty till the
year before Christ 146, when it was pillaged and burnt
by the Romans. It was at that time the strongest place
in the world: but the inhabitants were so dishearten¬
ed by a preceding defeat, and the death of their gene¬
ral, that they had not presence of mind enough even
to shut their gates. The Roman consul Mummius,
was so much surprised at this, that at first he could
scarce believe it; but afterwards fearing an ambuscade,
he advanced with all possible caution. As he met with
no resistance, his soldiers had nothing to do but de¬
stroy the few inhabitants that had not fled, and plun¬
der the city. Such of the men as had staid were all
put.
COR [ 662 ] COR
Corinth P11* ^ie sword, and the women were sold for slaves.
 After this the city was ransacked by the greedy sol¬
diers, and the spoils of it are said to have been im¬
mense. There were more vessels of all sorts of metal,
more fine pictures and statues done by the greatest
masters, in Corinth, than in any other city in the
world. All the princes of Europe and Asia who had
any taste in painting and sculpture furnished them¬
selves here with the richest moveables : here were
cast the finest statues for temples and palaces, and all
the liberal arts brought to their greatest perfection.
Many inestimable pieces of the most famous painters
and statuaries fell into the hands of the ignorant sol¬
diers, who either destroyed them, or parted with them
for a trifle. Polybius the historian was an eye witness
to this barbarism of the Romans. He had the mortifi¬
cation to see two of them playing at dice on a famous
picture of Aristides, which was accounted one of the
wonders of the world. The piece was a Bacchus, so
exquisitely done, that it was proverbially said of any
extraordinary performance, “ It is as well done as
the Bacchus of Aristides." This masterly piece of
painting, however, the soldiers willingly exchanged
for a more convenient table to play upon. But when
the spoils of Corinth were put up to sale, Attalus
king of Pergamus offering for it 600,000 sesterces,
near 5000I. of our money, Mummius was surprised
at such a high price offered for a picture, and imagined
there must be some magical virtue in it. He therefore
interposed his authority, and carried it to Rome, not-
w’ithstanding the complaints of Attalus. Here this
famous picture was lodged in the temple of Ceres,
where it was at last destroyed by fire, together with
the temple. Another extraordinary instance of the
stupidity of Mummius is, that when the pictures were
put on board the transports, he told the masters of
the vessels very seriously, that if any of the things were
either lost or spoiled, he would oblige them to find
others at their own cost; as if any other pieces could
have supplied the loss of those inestimable originals,
done by the greatest masters in Greece. When the
city was thoroughly pillaged, fire was set to all the
corners of it at the same time. The flames grew more
violent as they drew near the centre, and at last
uniting there made one prodigious conflagration. At
this time the famous metalline mixture is said to
have been made, which could never afterwards be
imitated hy art. The gold, silver, and brass, which
the Corinthians had concealed, were melted, and ran
down the streets in streams, and when the flames
were extinguished, a new metal was found, composed
of several different ones, and greatly esteemed in after
ages.
The town lay desolate until Julius Csesar settled
there a Roman colony ; when, in moving the rubbish
and digging, many vases were found of brass or earth
finely embossed. The price given for those curiosities
excited industry in the new inhabitants. They left
no burying-place unexamined ; and Rome, it is said,
was filled with the furniture of the sepulchres of Co¬
rinth.
Strabo was at Corinth soon after its restoration by
the Romans. He describes the site as follows. “ A
lofty mountain, in perpendicular height as much as
three stadia and a half (near half a mile), the ascent Corinth
30 stadia (3J miles), ends in a pointed summit called -v-— -
Acrocorinthus. Of this the portion to the north is the
most steep: beneath which lies the city on a level area
at the foot of the Acrocorinthus. The circuit of the
city alone has been 40 stadia (5 miles), and as much
of it as was unsheltered by the mountain has been
walled about. Within the inclosure was comprehends
ed also the Acrocorinthus, where the mountain was ca¬
pable of receiving a wall ; and as we ascended, the ve¬
stiges were plain ; so that the whole circumference ex¬
ceeded 85 stadia (near 11 miles). On the other sides,
the mountain is less steep, but rises very high, and is
visible all around. Upon the summit is a small temple
of Venus ; and below it the spring Pirene, which does
not overflow, but is always full of pellucid and pot¬
able water. They say it unites with some other hid¬
den veins, and forms the spring at the mountain foot,
running into the city, and affording a sufficient supply
for the use of the inhabitants. In the city is plenty of
wells, and in the Acrocorinthus, as they say, for we
did not see any. There, they relate, the winged horse
Pegasus was taken as he was drinking, by Bellerophon.
Below Pirene is the Sisypheum, some temple or pa¬
lace of white stone, the remains not inconsiderable.
From the summit is beheld to the north Parnassus and
Helicon, lofty mountains covered with snow ; and be¬
low both, to the west, the Crissean gulf bounded by
Phocis, by Boeotia and the Megaris, and by Corinthia
and Sicyonia opposite to Phocis. Beyond all these are
the mountains called the Oneian, stretching as far as
Boeo'da and Cithceron from the Scironian rocks on the
road to Attica.” Strabo saw likewise Cleon from
thence. Cenchreae was then a village. Lechaeum had
some inhabitants.
New Corinth had flourished 217 years when it was
visited by Pausanias. It had then a few antiquities,
many temples and statues, especially about the agora
or market-place, and several baths. The emperor
Hadrian introduced water from a famous spring at
Styraphalus in Arcadia; and it had various fountains
alike copious and ornamental. The stream of one
issued from a dolphin, on which was a brazen Nep¬
tune ; of another from the hoof of Pegasus, on
whom Bellerophon was mounted. On the right
hand, coming along the road leading from the market¬
place toward Sicyon, was the odeum and the theatre,
by which was a temple of Minerva. The old gymna¬
sium was at a distance. Going from the market-place
toward Lechaeum was a gate on which were placed
Phaeton and the Sun in gilded charits. Pirene enter¬
ed a fountain of a white marble, from which the cur¬
rent passed in an open channel. They supposed the
metal called Corinthian brass to have been immerged
while red hot in this water. On the way up to the
Acrocorinthus were temples, statues, and altars ; and
the gate next Tenea, a village with a temple of Apol¬
lo, sixty stadia, or seven miles and a half distant, on
the road to Mycenae. At Lechaeum was a temple and
a brazen image of Neptune. At Cenchreae were tem¬
ples ; and by the way from the city a groove of cy¬
press trees, sepulchres, and monuments. Opposite was
the Bath oj Helen, water tepid and salt, flowing plen¬
tifully from a rock into the sea. Mummius had ruined
the
COR [ 663 ] COR
the theatre of Corinth, and the munificence of the great
Athenian Atticus Herodes was displayed in an edifice
with a roof inferior to few of the most celebrated struc¬
tures in Greece.
The Roman colony was reserved to suffer the same
calamity as the Greek city, and from a conqueror more
terrible than Mummius, Alaric the savage destroyer
of Athens and universal Greece. In a country harassed
with frequent wars, as the Peloponnesus has since
been, the Acrocorinthus was a post too consequential
to be neglected. It was besieged and taken in 1456
by Mahomet II.: the despots or lords of the Morea,
brothers of the Greek emperor who was killed in de¬
fending Constantinople, refusing payment of the arrears
of the tribute, which had been imposed by Sultan
Moral in 1447. The country became subject to the
Turks, except such maritime places as were in the
possession of the Venetians $ and many of the principal
inhabitants were carried away to Constantinople.
Corinth, with the Morea, was yielded to the republic
at the conclusion of the war in 1698, and again by it
to the Turks in
Corinth retains its old name, and is of considerable
extent, standing on a high ground, beneath the Acro¬
corinthus, with- an easy descent towards the gulf of
Lepanto *, the houses scattered, or in parcels, except
in the bazar or market-place. Cypresses, among
which tower the domes of mosques, with corn-fields,
and gardens of lemon and orange trees, are interspersed.
The air is reputed bad in summer, and in autumn
exceedingly unhealthy. Wheler relates, that from the
top of the Acrocorinthus or citadel, he enjoyed one
of the most agreeable prospects which this world can
afford. He guessed the walls to be about two miles
in compass, inclosing mosques, with houses and churches
mostly in ruins. An hour was consumed in going up
on horseback. It was a mile to the foot of the hill ;
and from hence the way was very steep, with many
traverses. The families living below were much in¬
fested by corsairs, and on every alarm flocked up to the
castle.
According to Dr Chandler, Corinth has preserved
but few monuments of its Greek or Roman citizens.
The chief remains, he informs us, are to the south¬
west corner of the town, and above the bazar or mar¬
ket; II columns supporting their architraves, of the
Doric order, fluted, and wanting in height near half
the common proportion to the diameter. Within
them, towards the western end, is one taller, though
not entire, which, it is likely, contributed to sustain the
roof. They have been found to be stone, not marble j
and appeared brown, perhaps from a crust formed on
the outside. The ruin he judges to be of very remote
antiquity, and a portion of a fabric erected not only
before the Greek city was destroyed, but before the
Doric order had attained to maturity. He suspects
it to have been the Sisypheum mentioned by Strabo.
North of the bazar stands a large mass of brick-work,
a remnant, it may be conjectured, of a bath, or of the
gymnasium.
The inhabitants are most of them Christians of
the Greek church, who are allowed liberty of con¬
science by the Turks. E. Long. 23. 10. N. Lat. 37.
SS'
Corinth, the isthmus of, in the Morea, is a neck
of land which joins the Morea to Greece, and reaches Corinth
from the gulf of Lepanto to that of Egina. Julius 11
Csesar, Caligula, and Nero, attempted to cut a chan- ro1 k’
nel through it, but in vain ; and they therefore af-
terwards built a wall across it, which they called
Hexamilium, because it was six miles in length. This
was demolished by Amurath II. and afterwards rebuilt
by the Venetians, but was levelled a second time by
Mahomet II.
CORINTHIAN, in general, denotes something
belonging to Corinth : thus we say, Corinthian brass,
Corinthian order, &c.
Corinthian Brass. See Brass and Corinth.
.Corinthian Order, in Architecture, the fourth or¬
der of architecture, according to Scamozzi *, but M.
Le Clerc makes it the fifth, being the most noble
and delicate of all the five. See Architecture,
N° 47.
CORIO, Bernardine, on historian, born of an
illustrious family at Milan, in the year 1460. He was
secretary of state to that duchy ; and Lewis duke of
Sforza appointed him to write the history of Milan.
He died in 1500. The best edition of Ins history is
that of 1503, in folio. It is printed in Italian, and is
very scarce.
CORIQLANUS, C. Marcius, a famous Roman
captain, took Corioli a town of the Volsci, whence he
had his surname *, at last, disgusting the people, he
was banished Rome by the tribune Decius. He went
to the Volsci, and persuading them to take up arms
against the Romans, they encamped within four miles
of the city. He would not listen to proposals of peace,
till he was prevailed upon by his wife Veturia, and
his mother Volumnia, who were followed by all the
Roman ladies in tears. He was put to death by
the Volsci as a traitor that had made them quit their
conquest : upon which the Roman ladies went into
mourning and in the same place where his blood
was spilled there was a temple consecrated to feminine
virtue.
CORIS, a genus of plants belonging to the pentan-
dria class. See Botany Index.
Coris is also used iu the East Indies for a kind of
shells which pass for money.
CORISPERMUM, Tickseed, a genus of plants
belonging to the monandria class, and in the natural
method ranking under the 12th order, Holoracece. See
Botany Index.
CORITANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Britain, occupying widely the inland parts, as North¬
ampton, Leicester, Rutland, Lincoln, Nottingham, and
Derbyshires, (Camden.)
CORK, the bark of a tree of the same name, Quer-
cus Suber, Lin. See Quercus, Botany Index.
To take off the bark, an incision is made from
the top to the bottom of the tree, and at each extremity
another round the tree, perpendicular to the first.
When the tree is 15 ye^rs old, it may be barked for
eight years successively j and the quality of the bark
improves with the age of the tree. When stripped
from the tree, which does not therefore die, the bark
is piled up in a pond or ditch, and loaded with heavy
stones to flatten it, and reduce it into tables : hence it
is removed to be dried ; and when sufficiently dry, put
in bales for carriage. If care be not taken to strip the
bark,
Cork.
COR [ 664 ] COR
bark, it splits and peels of itself j being pushed up by
another bark formed underneath.
The cork-tree, as well as the uses to which the bark
is applied, was known both to the Greeks and Romans.
Pliny informs us that the Romans employed it to stop
all kinds of vessels 5 but the use of it for this purpose
does not appear to have been very common till the in¬
vention of glass bottles, of which, according to Profes¬
sor Beckman, there is no mention before the 15th cen¬
tury.
Other vegetable productions have been sometimes
employed instead of cork. The Spondias Lute a, a tree
which grows in South America, particularly in moist
places, and which is there called monbin or monbain, is
sometimes brought to England for the purpose of stop¬
ping vessels. The roots of liquorice are applied to the
same use, and on that account, this plant is much cul¬
tivated in Sclavonia, and exported to other countries.
A tree called nyssa, which grows in North America,
has been found also to answer as a substitute for
cork.
The chief use of cork is, to put in shoes, slippers,
&c. and to stop bottles. The Spaniards burn it to
make that kind of light black called Spanish black,
which is used by painters. The Egyptians made cof¬
fins of cork ; which being lined with a resinous com¬
position, preserved dead bodies uncorrupted. The
Spaniards line stone walls with it, which not only ren¬
ders them very warm, but corrects the moisture of the
air.
Fossil Cork, a name given to a kind of stone which
is a species of amianthus, consisting of flexible fibres
loosely interwoven, and somewhat resembling vegetable
cork. It is the lightest of all stones ; by fire it is in¬
fusible. It possesses the general qualities of amianthus.
See Mountain Cork, Mineralogy Index.
Cork, in Latin comitatus Corcagiensis, a county of
the province of Munster in Ireland. It is the most po¬
pulous and considerable county of the kingdom, next to
that of Dublin, containing 1,698,882 English acres,
and being divided into 15 baronies. It is bounded on
the north-east by the county of Waterford j on the west
by Iverry; by Limerick on the north ; and by the sea
on the south and south east. Including Desmond, it is
85 miles in length and 50 in breadth 5 but is very un¬
equal both ways. 1 hough a considerable part of the
country is boggy, mountainous, and barren, yet by the
industry of the inhabitants it is pretty well cultivated
and improved, and contains several good towns and
harbours. See Cork, Supplement.
Cork, a city of Ireland, and capital of the county
of that name. It is an episcopal see, and is the largest
and most populous of any in the kingdom, Dublin
alone excepted. It is situated on the river Lee, 1 y
miles from its mouth. It is a place of great trade,
the harbour here being one of the finest in the world.
Though smaller vessels can come up to the quay, yet
the. larger generally ride at a place called Passage.
This city, together with its liberties, makes a county.
It was built or rather fortified by the Danes, in the
ninth century. The greatest part of it stands on a
marshy island surrounded by the river Lee, which also
runs through the city, and divides it into several ca¬
nals. On this account some have thought the air very
3
moist and unwholesome. Complaints have also been
made against the water as impure $ but, from compar¬
ing the bills of mortality with those of other cities, it
appears that the city of Cork is far from being un¬
healthy. This hath been accounted for from the influx
of the tide, by which a stagnation of air is prevented.
The first charter of Cork was bestowed by Henry III.
and afterwards ratified by Edward I. Edward II. and
Edward III. Edward IV. granted a new charter;
and the city received many favours from the succeeding
monarchs. King James I. gave the citizens a new and
ample charter ; and King Charles I. what is called the
Great Charter, by which, among others, a clause in
King James’s charter was enforced, making this city a
county of itself. The revenues of the see of Cork are
derived almost entirely from land. The chapter con¬
sists of a dean, chanter, chancellor, treasurer, archdea¬
con, and twelve prebendaries. The church is dedicated
to St Barr or Finbarr ; and the diocese is divided into
five deaneries. There is very little to be found in an¬
cient writers concerning the foundation of the cathedral
of Cork ; yet it is generally ascribed to St Barr in the
seventh century. Many of its bishops have been great
benefactors to it. Through length of time the church
became quite ruinous ; but it hath lately been com¬
pletely rebuilt, and is now an elegant modern structure.
To defray the expence, the parliament laid a tax on all
coals consumed in the city of Cork. The patronage of
the see is very considerable.
Cork is much improved and enlarged; several broad
streets have been lately added, by filling up the canals
that formerly ran through them, and are now built up
with elegant houses : the parade is very spacious, and
is adorned with an equestrian statue of King George II.
It hath the largest export in the kingdom, particularly
of beef, hides, tallow, butter, fish, and other provisions.
It is partly situated on several islands, formed by the
river Lee, which are banked and quayed in, somewhat
like the towns in Holland ; and partly on rising grounds,
on the north and south sides of the river. The earl of
Marlborough besieged and took it from King James’s
army in 1690 ; when the duke of Grafton, who served
as a volunteer, was slain in the attack. It contained
about 8600 houses, and upwards of 70,000 inhabitants,
some years ago; but at present its population is esti¬
mated at 90,000. Besides a stately cathedral, built
from the foundation, between 1725 and 1735, by the
produce of a duty upon coals, as above noticed, it is
adorned with several handsome parish churches. It
has also an elegant exchange for the merchants, a new
and beautiful customhouse, a town-hall, several fine
hospitals, and various other public structures. The
Cork Institution, lately incorporated by charter, is an
association of gentlemen for promoting scientific ob¬
jects. Here public lectures are delivered on chemistry,
agriculture, and botany. The wealth and grandeur of
Cork arise from its capacious and commodious haven,
where almost any number of ships may lie with ease and
safety. Ships from England, bound to ail parts of the
West Indies, take in here a great part of their provisions;
and on the same account the haven of Cork is visited by
those also of most other nations. The slaughtering season
continues from the month of August to the latter end
of January ; in which space it has been computed, that
Cork.
C O R
,rk they kill and cure seldom fewer than 100,000 head of
J black cattle. The rest of their exports consist of but-
tna8°‘< ter, candles, hides raw and tanned, linen cloth, pork,
' calves, lambs, and rabbit skins, tallow, wool for Eng¬
land, linen and woollen yarn, and worsted. The
merchants of Cork carry on a very extensive trade to
almost all parts of the known world ; so that their
commerce is annually increasing. Its manufactures
consist of sail cloth, sheeting, paper, glass, leather,
coarse cloth, and other minor articles. The only thing
that seemed to be wanting to the security of the port
of Cork was supplied in the earl of Chesterfield’s me¬
morable administration, by building a fort on the great
island, to command the entrance of the haven. The
outlets of Cork are cheerful and pleasant. The country
around the city, on both sides of the river, is hilly and
picturesque 5 and the harbour, called the Cove, is one of
the best in the world ; the entrance is safe, and the
whole navy of England might ride in it, secure from
every wind that blows. Ships of burden, however, are
obliged to unload at Passage, five miles and a half from
Cork, the channel not admitting vessels of above 150
tons.
Cork Jacket or Waistcoat, is an invention of one
Mr Dubourg, a gentleman very fond of swimming,
but subject to the cramp, which led him to consider
of some method by which he might enjoy his favourite
diversion with safety. The waistcoat is composed of
four pieces of cork, two for the breasts and two for the
back $ each pretty near in length and breadth to the
quarters of a waistcoat without flaps ; the whole is co¬
vered with coarse canvass, with two holes to put the
arms through ; there is a space left between the two
back-pieces, and the same betwixt each back and
breast-piece, that they may fit the easier to the body.
Thus the waistcoat is only open before, and may be
fastened on the wearer with strings ; or, if it should be
thought more secure, with buckles and leather straps.
This waistcoat does not weigh above 12 ounces, and
may be made up for about five or six shillings expence.
Mr Dubourg tried his waistcoat in the Thames, and
found that it not only supported him on the water, but
that two men could not sink him, though they used
their utmost efforts for that purpose. If those who use
the sea occasionally, and especially those who are obli¬
ged to be almost constantly there, were to have those
waistcoats, it would be next to impossible that they
should be drowned. It would also be of vast service to
those that, for the sake of health, bathe in the sea;
and even the most delicate and timorous young lady
might by the help of one of these jackets venture into a
rough sea. See Ant-Jacket and Bamboo-Habit.
CORMANDEL. See Coromandel.
COR-MASS, the name of a grand procession, said
to have been established at Dunkirk during the domi¬
nion of Charles V. and renewed on St John’s day, the
24th of June. After the celebration of high mass, the
procession, consisting of the several tradesmen of the
town, begins. Each person has a burning taper of
wax in his hand ; and after each company comes a pa¬
geant, followed by the patron-saint, usually of solid
silver, richly wrought and adorned. The companies
are followed by music $ and after the musicians, the
friars in the habits of their order, the secular priests,
Vol. VI. Part II. f
COR
and then the abbot magnificently adorned, and preced- for-mass
ed by the host. Machines likewise of various fantasti- !!
cal forms and devices, and as variously accoutred, form torn,
a part of the show on this occasion j which is described
as one of the most superb and magnificent in the
world, by an eye-witnesses, in 1755.
CORMORANT, a corruption of corvorant. See
Pelicanus, Ornithology Index.
CORN, the grain or seeds of plants separated from
the spica or ear, and used for making bread.
There are several species of corn, such as wheat, rye,
and barley, millet and rice, oats, maize, and lentils,
pease, and a number of other kinds : each of which
has its usefulness and propriety.
Europe, in every part of it *, Egypt, and some other
cantons of Africa, particularly the coasts of Barbary j
and some parts of America cultivated by the Europeans,
particularly New England, New France, and Acadia,
are the places which produce corn. Other countries
have maize and rice in lieu of it; and some parts ef A-
merica, both in the islands and continents, simple roots,
such as potatoes and minioc.—Egypt was anciently the
most fertile of all other countries in corn ; as appears
both from sacred and profane history. It furnished a
good part of the people subject to the Roman empire,
and was called the dry nurse of Borne and Italy. Bri¬
tain, France, and Poland, seem now in the place of E-
gypt, and with their superfluities support a good part of
Europe.
For the first discovery and culture of corn, authors
are much divided j the common opinion is, that in the
first ages men lived on the spontaneous fruits of the
earth } as acorns, and the nut or mast produced by
the beech ; which, they say, took its name fagus,
from the Greek Quya, I eat. It is added that they had
not either the use of corn, or the art of preparing or
making it eatable.
Ceres has the credit of being the first that showed the
use of corn, on which account she was placed among the
gods 5 others gave the honour to Triptolemus j others
share it between the two, making Ceres the first dis¬
coverer, and Triptolemus, the first planter and cultiva¬
tor of corn. Diodorus Siculus ascribes the whole to Isis j
on which Polydore Virgil observes, he does not differ
from the rest; Isis and Ceres being in reality the same.
The Athenians pretend it was among them the art be¬
gan 5 and the Cretans or Candiots, Sicilians, and Egyp¬
tians, lay claim to the same. Some think the title of the
Sicilians best supported, that being the country of Ceres:
and authors add, she did not teach the secret to the A-
thenians, till she had first instructed her own country¬
men. Others say, Ceres passed first into Attica, thence
into Crete, and, last of all, into,Sicily: many of the
learned, however, maintain it was in Egypt the art of
cultivating corn first began ; and it is certain there was
corn in Egypt and the East long before the time of Ceres.
Corn is very different from fruits, with respect to
the manner of its preservation ; and is capable of be¬
ing preserved in public granaries, for pressing occa¬
sions, and of being kept for several centuries.—A little
time after the siege of Metz, under Henry II. of
France, in the year 1578, the due d’Espernon laid
up vast stores of corn in the citadel j which was pre¬
served in good plight to the year 1707, when the
4 P French
[ 665 ]
COR [ 666 ] COR
•01tl French king and his retinue, passing that way, ate
U bread baked thereof.
nage. The chief thing that contributes to the preservation
of corn is a crust which forms on its surface, by the
germination of the grain next underneath, to the
thickness of an inch and a half. On that at Metz
people walked, without its giving the least way. At
Sedan was a granary cut in a rock, wherein a heap of
corn was preserved a hundred and ten years : it was
covered with a crust a foot thick.
For the preservation of corn, the first method is to
let it remain in the spike $ the only expedient for con¬
veying it to the islands and provinces of America. The
inhabitants of those countries saVe it in the ear, and
raise it to maturity by that precaution : but this me¬
thod of preserving it is attended with several incon¬
veniences among us $ corn is apt to rot or sprout, if
any the least moisture is in the heap*, the rats likewise
infest it, and our want of straw also obliges us to sepa¬
rate the grain from the ear. The second is to turn out
and winnow it frequently 5 or to pour it through a
trough or mill-hopper, from one floor to another 5 be¬
ing thus moved and aired every 15 days, for the first
6 months, it will require less labour for the future, if
lodged in a dry place : but if, through neglect, mites
should be allowed to slide into the heap, they will soon
reduce the corn to a heap of dust : this must be avoid¬
ed by moving the corn anew, and rubbing the places
adjacent with oils and herbs, whose strong odour may
chase them away ; for which garlic and dwarf-elder
are very effectual ; they may likewise be exposed to
the open sun, which immediately kills them. When
the corn has been preserved from all impurities for
the space of two years, and has exhaled all its fires, it
may be kept for 50 or even 100 years, by lodging it
in pits covered with strong planks closely joined to¬
gether ; but the safer way is to cover the heap with
quicklime, which should be dissolved by sprinkling it
over with a small quantity of water j this causes the
grains to shoot to the depth of two or three fingers ;
and incloses them with an incrustation, as above men¬
tioned, through which neither air nor insects can pene¬
trate.
Indian Corn, or Maize. See Zea, Botany Index.
CoRN-Buttei'jhj, method of destroying it. See A-
griculture Index.
CoaN-Crake. See Rallus, ORNITHOLOGY Index.
Corn-Luivs, the laws regulating the importation and
exportation of corn •, for an account of which, and of the
trade in corn, see Corn Laws, Supplement.
Corn-Mill, a water-engine for grinding corn. See
Mechanics.
Corn, in Farriery. See Farriery I/idex.
CORNS, in Surgery, hard excrescences, consisting
of indurations of the skin arising on the toes, and some¬
times on the sides of the feet, where they are much
exposed to the pressure of the shoes. By degrees they
press themselves farther down between the muscular
fibres on these parts, and by their irritation occasion
extreme pain. Many cures have been prescribed, but the
total removal of them is always found to be attended
with great difficulty. The best cure is to bathe them
frequently in warm water, and pare away as much as
possible of the indurated skin without drawing blood.
CORNAGE, an ancient tenure, the service where¬
of was to blow a horn when any invasion of the Scots Comage
was perceived. This tenure was very frequent in the 1)
northern counties near the Piets wall ; but by stat. Comaro.
12 Car. II. all tenures are converted into free and
common soccage.—An old rental calls cornage, newt-
geldt, q. d. neat-geld. Lord Coke says, in old books it
is called horngeld.
CQRNARISTS, in ecclesiastical history, the dis*
ciples of Theodore Cornhert, an enthusiastic secretary
of the states of Holland. He wrote at the same time
against the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. He
maintained that every religious communion needed
reformation ; but he added, that no person had a right
to engage in accomplishing it without a mission sup¬
ported by miracles. He was also of opinion, that a
person might be a good Christian without being a
member of any visible church.
CORNARIUS, or Haguenbot, lohn, a celebra¬
ted German physician, born at Zwickow in Saxony.
His preceptor made him change his name of Haguen¬
bot to that of Cornarius, under which he is most
known. At 20 years of age he taught grammar, and
explained the Greek and Latin poets and orators to
his scholars j and at 23 was licentiate in medicine.
He found fault with most of the remedies provided
by the apothecaries $ and observing, that the greatest
part of the physicians taught their pupils only what is
to be found in Avicenna, Rhasis, and other Arabian
physicians, he carefully sought for the writings of the
best physicians of Greece, and employed about 15 years
in translating them into Latin, especially the works of
Hippocrates, Aetius, Eginetes, and a part of those ef
Galen. Meanwhile he practised physic with reputa¬
tion at Zwickow, Frankfort, Marpurg, Nordhausen,
and Jena, where he died of an apoplexy in 1558,
aged 58. He also wrote some medicinal treatises;
published editions of some poems of the ancients on
medicine and botany j and translated some of the
works of the fathers, particularly those of Basil, and a
part of those of Epiphanius.
CORNARO, Lewis, a Venetian of noble extrac¬
tion, memorable for having lived healthful and active
to above 100 years of age by a rigid course of tempe¬
rance. By the ill conduct of some of bis relations he
was deprived of the dignity of a noble Venetian j and
seeing himself excluded from all employments under
the republic, be settled at Padua. In his youth he
was of a weak constitution j and by irregular indul¬
gence reduced himself at about 40 years of age to
the brink of the grave, under a complication of disor¬
ders; at which extremity he was told that he had no
other chance for his life but by becoming sober and
temperate. Being wise enough to adopt this whole¬
some counsel, he reduced himself to a regimen of which
there are very few examples. He allowed himself no
more than 12 ounces of food and 14 ounces of liquor
each day ; which became so habitual to him, that when
he was above 70 years of age, the experiment of add¬
ing two ounces to each by the advice of his friends,
had like to have proved fatal to him. At 83 he wrote
a treatise which has been translated into English, and
often printed, entitled, “ Sure and certain Methods of
attaining a Long and Healthful Life in which he re¬
lates his own storv, and extols temperance to a degree
of enthusiasm. At length the yolk of an egg became
sufficient
COR [ 667 ] COR
:ornaro sofficient for a meal, and sometimes for two, until he
H died with much ease and composure in 1566. The
omelia. writer of the Spectator, N° 195, confirms the fact
from the authority of the Venetian ambassador at that
time, who was a descendant of the Cornaro family.
CORNAVIJ, (Ptolemy), a people of Britain, be¬
ginning in the very heart of the island, and extending
to Chester. Now Warwick, Worcestery Salop, Stafford,
arid Cheshire (Camden).
CORNEA TUNICA, in Anatomy, the second coat of
the eye 5 so called from its substance resembling the horn
of a lantern, in Latin cornu. See Anatomy Index.
CORNEILLE, Peter, a celebrated French poet,
was born at Rouen in the year 1606. He was brought
up to the bar, which he attended for some little time j
but formed with a genius too elevated for such a pro¬
fession, and having no turn for business, he soon de¬
serted it. An affair of gallantry occasioned his writ¬
ing his first piece, entitled Metite; which had prodi¬
gious success. Encouraged by the applause of the
public, he wrote the Cid, and the other tragedies that
have immortalized bis name. In his dramatic works
he discovers a majesty, a strength and elevation of ge¬
nius, scarce to be found in any other of the French
poets ; and, like our immortal Shakespeare, seems
better acquainted with nature than with the rules of
ferities. Corneille was received into the French aca¬
demy in 1647, antl dean of that academy in 1684,
aged 78. Besides his dramatic pieces, he wrote a
translation, in French verse, of the “ Imitation of Jesus
Christ,” &c. The best edition of his works is that of
1682, in 4 vols i2mo.
Corneille, Thomas, brother of the former, was a
member of the French academy and of that of inscrip¬
tions. He discovered in his youth a great inclination
to poetry } and at length published several dramatic
pieces in 5 vols izmo, some of which were applauded
by the public, and acted with success. He also wrote,
I. A translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, and some
of Ovid’s Epistles 5 2. Remarks on Vauglas ; 3. A
Dictionary of Arts, 2 vols folio j and 4. An Univer¬
sal Geographical and Historical Dictionary, in 3 vols
folio.
CORNEILLE, Michael, a celebrated painter, was born
at Paris in the year 1642 ; and was instructed by his
father, who was himself a painter of great merit.
Having gained a prize at the academy, young Corneille
obtained a pension from Louis XIV.; and was sent to
Rome, where that prince had founded a school for
young artists of genius. Having studied there some
time, he gave up his pension, and applied to the an¬
tique with great care. He is said to have equalled
Carache in drawing, but in colouring he was deficient.
Upon his return from Rome, he was chosen professor
in the academy of Paris $ and was employed by the
above prince in all the great works he was carrying on
at Versailles and Trianon, where are still to be seen
■ome noble efforts of his genius.
CORNEL-tree. See Cornus, Botany Index.
CORNELIA, daughter of Scipio Africanus, was
the mother of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. She was
courted by a king, but she preferred being the wife
of a Roman citizen to that of a monarch. Her vir¬
tues have been deservedly commended, as well as the
wholesome principles she inculcated in her two sons.
When a Campanian lady made once a show of her Cornelia,
jewels at Cornelia’s house, and entreated her to favour —-v——'
her with a sight of her own, Cornelia produced her two
sons, saying, “ These are the only jewels of which
I can boast.”
Cornelia Lex, de civitate, was enacted, in the year
of Rome 670, by L. Corn. Sylla. It confirmed the
Sulpician law, and required that the citizens of the
eight newly elected tribes should be divided among the
35 ancient tribes Another, de judiciis, in 673, by the
same. It ordained, that the praetor should always ob¬
serve the same invariable method in judicial proceed¬
ings, and that the process should not depend upon his
will.—Another de sumptibus, by the same. It limited
the expences which generally attended funerals.—A-
nother de religione, by the same, in 677. It restored to
the college of priests the privilege of choosing the
priests, which by the Domitian law had been lodged
in the hands of the people.—Another, de municipiis, by
the same ; which revoked all the privileges which had
been some time before granted to the several towns
that had assisted Marius and Cinna in the civil wars.-—
Another de magistratibus, by the same $ which gave
the power of bearing honours, and being promoted be¬
fore the legal age, to those who had followed the in¬
terest of Sylla ; while the sons and partizans of his
enemies, who had been proscribed, were deprived of
the privilege of standing for any office in the state.—
Another, de magistratibus, by the same, in 673. It or¬
dained, that no person should exercise the same office
within ten years distance, or be invested with two dif¬
ferent magistracies in one year.—Another, de magistra¬
tibus, by the same, in 673. It divested the tribunes
of the privilege of making laws, interfering, holding
assemblies, and receiving appeals. All such as had,
been tribunes were incapable of holding any other of¬
fice in the state by that law.—Another, de majestate,
by the same, in 670. It made it treason to lead an army
out of a province or engage in a war without orders,
to influence the soldiers to spare or ransom a captive
general of the enemy, to pardon the leaders of robbers
or pirates, or for the absence of a Roman citizen to a
foreign court without previous leave. The punishment
was aquee et ignis interdictio.—Another by the same.
It gave the power to a man accused of murder, either
by poison, weapons, or false accusations, and the set¬
ting fire to buildings, to choose whether the jury that
tried him should give their verdict clam or palam, viva
voce, or by ballot. Another by the same, which made
it aquee et ignis interdictio to such as were guilty of for¬
gery, concealing and altering of wills, corruption, false
accusations, and the debasing or counterfeiting of the
public coin. All such as were accessory to this offence
were deemed as guilty as the offender.—Another, de
pecuniis repetundis ; by which a man convicted of pecu¬
lation or extortion in the provinces was condemned to
suffer the aquee et ignis interdictio.—Another, by the
same $ which gave the power to such as were sent into
the provinces with any government, of retaining their
command and appointment without any renewal of it by
the senate, as was before observed.—Another by the
same ; which ordained, that the lands of proscribed
persons should be common, especially those about Vo-
laterree and Fesulse in Etruria, which Sylla divided
among his soldiers.—Another bv C. Cornelius, tribune
4 P 2 ' of
COR '[ 668 ] COR
Cornelia of the people, in 686. It ordained, that no person
II should be exempted irom any law according to the
- general custom, unless 200 senators were present in the
   senate 5 and no person thus exempted could hinder
the bill of his exemption from being carried to the
people for their concurrence.—-Another, by Nasica, in
582, to make war against Perseus, son of Philip king
of Macedon, if he did not give proper satisfaction to
the Roman people.
CORNELIAN. See Carnelian.
CORNER, in a general sense, the same with Angle.
CORNET, in the military art of the ancients, an
instrument much in the nature of a trumpet ; which
when it only sounded, the ensigns were to march alone
without the soldiers $ whereas when the trumpet only
sounded, the soldiers were to move without the ensigns.
The cornets and buccinae sounded the charge and re¬
treat 5 and the cornets and trumpets sounded durino- the
course of the battle. See Plate CLXIV.
Cornet, in modern military economy, denotes an
officer in the cavalry who bears the ensign or colours of
a troop.
I he cornet is the third officer in the company, and
commands in the absence of the captain and lieutenant.
He takes his title from his ensign, which is square 5
and is supposed to be called by that name from cornu,
because placed on the wings, which form a kind of
points or horns of the army. Others derive the name
from coronet ; alleging, that it was the ancient custom
roc these officers to wear coronets or garlands on their
heads.
CORNEUS, the name by which Linnaeus calls a
kind of tin ore, found in black columns, with irregu¬
lar sides, and terminating in prisms.
CORNICHE, Cornish, or Cornice, in Architec¬
ture, the uppermost member of the entablature of a co¬
lumn, as that which crowns the order. See Archi¬
tecture, Chap. I. and the Plates.
CoRNICHE, is also used, in general, for all little
projectures in masonry or joinery, even where there
are no columns, as the corniche of a chimney, beau-
fet, &c.
Corniche Ring, in a piece of ordnance, is that next
from the muzzle-ring, backward.
CORNICULARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in the
Roman army, whose business was to aid and assist the
military tribune in quality of a lieutenant.
The cornicularii went the rounds in lieu of the tri¬
bune, visited the watch, and were nearly what the aids
major are in the French army.
'Ihe denomination eor«zc«/arzW was given them from
a little horn, called corniculum, which they used in
giving orders to the soldiers: though Salmasius de¬
rives it from corniculum, the crest of a head-piece ; it
being an observation of Pliny, that they wore iron or
brass horns on their helmets ; and that these were called
cornicula.
In the Notitia Imperii we find a kind of secretary or
register of the same name. His business was to attend
the judge, and enter down his sentiments and decisions.
The critics derive the word, in this sense, from corni¬
culum, a little horn to put ink in.
CORNICULUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Sabines, to the east of Crustumenum, towards the
Anio. It was burnt down by Tarquin $ but restored
again, after the expulsion of the kings, (Florus). Now
in ruins, called il Monte Genaro, (Holstenius).
CORNISH diamond, a name given by many peo¬
ple to the crystals found in digging the mines of tin in
Cornwall. See Cornwall.
CORNIX, the trivial name of a species of CoRVUS.
See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
CORNU. See Horn.
Cornu Ammonis, in Natural History, fossil shells,
called also serpent-stones or snake-stones.
They are found of all sizes, from the breadth of a
sixpence to more than two feet in diameter, and some
even larger*, some of them rounded, others greatly
compressed, and lodged in different strata of stones and
clays *, some again are smooth, and others variously
ridged, their striae and ridges being either straight, irre¬
gularly crooked, or undulated. See SNAKE-Stones.
Cornu Cervi. See Hartshorn.
CORNUCOPIA, among the ancient poets, a horn
out of which proceeded plenty of all things j by a par¬
ticular privilege which Jupiter granted his nurse, sup¬
posed to be the goat Amaltbea. The fable is thus
interpreted : That in Libya there is a little territory
shaped not unlike a bullock’s horn, exceedingly fertile^
given by King Ammon to his daughter, Amalthea,
whom the poets feign to have been Jupiter’s nurse.
In Architecture and Sculpture, the cornucopia, or
horn of plenty, is represented under the figure of a
large horn, out of which issue fruits, flowers, &c. On
medals, F. Joubert observes, the cornucopia is given to
all deities.
CORNUCOPIiE, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the triandria class j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 4th order, Gramince. See
Botany Index.
CORNUS, Cornel-tree, Cornelian Cherry, or
Dog-wood ; a genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria class j and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 47th order, Stellatce.
CORNUTIA, a genus of plants, belonging to the
didynamia class, and in the natural method ranking un¬
der the 40th order, Rersonatce. See Botany Index.
CORNWALL, the most westerly county of Eng¬
land, bounded by the British channel on the south,
and the Bristol channel on the north, the two seas meet¬
ing near the Land’s End on the west, and on the east
by the river Tamar, which separates it from Devon¬
shire. Its name is supposed by some to be compound¬
ed of earn, signifying “ a rock” in the British lan¬
guage, and Gauls or Wauls, the name the Saxons
gave to the Britons. Others, however, think it is
derived from the Latin cornu, or the British kern, “ a
horn on account of its running out into the sea
somewhat in the form of a horn. Hither the ancient
Britons (as well as in Wales) retired on the intrusion
of the Saxons, where they opposed their further con¬
quests. In this part of the island they formed a king¬
dom that existed for many years after under different
princes, amongst whom were Ambrosius Aurelius, and
the justly celebrated Arthur j nor were they sub¬
dued till the middle of the 7th century, from which
time Cornwall was considered as subject to the West
Saxon kings, who began their sovereignty in 519,
and continued it till 828, under 18 sovereigns,
the last of whom was the great Egbert, who sub¬
dued
Corcicu.
lam
„ (1
Cornwall.
COR [ 669 ] COR
•nwall. dued all the others 5 and by uniting them, formed
v -y—' > the kingdom of England, when this country was in¬
cluded in the county of Devon, then the 9th division 5
and that accounts for Alfred’s not mentioning Corn¬
wall, which, on forming the circuits after the Norman
conquest, is included in the western circuit. In I337»
Edward III. erected it into a dukedom, and invested
with it Edward the Black Prince. But this, according
to the express words of the grant, is limited to the
first born son and heir, on which account Richard II.
was created duke of Cornwall by charter. So was
Henry V. by his father Henry IV. Henry VI. de¬
livered the duchy to his son Prince Edward, and Ed¬
ward IV. created his son Edward V. duke of Cornwall,
as did Henry VII. his son, afterwards Henry VIII.
upon the death of his elder brother Arthur. James I.
created his son Henry duke of Cornwall, which title
on his decease came to his brother Charles. The eld¬
est sons of succeeding kings have enjoyed this title by
inheritance. These not only appoint the sherill, but all
writs, deeds, &c. are in their name, and not in the
king’s j and they have also peculiar royalties and pre¬
rogatives distinct from the crown, for which they ap¬
point the officers. This county is 80 miles long, 40
broad, and 250 in circumference j containing 1185
square miles or 758,484 acres. It is divided into
9 hundreds $ has 27 market towns, viz. Launceston,
Truro, Falmouth, Helston, Saltash, Bodmyn, St Ives,
Tregony, Camelford, Fowey, St Germains, Penryn,
Callington, St Austle, East Looe, Padstow, St Co-
lomb, Pensance, Grampond, Leskard, Lestwithiel, St
Mawes, St Michael, Newport, Market Jew, Stratton,
and Redruth j 1230 villages, 191 parishes, 89 vica¬
rages. The population in 1811 was 216,667, having
increased 28,550 since 1801. Its chief rivers are the
Tamar, Fale, Cober, Looe, Camel, Fowe, Haile, Le-
mai'a, Kense, and Aire. Its principal capes or head¬
lands are the Land’s.end, the Lizard, Cape Cornwall,
Deadman’s-head, Rame-head, &c. and a cluster of
islands, 144 in number, called the Scilly isles, suppo¬
sed formerly to have been joined to the main land,
though now 30 miles distant; abounding with antiqui¬
ties, particularly druidical.
As Cornwall is surrounded by the sea on all sides
except the east, its climate is somewhat different from
that of the other parts of Britain. The reasons of
this difference will be easily understood from what is
observed concerning the climate of America. The
summers in Cornwall are less hot, and the winters less
cold, than in other parts of England, and the spring
and harvest are observed to be more backward. High
and sudden winds are also more common in this than
in other counties of England. The county is rocky
and mountainous 5 but the mountains are rich in me¬
tals, especially tin and copper. The valleys are very
pleasant and fertile, yielding great plenty both of corn
and pasture. The lands near the sea-coast are ma¬
nured and fertilized with sea-weed, and a kind of sand
formed by the particles of broken shells as they are
dashed against each other by the sea. Cattle of all
sorts are smaller here than in the other counties of
England ; and the wool of the sheep, which are mostly
without horns, is very fine, and the flesh, both of them
and the black cattle, extremely delicate. The coun¬
ty is well supplied with fish from the sea and the many
rivers with which it is watered. The most noted of Cornwall,
the sea-fish is the pilchard 5 of which prodigious quan-
tities are caught from July to November, and export¬
ed to different parts, especially to Spain. It is said that
a million have been sometimes taken at a single draught.
The natives are remarkable for their strength and ac¬
tivity, as well as their dexterity in wrestling, in which
exercise the Cornish hug is highly extolled.
This county has been long famous for its mines of
different metals 5 but the principal produce is tin.
The Phenicians early visited these coasts for this ar¬
ticle, some think 400 or 450 years before Christ ; and
the mines continued to be wrought with various suc¬
cess at different periods. In the time ol Ling John
they appear to have yielded no great emolument ; the
right of working them being wholly in the king as
earl of Cornwall, and the mines farmed by the Jews
for 100 merks j and according to this proportion the
10th of it, 61. 13s. 4d. is at this day paid by the
crown to the bishop of Exeter. In the time of Rich¬
ard king of the Romans and earl of Cornwall, the tin-
mines were immensely rich *, the Jews being farmed out
to him by his brother Henry III. what interest they
had was at his disposal. The Spanish tin-mines being
stopped by the Moors, and none discovered in Ger¬
many, the Malabar coast, or the Spanish West Indies,
Cornwall and its earls had all the trade ol Europe for
it. The Jews being banished the kingdom, 18 Edw. I.
they were again neglected till the gentlemen of Black-
more, lords of seven tithings best stored at that time
with tin, obtained of Edmund earl of Cornwall, son of
Richard king of the Romans, a charter under his own
seal, with more explicit grants of privileges, courts,
pleas, parliaments, and the toll-tin or
tin raised. At this time too the right of bounding or
dividing tin-grounds into separate partitions for the
encouragement of searching for it, seems to have been
first appointed, or at least adjusted. Jhis charter was
confirmed 33 Edward I. and the Cornish separated
from the Devonshire tinners. Their laws, particular¬
ly recited in Plowden’s Commentaries, p. 237, were
further explained, 5® Edw. HI. confirmed and en¬
larged by parliament, 8 Rich. II. 3 Ed. IV. 1 Ed. VI.
1 and 2 P. and M. and 2 Eliz. and the whole so¬
ciety divided into four parts under one general warden
to do justice in law and equity, from whose sentence
lies an appeal to the duke of Cornwall in council, or
for want of a duke of Cornwall to the crown. The
lord-warden appoints a vice-warden to determine all
stannery disputes every month; he also constitutes four
stewards, one for each ol the precincts before men¬
tioned, who hold their courts every three weeks, and
decide by juries of six persons, with an appeal reserved
to the vice-warden, lord warden, and lord ot the prince’s
council. In difficult cases the lord warden, by com¬
mission, issues his precept to the four principal towns
of the stannery districts, wdio each choose six members ;
and these twenty-four stannators constitute the parlia¬
ment of tinners. Each stannator chooses an assistant,
making a kind of standing council in a different apart¬
ment to give information to the prince. Whatever
is enacted by the body of tinners must be signed by
the stannators, the lord-warden, or his deputy, and
by the duke or the king, and thenceforward has with
regard to tin aftairs all the authority of an act of the
whole
C O K [ 670 ] COR
Cornwall, whole legislature. Five towns 'are appointed in the
—v—~ most convenient parts of the county for the tinners to
bring their tin to every quarter of a year. These are
JLeskard, Lestwithiel, Truro, Helston, and Pensance,
the last added by Charles II. for the conveniency of
the western tinners. In the time of Henry VIII.
there were but two coinages, at Midsummer and Mi¬
chaelmas -y two more, at Christmas and Lady-day, were
added, for which the tinners pay an acknowledgment
called Post groats, or 4d. for every hundred of white
tin then coined. The officers appointed by the duke
assay it; and if well purified, stamp it by a hammer
with the duchy seal, the arms of Richard earl of Corn¬
wall, a lion rampant G. crowned O. within a bordure
of bezants S ; and this is a permission to the coiner to
sell, and is called coining the tin. Every hundred of
white tin so coined pays to the duke 4s. The tin of
the whole county, which, in Carew’s time, in the last
century, amounted to 30,000!. or 40,000!. yearly, now
amounts to about 25,000 blocks, valued at ten guineas
each, or 260,000!. Of this the duke of Cornwall re¬
ceives for his 4s. duty on every hundred of white tin
above I0,000l. yearly 5 the bounders or proprietors of
the soil about £th at a medium clear, or about 30,000!.
yearly $ the remainder goes to the adventurers in the
mine, who are at all the charge of working. Tin is
found collected and fixed in lodes and floors, or in grains
and bunches in the natural rock, or loose and detached
in single separate stones called shades or streams, or in
a continued course of such stones called the beuheyl or
living strea?n, or in an arenaceous pulverized state. It
is most easily discovered by tracing the lodes by the
scattered fragments of them called shades, by leave of
the lord of the soil or the bounder. The tin being di¬
vided among the lords and adventurers, is stamped and
worked at the mill ; and being thus dressed is carried,
under the name oi black tin, to the melting-house, where
it is melted by Welsh pit-coal, and poured into blocks
of 3201b. weight, and carried to the coinage town.
Mundic, a scarce metal or mineral ore, of a white,
brassy, or brown colour, is found in large quantities,
intermixed with tin, copper, and lead, and sometimes
by itself. Iron ore is found in Cornwall, but the work¬
ing it does not answer. There is no richer copper, nor
a greater variety, anywhere than in this county. Sil¬
ver, if really found here in the reigns of Edward I.
and II. has been rarely found since, nor do the lead
mines answer. Very late discoveries have proved that
Cornwall has more gold than was formerly imagined.
What is called the Cornish diamond is a figured cry¬
stal, generally hexagonal and pyramidical, or columnar,
or both, of a fine clear water, and of all our bastard
diamonds in this nation esteemed the best, and some of
different colours, black, yellow, &c. The clearer these
are, the better they will bear engraving for seals.
In privileges and language Cornwall seems to be
another kingdom. By 21 Elizabeth it was ordered
that all duty on Cornish cloth exported should be re¬
mitted to every Englishman within the duchy of Corn¬
wall. This was first granted by the Black Prince,
in consideration of their paying 4s. for the coinage of
every hundred of tin whereas Devonshire pays no
more than 8d. They have also by grant from Richard
earl of Cornwall, confirmed 25 Henry III. freedom to
3
take sand out of the sea, and carry it through the coun- Conurn
try for manure j whereupon in the following reign, on ||
an inquisition made, we find a complaint that Saltash Corollari
had lately taken 12s. yearly for each barge that car-
ried sand up the Tamar 5 whereas nothing ought to
have been demanded. They still continue this ancient
method of improving their land, carrying it ten miles
up into the country, and great part of the way on horses
backs. Mr Ray supposes the virtue of this sand de¬
pends chiefly on the salt mixed with it, which is so
copious that in many places salt is boiled up out of a
lixivium made of the sea sand ; and the reason why
sand when it has lain long in the sun and wind proves
less enriching and useful is, that the dews and rain
evaporate great part of its salt.
The number of boroughs in this small county was
greatly increased by Edward VI. who added seven to
the original six, Mary two, Elizabeth six, making in
all 21, sending 40 members besides the county two.
Eight of these boroughs had an immediate or remote
connection with the demesne lands of the duchy j the
rest belonged to religious houses, or powerful families,
or were old boroughs, which had legal immunities
granted to them by their princes or lords.
The Cornish language is a dialect of that which
till the Saxons came in was common to all Britain,
and more anciently to Ireland and Gaul ; but the in¬
habitants of this island being dispersed before those
conquests, and driven into Wales and Cornwall, and
thence into Bretagne, the same language, for want of
frequent intercourse, became differently pronounced
and written, and in different degrees mixed with other
languages. Hence came the Welsh, the Cornish and
the Armoric dialects, whose radicals are so much alike
that they are known and admitted by the inhabitants of
either country; but the grammar so varied that they
cannot converse. The Cornish is reckoned the most
pleasing of the three. It was spoken so generally here
down to the reign of Henry VIII. that Dr John More-
man, vicar of Mynhinet, is said to have been the first
who taught his parishioners the Lord’s prayer, the
creed, and ten commandments, in English, and at the
Reformation the natives desired the service in English.
The older people in some parishes retained their ori¬
ginal language to the middle of the last century : and
the last sermon was preached in it in 1678. When
Mr Ray was here, 1662, he could find but one person
who could write this language j and it is now so nearly
extinct, that Mr Barrington, in 1768, could only find
one old woman who could scold in it, and she is since
dead. See Cornwall, Supplement.
CORNWALLIS, Charles, {Marquis), a late emi¬
nent British commander. See SUPPLEMENT.
CORODY. See Revenue.
COROLLA, among botanists, the most conspicuous
part of a flower, surrounding the organs of genei’ation,
and composed of one or more flower-leaves, most com¬
monly called petals, to distinguish them from the leaves
of the plant; according as there is one, two, or three
of these petals, the corolla is said to be monopetalous,
dipetalous, tripetalous, &c.
COROLLARY is a consequence drawn from some¬
thing already advanced or demonstrated : thus, it be¬
ing demonstrated that a triangle which has two equal
sides,
COR
sides, has also two angles equal 5 this corollary will fol¬
low, that a triangle which has three sides equal, has also
its three angles equal.
COROLIS1YE, a name by which Linnaeus distin¬
guishes those systematic botanists who have arranged
vegetables from the regularity, figure, number, and
other circumstances, of the petals, or beautiful coloured
leaves of the flowers. The best systems of this kind are
those of Rivinus and Tournefort. The former proceeds
upon the regularity and number of the petals ; the lat¬
ter, with much more certainty, on their regularity and
figure.
COROLLULA, a term used by botanists to express
the little partial flowers which make up the compound
ones.
COROMANDEL, the eastern coast of the penin¬
sula on this side the Ganges in Asia. It is bounded
on the north by Golconda, on the east by the bay of
Bengal, on the south by Madura, and on the west by
Bisnagar. This coast so much resembles that of O-
rixa, that the Abbe Raynal chooses to consider them
as one, and gives to both the general name of Cbro-
mandel. Here an excessive heat reigns from the be¬
ginning of May to the end of October. It begins at
nine in the morning, and continues till nine in the
evening. During the night it is allayed by a sea-breeze
from the south-east *, and most commonly this refresh¬
ing gale begins at three in the afternoon. The air is
less inflamed during the rest of the year, though in all
seasons it is very hot. It rains almost continually du¬
ring the months of November and December. This
immense tract is covered with a parched sand for the
extent of two miles, and sometimes only one mile along
the coast.
This country was at first neglected by the Europe¬
ans for many reasons. It was separated by inacces¬
sible mountains from Malabar, where these bold ad¬
venturers endeavoured to settle themselves. Spices
and aromatics, which were the principal objects of
their attention, were not to be found there. In short,
civil dissensions had banished from it tranquillity, se¬
curity, and industry. At that period the empire of
Bisnager, to which this vast country was subject, was
falling to ruin. The governors of Visapour, the
Carnatic, Golconda, and Orixa, threw oft* their depen¬
dence, and assumed the title of kings. Those of
Madura, Tanjore, Mysore, Gingi, and some others,
likewise usurped the sovereign authority, though they
retained their ancient title of Naick. I his revolution
had just happened when the Europeans appeared on
the coast of Coromandel. The foreign trade was at
that time inconsiderable j it consisted only of diamonds
from Golconda, which were carried to Calicut and
Surat, and from thence to Ormus or Suez, whence
they were circulated through all Europe and Asia.
Massulipatan, the richest and most populous city of
these countries, was the only market that was known
for linens; they were purchased at a great fair an¬
nually holden there by the Arabian and Malayan ves¬
sels that frequented that bay, and by caravans arrived
from distant parts. The linens were exported to the
same places with the diamonds. 1 he fondness for the
manufactures of Coromandel, which began to prevail
here, inspired all the European nations trading to the
Indian seas with the resolution of forming settlements
C O R'
They w'ere not discouraged either by the dif¬
ficulty of conveying goods from the inland paits ol the
country, where there was no navigable river; by the
total want of harbours, where the sea at one season
of the year is not navigable $ by the barrenness of the
coasts, for the most part uncultivated and uninhabited j
nor by the tyranny and fluctuating state of the go¬
vernment. They thought that silver would be indu¬
striously sought after ; that Pegu would furnish tim¬
ber for building, and Bengal corn for subsistence } that
a prosperous voyage of nine months would be more
than sufficient to complete their ladings $ and that by
fortifying themselves they should be secure against
the attacks of the weak tyrants that oppressed these
countries.
The first European colonies were established near
the shore. Some of them obtained a settlement by
force; most of them were formed with the consent
of the sovereigns j and all were confined to a very
narrow tract of land. The boundaries of each were
marked out by a hedge of thorny plants, which was
their only defence. In process of time fortifications
were raised 5 and the security derived from them,
added to the lenity <4* the government, soon increased
the number of colonists. The splendor and indepen¬
dence of these settlements several times raised the jea¬
lousy of the princes in whose dominions they were
formed ; but their attempts to demolish them proved
abortive. Each colony increased in prosperity in pro¬
portion to the riches and the wisdom of the nation
that founded it. None of the companies that exer¬
cised an exclusive privilege beyond the Cape of Good
Hope had any concern in the trade of diamonds. This
was always left to private merchants, and by degrees
fell entirely into the hands of the English, or the Jews
and Armenians that lived under their protection. At
present this grand object of luxury and industry is much
reduced. The revolutions that have happened in In-
dostan have prevented people from resorting to these
rich mines; and tiie anarchy in which this unhappy
country is plunged leaves no room to hope that they
will he again attended to. The whole of the com¬
mercial operations on the coast of Coromandel is con¬
fined to the purchase of cottons. The manufacturing
of the white cotton brought there differs so little from
ours, that it would be neither interesting nor instruc¬
tive to enter into a minute description of it. The
process used in making their printed cottons, which
was at first servilely followed in Europe, has since
been rendered more simple and brought to greater
perfection by our manufactures. The painted cottons
which are brought thither we have not yet attempt¬
ed to imitate. Those who imagine we have been
prevented from undertaking this branch merely by
the high price of labour among us, are mistaken. Na¬
ture has not given us the wild fruits and drugs neces¬
sary for the composition of those bright and indelible
colours which constitute the principal merit of the In¬
dian manufactures; nor has she furnished us with the
waters that serve to fix them. rl he Indians do not
universally observe the same method in painting their
cottons ; either because there are some niceties pecu¬
liar to certain provinces, or because different soils pro¬
duce different drugs for difterent uses. We should
tire the patience of our readers were we to trace the
slow:
[ 671 ]
there.
COR [ 672 ] COR
Ceroman. s10w painful progress of the Indians in the art of
del painting their cottons. It is natural to believe that they
owe it to length of time, rather than to the fertility
of their genius. What seems to authorize this conjec¬
ture is, that they have stopped in their improvements,
and have not advanced a single step in the arts for
many ages j whereas vve have proceeded with ama¬
zing rapidity. Indeed, were we to consider only the
want of invention in the Indians, we should be tempt¬
ed to believe, that, from time immemorial, they have
received the arts they cultivate from some more in¬
dustrious nation j but when it is remembered that
these arts have a peculiar dependence on the materials,
gums, colours, and productions of India, we cannot
but be convinced that they are natives of that country.
It may appear somewhat surprising that cottons paint¬
ed with all sorts of colours should be sold at so moderate
a price, that they are almost as cheap as those that have
only two or three. But it must be observed, that the
merchants of the country sell to all the companies a
large quantity of cottons at a time ; and that the demand
for cottons painted with various colours makes but a
small article in their assortments, as they are not much
esteemed in Europe.
Though cottons of all sorts are in some degree ma¬
nufactured through the whole country of Indostan,
which extends from Cape Comorin to the hanks of the
Ganges $ it is observable, that the finest are made
in the eastern part, the common ones in the centre,
and the coarse ones in the most western parts. Ma¬
nufactures are established in the European colonies,
and upon the coast: they are more frequent at the
distance of five or six leagues from the sea, where cot¬
ton is more cultivated, and provisions are cheaper.
The purchases made there are carried 30 01*40 leagues
farther into the country. The Indian merchants set¬
tled in the European factories have always the ma¬
nagement of this business. The quantity and quality
of the goods wanted are settled with these people ;
the price is fixed according to the patterns; and at
the time a contract is made, a third or fourth part
of the money agreed on is advanced. The arrange¬
ment is owing to the necessity these merchants them¬
selves are under of advancing money to the workmen,
by the partners or agents who are dispersed through
the whole country ; of keeping a watchful eye upon
them, for fear of losing what they have advanced ; and
of gradually lessening the sum, by calling for the cot¬
tons as fast as they are worked off. Without these
precautions, nothing could be depended on in an op¬
pressive government, where the weaver cannot work
on his own account, either because his circumstances
will not permit, or because he dares not venture to
discover them for fear of exactions. The companies
that have either success or good management, con¬
stantly keep the stock of one year in advance in their
settlements. By this method they are sure of having
the quantity of goods they have occasion for, and of
the quality they choose, at the most convenient time :
not to mention that their workmen, and their mer¬
chants, who are kept in constant employment, never
leave them. Such nations as want money and credit
cannot begin their mercantile operations till the ar¬
rival of their ships. They have only five or six months
at most to execute the orders sent from Europe. The
2
goods are manufactured and examined in haste ; and
they are even obliged to take such as are known to be
had, and would be rejected at any other time. The
necessity they are under of completing their cargoes,
and fitting out their vessels before hurricanes come on,
leaves no room for nicety of inspection. It would be
a mistake to imagine that the country agents could he
prevailed upon to order goods to be made on their
account in hopes of selling them with a reasonable
advantage to the company with whom they are en¬
gaged. For, besides that the generality of them
are not rich enough to embark in so large an un-
dertaking, they would not be certain of finding their ac¬
count in it. If the company that employ them should
he hindered by unforeseen accidents from sending the
usual number of ships, these merchants would have no
vent for their commodities. The Indians, the form
of whose dress requires diflerent breadths and lengths
from those of the cottons fabricated for our use, would
not purchase them ; and the other European compa¬
nies would be provided, or certain of being provided,
with whatever the extent of their trade required, and
their money enabled them to purchase. The plan of
procuring loans, which was contrived to remedy this
inconvenience, never has nor can be useful. It has
been a custom, time immemorial, in Indostan, for
every citizen who borrows money to give a written
instrument to his creditor. This deed is of no force
in a court of judicature, unless it is signed by three
witnesses, and bears the day of the month and the
year when it was made, with the rate of interest
agreed upon by the parties. If the borrower fails to
fulfil his engagements, he may be arrested by the
lender himself. He is never imprisoned, because
there is no fear of his making his escape. He would
not even eat, without obtaining leave of his creditor.
The Indians make a three-fold division of interest:
one kind they call vice; another neither vice nor vir¬
tue ; and a third, they say, is virtue. The first is four
per cent, a month ; the second two ; and the third one.
The last is, in their opinion, an act of beneficence
that only belongs to the most heroic minds. Yet,
though the Europeans, who are forced to borrow,
meet with this treatment, it is plain they cannot avail
themselves of the indulgence without being involved in
ruin.
The foreign trade of Coromandel is not in the hands
of the natives. In the western part, indeed, there
are Mohammedans known by the name of Chalias,
who, at Naour and Porto-Nuovo, send out ships to
Acheen, Merguy, Siam, and the eastern coast. Besides
vessels of considerable burden employed in these voy¬
ages, they have smaller embarkations for the coasting
trade for Ceylon and the pearl fishery. The Indians
of Massulipatan turn their attention another way.
They import from Bengal white calicoes, which they
dye or print, and sell them again at the places from
whence they had them, at 35 or 40 per cent, advan¬
tage. Excepting these transactions, which are of very
little consequence, the whole trade is vested in the
Europeans, who have no partners but a few Banians
and Armenians settled in their colonies. The quanti¬
ty of calicoes exported from Coromandel to the differ¬
ent ports of India was formerly computed at 3500 bales.
Of these the French carry 800 to Malabar, Mocha,
and
Coroman
del.
con [ 673 ] con
0:nan. an(l ^ie of France j the English, 1200 to Bombay,
del Malabar, Sumatra, and the Philippine islands ; and the
(1 Dutch 1500 to their different settlements. Great al-
orona. teratl0ns, however, have taken place since this estimate
’'v was formed, and the name of Coromandel is now little
used. See Carnatic, Madrass, Pondicherry, &c.
CORON, an old and strong seaport town of the
Morea, in the province of Belvedere, situated on a
small peninsula in the gulf to which it gives name, an¬
ciently called the gulf of Messene. It has a secure
harbour, and carries on some trade in corn and oil.
About the middle of the peninsula is a high rock which
commands the fortifications, and on the opposite side of
the town stands a small suburb. A Greek archbishop
has his seat here. It is 16 miles south of Modon, 40
south-west of Misitra, and 80 south-south-west of
Corinth. E. Long. 21. 58. N. Lat. 36. 47.
Coron, a town of France, in Anjou, department of
the Maine and Loire, with 400 houses.
CORONADOES, Los, two islets and three rocks
on the coast of New California, or New Albion, si¬
tuated about four or five leagues south of the port of St
Diego.
CORONATA, a small island of the Austrian em¬
pire, in that part of the Adriatic called the gulf of
Quarnero. It is 15 miles long and three broad. E.
Long. 15. 40. N. Lat. 44. 5.
CORONATION ISLAND, the largest of a group of
islands lying off the coast of the Prince of Wales’s
Archipelago. It is about seven leagues in circuit, and
was so called by Vancouver from his passing it on the
anniversary of the coronation.
CORONA, among anatomists, denotes that edge of
the glans penis where the preputium begins.
Corona, or Halo, in Optics, a luminous circle, sur¬
rounding the sun, the moon, the planets, or fixed stars.
Sometimes these circles are white, and sometimes colour¬
ed like the rainbow. Sometimes one only is visible, and
sometimes several concentric coronas make their ap¬
pearance at the same time. Those which have been
seen about Sirius and Jupiter were never more than
three, four, or five degrees in diameter j those which sur¬
round the moon are also sometimes no more than three
or five degrees ; but these, as well as those which sur¬
round the sun, are of very different magnitudes, viz. of
12° O', 22° 35', 30° O', 38° O', 4I0 2', 45° O', 46° 24,
470 o', and 90°, or even larger than this. Their dia¬
meters also sometimes vary during the time of obser¬
vation, and the breadths both of the coloured and white
circles are very different, viz. of 2, 4, or 7 degrees.
The colours of these coronas are more dilute than
those of the rainbow; and they are in a different or¬
der, according to their size. In those which Newton
observed in 1692, they were in the following order,
reckoned from the inside. In the innermost were
blue, white, and red ; in the middle were purple, blue,
green, yellow, and pale red ; in the outermost, pale
blue and pale red. Mr Huygens observed red next
the sun, and a pale blue outwards. Sometimes they are
red on the inside and white on the outside. M. W eidler
observed one that was yellow on the inside and white
on the outside. In France, one was observed in 1683,
the middle of which was white ; after which followed
a border of red j next to it was blue, then green, and
Vol. VI. Part II. f
the outermost circle was a bright fed. In 1728, one Corona,
was seen of a pale red outwardly, then followed yellow,
and then green, terminated by a white.
These coronas are very frequent. In Holland, M.
Muschenbroeck says, 50 may be seen in the day-time,
almost every year j but they are difficult to be obser¬
ved, except the eye be so situated, that not the body
of the sun, but only the neighbouring parts of the
heavens, can be seen. Mr Middleton says, that this
phenomenon is very frequent in North America ; for
that there is generally one or two about the sun every
w-eek, and as many about the moon every month.
Halos round the sun are very frequent in Russia. M.
^Epinus says, that from the 23d of April 1758, to the
20th of September, he himself had observed no less
than 26, and that he has sometimes seen twice as many
in the same space of time.
Coronas may be produced by placing a lighted candle
in the midst of steam in cold weather. Also, if glass
windows be breathed upon, and the flame of a candle
be placed some feet from it, while the spectator is also
at the distance of some feet from another part of a
window, the flame will be surrounded with a coloured
halo. And if a candle be placed behind a glass receiver,
when air is admitted into the vacuum within it, at a
certain degree of density, the vapour with which it is
loaded will make a coloured halo round the flame.
This was observed by Otto Guericke. In December
j756, M. Muschenbroeck observed, that when the
glass windows of his room were covered with a thin
plate of ice on the inside, the moon appearing through
it ivas surrounded with a large and variously coloured
halo } and, opening the window, he found that it arose
entirely from that thin plate of ice, for none was seen
except through it.
Similar, in some respects, to the halo, was the re¬
markable appearance which M. Bouguer describes, as
observed by himself and his companions on the top of
Mount Pinchinca, in the Cordilleras. When the sun
was just rising behind them, so as to appear white,
each of them saw his own shadow projected upon it,
and no other. The distance was such, that all the
parts of the shadow were easily distinguishable, as the
arms, the legs, and the head j but what surprised them
most was, that the head was adorned with a kind of
glory, consisting of three or four small concentric
crowns, of a very lively colour, each exhibiting all the
varieties of the primary rainbow, and having the circle
of red on the outside. The intervals between these
circles continued equal, though the diameters of them
all were constantly changing. The last of them ivas
very faint, and at a considerable distance ivas another
great white circle which surrounded the whole. As
near as M. Bouguer could compute, the diameter of
the first of these circles was about y-f degrees, that of
the second 11, that of the third 17, and so on : but
the diameter of the white circle was about 76 degrees.
This phenomenon never appeared but in a cloud con¬
sisting of frozen particles, and never in drops ol rain
like the rainbow. W hen the sun was not in the hori¬
zon, only part of the white circle was visible, as M.
Bouguer frequently observed afterwards.
Similar aLo to this curious appearance was one that
was observed by Dr M*Feat in Scotland. This gen-
' 4 Q tleman
*
COR [ 674 ] • COR
Corona.
tleman observed a rainbow round bis sl^idow in the
-—v—mist, when be was upon an eminence above it. In
this situation the whole country round seemed, as it
were, buried under a vast deluge, and nothing but the
tops of distant hills appeared here and there above the
flood : so that a man would think of diving down into
it with a kind of horror. In those upper regions the
air, he says, is at that time very pure and agreeable to
breathe in. At another time he observed a double
range of colours round his shadow in these circumstances.
The colours of the outermost range were broad and very
distinct, and everywhere about two leet distant from
the shadow. Then there was a darkish interval, and
after that another narrower range of colours, closely
surrounding the shadow, which was very much con¬
tracted. This person seems to think that these ranges
of colours are caused by the inflection of the rays of
light, the same that occasioned the ring of light which
surrounds the shadows of all bodies, observed by M.
* Edtn. Maraldi, and this author*. But the prodigious variety
vow|1|c[1 tlJese appearances are exhibited seems to
<!* ' y ’ show that many of them do not result from the general
laws of reflection, refraction, or inflection, belonging
to transparent substances of a large mass j but upon
the alternate reflection and transmission of the different
kinds of rays, peculiar to substances reduced to the form
of thin plates, or consisting of separate and very minute
parts. But where the dimensions of the coronas are
pretty constant, as in the usual and larger halo, which
is about half the diameter of the rainbow, they may,
perhaps, he explained on the general principles of re¬
fraction only.
Descartes observes, that the halo never appears when
it rains : from which he concludes that this phenomenon
is occasioned by the refraction of light in the round
particles of ice, which are then floating in the atmo¬
sphere ; and though these particles are flat when they
fall to the ground, he thought they must be protuberant
in the middle, before their descent; and according to
this protuberancy he imagined that the diameter of the
halo would vary.—In treating of meteors, Gassendi
supposed that a halo is the same thing with the rainbow,
the rays of light being in both cases twice refracted and
once reflected within each drop of rain or vapour, and
that all the difference there is between them arises from
their different situation with respect to the observer.
For, whereas, when the sun is behind the spectator, and
consequently the rainbow before him, his eye is in the
centre of the circle ; when he views the halo, with his
face towards the sun, his eye is in the circumference of
the circle j so that according to the known principles
of geometry, the angle under which the object appears
in this case must be just half of what it is in the other.
Though this writer says a great deal upon the subject,
and endeavours to give reasons why the colours of the
halo are in a different order to those of the rainbow, he
does not describe the progress of the rays of light from
the sun to the eye of the spectator, when a halo is form¬
ed by them, and he gives no figures to explain his ideas.
Dechales, also, endeavours to show that the genera¬
tion of the halo is similar to that of the rainbow, if;
says he, a sphere of glass or crystal, AB, (fig. 1.) full
of water, be placed in the beams of the sun shining
from C, there will net only be two circles of coloured
Pkte
«>LXIV.
1.
light on the side next the sun, and which constitute the Coroiu
two rainbows $ but there will also be another on the y—
part opposite to the sun, the rays belonging to which
meeting at E, afterwards diverge, and form the co¬
loured circle G, as will be visible, if the light that is
transmitted through the globe he received on a piece
of white paper. The colours also will appear to an
eye placed in any part of the surface of the cone FEG.
Measuring the angle FEH, he found it to he 23 de¬
grees. They were only the extreme rays of this cone
that were coloured like those of the rainbow.
This experiment he tjiought sufficiently illustrated
the generation of the halo ; so that whenever the tex¬
ture of the clouds is such, as not entirely to intercept
the rays of the sun or moon, and yet have some degree
of density, there will always be a halo round them, the
colours of the rainbow appearing in those drops which
are 23 degrees distant from the sun or moon. If the
sun be at A (fig. 2.), and the spectator in B, the halo Fig, 3,
will be the circle DEE, DBE, being 46 degrees, or
twice 23.
The reason why the colours of the halo are more
dilute than those of the rainbow, he says, is owing
principally to their being formed not in large drops of
rain, but in very small vapour ; for if the drops of water
were large, the cloud would be so thick, that the rays
of the sun could not be regularly transmitted through
them 'y and, on the other hand, he had observed, that
when the rainbow is formed by very thin vapours, the
colours hardly appear. As for those circles of colours
which are sometimes seen around candles, it was his
opinion that they are owing to nothing but moisture on
the eye of the observer j for that he could never produce
this appearance by means of vapour only, if he wiped his
eyes carefully } and he had observed that such circles
are visible to some persons and not to others, and to the
same persons at one time and not at another.
The most considerable of all the theories respecting
halos, and that which has met with the most favourable
and longest reception, is that of Mr Huygens. Sir
Isaac Newton mentions it with respect, and Dr Smith,
in his Complete System of Optics, does not so much as
hint at any other. The occasion of Mr Huygens pub¬
lishing his thoughts on this subject, was the appearance
of a halo at Paris, on the I2th of May 1667, of which
he gave an account in a paper read at the Royal
Academy in that city, which was afterwards translated,
and published in the English Philosophical Transactions,
and which may he seen in Lowthorp’s Abridgement,
vol. ii. p. 189. But this article contains nothing more
than the heads of a discourse, which he afterwards
composed, but never quite finished, on this subject $
and which has been translated, with some additions, by
Dr Smith, from whom the following account is chiefly
extracted.
Our philosopher had been first engaged to think par¬
ticularly upon this subject, by the appearance of five
suns at Warsaw, in 1658 j presently after which, he
says, he hit upon the true cause of halos, and not long
after that of mock suns also.
To prepare the way for the following observations,
it must he remarked, that if we can conceive any kind
of bodies in the atmosphere, which, according to the
known laws of optics, will, either by means of reflec¬
tion
COR
3iona. *i°!l or refraction, produce the appearance in question,
-v—' when nothing else can be found that will do it, we
must acquiesce in the hypothesis, and suppose such bo¬
dies to exist, even though we cannot give a satisfactory
account of their generation. Now, two such bodies
are assumed by Mr Huygens; one of them a round
ball, opaque in the centre, but covered with a transpa¬
rent shell j and the other is a cylinder, of a similar
composition. By the help of the former he endea¬
vours to account for halos, and by the latter for those
appearances which are called mock suns. Those bo¬
dies which Mr Huygens requires, in order to explain
these phenomena, are not, however, a mere assump¬
tion ; for some such, though of a larger size than his
purpose requires, have been actually found, consisting
of snow within and ice without. They are particularly
mentioned by Descartes.
The balls with the opaque kernel, which he suppo¬
sed to have been the cause of them, he imagines not -to
exceed the size of a turnip-seed ; but, in order to il¬
lustrate this hypothesis, he gives a figure of one, of a
J- larger size, in ABCDEF, (fig. 3.) representing the
kernel of snow in the middle of it. If the rays of
light, coming from GH, fall upon the side AD, it is
manifest they will be so refracted at A and D, as to
bend inwards ; and many of them will strike upon the
kernel EF. Others, however, as GA and HD, will
only touch the sides of the kernel ; and being again
refracted at B and C, will emerge in the lines BK, CK,
crossing each other in the point K, whose nearest di¬
stance from the globule is somewhat less than its appa¬
rent diameter. If, therefore, BK and CK be produced
4- towards M and L (fig. 4.), it is evident that no light
can reach the eye placed within the angle LKM, but
may fall upon it when placed out of that angle, or ra¬
ther the cone represented by it.
For the same reason, every other of these globules
will have a shadow behind it, in which the light of the
sun will not be perceived. If the eye be at N, and
that be conceived to be the vertex of a cone, the sides
of which, NR, NQ, are parallel to the sides of the
former cone KL, KM, it is evident that none of the
globules within the cone QNR can send any rays of
the sun to the eye at N. But any other globule out
of this cone, as X, may send those rays, which are
more refracted than XZ, to the eye ; so that this
will appear enlightened, while those within the cone
will appear obscure. It is evident from this, that
a certain area, or space, quite round the sun, must
appear dark ; and that the space next to this area
will appear luminous, and more so in those parts that
are nearest to the obscure area j because, he says, it
may easily be demonstrated, that those globules which
are nearest to the cone QNR exhibit the largest image
of the sun. It is plain, also, that a corona ought to
be produced in the same manner, whatever be the
sun’s altitude, because of the spherical figure of the
globules.
To verify this hypothesis, our philosopher advises us
to expose to the sun a thin glass bubble, filled with
water, and having some opaque substance in the centre
ot it; and he says we shall find, that we shall not be
able to see the sun through it, unless at a certain di¬
stance from a place opposite to the centre of it; but
as soon as we do perceive the light, the image of the
COR
sun will immediately appear the brightest, and colour- Ooroan.
ed red, for the same reason as in the rainbow’. w—
These coronas, he says, often appear about the
moon ; but the colours are so weak as to appear only
white. Such white coronas he had also seen about
the sun, when the space within them appeared scarce
darker than that without. This he supposes to hap¬
pen when there are but few of those globules in the
atmosphere; for the more plentiful they are, the more
lively the colours of the halo appear; at the same time
also the area within the corona will be the darker.
The apparent diameter of the corona, which is gene¬
rally about 45 degrees, depends upon the size of the
dark kernel ; for the larger it is with respect to the
whole globule, the larger will be the dark cone behind
it.
The globules that form these halos, Mr Huygens
supposes to have consisted of soft snow, and to have
been rounded by continual agitation in the air, and
thawed on their outsides by the heat of the sun.
To make the diameter of the halo 45 degrees, he
demonstrates that the semidiameter of the globule must
be to the semidiameter of the kernel of snow very near¬
ly as 1000 to 480 j and that to make a corona of 100
degrees, it must be as 1000 to 680.
Mr Weidler, in his Commentary on parhelia, pub¬
lished at Wirtemberg in 1733, observes, that it is
very improbable that such globules as Mr Huygens’s
hypothesis requires, with nuclei of such a precise pro¬
portion, should exist j and if there were such bodies,
he thinks they would be too small to produce the ef¬
fects ascribed to them. Besides, he observes that ap¬
pearances exactly similar to halos are not uncommon,
where fluid vapours alone are concerned ; as when a
candle is placed behind the steam of boiling water in
frosty weather, or in the midst of the vapour issuing
copiously from a bath, or behind a receiver when the
air is so much rarefied as to be incapable of supporting
the water it contains. The rays of the sun twice re¬
flected and twice refracted within small drops of water
are sufficient, he says, without any opaque kernel, to
produce all the appearances of the halos that have the
red light towards the sun, as may be proved by experi¬
ment. That the diameter of the halos is generally half
of that of the rainbow, he accounts for as Gassendi did
before him.
M. Mariotte accounts for the formation of the small
coronas by the transmission of light through aqueous
vapours, where it sufters two refractions, without any
intermediate reflection. He shows that light which
comes to the eye, after being refracted in this man¬
ner, will be chiefly that which falls upon the drop
nearly perpendicular; because more rays fall upon
any given quantity of surface in that situation, fewer
of them are reflected with small degrees of obliquity,
and they are not so much scattered after refraction.
The red will always be outermost in these coronas,
as consisting of rays which suffer the least refraction.
And whereas he had seen, when the clouds were dri¬
ven briskly by the wind, halos round the moon, vary¬
ing frequently in their diameter, being sometimes of
two, sometimes of three, and sometimes of four de¬
grees ; sometimes also being coloured, sometimes only
white, and sometimes disappearing entirely j he con¬
cluded that all these variations arose from the differ-
4 Q 2 ent
[ 67s ]
COR [ 676 ] COR
ent thickness of the clouds, through which sometimes
» more and sometimes less light was transmitted. He
supposed, also, that the light which formed them
might sometimes be reflected and at other times re¬
fracted. As to those coronas which consist of two or¬
ders of colours, he imagined that they were produced
by small pieces of snow, which, when they begin to
dissolve, form figures which are a little convex towards
their extremities. Sometimes, also, the snow will be
melted in dift’erent shapes j and in this case, the co¬
lours of several halos will be intermixed, and confused j
and such, he says, he had sometimes observed round the
sun.
M. Mariotte then proceeds to explain the larger co¬
ronas, namely those that are about 45 degrees in dia¬
meter, and for this purpose he has recourse to equian¬
gular prisms of ice, in a certain position with respect
to the sun ; and he takes pains to trace the progress
of the rays of light for this purpose j but this hypothe¬
sis is very improbable. In some cases he thought that
these large coronas w'ere caused by hailstones, of a py¬
ramidal figure •> because after two or three of them had
been seen about the sun, there fell the same day several
such pyramidal hailstones. M. Mariotte explains par¬
helia by the help of the same suppositions. See Par¬
helia.
Sir Isaac Newton does not appear to have given
any particular attention to the subject of halos, but he
has hinted at his sentiments concerning them occasion¬
ally •, by which we perceive that he considered the
larger and less variable appearances of this kind as
produced according to the common laws of refraction,
but that the less and more variable appearances de¬
pend upon the same cause with the colours of thin
plates.
He concludes his explication of the rainbow with
the following observations on halos and parhelias. “ The
light which comes through drops of rain by two re¬
fractions, without any reflection, ought to appear the
strongest at the distance of about 20 degrees from
the sun, and to decay gradually both ways as the di¬
stance from him increases. And the same is to be un¬
derstood of light transmitted through spherical hail¬
stones: and if the hail be a little flatted, as it often
is, the transmitted light may be so strong, at a little
less distance than that of 26 degrees, as to form a halo
about the sun or moon j which halo, as often as the
hailstones are duly figured, may be coloured, and then
it must be red within by the least refrangible rays,
and blue without by the most refrangible ones : espe¬
cially if the hailstones have opaque globules of snow
in their centres to intercept the light within the halo,
as Mr Huygens has observed, and make the inside of
it more distinctly defined than it would otherwise he.
For such hailstones, though spherical, by terminating
the light by the snow, may make a halo red within, and
colourless without, and darker within the red than
without, as halos use to be. For of those rays which
pass close by the snow, the red-making ones will be
the least refracted, and so come to the eye in the
straightest lines.
Some farther thoughts of Sir Isaac Newton on the
subject of halos we find subjoined to the account of
his experiments on the colours of thick plates of glass,
which he conceived to, be similar, tcUhose which are ex¬
hibited by thin ones. “ As light reflected by a lens
quicksilvered on the hack side makes the rings of the
colours above described, so (he says) it ought to make
the like rings in passing through a drop of water. At
the first reflection of the rays within the drop, some
Colours ought to be transmitted, as in the case of a lens,
and others to he reflected back to the eve. For in¬
stance, il the diameter of a small drop or globule of
water be about the joodth part of an inch, so that a
red-making ray, in passing through the middle of this
globule, has 250 fits of easy transmission within the
globule, and all the red-making rays which are at a
certain distance from this middle ray round about it
have 249 fits within the globule, and all the like rays
at a certain further distance round about it have 248
fits, and all those at a certain farther distance 247 fits,
and so on 5 these concentric circles of rays, after their
transmission, falling on a white paper, will make con¬
centric rings of red upon the paper, supposing the
light which passes through one single globule strong
enough to be sensible ; and in like manner the rays of
other colours will make rings of other colours. Sup¬
pose now that in a fair day the sun should shine through
a thin cloud of such globules of water or hail, and that
the globules are all of the same size, the sun seen
through this cloud ought to appear surrounded with
the like concentric rings of colours, and the diameter
of the first ring of red should be 7^°, that of the se¬
cond I0^°, that of the thir<J 12° 33', and according as
the globules of water are bigger or less, the ring should
be less or bigger.”
This curious theory our author informs us was con¬
firmed by an observation which he made in 1692. He
saw by reflection, in a vessel of stagnating water, three
halos, crowns, or rings of colours about the sun, like
three little rainbows concentric to his body. The co¬
lours of the first, or innermost crown, were blue next
the sun, red without, and white in the middle, between
the blue and red. Those of the second crown were
purple and blue within, and pale red without, and
green in the middle. And those of the third were
pale blue within, and pale red without. These crowns
inclosed one another immediately, so that their colours
proceeded in this continual order from the sun out¬
ward $ blue, white, red j purple, blue, green, pale
yellow, and red j pale blue, pale red. The diameter
of the second crown, measured from the middle of
the yellow and red on one side of the sun, to the
middle of the same colour on the other side, was 9-^
degrees or thereabouts. The diameters of the first
and third he had not time to measure ; but that of the
first seemed to be about five or six degrees, and that
of the second about twelve. The like crowns appear
sometimes about the moon j for in the beginning of
the year 1664, on February 19th at night, he saw two
such crowns about her. The diameter of the first
or innermost was about three degrees, and that of
the second about five degrees and a half. Next about
the moon was a circle of white j and next about that
the inner crown, which was of a bluish green within,,
next the white, and of a yellowish and red without',
and next about these colours were blue and green on.
the inside of the outer crown, and red on the outside
of it.
At the same time there appeared a halo, at the di¬
stance
COR
[ 677 ]
COR
Corona
stance of about 22° 35' from the centre of the moon.
It was elliptical ; and its long diameter was perpendi-
ICoronary cu]al- to the horizon, verging below farthest from the
Arteries. moon> J-Je XVas told, that the moon has sometimes
* three or more concentric crowns ot colours encompas¬
sing one another next about her body. The more
equal the globules of water or ice are to one another,
the more crowns of colours will appear, and the co¬
lours will be the more lively. The halo, at the di¬
stance of 224- degrees from the, moon, is of another
sort. By its being oval, and more remote from the
moon below than above, he concludes that it was
made by refraction in some kind of hail or snow float¬
ing in the air in an horizontal posture, the refracting
angle being about 50 or 60 degrees. Dr Smith, how¬
ever, makes it sufficiently evident, that the reason why
this halo appeared oval, and more remote from the
moon towards the horizon, is a deception of sight, and
the same with that which makes the moon appear
larger in the horizon.
Dr KotelMihow having, like Dr Halley, made very
accurate observations to determine the number of pos¬
sible rainbows, considers the coloured halo which ap¬
pears about a candle as the same thing with one of
these bows which is formed near the body of the sun,
but which is not visible on account of his excessive
splendor.
Lastly, M. Muschenbroeck concludes bis account of
coronas with observing, that some density of vapour,
or some thickness of the plates of ice, divides the light
in its transmission through the small globules of water,
or their interstices, into its separate colours : but what
that density was, or what was the size of the particles
which composed the vapour, he could not pretend to
determine.
Corona, among botanists, the name given by some
to the circumference or margin of a radiated com¬
pound flower. It corresponds to the radius of Lin¬
naeus j and is exemplified in the flat, tongue-shaped
petals which occupy the margin of the daisy or sun¬
flower.
Corona Australis or Meridionalis, Southern Crown,
a constellation of the southern hemisphere, whose stars
in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 13, in the British cata¬
logue 12.
Corona Borealis, the Northern Crown or Garland,
in Astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemi¬
sphere, whose stars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are eight, in
Tycho’s as many, and in Mr Flamstead’s 21.
Corona Imperialis, in Conchology, a name given by
some authors to a kind of voluta, differing from the
other shells of that family, by having its head orna¬
mented with a number of points, forming a sort of
crown. See Voluta, Conchology Index*
CORONALE, in Anutojny, the first suture of the
skull. See Anatomy Index.
CORONALE os, the same with os frontis. See
Anatomy Index.
CORONARY VESSELS, in Anatomy, certain ves¬
sels which furnish the substance of the heart with
blood.
Coronary Arteries, are two arteries springing out
of the aorta, before it leaves tfie pericardium.. See
Anatomy. Index.,
Coronary Vein, a vein diffused over the exterior
surface of the heart. See Anatomy Index.
Stomachic Coronary, a vein inserted into the trunk
of the splenic vein, which, by uniting with the mesen¬
teric, forms the vena porta. See Anatomy Index.
CORONARIiE, in Botany, the 10th order of plants
in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method. Un¬
der this name, instead of the more obvious one libac-
cce, Linnaeus collects a great number of genera, most
of which furnish very beautiful garden fhwers, viz.
albuca, cyanella, fritillaria, belonias, hyacinthus, hy-
poxis, lilium, melanthium, ornithogalum, scilla, tulipa,
agave, aletris, aloe, anthericum, asphodelus, bromelia,
burmannia, hemerocallis, polyanthes, tillandsia, vera-
trum, yucca.
CORONATION, tbe ceremony of investing with
a crown, particularly applied to the crowning of kings,
upon their succeeding to the sovereignty. See King.
CORONyE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Boeotia,
near Mount Helicon, and the lake Copais, situated on
an eminence : famous for the defeat of the Athenians
and Boeotians by Agesilaus. Another Corona of Thes¬
saly •, having Narthaeium to the east, and Lamia near
the Sperchius to the north (Ptolemy).
CORONE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mes-
senia, situated on the sea, giving name to the Sinus
Coronoeus, (Pliny) *, now Golfo di Coron. Pausanias
takes it to be the JELpea of Homer ; but Strabo Thuria,
and Pliny Pedasus: now Coron, in the territory of Bel-
videre, in the Morea. E. Long. 22. N. Lat. 36. 30.
CORONELLI, Vincent, a famous geographer, was
born at Venice. His skill in the mathematics having
brought him to the knowledge of the count d’Estrees,
his eminence employed him in making globes for
Louis XIV. With this view Coronelli spent some time
at Paris, and left a great number of globes there, which
are esteemed. In 1685, he was made cosnaographer
to the republic of Venice $ and four years after public
professor of geography. He founded an academy of
cosmography at Venice; and died in that city in 1718.
He published about 400 geographical charts, an abridg¬
ment of cosmography, several books on geography, and
other works.
CORONER (coronator), an ancient officer in Eng-,
land, so called because he hath principally to do with
pleas of the crown, or such wherein the king is more
immediately, concerned. And in this, light the lord
chief justice of the king’s bench is tbe principal coro¬
ner in the kingdom ; and may, if he pleases, exercise
the jurisdiction of a coroner in any part of the realm.
But there are also particular coroners for every county
in England ; usually four, but sometimes six, and some¬
times fewer. This officer is of equal authority with,
the sheriff ; and was ordained, together with him, to,
keep the peace, when the, earls gave-up the wardship
of the county.
He is chosen by all the freeholders, of the county-
court ; and by the statute of Westminster 1. Jt was en-r
acted, that none but lawful and discreet knights should
be chosen ; but it seems now sufficient if a man have
land enough to be made a knight, whether he be really,
knighted or not; for the coroner ought to have an
estate sufficient to maintain the dignity of his office,
and answer any fines that may he made, upon him for
li;s|
Coronary
Vein
II
Coroner.
COB [ 678 ] COB
Coroner Ins misbehaviour $ and, if he hath not enough to an¬
il svver, his fine shall be levied on the county, as a
CoromlKu punishment for electing an insufficient officer. Now,
indeed, through the culpable neglect of gentlemen of
property, this office has been suffered to fall into dis¬
repute, and get into low and indigent hands; so that
although formerly no coroners would be paid for ser¬
ving their country, and they were by the aforesaid
statute of Westminster 1. expressly forbidden to take
a reward under pain of great forfeiture to the king,
yet for many years past they have only desired to be
chosen for the sake of their perquisites ; being allow¬
ed fees for their attendance by the statute 3 Hen. VII.
c. 1. which Sir Edward Coke complains of heavily,
though since his time those fees have been much en¬
larged.
The coroner is chosen for life ; but may be removed,
either by being made sheriff or chosen verderor, which
are offices incompatible with the other; and by the
statute 25 Geo. II. c. 29. extortion, neglect, or misbe¬
haviour, are also made causes of removal.
The office and power of a coroner are also, like
those of the sheriff, either judicial or ministerial ; but
principally judicial. This is in a great measure ascer¬
tained by statute 4 Edw. I. De officio coronatoris; and
consists, first, in inquiring, when any person is slain, or
dies suddenly, or in prison, concerning the manner of
his death. And this must be super visum corporis ; for
it the body is not found, the coroner cannot sit. He
must also sit at the very place where the death hap¬
pened. And his inquiry is made by a jury from four,
five, or six, of the neighbouring towns, over whom he
is to preside. If any be found guilty by this inquest
of murder, he is to commit to prison for farther trial,
and is also to inquire concerning their lands, goods,
and chattels, which are forfeited thereby; but whe¬
ther it be murder or not, he must inquire whether
any deodand has accrued to the king, or the lord of
the franchise, by this death; and must certify the
whole of this inquisition to the court of king’s bench,
or the next assizes. Another branch of his office is to
inquire concerning shipwrecks; and certify whether
wreck or not, and who is in possession of the goods.
Concerning treasure-trove, he is also to inquire con¬
cerning the finders, and where it is, and whether any
one be suspected of having found and concealed a trea¬
sure ; “ and that may well be perceived (saith the old
statute of Edw. I.) where one liveth riotously, haunt¬
ing taverns, and hath done so of long time ;” where¬
upon he might be attached and held to bail upon this
suspicion only.
The ministerial office of the coroner is only as the
sheriff’s substitute. For when just exception can be
taken to the sheriff, for suspicion of partiality (as that
he is interested in the suit, or of kindred to either plain¬
tiff or defendant), the process must then be awarded to
the coroner, instead of the sheriff, for execution of the
king’s writs.
CORONET. See Crown.
Coronet, or Cornet^ of a horse, the lowest part of
the pastern, which runs through the coffin, and is distin¬
guished by the hair joining and covering the upper part
of the hoof.
( ORONILLA, Jointed-podded Colutea ; a genus
of plants belonging to the diadelphia class, and in the
natural method ranking under the 32d order, Papilio- Coronilla
nacece. See Botany Index. ||
CORONOID, and Condyloid, processes. See ^0[P<,ra-
Anatomy Index. , t>°n'
CORPORA cavernosa, in Anatotny, two spongi-
ous bodies, called also corpora nervosa and corpus span*
giosum. See Anatomy Index.
Corpora Pyramidalia, are two protuberances of the
under part of the cerebellum, about an inch long; so
called from their resemblance to a pyramid. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
Corpora Striata. See Anatomy Index.
CORPORAL, an inferior officer under a sergeant,
in a company of foot, who has charge over one of the
divisions, places and relieves sentinels, and keeps good
order in the corps de garde ; he also receives the word
from the inferior rounds which pass by his corps de
garde. This officer carries a fusee, and is commonly
an old soldier ; there are generally three corporals in
each company.
Corporal of a Ship of JFar, an officer under the ma¬
ster at arms, employed to teach the officers the ex¬
ercise of small arms, or of musketry ; to attend at the
gangway, on entering ports, and observe that no spi¬
rituous liquors are brought into the ship, unless by ex¬
press leave from the officers. He is also to extinguish
the fire and candles at eight o’clock in winter, and
nine in summer, when the evening gun is fired ; and
to walk frequently down in the lower decks in his
watch, to see that there are no lights but such as are
under the charge of proper sentinels.
Corporal {Corporale'), is also an ancient church-
term, signifying the sacred linen spread under the cha¬
lice in the eucharist and mass, to receive the fragments
of the bread, if any chance to fall. Some say it was
Pope Eusebius who first enjoined the use of the corpo¬
ral ; others ascribe it to St Sylvester. It was the cu¬
stom to carry corporals, with some solemnity, to fires,
and to heave them against the flames, in order to ex¬
tinguish them. Philip de Comines says, the pope
made Louis XI. a present of the corpoi ale whereon my
lord St Peter sung mass.
CORPORATION, a body politic or incorporate,
so called, because the persons or members are join¬
ed into one body, and are qualified to take, grant,
&c.
Of corporations there is a great variety subsisting,
for the advancement of religion, of learning, and of
commerce ; in order to preserve entire and for ever
those rights and immunities, which, if they were
granted only to those individuals of which the body
corporate is composed, would upon their death be ut¬
terly lost and extinct. To show the advantages of
these incorporations, let us consider the case of a col¬
lege in either of our universities, founded
et orandvm, for the encouragement and support of re¬
ligion and learning. If this was a mere voluntary as¬
sembly, the individuals which compose it might in¬
deed read, pray, study, and perform scholastic exer¬
cises together, so long as they could agree to do so ;
but they could neither frame nor receive any laws or
rules of their conduct; none at least which would
have any binding force, for want of a coercive power
to create a sufficient obligation. Neither could they
be capable of retaining any privileges or immunities :
COR [ 679 ] COR
Corpora- for, if such privileges be attacked, which of all this
lion. unconnected assembly has the right or ability to de-
-—'r—J fend them ? And, when they are dispersed by death or
otherwise, how shall they transfer these advantages to
another set of students, equally unconnected as them¬
selves ? So also, with regard to holding estates or other
property, if land be granted for the purposes of religion
or learning to 20 individuals not incorporated, there is
no legal way of continuing the property to any other
persons for the same purposes, but by endless convey¬
ances from one to the other, as often as the hands are
changed. But when they are consolidated and united
into a corporation, they and their successors are then
considered as one person in law : as one person, they
have one will, which is collected from the sense of the
majority of the individuals : this one will may establish
rules and orders for the regulation of the whole, which
are a sort of municipal laws of this little republic*, or
rules and statutes may be prescribed to it at its crea¬
tion, which are then in the place of natural laws t
the privileges and immunities, the estates and posses¬
sions, of the corporation, when once vested in them,
will be for ever vested, without any new conveyance
to new successions j for all the individual members
that have existed from the foundation to the present
time, or that shall ever hereafter exist, are but one
person in law, a person that never dies : in like
manner as the river Thames is still the same river,
though the parts which compose it are changing every
instant.
The original invention of these political constitutions
seems entirely to belong to the Romans. T-hey were
introduced, as Plutarch says, by Numaj who finding,
upon his accession, the city torn to pieces by the two
rival factions of Sabines and Romans, thought it a
prudent and politic measure to subdivide these two in¬
to many smaller ones, by instituting separate societies
of every manual trade and profession. They were
afterwards much considered by the civil law, in which
they were called universitates, as forming one whole
out of many individuals *, or collegia, from being ga¬
thered together : they were adopted also by the canon
law, for the maintenance of ecclesiastical discipline ;
and from them our spiritual corporations are derived.
But our laws have considerably refined and improved
upon the invention, according to the usual genius
of the English nation, particularly with regard to sole
corporations, consisting of one person only, of which
the Roman lawyers had no notion j their maxim being
that Tres faciunt collegium ; though they held, that
if a corporation, originally consisting of three persons,
be reduced to one, Si universitas ad unum redit; it
may still subsist as a corporation, Et stet nomen um-
versitatis.
As to the several sorts of corporations, the first di¬
vision of them is into aggregate and sole. Corporations
aggregate consist of many persons united together into
one society, and are kept up by a perpetual succession
of members, so as to continue for ever : of which kind
are the mayor and commonalty of a city, the head and
fellows of a college, the dean and chapter of a cathe¬
dral church. Corporations sole consist of one person
only and his successors, in some particular station, who
are incorporated by law, in order to give them some
legal capacities and advantages, particularly that of
2
perpetuity, which in their natural persons they could Corpora-
not have had. In this sense the king is a sole corpora- ri»n.
tion j so is a bishop } so are some deacons and prebenda- v-~~
ries, distinct from their several chapters j and so is every
parson and vicar. And the necessity, or at least use,
of this institution will be very apparent, if we consider
the case of a parson of a church. At the original en¬
dowment of parish churches, the freehold of the church,
the church-yard, the parsonage-house, the glebe, and
the tithes of the parish, were vested in the then parson
by the bounty of the donor, as a temporal recom¬
pense to him for his spiritual care of the inhabitants,
and with intent that the same emoluments should ever
afterwards continue as a recompense for the same care.
But how was this to be effected ? The freehold was
vested in the parson j and if we suppose it vested in
his natural capacity, on his death it might descend to
his heir, and would be liable to his debts and incum¬
brances : or at best, the heir might be compellable, at
some trouble and expence, to convey these rights to
the succeeding incumbent. The law therefore has wise¬
ly ordained, that the parson, quatenus parson, shall ne¬
ver die, any more than the king; by making him and
his successors a corporation. By which means all the
original rights of the parsonage are preserved entire to
the successor ; for the present incumbent, and his pre¬
decessor who lived seven centuries ago, are in law one.
and the same persqn ; and what was given to the one
was given to the other also.
Another division of corporations, either sole or ag¬
gregate, is into ecclesiastical and lay. Ecclesiastical
corporations are, where the members that compose it
are entirely spiritual persons, such as bishops, certain
deans and prebendaries, all archdeacons, parsons, and
vicars, which, are sole corporations ; deans and chapters
at present, and formerly prior and convent, abbot and
monks, and the like, bodies aggregate. These are
erected for the furtherance of religion, and perpetu¬
ating the rights of the church.—-Lay corporations are
of two sorts, civil and eleemosynary. The civil are such
as are erected for a variety of temporal purposes. The
king, for instance, is made a corporation, to prevent in
general the possibility of an interregnum or vacancy of
the throne, and to preserve the possessions of the crown
entire ; for immediately upon the demise of one king,
his successor is in full possession of the regal rights and
dignity. Other lay corporations are erected for the
good government of a town or particular district, as a
mayor and commonalty, bailiff and burgesses, or the
like : some for the advancement and regulation of ma¬
nufactures and commerce ; as the trading companies
of London and other towns : and some for the better
carrying on of divers special purposes ; as church war¬
dens, for conservation of the goods of the parish ; the
college of physicians and company of surgeons in Lon¬
don, for the improvement of the medical science ; the
royal society for the advancement of natural know¬
ledge; and the society of antiquarians lor promoting
the study of antiquities. The eleemosynary sort are
such as are constituted for the perpetual distribution of
the free alms or bounty of the founder of them to
such persons as he has directed. Of this kind are all
hospitals for the maintenance of the poor, sick, and
impotent; and all colleges, both in our universities and
out of them: which colleges are founded for two pur¬
poses :
COB [ 680 ] COB
Goipora- poses : 1. For the promotion of piety and learning by
t"''' proper regulations and ordinances. 2. For imparting
assistance to the members of those bodies, in order to
enable them to prosecute their devotion and studies
’with greater ease and assiduity. And all these eleemo¬
synary corporations are, strictly speaking, lay, and not
ecclesiastical, even though composed of ecclesiastical
persons, and although they in some things partake of
the nature, privileges, and restrictions of ecclesiastical
bodies.
Having thus marshalled the several species of corpo¬
rations, let us next proceed to consider, 1. How corpo¬
rations in general may be created. 2. What are their
powers, capacities, and incapacities. And, 3. How
they may be dissolved.
I. Corporations, by the civil law, seem to have been
created by the mere act and voluntary association of
their members j provided such convention was not con¬
trary to law, for then it was illicitvvi collegium. It does
not appear that the prince’s consent was necessary to be
actually given to the foundation of them 5 but merely
that the original founders of these voluntary and friend¬
ly societies (for they were little more than such) should
not establish any meetings in opposition to the laws of
the state.
But in England the king’s consent is absolutely ne¬
cessary to the erection of any corporation, either im¬
plied or expressly given. The king’s implied con¬
sent is to be found in corporations which exist by force
of the common law, to which our former kings are
supposed to have given their concurrence j common
law being nothing else but custom, arising from the
universal agreement of the whole community. Of
this sort are the king himself, all bishops, parsons, vi¬
cars, church-wardens, and some others j who by com¬
mon law have ever been held (as far as our books can
show us) to have been corporations, virtute officii; and
this incorporation is so inseparably annexed to their
offices, that we cannot frame a complete legal idea of
any of those persons, but we must also have an idea of
a corporation, capable to transmit his rights to his suc¬
cessors, at the same time. Another method of impli¬
cation, whereby the king’s consent is presumed, is as
to all corporations by prescription, such as the city of
London, and many others, which have existed as cor¬
porations, time whereof the memory of man runneth
out to the contrary j and therefore are looked upon in
law to be well created. lor though the members
thereof can show no legal charter of incorporation,
yet in cases of such high antiquity the law presumes
tuere once was one ^ and that by the variety of acci¬
dents, which a length of time may produce, the char¬
ter is lost or destroyed. The methods by which the
king’s consent is expressly given, are either by act of
parliament or charter. By act of parliament, of which
the loyal assent is a necessary ingredient, corporations
may undoubtedly be created : but it is observable, that
most of those statutes which are usually cited as ha¬
ving created incorporations, do either confirm such as
have been before created by the king •, as in the
case of the college of physicians, erected by charter
10 Hen. \ III. which charter was afterwards confirm¬
ed in parliament: or, they permit the king to erect a
corporation infuturo with such and such powers ; as is
the case of the bank of England, and the society of the
3
British fishery. So that the immediate creative act is ^01.
usually performed by the king alone, in virtue of his twT
royal prerogative. 1
All the other methods therefore whereby corpora¬
tions exist, by common law, by prescription, and by
act of parliament, are for the most part reducible to
this of the king’s letters patent, or charter of incorpo¬
ration. The king’s creation may be performed by the
words crenmus, erigimusffinndavms, incorporamus, or
the like. iNay it is held, that if the king grants to a
set of men to have gifclam mercatorium, a mercantile
meeting or assembly,” this is alone sufficient to incor¬
porate and establish them for ever.
T-he king (it is said) may grant to a subject the
power of erecting corporations, though the contrarv
was formerly held ; that is, he may permit the subject
to name the persons and powers of the corporation at
his pleasure ; but it is really the king that erects, and
the subject is hut the instrument; for though none but
the king can make a corporation, yet quifacit per ali*
um,facitper se. In this manner the chancellor to the
university of Oxford has power by charter to erect cor¬
porations 5 and has actually often exerted it in the erec¬
tion of several matriculated companies, non' subsisting,
of tradesmen subservient to the students.
When a corporation is erected, a name must be given
to it ; and by that name alone it must sue and be sued,
and do all legal acts.
IE After a corporation is so formed and named, it
acquires may powers and rights, which we are next to
consider. Some of these are necessarily and inseparably
incident to every corporation 5 which incidents as soon
as a corporation is duly erected, are tacitly annexed of
course. As, 1. To have perpetual succession. This is
the very end of its incorporation ; for there cannot he
a succession for ever without an incorporation $ and
therefore all aggregate corporations have a power
necessarily implied of electing members in the room
of such as go off. 2. To sue or be sued, implead or
be impleaded, grant or receive, by its corporate name,
and do all other acts as natural persons may. 3. To
purchase lands and hold them, for the benefit of them¬
selves and their successors : which two are conse¬
quential to the former. 4. To have a common seal.
For a corporation being an invisible body, cannot ma¬
nifest its intention by any personal act or oral dis¬
course : it otherwise acts and speaks only by its com¬
mon seal. For though the particular members mav
express their private consents to any act by words or
signing their names, yet this does not bind the corpora¬
tion ; it is the fixing of the seal, and that onlv, which
unites the several assents of the individuals who com¬
pose the community, and makes one joint assent of the
whole. 5. To make bye-laws or private statutes for
the better government of the corporation ; which are
binding upon themselves, unless contrary to the laws
of the land, and then they are void. But no trading
company is with us allowed to make bye-laws which
may affect the king’s prerogative or the common pro¬
fit of the people, under penalty of 40!. unless they
be approved by the chancellor, treasurer, and chief
justices, or the judges of assize in their circuits ; and
even though they be so approved, still, if contrary to
law, they are void. Uhese five powers are inseparably
incident to every corporation, at least to every corpo¬
ration
COB [ 681 ] COR
"erpora- rati°n aggregate : f°r two ^iem» though they may
"ion. he practised, yet are very unnecessary to a corporation
—'Y““J sole ; viz. to have a corporate seal to testify his sole
assent, and to make statutes for the regulation of his
own conduct.
Corporations have a capacity to purchase lands for
themselves and successors; but they are excepted out
of the statute of wills j so that no devise of lands to a
corporation by will is good •, except for charitable uses,
by stat. 43 Eliz. c. 4. which exception is again great¬
ly narrowed by the stat. 9 Geo. II. c. 36. And also,
by a great variety of statutes, their privilege even of
purchasing from any living granter is much abridged j
so that now a corporation, either ecclesiastical or lay,
must have a license from the king to purchase, before
they can exert that capacity which is vested in them
by the common law : nor is even this in all cases suffi¬
cient. These statutes are generally called the statutes
of mortmain. See Mortmain.
'kckst. The general duties of all bodies politic, considered
ommcnt. Jn tlieir corporate capacity, may, like those of natural
persons, be reduced to this single one ; that of acting
up to the end or design, whatever it be, for which they
were created by their founder.
III. How corporations may be dissolved. Any per-
ticular member may be disfranchised, or lose his place
in the corporation, by acting contrary to the laws of
the society, or the laws of the land : or he may resign
it by its own voluntary act. But the body politic may
also itself be dissolved in several ways j which dissolu¬
tion is the civil death of the corporation ; and in this
case their lands and tenements shall revert to the per¬
son, or his heirs, who granted them to the corpora¬
tion j for the law doth annex a condition to every
such grant, that if the corporation be dissolved, the
granter shall have the lands again, because the cause
of the grant faileth. The grant is indeed only during
the life of the corporation j which may endure for
ever: but when that life is determined to be the dis¬
solution of the body politic, the granter takes it back
by reversion, as in the case of every other grant for life.
The debts of a corporation, either to or from it, are
totally extinguished by its dissolution j so that the
members thereof cannot recover, or be charged with
them, in their natural capacities : agreeable to that
maxim of the civil law, Si quid universitati debttur,
singulis non debetur ; ntc, quod debet universitas, sin-
guli debent.
A corporation may be dissolved, I. By act of par¬
liament, which is boundless in its operations. 2. By
the natural death of all its members, in cases of an ag¬
gregate corporation. 3. By surrender of its franchises
into the hands of the king, which is a kind of suicide.
4. By forfeiture of its charter through negligence or
abuse of its franchises, in which case the law judges
that the body politic has broken the conditions upon
which it was incorporated, and therefore the incor¬
poration is void. And the regular course is to bring an
information in nature of a writ of quo warranto, to
inquire by what warrant the members now exercise
their corporate power, having forfeited it by such and
such proceedings. The exertion of this act of law,
for the purposes of the state, in the reigns of King
Charles and King James II. particularly by seizing the
charter of the city of London, gave great and just of-
Vol. VI. Part II. +
fence j though perhaps, in strictness of law, the pro- Corpora-
ceedings in most of them were sufficiently regular ; lion
but the judgment against that of London was reversed jl
by act of parliament after the Revolution j and by the
same statute it is enacted, that the franchises of the
city of London shall never more be forfeited for any
cause whatsoever. And because by the common law
corporations were dissolved, in case the mayor or head
officer was not duly elected on the day appointed in the
charter or established by prescription, it is now pro¬
vided, that for the future no corpoi-ation shall be dissol¬
ved upon that account, and ample directions are given
for appointing a new officer, in case there be no elec¬
tion, or a void one, made upon the charter or prescrip¬
tive day.
Corporation Act, is that which prevents any person
from being legally elected into any office relating to
the government of any city or corporation, unless
within a twelvemonth before he has received the sacra¬
ment of the Lord’s Supper according to the rites of the
church of England j and which enjoins him to take the
oaths of allegiance and supremacy when he takes the
oath of office ; otherwise his election is void.
CORPOREAL, those qualities which denominate a
body. See Incorporeal.
CORPOREITY, the quality of that which is cor¬
poreal, or has body; or that which constitutes or deno¬
minates it. such. The corporeity of God was the
capital error of the Anthropomorphites. Some au¬
thors reproach Tertullian with admitting a corporeity
in the Deity ; but it is manifest, by bod// he means no
more than substance. The Mahometans reproach the
Samaritans at this day, with a belief of the corporeity
of God. Many of the ancients believed the corporeity
of angels.
CORPSE, a dead body.
If any one, in taking up a dead body, steals the
shroud, or other apparel, it will be felony. Stealing on¬
ly the corpse itself is not felony j but it is punishable as
a misdemeanor by indictment at common law.
CORPS, in Architecture, is a term borrowed from
the French, signifying any part that projects or advan¬
ces beyond the naked of a wall and which serves as
a ground for some decoration or the like.
Corps de Battaille, is the main body of an army
drawn up for battle.
Corps de Garde, a post in an army, sometimes under
covert, sometimes in the open air, to receive a body of
soldiers, who are relieved from time to time, and are
to watch in their turns, for the security of a quarter, a
camp, station, &c. The word is also used for the men
who watch therein. It is usual to have, beside the
great, a little corps de garde, at a good distance before
the lines ; to be the more readily advertised of the ap¬
proach of the enemy.
CORPULENCY, the state of a person too much
loaded with flesh or fat.
Corpulency is the occasion of various diseases, and
particularly the apoplexy. It was held infamous among
the ancient Lacedaemonians.
Sennertus mentions a man that weighed 600 pounds,
and a maid 36 years of age who weighed 450. Bright
of Malden, who died at the age of 29 years in 175°*
weighed 616 pounds. Chiapin \ itelli, marquis ot
Cerona, a noted Spanish general m his time, from an
4 R excessive
COR
Corpulency excessive corpulency, is said to have reduced himself by
[) drinking of vinegar, to such a degree of leanness, that
Con-ado. jje could fold his skin several times round him.
t Castile soap, in the form of a bolus, an electuary,
pills, or dissolved in a gill or more of soft water, from
one to four drachms taken at bed-time, is strongly
recommended with a view of reducing corpulency, in
a discourse on its nature, causes, and cure, by Mal¬
colm Flemyng, M. D. Loud. 1760. See Medicine
Index.
CORPUS, in Anatomy, is applied to several parts
of the animal structure ; as corpus callosum, corpus
cavcrnosum, &c. See Anatomy Index.
Corpus is also used in matters of learning, for seve¬
ral works of the same nature collected and bound to¬
gether.
Gratian made a collection of the canons of the
church, called corpus canonum. The corpus of the civil
law is composed of the digest, code, and institutes.
We have also a corpus of the Greek poets ; and ano¬
ther of the Latin poets.
Corpus Christi, a festival of the church of England,
kept on the next Thursday after Trinity Sunday, in¬
stituted in honour of the eucbarist ^ to which also one
of the colleges of Oxford is dedicated.
CORPUSCLE, in Physics, a minute particle, or
physical atom, being such as a natural body is made
up of. By this word is not meant the elementary
particles, nor hypostatical principles of chemists } hut
such particles, whether of a simple or compound na¬
ture, whose parts will not he dissolved nor dissipated by
ordinary degrees of heat.
CORPUSCULAR PHILOSOPHY, is that way of
philosophising which endeavours to explain things, and
to account for the phenomena of nature, by the mo¬
tion, figure, rest, position, &c. of the corpuscles, or the
minute particles of matter.
Mr Boyle sums up the chief principles of the cor¬
puscular hypothesis, which now flourishes under the me¬
chanical philosophy, in these particulars :
1. They suppose that there is but one catholic or
universal matter, which is an extended, impenetrable,
and divisible substance, common to all bodies, and ca¬
pable of all forms. 2. That this matter, in order to
form the vast variety of natural bodies, must have mo¬
tion in some or all its assignable parts ; and that this
motion was given to matter by God the Creator of all
tilings, and has all manner of directions and tendencies.
3. Matter must also be actually divided into parts, and
eacli of these primitive particles, fragments, or atoms
of matter must have its proper magnitude or size,
as also its peculiar figure or shape. 4. They sup¬
pose also, that these differently sized and shaded par¬
ticles may have as different orders and positions, where¬
of great variety may arise in the composition of bodies.
CORRAD1NI DE Sezza, Peter Marcellinus, a
learned civilian and cardinal, born at Sezza, in 16^8,
acquired the esteem and confidence of Clement XI.
and died at Rome in 1743. He was the author of a
learned and curious work, entitled, “ Verus Latium
profanum et sacrum,” 2 vols folio y and a history of
Sezza, in 4to.
CORRADO, Sebastian, an Italian grammarian of
the 16th century, taught the Greek and Latin tongues
at Reggio, where he formed an academy of polite li-
COR
terature ; and at length removed to Bologna, in or- Cornu!
der to be professor of those languages. He wrote se- {I
veral works, the most esteemed of which are, “ Que- Coneeii
stura in qua Ciceronis vita refertur” an excellent' v~“
performance ; and, “ de Lingua Latina” He died at
1SS6-
CORRECTION, in Printing, the act of retrench¬
ing the faults in a work j or the reading which the
corrector gives the first proofs, to point out and amend
the faults to he rectified by the compositor.
The corrections are placed on the margin of each
page, right against the line where the faults are found.
There are different characters used to express difl’erent
corrections, as or tl, dele, for any thing to be ef¬
faced or left out. When any thing is to be inserted,,
the place is marked in the line with a caret a, and the
insertion added in the margin. When a word, syl¬
lable, &c. is to be altered, it is erased out of the
proof, and that to he put in its room written in the
margin j always observing, if there be several mistakes
in the same line, that the corrections in the margin be
separated by little bars or strokes, |. If a space he
omitted, its place is marked with a caret, and the
margin with $. If a space be wrong placed, as in
the middle of a word, the two parts are connected
with a cu rve, and the same character put in the
margin. If a letter he inverted, it is expressed on
the margin with g. If any thing be transposed, it is
marked thus : The shortest \ure the\ follie.s\best; for the
shortest follies are the best; and the margin is added tr.
in a circle. If Roman characters are to be changed for
Italic, or vice versa, a line is drawn under them thus,
and Roman or Ltalic added to the margin: if to capi¬
tals, a double line. If a word or sentence is entirely
omitted, the place is marked with a caret, and in the
margin is inserted the word out. If the letters of
a word stand too far asunder, a line is drawn under
them, and in the margin is put a crooked line or
hook, thus
Correction House, a place of confinement, where
vagrants and persons guilty of crimes of an inferior
degree, suffer punishment by being obliged to labour
for a certain period of time, as for months or years,
according to the nature of the crime. The benefits
arising to society, and the reformation of offenders,
from this mode of punishment, have been variously esti¬
mated by different writers, according to the views
which they have taken of the effects and consequences
which are supposed to follow the confinement and re¬
straint to which the criminal is subjected. It has
been regarded as one of the greatest defects of the
laws of this country, that, excepting the punishment
of death, there is no other which is accompanied with
that degree of severity and terror to awe or restrain
offenders from the commission of crimes. To this pur¬
pose are the following observations of X)r Paley. The
laws of England, he says, “ are not provided with any
other punishment than that of death, sufficiently terri¬
ble to keep offenders in awe. Transportation, which is
the punishment second in the order of severity, answers
the purpose of example very imperfectly j not only be¬
cause exile is in reality a slight punishment to those who
have neither property, nor friends, nor regular means
[ 682 ]
C O Pt [ 683 ] COP
orrection of subsistence at home, but because the punishment,
v—whatever it be, is unobserved and unknown. A trans¬
ported convict may suffer under his sentence, but his
sufferings are removed from the view of his country¬
men $ his misery is unseen j his condition strikes no
terror into the minds of those for whose warning and
admonition it was intended. This chasm in the scale
of punishment produces also two farther imperfections
in the administration of penal justice $ of which the
first is, that the same punishment is extended to crimes
of very different characters and malignancy j and the
second, that punishments, separated by a great interval,
are assigned to crimes hardly distinguishable in their
guilt and mischief.”
This defect, it has been supposed, might be made up
by the proper management of houses of correction. For
as the object of punishment is not only the amend¬
ment of the offender, but is also intended to operate as
an example to others, both these objects seem to be
mare certainly attained by the confinement and labour
to which criminals are subjected in houses of this de¬
scription than by any species of punishment provided
by the laws of Britain. It is greatly to be regretted
that the punishments inflicted by the laws of this coun¬
try, whether imprisonment or exile, pain or infamy,
have rarely the effect of producing any reformation of
the criminal. On the contrax-y, he often returns to the
world more hardened in crime, and more determined
in his wicked courses. Houses of correction might
probably in this respect be attended with more benefi¬
cial consequences. This seems to be the case with the
Amsterdam house of correction, an account of which in
this view will not, it is hoped, be unacceptable to our
readers. It is extracted from the Journal of the Tra¬
vels of M. Thouin.
The Amsterdam correction house, from the employ-
inent of the prisoners confined in it, is called the rasping-
house, and is destined to the reception of those malefac¬
tors whose crimes do not amount to a capital offence.
Their punishment cannot so properly be denominated
solitary confinement, as a sequestration from society du¬
ring a limited term of years. The building is situated
in a part of the suburbs to the north-east of the city.
The exterior has nothing remarkable, either with re¬
spect to form or extent. It is detached from the street
by a spacious court, which contains the keeper’s lodge,
together with apartments for the different servants be¬
longing to the establishment. Over the gate, which
opens from this court into the prison, are placed two
statues, as large as life, representing two men in the
act of sawing a piece of logwood.
The inner court is in the form of a square, round
which are arranged the apartments «f the prisonei’s, to¬
gether with the necessary warehouses. One part of the
ground story is divided into different chambers ; the
other serves as a depot for the logwood, and the imple¬
ments employed in its preparation.
The keeper, whose countenance, contrary to the ge¬
neral custom of persons of his profession, was strongly
indicative of urbanity and gentleness, introduced M.
Thouin into an apartment where two prisoners were at
work in sawing a large log of Campeachy wood. The
saw is composed of four blades joined together, with
very strong, large, and sharp teeth, which make a scis-
sure in the wood of nearly two inches in breadth. The
operation is repeated, till the pieces become too small Correction.
to undergo the saw, when they are ground in mills pe-  v —■-»
culiarly constructed for this purpose.
This employment requires an extraordinary exertion
of strength, and is at first a severe penance even to ro¬
bust persons; but habit, address, ami practice, soon ren¬
der it easy; and the prisoners in a short time become
competent to furnish, without painful exertion, their
weekly contingent of 20olb. weight of sawed pieces.
After completing this task, they even find time to fa¬
bricate a variety of little articles in wood and straw,
which they sell to those who visit the prison, or dispose
of, by means of agents, in the town.
M. Thouin next inspected three apartments of dif¬
ferent dimensions, which opened into the inner court.
The one was inhabited by four, the second by six, and
the third by ten prisoners. The furniture of the rooms
consisted in hammocks, with a mattress, a blanket, and
a coverlid to each, tables, chairs, and stools, glass and
earthen vessels, and various other articles ofconvenience.
Every thing in these apartments was distinguished by
neatness and propriety ; and notwithstanding the num¬
ber of inhabitants allotted to each was fully adequate to
the dimensions of the rooms, the senses were not offend¬
ed with any disagreeable scent, and the air was in every
respect as pure and wholesome as the surrounding at¬
mosphere.
In an obscure part of the building axe a number of
cells, in which formerly those prisoners who revolted
against the proper subordination of the place, or ill-
treated their comrades, were confined for a few days.
But the keeper assured M. Thouin that these cells had
not been made use of for upwards of 10 years. They
are dai-k gloomy dungeons, with only a small aperture
for the admission of light and air. The suppression of
this barbarous and coercive punishment does honour to
the humanity of government.
The store-rooms are filled with various kinds of wood
for the purposes of dyeing ; as the haematoxylum cam-
pechiannm, the morns tinctoria, the ccesalpinia sappati,
&c. They are all exotics, with the exception of the
evonymus Europczus. The warehouses were not of suf¬
ficient extent to contain the quantity of wood, which
was deposited in piles in diffei’ent parts of the court.
The prisoners, amounting to 76 in number, were
uniformly habited in coarse woollens ; wear very good
stockings, large leather shoes, white shirts, and caps or
hats. They are, by the rules of the house, obliged to
frequent ablutions, which greatly contribute to the pre¬
servation of their health. There was only one sick per¬
son amongst them ; and, what is not a little remarkable,
almost all the prisoners had formerly lived in large com¬
mercial towns; very fexv villagers were amongst them.
They had all been sentenced to imprisonment for theft:
but it depends upon themselves, by x'eformation and good
behaviour, to shorten the time of their confinement,
which many of them frequently do.
The keeper, whose humanity to the unfortunate per¬
sons committed to his cai'e entitles him lather to th«
title of their protector than their gaoler (and M. Thouin
informs us, that the prisoners genei’ally called him bv
no other name than father), assists them with his coun¬
sels and friendly admonitions. He registers every week,
in a book appropriated to this purpose, both the in¬
stances of good and bad behaviour, which is annually
4 R 2 submitted
COR [ 684 ] COR
Correction, submitted to the examination of the magistracy, who,
'    from this report, abridge or prolong the term of con¬
finement, according to the degree of indulgence which
each prisoner appears to merit. Cases frequently hap¬
pen where a malefactor, condemned to an imprisonment
of eight years, by his good behaviour procures his en¬
largement at the expiration of four j and so on in pro¬
portion for a shorter term. But great attention is paid
to discriminate between actual reform and hypocritical
artifice.
The reward of good behaviour is not, however, con¬
fined to, or withheld till, the period of actual liberation.
Their restoration to society is preceded by a progressive
amelioration of their lot. Their work is gradually ren¬
dered less laborious, they are accommodated with sepa¬
rate apartments, and employed in the services of do¬
mestic economy. The keeper even entrusts them with
commissions beyond the precincts of the prison 5 and
scarce a single instance has occurred of their abusing
this indulgence. By this prudent management, a con¬
siderable saving is effected in the expence of the esta¬
blishment, at the same time that it tends to wear away
prejudice, and to initiate the prisoners by gradual ad¬
vances into the reciprocal duties of social life.
M. Thouin made particular inquiries whether it was
customary for persons after their discharge to be con¬
fined a second and third time, r« is but too often the
case in many countries, for a repetition of their offence.
He was informed, that such instances very rarely occur j
but the case is not without precedent, as he observed in
the person of a young Jew, who was then in the rasp¬
ing-house for the third time. The case of this man is
somewhat extraordinary. During the period of his de¬
tention, he always conforms, with the most scrupulous
observance, to the rules of the place, and gives general
satisfaction by his exemplary conduct. But such, as he
himself avowed to our traveller, is his constitutional
propensity to thieving, that no sooner is the term of his
imprisonment elapsed, than he returns with redoubled
ardour to his lawless courses. It is not so much for the
sake of plunder, as to gratify his irresistible impulse,
that he follows this vicious life ; and M. Thouin adds,
that he recounted his different exploits with as much
exultation and triumph as a veteran displays when re¬
hearsing his warlike achievements.
Another salutary regulation in this institution, from
whsch the best consequences result, is the indulgence
granted to the prisoners of receiving the visits of their
wives and mistresses twice every week. Proper care,
however, is taken to guard against the introduction of
disease j and the ladies, in one sense, purchase their ad¬
mission by giving a trifling sum of money at the gate,
which becomes the perquisite of the aged prisoners
whose wants are of a different nature from their youth-
-nl comrades. Ihus the pleasures of one class contri¬
bute to the comforts of the other j and the entrance
money, trifling as it is, keeps away a crowd of idle va¬
gabonds, who have no acquaintance with the prisoners.
The ladies at their visits are permitted to eat and drink
with their lovers ; and when the conversation becomes
too animated for a third person to be present, the rest
of the company obligingly take the hint, and leave them
to enjoy a tetc a-tcte.—By this prudent regulation,
many hurtful consequences attendant on a total seclu¬
sion from female society are guarded against.
M. Thouin concludes his account with observing, Correetu
that the rasping-house at Amsterdam bears a greater || "
resemblance to a well-ordered manufactory than to a Corrosioi
prison. It were to he wished, that all similar institu- v—
tions were conducted upon a similar plan.
But it is probable that solitary confinement, and less
intercourse with their friends, would have a better ef¬
fect in reforming the habits of offenders than the in¬
dulgences which M. Thouin considers as so beneficial.
I he philosopher whom we formerly quoted observes,
that “ of reforming punishments none promises so mudi
success as that of solitary imprisonment, or the confine¬
ment of criminals in separate aportments. This im¬
provement of the Amsterdam house of correction would
augment the terror of the punishment, would seclude
the criminal from the society of his fellow-prisoners, in
which society the worse are sure to corrupt the better j
would wean him from the knowledge of his com¬
panions, and from the love of that turbulent pernicious
life in which his vices had engaged him $ would ral.^e
up in him reflections on the folly of his choice, and dis¬
pose his mind to such bitter and continued penitence,
as might produce a lasting alteration in the principles
of his conduct.”
In addition to the confinement and labour which of¬
fenders undergo in houses of correction, some are sub¬
ject to whipping at certain stated intervals. The be¬
nefit arising from this mode of punishment, with regard
to the reformation of the criminal, has been justly ques¬
tioned. If any good effect is to be expected from this
discipline, it must be inflicted in private.
CORRECTOR, in general, denotes something that
mends the faults or bad qualities of others.
Corrector of the Staple, a clerk belonging to the
staple, whose business is to write down and record the
bargains that merchants make there.
Corrector, in Medicine or Pharmacy, an ingre¬
dient in a composition, which guards against or abates
the force of another.
CORREGIDOR, the name of an officer of justice
in Spain, and countries subject to the Spanish govern¬
ment. He is the chief judge of a town or province.
CORREGIO. See Allegri.
CORRELATIVE, something opposed to another
in a certain relation. Jhus father and son are corre¬
latives. Light and darkness, motion and rest, are cor¬
relative and opposite terms.
CORREZE, a department of France, which com¬
prises part of the ancient Limousin. It contains 2400
square miles, with 255,000 inhabitants. In the north
it is mountainous, but the low grounds produce rye,
barley, chesnuts, vines, &c. The mineral productions
are pit coal, slate, limestone, iron, lead, copper, and
antimony. The manufactures are inconsiderable. The
principal rivers are the Dordogne, the Correze, and
the % ezere. Tulle is the chief town.
CORRIGIOLA, in Botany, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the pentandria class. See Botany Index.
CORROBORANTS, or Corroborative Medi¬
cines. See Strengtheners.
CORROSION, in a general sense, the action of
gnawing away, by degrees, the continuity of the parts
of bodies.
Corrosion, in Chemistry, an action of bodies, by
means of proper menstruums, that produces new com¬
binations,
COR [ 685 1 COR
(orrosiou binations, and a change of their form, without con-
11 verting them to fluidity.
1 (irruption. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE MERCURY. See ChE-
- » misery Index.
CORRUGATOR muscle. See Anatomy, Table
of the Muscles.
CORROSIVES, in Surgery, are medicines which
corrode whatever part of the body they are applied to.
Such are burnt alum, white precipitate of mercury,
white vitriol, red precipitate of mercury, butter of an¬
timony, lapis infernalis, &c.
CORRUPTICOLiE, a sect who rose out of the
Monophysites in Egypt about the year 519, under their
chief Severus, the pretended patriarch of Alexandria.
Their distinguishing doctrine, whence they derived
their name, was, that the body of Jesus Christ was cor¬
ruptible ; that the fathers had owned it ; and that to
deny it was to deny the truth of our Saviour’s passion.
On the other hand, Julian of Halicarnassus, another
Eutychian, a refugee, as well as Severus, in Alexan¬
dria, maintained that the body of Jesus Christ had been
always incorruptible ; that to say it was corruptible,
was to make a distinction between Jesus Christ and
the Word, and by consequence to make two natures in
Jesus Christ.
The people of Alexandria were divided between the
two opinions 5 and the partisans of Severus were called
corrupticolce, q. d. worshippers of something corruptible:
sometimes they were denominated corruptibiles; and
the adherents of Julian incorruptibiles or phantasiastcc.
The clergy and secular powers favoured the first j the
monks and the people the latter.
CORRUPTION, the destruction, extinction, or at
least cessation for a time, of the proper mode of exist¬
ence of any natural body. See Putrefaction.
Corruption of Blood, in Law, one of the consequen¬
ces of an attainder j and is both upwards and down¬
wards : so that an attainted person can neither inherit
lands or other hereditaments from his ancestors, nor
retain those he is already in possession of, nor transmit
them by descent to any heir ; but the same shall escheat
to the lord of the fee, subject to the king’s superior
right of forfeiture j and the person attainted shall also
obstruct all descents to his posterity, wherever they are
obliged to derive a title through him to a remoter an¬
cestor. See Attainder.
pacfot. This is one of those notions which our laws have
ommait. adopted from the feudal constitutions, at the time of
the Norman conquest; as appears from its being un¬
known in those tenures which are indisputably Saxon,
or gavel kind : wherein though by treason, according
to the ancient Saxon laws, the land is forfeited to the
king, yet no corruption of blood, no impediment of
descents, ensues ; and on judgment of mere felony, no
escheat accrues to the lord. But by the law of England,
derived as above, a man’s blood is so universally cor¬
rupted by attainder, that his sons can neither inherit to
him nor to any other ancestor, at least on the part of
their attainted father.
This corruption of blood cannot be absolutely remo¬
ved but by authority of parliament. The king may
excuse the public punishment of an offender; but can¬
not abolish the private right which has accrued, or may
accrue, to individuals as a consequence of the crimi¬
nal’s attainder. He may remit a forfeiture in which
the interest of the crown is alone concerned ; but he Corruption
cannot wipe away the corruption of blood ; for therein II
a third person hath an interest, the lord who claims by ^0lslca. ,
escheat. If therefore a man hath a son, and is attainted,
and afterwards pardoned by the king: this son can never
inherit to his father, or father’s ancestors ; because his
paternal blood, being once thoroughly corrupted by
his father’s attainder, must continue so : but if the son
had been born after the pardon, he might inherit; be¬
cause, by the pardon, the father is made a new man,
and may convey new inheritable blood to his after-born
children.
This corruption of blood, thus arising from feudal
principles, but perhaps extended farther than even
these principles will warrant, has been long looked upon
as a peculiar hardship: because the oppressive parts of
the feudal tenures being now in general abolished, it
seems unreasonable to reserve one of their most ine¬
quitable consequences ; namely, that the children should
not only be reduced to present poverty (which, how¬
ever severe, is sufficiently justified upon reasons of pub¬
lic policy), but also be laid under future difficulties of
inheritance, on account of the guilt of their ancestors.
And therefore in most (if not all) of the new felonies
treated by parliament since the reign of Henry VIII.
it is declared that they shall not extend to any cor¬
ruption of blood : and by the statute 7 Anne, c. 21.
(the operation of which is postponed by the statute
17 Geo. 11. c. 39.) it is enacted, that after the death
of the late pretender and his sons, no attainder for
treason shall extend to the disinheriting any heir, nor
the prejudice of any person, other than the offender
himself; which provisions have indeed carried the re¬
medy farther than was required by the hardship above
complained of; which is only the future obstruction of
descents, where the pedigree happens to be deduced
through the blood of an attainted ancestor.
CORSAIR, a pirate or person who scours the
seas, especially the Mediterranean, with a vessel armed
for war, without commission from any prince or power,
to plunder merchant vessels. The word comes from
the Italian cor sure, of corsoi or a cursibus, by reason
of their courses or excursions.—The name is com¬
monly given to the piratical cruisers of Barbary, who
had their rise about the beginning of the 16th cen¬
tury.
A corsair is; distinguished from a privateer in this,
that the latter does it under a commission, and only at¬
tacks the vessels of those at war with the state whence
his commission is derived. The, punishment of a corsair
is to be hanged, without remission ; whereas privateers
are to be treated as prisoners of war. All corsair-
vessels are good prizes.
CORSELET, a little cuirass : or, according to 4
others, an armour or. coat made to cover the whole
body, anciently worn by the nikemen, usually placed
in the front and flanks of the battle, for the better re¬
sisting the enemy’s assaults, and guarding the soldiers
placed behind them'.
CORSICA, an island in the Mediterranean, be¬
tween 8° and io° E. Long, and 410 and 430 N. Lat.
On the south it is separated from Sardinia, by the
strait of Bonifacio ; to the east it has the Tuscan sea ;
to the north the gulf of Genoa ; and to the west it is
opposite the coasts of France and Spain. It is ijo
miles *
i
COR [ 686 1 CO R
(!«fsica, miles from north to south, and from 40 to 50 in breadth.
Corsned. It was known to the ancient Greeks by the names of
Callista and Cyrnus, and to the Homans by its present
appellation. On the coast are many excellent har¬
bours. It is mountainous, but fruitful valleys are in¬
terspersed ; and it has some fine lakes and rivers. With
respect to products, Corsica has nothing peculiar to it¬
self; but from the earliest times it has been famous lor
its swarms of bees, and produces vast quantities of ho¬
ney, which, however, is reckoned bitter, on account
of the box and yew with which the country abounds.
The mountains are rich in lead, iron, copper, and sil¬
ver ; a mine of the latter was opened in the year 1767,
from which a quintal of mineral produced 18 ounces
of silver. There are also mines of alum and saltpetre.
The granite of Corsica is nearly equal to the oriental.
Porphyries, jasper, talc, amianthus, emeralds, and
other precious stones, are found scattered in the moun¬
tains ; and the south coast abounds with beautiful
coral. After many revolutions, this island was, for
some centuries, under the dominion of the Genoese,
whose tyranny was such, that the Corsicans were
almost in a perpetual state of insurrection. In 1736,
a German adventurer, Theodore Baron Newhoff,
brought some assistance to them, and, on his assu¬
rances of more powerful aid, they elected him king ;
but, as he could not substantiate his promises, he
W’as obliged to leave the island. He came to Eng¬
land, was thrown into the Fleet prison, released by
an act of insolvency (after having registered his
kingdom of Corsica for the benefit of his creditors),
and suffered to die in extreme indigence. The Ge¬
noese tired of the contest, sold the sovereignty to
France, in 1767, and the celebrated Paoli, who had
been elected to the chief command, in 1755, was
obliged to abandon the island in 1769. After the
French revolution, in 1789, Corsica was admitted as
an eighty-third department of France, at the particu¬
lar request of a deputation, of which Paoli was at the
head. In consequence, however, of some events which
followed the revolution of 1792, Paoli revolted; the
French, by the assistance of the English, were ex¬
pelled from the island ; and Corsica, on the 19th of
June 1794, was declared annexed to the crown of
Great Britain, according to a new constitution which
had been previously formed. In October 1796, how¬
ever, the English found it expedient to evacuate the
island, of which the French immediately took posses¬
sion, and again united it to their republic, dividing it
into two departments, Golo and Liamone ; of the for¬
mer of which Bastia is the chief town, and of the latter
Ajaccio.
CORSNED, or Morsel of Execration, a spe-
* See Trial. c'es tr’a* or purgation * anciently in use among us,
and which probably arose from an abuse of revelation
in the dark ages of superstition. It consisted of a piece
of cheese or bread, about an ounce in weight, which
was consecrated with a form of exorcism ; desiring of
the Almighty that it might cause convulsions and pale¬
ness, and find no passage if the man was really guil¬
ty ; but might turn to health and nourishment if he
was innocent; as the water of jealousy among the Jews
was, by God’s special appointment, to cause the belly
to swell, and the thigh to rot, if the woman was guil¬
ty of adultery. This corsned was then given to the
2
spected person, who at the same time also received Corsncd
the holy sacrament: if indeed the corsned was not, as ||
some have suspected, the sacramental bread itself: till Coilex
the subsequent invention of transubstantiation preset- 'r“
ved it from profane uses with a more profound respect
than formerly. Our historians assure us, that God¬
win, earl of Kent, in the reign of King Edward the
Confessor, abjuring the death of the king’s brother, at
last appealed to his corsned, “ per buccellam deglutien~
dam abjuravitf ’ which stuck in his throat and killed
him. This custom has been long since gradually abo¬
lished, though the remembrance of it still subsists in
certain phrases of abjuration retained among the com¬
mon people : as, “ I will take the sacrament upon it 5
May this morsel be my last;” and the like.
CORT, Cornelius, a celebrated engraver, was born
at Hoorn in Holland in 1536. After having learned
the first principles of drawing and engraving, he wrent
to Italy to complete bis studies, and visited all the
places famous for the works of the great masters. At
Venice he was courteously received by Titian ; and
engraved several plates from the pictures of that ad¬
mirable painter. He at last settled at Rome, where he
died in 1578, aged 42. According to Basan, he wa?
“ the best engraver with the burin or graver only that
Holland ever produced. We find in his prints,” adds
he, “ correctness of drawing, and an exquisite taste.”
He praises also the taste and lightness of touch with
which he engraved landscapes, and that without the
assistance of the point. It is no small honour to this
artist, that Agostino Carracci was his scholar, and imi¬
tated his style of engraving rather than that of any
other master. His engravings are very numerous (151
according to Abbe Marolles), and by no means un¬
common.
CORTES o/'Spain, a term purely Spanish, signify¬
ing the courts, i. e. the states or assembly of the states,
at Madrid.
Cortes, or Cortez, Ferdinand, a Spanish ge¬
neral, famous for the conquest of Mexico, and other
victories over the natives of South America ; but in¬
famous for the cruelties he committed upon the van¬
quished, without regard to rank, age, or sex. It pro¬
bably was on this account he was but coolly received1
on his return to Europe by his royal master Charles
V.: It is even asserted that the emperor asked him
who he was ? to which Cortez replied ; “ I am the
man who gave you more provinces than your ances¬
tors have left you towns,” He died in I554» aged 63.
See Mexico.
CORTEX, in Botany, the rind or coarse outer bark
of plants. The organization of the outer and inner
barks, which differ principally in the fineness of their
texture, is particularly explained under the article
Plants.
Wounds of the bark, and its separations from the
wood, whether naturally or artificially made, are easi¬
ly cured, and made to unite again by proper care. If
sections be made in the rinds of the ash and sycamore
of a square figure, three sides cut, and the fourth un¬
cut, and the whole be afterwards bound round with a
pack-thread, it will all unite again, only leaving a scar
in each of the three side^where it was cut. If several
parts of the bark of either of these trees be cut off, and
entirely separated from the tree; some shallower, lea-
COR
t
Cortex
ving a part of the bark on, and others deeper, to the
wood itselfj these pieces being again put into their
places, and bound on with pack-thread, will not in¬
deed unite, but a fresh bark will grow in their places,
and thrust them away *, but if they be first carefully
laid on in the exact direction in which they originally
grew, and then the whole part beyond the wound on
every side covered with a large plaster of diachylon,
or the like, and this bound over with pack-thread to
keep all firmly in their places, the pieces of bark, whe¬
ther cut off shallow or deep down to the very wood
of tlje tree, will firmly unite themselves to the places
where they originally grew. This cure will be per¬
formed in about three weeks ; but the outer rind ol
the separated pieces will not be plump, hut somewhat
shrivelled $ the. edges will also recede somewhat from
their original place •, so that there remains a sort of
scar all round. These experiments are best made in
the spring season *, for in the autumn and winter, the
sap arising but weakly, the parts that should unite
wither before that is brought about. I he success of
these experiments has made some think that the whole
branch of a tree separated and bound on again might
unite with the rest. But the experiments that have
been made in the most favourable manner for such a
trial have all proved vain, the branch cut off withering
always in a few days, however well united and careful-
lv kept on.
Cortex Peruvianus. See Cinchona, Botany and
Materia Medica Inde*.
Cortex Winteranus. See TV inter a, Botany and
Materia Medic a. Index.
CORTONA, Pietro da. See Berretini.
Cortona, a very ancient town ol Italy, mentioned
by many of the Roman historians. It was originally
called Corton, and lay to the northward of the lake
Thrasymenus. It still retains the name of Cortona.
E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 43. 15.
CORTONESE, Pietro Palo. See Gobbo.
CORTUSA, Bears-ear Sanicle 5 a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria class ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 21st order, Precice.
See Botany Index.
CORUNNA, or Groyne, a port-town of Galli-
cia in Spain, situated on a fine bay of the Atlantic
ocean, about 32 miles north of Compostella, and
20 south-west of Ferrok TV. Long. 9. o. N. Lat.
43. o.
CORUS, Omer, Homer, or Chomer, in the Jew¬
ish antiquities, a measure containing 10 baths or 75
gallons and five pints, as a measure of things liquid,
and 32 pecks and 1 pint as a measure for things dry.
The corns or omer was most commonly a measure lor
things dry j and the greatest that was used among the
Jews. It contained, according to the rabbins, 10
ephahs or 30 sata or seahs. Corns is the most usual
term in the historical writers, and omer or chomer
among the prophets.
Corus is also used in some of our old writers for
eight bushels or a quarter j decern coros tritici, sive de¬
cern cjuarteria.
CORUSCATION, a glittering or gleam of light
issuing from any thing. It is chiefly used for a flash
of lightning darting from the clouds in time of thun¬
der.
687 ] COR
There is a method of producing artificial corusca¬
tions, or sparkling fiery meteors, which 'will be visible
not only in the dark but at noon-day, and that .
two liquors actually cold. The method is this. Ill*
teen grains of solid phosphorus are to be melted in
about a drachm of water •, when this is cold, pour upon
it about two ounces of oil of vitriol 5 let these be shaken
together, and they will at first heat, and afterwards they
will throw up fiery balls in great number, which will
adhere like so many stars to the sides of the glass, and
continue burning a considerable time j after this, if a
small quantity of oil of turpentine is poured in, without
shaking the phial, the mixture will of itself take fire,
and burn very furiously. The vessel should be large,
and open at the top.
Artificial coruscations may also he produced by
means of oil of vitriol and iron, in the following man¬
ner : Take a glass body capable of holding three quarts ;
put into this three ounces of the oil of vitriol and twelve
ounces of water j then warming the mixture a little,^
throw in, at several times, two ounces or more ot
clean iron filings j upon this an ebullition and white
vapours will arise : then present a lighted candle to
the mouth of the vessel, and the vapour will take fire,
and afford a bright fulmination or flash like light¬
ning. Applying the candle in this manner several
times, the effect will always be the same j and some¬
times the fire will fill the whole body of the glass, and
even circulate to the bottom of the liquor j at others,
it will only reach a little way down its neck. Ihe
great caution to be used in making this experiment is
the making the vapour of a proper heat : for, if too
cold, few vapours will arise j and, if made too hot,
they will arise too fast, and will only take fire in the
neck of the glass, without any remarkable corusca¬
tion.
CORVORANT, formerly written CORMORANT.
See Pelicanus, Ornithology Index.
CORVUS, the Raven or Crow kind, a genus of
birds of the order of pic£e. See ORNITHOLOGY
Index.
Corvus {Raven,') in Astronomy, a constellation of
the southern hemisphere ; whose stars in Ptolemy’s ca¬
talogue are 7 ? Tycho’s as many j in the Britannic
catalogue 9.
Corvus, in Roman antiquity, a military engine, or
rather gallery, moveable at pleasure by means ot pul¬
leys j chiefly used in boarding the enemy’s ships to
cover the men. The construction of the corvus was
as follows : They erected on the prow of their vessels
a round piece of timber, of about a foot and a half
diameter, and about 12 feet long •, on the top of which
they had a block or pulley. Round this piece of tim¬
ber they laid a stage or platform of boards, four feet
broad, and about 18 feet long, which was well framed
and fastened with iron. The entrance was long-ways,
and it moved about on the above-mentioned upright
piece of timber as on a spindle, and could be hoisted
up within six feet of the top: about this was a sort
of parapet knee-high, which was defended with up¬
right bars of iron sharpened at the end, and towards
the top there was a ring, by the help of which and a
pulley or tackle, they raised or lowered the engine at
pleasure. With this moveable gallery they boarded the
enemy’s vessels (when they did not oppose side to
J side),.
Coaucatfon
(1
Corvus.
COR [ 688 ] COR
Corvus sule^, sometimes on their bow and sometimes on their
li stern, as occasion best served. When they had grap-
C<)ehia',ia' enemy 'v't^ these iron spikes, if they happened
t . ^ ~ - . to swing broadside to broadside, then they entered from
all parts-, but in case they attacked them on the bow,
they entered two and two by the help of this machine,
the foremost defending the foreparts, and those that fol¬
lowed the flanks, keeping the boss of their bucklers
level with the top of the parapet.
CORYATE, T homas, a very extraordinary perso¬
nage, who seems to have made himself famous by his
whimsical extravagancies, was the son of a clergyman,
and born at Oldcombe in Somersetshire in 1577. He
acquired Greek and Latin at Oxford ; and coming to
London, was received into the household of Henry
prince of Wales. If Coryate was not over witty him¬
self, he got acquainted with the wits of that time, and
served to exercise their abilities, having more learning
than judgment. He was a great peripatetic ; for, in
i5o8, he took along journey on foot j and after he
returned, published his travels under the following
strange title: Crudities hastily gobbled up in Jive months
Travels in France, Savoy, Italy, Rhetia, Helvetia, some
parts of High Germany, and the Netherlands, Lond.
1611, 410. In 1612 he set out again with a resolution
to spend ten years in travelling ; he went first to Con¬
stantinople ; and after travelling over a great part of the
East, died of a flux at Surat in the East Indies. Some
of the accounts of his peregrinations are to be found in
Purchas’s Pilgrimages.
^ CORYBANTES, in antiquity, priests of Cybele,
who danced and capered to the sound of flutes and
drums. See Crotalum.
Catullus, in his poem called Atys, gives a beautiful
description of them, representing them as madmen.
Accordingly Maximus 1 yrius says, that those possessed
with the spirit of Corybautes, as soon as they heard
the sound of a flute, were seized with an enthusiasm,
and lost the use of their reason. And hence the
Greeks use the word Kifv/3xyretii, to corybantiase, to sig¬
nify a person’s being transported or possessed with a
devil. See Enthusiasm.
Some say that the Corybantes were all eunuchs ; and
that it is on this account Catullus, in his Atys, always
ii'cs feminine epithets and relatives in speaking of
them.
Diodorus Siculus remarks, that Corybas, son of Ja¬
son and Cybele, passing in Phrygia with his uncle
Dardanus, there instituted the worship of the mother
of the gods, and gave his own name to the priests.
Strabo relates it as the opinion of some, that the Co¬
rybantes were children of Jupiter and Calliope, and
the same with the Cabiri. Others say the word had
its otigin fiom this, that the Corybantes always walked
dtiiicing (if the expression may be allowed) cr tossing
the head, ^a^t/wroms fixtioui.
CORA BANTICA, a festival held in Crete, in me¬
mory of the Corybantes, who educated Jupiter when
he was concealed in that island from his father Saturn,
who would have devoured him.
CORYCEUM, in antiquity, that part of the gym¬
nasium where people undressed. It was otherwise
called apodyterion.
CORYCOMACHIA, among the ancients, was a
soil of exercise in which they pushed forwards a ball,
3
suspended from the ceiling, and at its return either
caught it with their hands, or suffered it to meet their nmcl^
body. Oribasius informs us it was recommended for fi
extenuating too gross bodies. Cory tie
COR YD ALES, in Botany, an order of plants in ,
the Fragmenta Methodi Naturalis of Linnaeus, contain- 'r"’
ing the following genera, viz. epimedium, hypecoum,
leontice, melianthus, pinguicula, and utricularia.
CORYDALIS, in Botany. See Fumaria, Bota¬
ny Index.
CORYLUS, the Hazel j a genus of plants be-
longing to the monoecia class ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 50th order, Amentacece. See
Botany Index.
CORYMBIFERiE, in Botany, the name of an or¬
der or division of the compound flowers adopted by
Linnaeus after Ray and Vaillant, in the former editions
of his Fragments of a Natural Method. This title in
the later editions is changed for Discoidece, another
name borrowed from Ray’s Method, but used in a
somewhat different sense.
CORYMBIUMj in antiquity, an ornament of hair
worn by the women. Its form was that of a corym-
bus.
Corymbium ; a genus of plants belonging to the
syngenesia class; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Composites. See Botany Index.
—The calyx is diphyllous, uniflorous, and prismatical;
the corolla monopetalous and regular; there is one
woolly seed below each floret.
CORAMBUS, properly signifies a cluster of ivy-
berries. Among botanists it is a mode of flowering,
in which the lesser or partial flowerstalks are produ¬
ced along the common stalk on both sides; and though
of unequal lengths, rise to the same height, so as to
form a flat and even surface at the top. See Botany
Index.
CORA NOCARPUS, in Botany, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria class. See Botany In¬
dex.
CORA’PHA, Mountain Palm, or Umbrella Tree ;
a genus of plants of the order of Palmce, belonging to
the monoecia class. See Botany Index.
CORAPHAiNA, a genus of fishes belonging to
the order of thoracici. See Ichthyology Index.
CORA PHiEUS, in the ancient tragedy, was the
chief or leader of the company that composed the cho¬
rus : (See Chorus).—The word is formed from the
Greek “ tip of the head.” The coryphaeus
spoke for all the rest, whenever the chorus took part in
the action, in quality of a person of the drama, during
the course of the acts. Hence coryphaeus had passed
into a general name for the chief or principal of any
company, corporation, sect, opinion, &c. Thus Eu-
statius of Antioch is called the coryphaeus of the council
of Nice ; and Cicero calls Zeno the coryphaeus of the
Stoics.
CORArVREKAN, a dangerous whirlpool on the
west coast of Scotland, between the isle of Scarba and
the north point of Jura. It is so named from a young
Danish prince, who perished in this place. Its dread¬
ful vortex extends above a mile in circuit. Many
smaller whirlpools and rapid currents are found in this
neighbourhood; dangerous to those who are strangers
to the coast.
CORYZA.
COS [ 689 ] cos
Coryza CORYZA, in Medicine, a catarrh of the nose. See
P Medicine Index.
loscino- CORZOLA, or Curscola, an island in the gulf of
inanc-v- Venice, divided from Ragusa in Dalmatia hy a narrow
strait. E. Long. 18. O. N. Lat. 42. 35.
COS, or Coos, in Ancient Geography, a noble island
on the coast of Caria, in the Hither Asia, 15 miles to
the west of Halicarnassus, 100 in compass, called Me-
ropia; and hence Thucydides joins both names toge¬
ther, Cos Meropis i it had a cognominal town Cos, but
originally called Astypalcea, mentioned by Homer •,
with a port locked or walled round. ^Scylax, Mela).
The island was fruitful, and yielded a generous wine,
(Strabo). It boasted of Hippocrates and Apelles ;
each at the head of his several profession. It was the
country of Philetas, an excellent elegiac poet, who
flourished in the time of Philip and Alexander : the
preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphus : so thin and light
that he was obliged to wear lead to prevent the being
blown away by a puff ot wind (./Elian, Athenaeus) }
much commended by Propertius. "Ihe vestes Coce,
made of silk, were famous for their fineness and colour,
(H orace, Propertius, Tibullus). In the suburbs ot
Cos stood the temple of iEsculapius, a noble structure,
and extremely rich.
Cos, the fr/ielstone, in Natural History, a genus of
vitrescent stones, consisting of fragments of an indeter¬
minate figure, sub-opaque, and granulated.
Of this genus there are several species, some con¬
sisting of rougher, and others of smoother, or even of
altogether impalpable particles 5 and used not only for
whetstones, but also for mill-stones, and other the like
purposes.
Cos turcica, Turkey-stone, a species of stones
which is arranged in the siliceous class. It is ot a
dull white, and often of an unequal colour \ some
parts appearing more compact than others. Its speci¬
fic gravity is 2.598 : it strikes fire with steel, and ef¬
fervesces with acids. Mr Kir wan found that 100 parts
of it contain 25 of carbonate of lime, and no iron.
Cronstedt is of opinion that there are probably two
sorts of stones known by this name, as that de¬
scribed by Wallerius neither gives fire with steel nor
effervesces with acids. It is used as a whetstone ; and
those of the finest grains are the best hones for the
most delicate cutting tools, and even for razors, lan¬
cets, &c.
COSCINOMANCY, the art of divination by means
of a sieve. The word comes from xa-xwon, cribrum,
“ a sieve,” and ftxirax, divination. The sieve being
suspended, after rehearsing a formula of words, it is
taken between two fingers only \ and the names of the
parties suspected repeated : he at whose name the sieve
turns, trembles, or shakes, is reputed guilty of the evil
in question.
This must be a very ancient practice : Theocritus,
in his third Idyliion, mentions a woman very skilful in
it. It was sometimes also practised by suspending the
sieve by a thread, or fixing it to the points of a pair of
sheers, giving it room to turn, and naming, as before,
the parties suspected ; in which la.-T manner coscino-
tnancy is still practised in some parts of England. It
appears from Theocritus, that it was not only used to
find out persons unknown, but also to discover the se¬
crets of those that were known.
Vol. VI. Part II. f
CO-SECANT, in Geometry, the secant of an arch Co-sccant
which is the complement of another to 90°. See |j
Geometry. Cosmology.
COSENAGE, in Law, a writ that lies where the '
tresail, that is, the tritavus, the father of the besail, or
great grandfather, being seized in fee at his death of
certain lands or tenements, dies j a stranger enters,
and abates j then shall his heir have this writ of cost-
nage j the form of which see in Fitz. Nat. Br. fol.
221.
COSENING, in Laiv, an offence whereby any thing
is done deceitfully, in or out of contracts, which cannot
be fitly termed by any especial name. In the civil
law it is called stellionatus. See Stellionate.
COSENZA, the capital of the Hither Calabria, in
the kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 16. 35. N. Lat.
39. 15. It is an archbishop’s see.
COSHERING, in the feudal customs, a kind of
right of the lords to lie and feast themselves and their
followers at their tenants houses. The word coshering
may perhaps be derived from the old English word
coshe, a cot or cottage.
CO-SINE, in Trigonometry, the sine of an arch
which is the complement of another to 90°. See Geo¬
metry.
COSMETIC, in Physic, any medicine or prlpara-
tion which renders the skin soft and white, or helps to
beautify and improve the complexion ; as lip salves,
cold creams, ceruse, &c.
COSMICAL, a term in Astronomy, expressing one
of the poetical risings of a star: thus a star is said to
rise cosmically when it rises with the sun, or with that
point of the ecliptic in which the sun is at that time j
and the cosmical setting is when a star sets in the west
at the same time that the sun rises in the east.
COSMOGONY, in Physics, signifies the science of
the formation of the universe. It is formed of xerwof,
the world, and ynou.xt, 1 am born.
In our conjectures about the formation of the world
there are two principles which we ought never to lose
sight of: 1. That of creation ; for certainly matter
could not give itself existence, it must have received it.
2. That of a Supreme Intelligence directing this crea¬
tion, and the arrangement of the parts of matter, in
consequence of which this world was formed. 8ee ,
Creation and Geology.
COSMOGRAPHY, the description of the world j
or the art which teaches the construction, figure, dispo¬
sition, and relation of all the parts of the world, with
the manner of representing them on a plane. The word
comes from xasyzaj, world, and y^xtpx, I describe.
Cosmography consists chiefly of two parts : Astro¬
nomy, which shows the structure of the heavens, and
the disposition of the stars 5 and Geography, which
shows those of the earth.
COSMOLABE (from world, and Xciu%xi<xi,
I take), an ancient mathematical instrument, serving to
measure distances both in the heavens and on ear.rh.
The Cosmolube is in a great, measure the same with the
astrolabe. It is also called pantacosm, or the universal
instrument, by L. Morgard, in a treatise written ex¬
pressly upon it, printed in 1612.
COSMOLOGY (from Korp.*;, world, and
discourse), the science of the world in general. This
Wolfius calls general, or transcendental cosmology, and
4 S has
COS [ 690 ] cos
Cosmology written a treatise on the subject, wherein he endea-
|| vours to explain how the world arises from simple sub-
Cossacks. stances ; and treats of the general principles, of the mo-
^ difications of material things, of the elements of bodies,
of the laws of motion, of the perfection of the world,
and of the order and course of nature.
COSMOPOLITE, or Cosmopolitan, a term
sometimes used to signify a person who has no fixed
living or place of abode, or a man who is a stranger
nowhere. The word comes from the Greek xoa-fto?,
world, and waAif, city.—One of the ancient philoso¬
phers being interrogated what countryman he was ? an¬
swered, he was a cosmopolite, i. e. an inhabitant or ci¬
tizen of the world.
COSSACKS, a name given to the people inhabiting
the banks of the river Dnieper and Don, near the Black
sea and borders of Turkey. The word implies irregu¬
lar troops of horse. These people are divided into Eu¬
ropean and Asiatic Cossacks. The first consist of the
Zaporog, who dwell below the cataract of the Dnieper,
some on the side next to Russia, and others on the op¬
posite side of the river; the Lower and Upper Cos¬
sacks ; the Bielgorod Cossacks ; and a part of the Don
Cossacks. The Asiatic Cossacks are composed of the
rest of the Don Cossacks, the Grebin Cossacks, the
Yaik Cossacks, and the Western Cal mucks, who re¬
tiring from those that inhabited the ^outh borders of
Siberia under Yaiuki Can, settled upon the Wolga,
and are dependent upon Russia.
The Cossacks were known by that name ever since
the 948th year of Christ. They dwelt upon Mount
Caucasus, in the place now called Cabardy; and were
reduced under the Russian dominion by Prince Mstislaw
in the year 1021. Many Russians, Poles, and others,
who could not live at home, have, at di tie rent times,
been admitted among the Cossacks: but the latter,
abstracted from these fugitives, must have been an an¬
cient and well governed nation.
Toward the beginning of the 16th century, the
Zaporog Cossacks fixed their habitations on the spa¬
cious plains that extend along the hanks of the Dnie¬
per. They had undergone considerable hardships from
the incursions of the Tartars, for which they after¬
wards found means to avenge themselves in an ample
manner. The Poles being sensible how serviceable
the Cossacks might be in defending them from the ra¬
vages of the Tartars, and even the Russians, propo¬
sed to them terms of alliance. In 1562, they solemn¬
ly took them under their protection, and engaged to
pay them an annual subsidy ; in return for which the
Cossacks were to keep on foot a sufficient body of troops
for the defence of the Polish dominions. With a view
to bind them still more strongly by ties of interest, the
Poles gave them the whole country between the rivers
Dnieper and Neister, and the borders of Tartary.
The Cossacks applied themselves with great industry
to the cultivation of this fertile spot; so that in a short
time it was interspersed with large towns and handsome
villages. Besides, they continually harassed the Turks,
and did them great damage by their incursions ;
and, in order to prevent the latter from pursuing
them, or making reprisals, they possessed themselves
of several small islands in the Dnieper, where they
kept their magazines, &c. The hettman or gene¬
ral of the Cossacks was not in the least subordinate
to the field marshal of Poland ; but acted in concert
with him as an ally, apd not as a subject of that repub¬
lic. But this alliance, though of such manifest advan¬
tage to both parties, was not of long duration. The
Poles, seeing the vast improvements made by the Cos¬
sacks, in the country they had given up to them, be¬
came envious of them, and actually made an attempt
to bring them into subjection, as we have seen in the
history of Poland. In 1648 the Cossacks gained great
advantages over them, and next year came to an ac¬
commodation, in which they not only preserved their
old immunities, but obtained additional privileges.
The result of all was, that these Cossacks remained
under the protection of Russia ; and as their former
country was entirely laid waste in the late wars, they
settled in the Russian Ukraine, upon receiving formal
assurances from the court of Russia, that no alteration
should be made in their political constitution, and that
no taxes whatever should be laid upon them. The
Cossacks, on the other hand, were always to keep in
readiness a good body of troops for the service of
Russia : but in the year 1708 Mazeppa, their hettman
or chief, went over from the Russians to the Swedes ;
upon which Peter I. resolved to prevent such revolts
for the future. To this end, after the battle of Pul-
towa, he sent a strong detachment into the above-men¬
tioned little islands in the Dnieper, whither the Cos¬
sacks had fled with their wives and children, and all
their effects ; and ordered them all to be put to the
sword without distinction, and the plunder to he di¬
vided among his soldiers. He likewise sent a great
number of men into their country, and caused several
thousands of the Cossacks to be carried to the coasts of
the Baltic, where they were put to all sorts of hard
labour ; by which means he in a manner extirpated the
whole nation.
What distinguishes the Zaporog Cossacks from all
other people is, that they never suffer any women in
their settlements, as the Amazons are said not to have
suffered any men among them. The women of these
Cossacks live in other islands of the Dnieper. They
never marry, nor have any family : all their male chil¬
dren are enrolled as soldiers, and the females are left
with their mothers. The brother often has children
by his sister, and the father by his daughter. They
know no laws but those which custom has introduced,
founded on their natural wants ; though they have
among them some priests of the Greek persuasion.
They serve in the armies as irregulars ; and woe to
those who fall into their hands.
The country of these Cossacks, who are an assem¬
blage of ancient Roxelans, Sarmatians, and Tartars, is
called the Ocraive or Ukraine. It lies upon the bor¬
ders of Russia and Poland, Little Tartary, and Turkey,
and was anciently a part of Scythia. By virtue of the
last treaty settled between Russia and Poland, in 1693,
the latter remains in possession of all that part of the
Ukraine, which is situated on the west of the Dnie¬
per, and is now but poorly cultivated. That on the
east side, inhabited by the Cossacks, is in a much bet¬
ter condition, and extends about two hundred and
sixty miles in length, and as many in breadth. It is
one continued fertile plain, watered by a great num¬
ber of fine rivers, diversified with pleasant woods, and
yields such plenty of all sorts of grain, pulse, tobacco,
honey
Cossack
Csssacks.
COS t 691 ] cos
honey and wax, as to supply a great part of the Rus¬
sian empire with those commodities. Its pastures are
exceeding rich, and its cattle very large ; but the in¬
habitants are greatly plagued by locusts, which infest
this fine country. The houses in the Ukraine are,
like those of the Russians, mostly built with tim¬
ber.
The Cossacks are tall and well made, generally hawk-
nosed, and of a good mien. They are hardy, vigorous,
brave, and extremely jealous of what is most valuable
in life, their liberty •, fickle and wavering, but sociable,
cheerful, and sprightly. They are a very powerful
people, and their forces consist wholly of cavalry.-—
Their dialect is a compound of the Polish and Russian
languages 5 but the latter is the most predominant.
They were formerly Pagans or Mahometans j but up¬
on their entering into the Polish service, they were
baptized Christians of the Romish communion j and
now that they belong to Russia, they profess themselves
members of the Greek church.
Each of their towns, with the district belonging to
it, is governed by an officer called ottomann or atta~
mann.
The Don Cossacks, so called from their residence
upon the bank of the river Don, greatly resemble
those already described. In the year 1559, w^en ^ie
Czar Iwan Basilowitz was emperor of Russia, they vo¬
luntarily put themselves under his protection, and are
at this time on a pretty equal footing with the other
Russian subjects. They have several towns and vil-
latres upon the banks of the Don j but are prevented
from extending themselves farther up the country, by
the scarcity of fresh water and wood in many places.
Their chief support is grazing and agriculture, and oc¬
casionally robbing and plundering, for which they
want neither capacity nor inclination. Every town is
governed by a magistrate called tamann ; and the ta-
inanns, with their towns, are under the jurisdiction of
two ottomanns, who reside at Tsberkasky. The troops
of these Cossacks likewise consist entirely of cavalry.
In this country all the towns and villages are fortified,
and encompassed with pallisades, to defend them against
the incursions of the Calmucks and Cuban Tartars, with
whom they are continually at war. The Cossacks, in
general, are of great service to garrison towns by way
of defence, or to pursue an enemy \ but are not so
good at regular attacks.
The Sietsb Cossacks, who are also called Haidamacks,
have their particular bet tin an. They inhabit the Rus¬
sian, Polish, and Turkish dominions, along the banks
of the Dnieper.
The Yaik Cossacks dwell on the south side of the
river Yaik and upon the success of the Russian arms
in the kingdom of Astracan, voluntarily submitted to
them. In stature they greatly resemble the other Cos¬
sacks ', though by their boorish manner of living, and
intermarriages with the Tartars they have not the
shape and air peculiar to the rest of their countrymen.
Their natural dispositions and customs are, however,
nearly the same. Husbandry, fishing, and feeding of
cattle, are their principal employments 5 and, like the
other tribes, they let slip no opportunity of making
depredations on their neighbours. The continual
wars with the Kara Kalpacs and the Kasatshaia-Horda
oblige them to keep their towns and villages in a state
of defence. They are indeed subject to Russian War- Cossacks
wodes, to whom they pay an annual tribute in corn, I!
wax, honey, and cattle ; but they have also their par- , *-osUlu»
ticular chiefs, who govern them according to their an¬
cient customs. Though the generality ol the Aaik
Cossacks profess the Greek religion, yet a great many
relics of Mahometanism and Paganism are still found
among them. Being naturally bold and hardy, they
make excellent soldiers’, and they are not so turbu¬
lent as the other Cossacks. They live entirely at
peace with the Calmucks and their other neighbours,
and even maintain a commercial intercourse with
them.
COSSE DE Geniste, an order of knighthood in¬
stituted in 1234, ^7 Louis IX. at his marriage with
Margaret of Provence. The motto on the collar ot
this order was F.xaltat humiles.
COSSET, among farmers, a colt, calf, or lamb,
brought up by hand without the dam.
COSTA, Christopher, a celebrated botanist of
the 16th century, was born in Africa, of a Portuguese
father, and went into Asia, to perfect himself in the
knowledge of simples, where he was taken prisoner,
hut found means to make his escape, and after several
voyages, practised physic at Burgos. He wrote,
I. A treatise on Indian drugs and medicines. 2. His
Voyages to the Indies. 3. A book in praise of Wo¬
men •, and other works.
COSTAL, an appellation given by anatomists to se¬
veral parts belonging to the sides $ thus we meet with
costal muscles, vertebrae, &tc.
COSTANZO, Angelo di, an Italian historian and
poet, lord of Catulopa, was born in 1507, of a noble
and ancient family of Naples, and died about 1591.
He wrote, 1. A History of Naples, from 1230 to
1489 j the best edition of which is that of Aquila, in
1582, in folio, very scarce. 2. Italian poems, which
are esteemed, and have had several editions.
COSTA-RICCA, a province of North America in
New Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala, bound¬
ed on the north-east by the Northern ocean, on the
south west by the South sea, on the north-west by Ni¬
caragua, and on the south-east by Yeragua. The soil
is not very fertile, though there is plenty of cattle.
Carthagena is the capital town.
COSTARD, George, a clergyman of the church
of England, and author of several learned works, was
horn about the year 1710. He was educated at W ad-
ham college, Oxford *, and took the degree of M. A.
in 1773. The first ecclesiastical situation in which he
was placed was that of curate of Islip in Oxfordshire.
In 1747 he published, in 8vo, Some Observations tend¬
ing to illustrate the Rook of Job. In 1750 he pub¬
lished Two Dissertations : I. On the meaning of the
word Kestta, mentioned in Job, chap. xlii. ver. 11.
II. On the Signification of the word Hermes. In 1752
he published in 8vo, at Oxford, Dissertationes II. Criticrj-
sacra’., quarum prhna explicatur E'Zek. xiii. 18. altera
vero, 2 It eg. x. 22. In 1775 he wrote a letter to Dr
Birch, which is preserved in theBritish Museum,respect¬
ing the meaning of the phrase splicer a barbanca. Some
time after this he undertook to publish a second edition
of Dr Hyde’s Historia Religionisveterum Persurm?i,eo-
rumque Magorum; and which was accordingly printed
under his inspection and with his corrections, at the Cla-
4 S 2 rendon
COS [ 692 ] COT
Costard rendon Press at Oxford, in 4to. In 1760, Mr Costard’s
ti extensive learning having now recommended him to the
„ * notice of Lord Chancellor Northington, he obtained, by
the favour of that nobleman, in June 1764, the vicarage
of Twickenham in Middlesex, in which situation he
continued till his death. In 1797, he published, in one
volume quarto, The History of Astronomy, with its
application to Geography, History, and Chronology;
occasionally exemplified by the Globes. This work
was chiefly intended for the use of students, and con¬
tains a full and distinct view of the several improve-
ments made in geography and astronomy. Mr Costard
has shown, by a gradual deduction, at what time, and
by whom, the principal discoveries have been made in
geography and astronomy ; how eacli discovery has
paved the way to what followed ; and by what easy
steps, through the revolution of so many ages, these
very useful sciences have advanced towards their pre¬
sent state of perfection. In 1778, he published, in
8vo, A Letter to Nathaniel lirassey Halhed, Esq.
containing some Remarks on his preface to the Code
of Gentoo Laws. This appears to have been the last
of his publications. It contains some criticisms which
were intended to invalidate the opinion which Mr Hal¬
hed had conceived concerning the great antiquity of
the Gentoo laws ; and some arguments against a no¬
tion which had been adopted by several writers, drawn
from the observation of natural phenomena, that the
world is far more ancient than it is represented to be
by the Hebrew chronology. Mr Costard died on the
10th of January 1782. He was a man of uncommon
learning, and eminently skilled in Grecian and oriental
literature. His private character was amiable, and he
was much respected in the neighbourhood in which he
lived for his humanity and benevolence. Besides the
works already mentioned, he wrote some others; and
was also the author of learned papers, inserted in the
Philosophical Transactions, on astronomical and chro¬
nological subjects.
COSITVENESS, a preternatural detention of the
feces, with an unusual dryness and hardness thereof,
and thence a suppression of their evacuation. See Me¬
dicine Index.
COSTMARY, the English name of a species of
tansy. See Tanacetum, Botany Index.
COS IS, in Law, imply the expences of a suit reco¬
vered by the plaintiff, together with damages. Costs
were not allowed by the common law, the amercement
of the vanquished party being his only punishment ;
* Blackest, but they are given by statute *. Costs 'are allowed in
Comment, e|,anc(f,.y for fHiiing to make answer to a bill exhibited,
or making an insuGicient answer ; and if a first answer
be certified by a master to be insufficient, the defendant
is to pay 40s. ; y'. for a second insufficient answer ; 4I.
foi a t.iii d, &tc. But if the answer be reported good,
the plaintiff shall pay the defendant 40s. costs.
COSTUME, a rule or precept in painting, by which
the artist is enjoined to make every person and thing
sustain its proper character, and not only observe the
story, hut the circumstances, the scene of action, the
country or place, and take care that the habits, arms,
manners, proportion, and the like, exactly correspond.
COS FUS, a genus of plants belonging to the mo-
nandria class, and in the natural method ranking uivder
the eighth order, Sdtaminece. See Botan.y Index.
COTA, Rodriguez, a Spanish poet in the 16th
century, was the author of the Tragi-comedia de Calisto
ij Melibea, which has been translated into Latin by
Gasper Barthius, and into French by Lavardin. The
Spaniards set a great value 011 this performance.
CO-TANGENT, the tangent of an arch which is
the complement of another to 90. See Geometry.
COTBUS, a town of Germany in Lower Lusatia,
It is a strong important place, and is subject to Prus¬
sia. E. Long. 15. 29. N. Lat. 51. 40.
COTE, a term used in coursing, to express the ad¬
vantage one greyhound has over a/iother when he runs
by the side of it, and putting before it, gives the hare a
turn. See Coursing.
Cote d'Or, a department of France, comprising part
of the ancient Burgundy. It contains 3430 square
miles, and had 355,500 inhabitants in 1815. It is
productive in corn, and yields excellent wine. The
mineral productions are iron, marl, and millstones.
Dijon is the chief town.
Cotes du Nord, a department in the north of France.
It contains 2800 square miles, and had 520,000 inha¬
bitants in 1815. It produces com, hemp, flax, maize,
but no vines. The breed of cattle is good. It has
mines of lead and iron, and considerable manufactures
in linen, woollen, leather, hardware, &c. St Brienne
is the chief town.
CoTE-Gai'e, a kind of refuse wool, so clung or clot¬
ted together that it cannot he pulled asunder. By
13 Rich. II. stat. 1. c. 9. it is provided, that neither
denizen or foreigner make any other refuse of wool,
hut cot-gare and villein. So the printed statute has
it; but in the parliament roll of that year it is cod-land,
and villein. Cot, or cote, signifies as much as cottage
in many places, and was so used by the Saxons accord¬
ing to Verstegan.
COTELERIUS, John Baptist, fellow of the Sor-
bonne, and king’s Greek professor, was born at Nismes
in Languedoc in 1627. He made a collection of the
fathers who lived in the apostolic age, which he pub¬
lished at Paris in two volumes folio in 1672; all re¬
viewed and corrected from several MSS. with a Latin
translation and notes. He also published Monumenta
JScc/esiee Greecce, in 3 vols ; being a collection of Greek
tracts out of the king’s and M. Colbert’s libraries, and
which had never been published before ; to these he
added a Latin translation and notes. He intended a
farther prosecution of this work ; but his intense studies
broke his constitution, and deprived him of life in 1686.
COTERELLUS. Cotaiius and Cotercllus, accord¬
ing to Spelman and Du Fresne, are servile tenants ;
but in Doomsday and other ancient MSS. there ap¬
pears a distinction, as well in their tenure and quality
as in their name ; for the cotarius hath a free soccage
tenure, and paid a stated firm or rent in provisions or
money, with some occasional customary services; where¬
as the coterellus seems to have held in mere villenage,
and his person, issue, and goods, were disposable at the
pleasure of the lord.
COTERIE, a term adopted from the French tra¬
ding associations or partnerships, where each person
advances his quota of stock, and receives his proportion
of gain ; and which retains its original meaning when
applied to little assemblies or companies associated for
mirth and good humflur, where each one furnishes his
quota
COT t 693 ] COT
■tie (l',0^a pleasantry. Here they coin new words not
n 6 understood elsewhere, but which it becomes fashionable
Cott for others to use j and they are thought ridiculous who
— v"-1' aie ignorant of them. It has been sometimes used to
signify a club ot ladies.
CO I'ES, Roger, an excellent mathematician of
the 18th century. He early discovered an inclination
to the mathematics j and at 17 years of age, was ad¬
mitted a pensioner of Trinity college, Cambridge. In
1706, he was appointed professor of astronomy in the
professorship founded by Dr Plume archdeacon of Ro¬
chester, being chosen the first in that chair for his great
merit and learning. In the year 1713, at the request
of Dr Richard Bentley, he published at Cambridge,
in 4to, a second edition of Sir Isaac Newton’s Pnnct-
pia, with all the improvements which the author had
annexed thereto: to which he prefixed an excellent
preface. He prepared several useful hooks for the
public ; and wrote A Description of the great Meteor
which appeared on the 6th of March 1716, published
in the Philosophical Transactions. lie lived but a
little while to carry on the discourses for which he
was eminently qualified *, dying in the prime of his age
in 17x6, to the great regret of all the lovers of the
sciences.
COTES WOLD, several sheep-cotes, and sheep
feeding on hills. It comes from the Saxon cote, i. e.
casa, “ a cottage,” and wold, “ a place where there is
no wood.”
COTHURNUS, Buskin, a very high shoe or patten
raised on soles of cork, worn by the ancient actors in
tragedy, to make them appear taller and more like the
heroes they represented, most of whom were supposed to
be giants. It covered the greatest part of the leg, and
was tied beneath tlie knee. iEschylus is said to have
invented the cothurnus. See Buskin.
COTICE, or Cotise', in Heraldry, is the fourth
part of the bend; which with us is seldom or ever
borne but in couples, with a bend between them $
whence probably the name j from the French cote,
“ side }” they being borne, as it were, aside of the
bend. A bend thus bordered is said to be cotisedy co-
lici. He bears sable on a bend cotised argent three
cinquefoils.
COTILLON, the name of a well-known brisk
dance, in which eight persons are employed. The term
is French, and signifies an under-petticoat.
COTRONE, a town in the Hither Calabria stand¬
ing on the site of the ancient Croton, though not oc¬
cupying the same extent of ground : (See Croton).
It is fortified with single walls, and a castle erected by
Charles V. Its private buildings are poor and soidid,
the streets dismal and narrow. Cheese and corn are
the principal commodities. lor the stowage ot corn,
there are ranges of granaries in the suburbs $ and the
annual export is about 20,000 tomoti. The cheese is
tolerably good but has a great deal of that hot acrid
taste so common to all cheese made with goat’s milk.
The wine is not unpleasant, and appears susceptible of
improvement by better management in the making and
keeping.
COTT, a particular sort of bed-frame, suspended
from the beam of a ship for the officers to sleep in
between the decks. This contrivance is much more
convenient at sea than cither the hammocks or fixed
cabins : being a large piece of canvas sewed into the
form of a chest, about six feet long, and one foot deep,
and from two to three feet wide. It is extended by a
square wooden fpame with a canvas bottom.
COTTAGE, CottaGIUM, is properly a little
house for habitation without lands belonging to it :
stat. 4. Edw. 1. But by a later statute, 31 Eliz. c. 7.
no man may build a cottage unless he lay four acres of
land thereto $ except it be in market-towns or cities,
or within a mile of the sea, or for the habitation of
labourers in mines, sailors, foresters, shepherds, &c.
and cottages erected by order of justices of the peace
for poor impotent people are excepted out of the statute.
The four acres of land to make it a cottage within the
law are to be freehold, and land of inheritance ; and
four acres holden by copy, or for life or lives, or for any
number of years, will not be sufficient to make a lawful,
cottage.
Cottage System, a system of domestic economy,
founded on the plan of giving small portions of land .to
the poorer classes. See SUPPLEMENT..
COTTON, in Commerces a soft downy substance
found on the gossypium, or cotton-tree. See Gossypi-
um, Botany Index.
Cotton is separated from, the seeds of the plant by a
mill, and then spun and. prepared for all sorts of fine
work, as stockings, waistcoats, quilts, tapestry, curtains,
&c. With it they, likewise make muslin j and some¬
times it is mixed with wool, sometimes with silk, and
even with gold itself.
The finest sort comes from Bengal and the coast of
Coromandel..
Cotton makes a very considerable article in com¬
merce, and is distinguished into cotton-wool and cot¬
ton-thread. The first is brought mostly from Cyprus,
St John d’Acre, Smyrna, and the East and West Indies j
the most esteemed is white. Those who buy it in bales
should see that it has not been wet: moisture being
very prejudicial to it.
Of cotton-thread, that of Damas, called cotton d* ounce,
and that of Jerusalem, called baesas, are the most esteem¬
ed j as also thpt of the West India islands. It is to
be chosen white, fine, very dry, and evenly spun. The
other cotton threads are the half bazas, the rames, the
beledin, and gondezel $ the payas and mountasiri, the
geneguins, the baquins, the josselassars, of which there
are two sorts. Those of India, known by the name of
Tutucorin, Java, Bengal, and Surat, are of four or five
sorts, distinguished by the letters A, B, C, &c. They
are sold in hags, with a deduction of one pound and a
half on each of those of Tutucorin, which are the dearest,
and two pounds on each bag of the other sorts. For
those of Fielehas, Smyrna, Aleppo, and Jerusalem, the
deduction at Amsterdam is eight in the hundred for the
tare, and two in the hundred for yveight, and on the
value one per cent, for prompt payment.
Cotton of Siam, is a kind .of silky cotton in the An¬
tilles, so called because the grain was brought from Siam,
It is of an extraordinary.fineness, even surpassing silk in
softness. They make hose of it there preferable to silk
ones for their lustre and beauty. I hey sell from. 10 to
12 and 15 crowns .a pair, hut there are. very, feyv made
unless for curiosity.
T/ie manner of packing Cotton as practised in the
Antilles.. The bags are made of coarse cloth, of which
they
Cott
II
Cotton.
 '-v —
COT [ 694 ] COT
lotion, they take three ells and a half each } the breadth is
one ell three inches. When the bag has been well
soaked in water, they hang it up, extending the mouth
of it to cross pieces of timber nailed to posts fixed in
the ground seven or eight feet high. He who packs
it goes into the bag, which is six feet nine inches deep,
or thereabouts, and presses down the cotton, which an¬
other hands him, with hands and feet; observing to
tread it equally everywhere, and putting in hut little at
a time. The best time of packing is in rainy moist
weather, provided the cotton be under cover. The bag
should contain from 30O to 320 pounds. The tare a-
bated in the Antilles is three in the hundred. Cotton
being a production applicable to a great variety of ma¬
nufactures, it cannot be too much cultivated in our own
plantations that will admit of it.
CoTTOX-Spimiing, the art or process of reducing cot¬
ton-wool into yarn or thread.
The most simple method for this purpose, and the
only one in use for a long time in this country, was by
the hand, upon the well-known domestic machine call¬
ed a one-thread wheel. But as the demand for cotton-
goods began to increase, other inventions were thought
of for expediting this part of the manufacture. About
50 years ago, one Paul and others of London con¬
trived an engine for a more easy and expeditious me¬
thod of spinning cotton, and for which they obtained
a patent j but the undertaking did not prove successful.
Some years thereafter, various machines were con¬
structed by different persons for facilitating the spinning
of cotton J but without producing any very material
or lasting advantage. At length, about the year 1767,
Mr James Hargrave, a weaver in the neighbourhood
of Blackburn in Lancashire, constructed a machine by
which a great number of threads (from 20 to 80)
might be spun at once, and for which lie obtained his
majesty’s letters-patent. This machine is called mjen-
ny, and is the best contrivance for spinning ivoof or
shute that has hitherto appeared. It is now commonlv
constructed for 84 threads $ and with it one person can
spin too English hanks in the day, each hank contain¬
ing 840 yards.
Carding of cotton, as a preparation for spinning,
used formerly to he performed by the hand, with a
single pair of cards upon the knee : hut this being a
tedious method, ill suited to the rapid operations of
the new spinning machines, other methods were con¬
trived for affording a quicker and more adequate sup¬
ply. The first improvement for this purpose was
likewise made by Mr Hargrave j and consisted in ap¬
plying two or three cards to the same board, and fix¬
ing them to a stool or stock •, whence they obtained the
name of stock-cards. With these, one woman could
perform two or three times as much work as she could
do before in the common way. A still more expediti¬
ous method of carding, however, by what are common¬
ly called cylinder curds, was soon afterwards invented,
and is that which is now most commonly practised : but
as several persons lay claim to this invention, it is not
easy to determine to whom in particular the merit of it
is due.
The next and most capital improvements which this
branch of manufacture received were from Mr Aik-
wright, a native of Lancashire, afterward Sir Richard
Arkwright of Cromford in Derbyshire. He first brought
2
forward his new method of spinning cotton in 1768, Cotton
for which he obtained a patent in 1769. In 1 77 ''■"•’“■y'-
he obtained another patent for engines which he
had constructed to prepare the materials for spin¬
ning 5 though one of these patents, being challenged
at law, was set aside some years before it expired.
The result of Mr Arkwright’s different inventions and
improvements is a combination of machinery, by which
cotton is carded, roved, and spun, with the utmost ex¬
actness and equality; and such a degree of perfection
attained in spinning waip, as is not to be equalled in
any other part of the world. To these improve¬
ments this country is entirely indebted for the great
extent of its cotton manufactures ; large buildings
having been erected for that branch both in England
and Scotland, many of which contain several thou¬
sands of spindles, each driven by one of more large
water wheels ; and some of such extent as to spin at
the rate of one thousand yards of twist or warp yarn
in the minute.
Other machines have been invented at different times,
and a variety of improvements made by different me¬
chanics and manufacturers; one of which in particular
we must not omit to mention. It is called a mule, be¬
ing a kind of mixture of machinery between the warp-
machine of Mr Arkwright and the ttwo/-machine or
hand jenny of Mr Hargrave ; and was also invented in
Lancashire. This machine bids fair to be of great use
in spinning cotton-yarn for muslins to a degree of fine¬
ness never known before in this countiy, being nearly
equal in quality to those usually brought from India.
Cotton-MMs, are large buildings with peculiar ma¬
chinery for carding, roving, and spinning cotton : (see
the preceding article). These were entirely unknown
in this country before the different inventions and im¬
provements of Messrs Arkwright and Hargrave; since
which time great numbers have been erected in Eng¬
land, many in Scotland, and some in Ireland.
The first erections of the kind were hv Messrs Ark¬
wright and Hargrave, both in the town of Notting¬
ham, and both nearly at the same time. The engines
were then driven by horses ; hut since that time they
have been chiefly erected upon water-falls in different
parts of the country ; particularly the warp-machines,
which are better adapted for being driven by water
than any other. The most extensive of these is in the
village and neighbourhood of Cromford in Derbyshire,
and under the immediate inspection of Sir Richard Ark¬
wright. The first that was erected in Scotland was for
Mr Peter Brotherston, under the inspection and direc¬
tion of Mr John Hacket from Nottingham-, and is in
the neighbourhood of Peunycuitk near Edinburgh.
Since which time many have been erected in the neigh¬
bourhood of Glasgow, Paisley, Lanark, Perth, &c.
Many are driven by steam-engines.
General State of the Cotton Manufactory. The fa¬
cilities which the manufacturers of Great Britain had
suddenly acquired, and the immense capitals which
they have so recently laid out in expensive machinery
and other heavy establishments for carrying on the_
cotton trade, are unparalleled in the annals of the
world. Above 140 cotton mills are now (1787) built
in Great Britain, of which nearly two thirds have
been erected within these seven years. Besides these,
there are above 20,500 hand-mills or jennies for spin¬
ning
COT C 695 ] COT
Cotton, rung Hie shute for the twisted yarn spun by the wa-
«—■v---' ter-mills.
Above a million of money was within this time sunk
in mills, hand-engines, and other machines, including’the
grounds and necessary buildings.
Expence of water-mills, L.715,000
Ditto of hand jennies, houses,!
buildings, and auxiliary ma- > 285,000
chinery, supposed at least, J
of the immense return it makes for labour more than Cotto i.
any other branch of the cotton manufactory. East In- u'' v
dia cotton wool has been spun into one pound of yam
worth five guineas; and when wove into muslin, and
afterwards ornamented by children in the tambour, has
extended to the value of 15I.; yielding a return of
5900 per cent, on the raw material.
But the state of the raw materials, and the pro¬
gressive and astonishing increase of this manufacture,
will be best explained by what follows :
Total, L.1,000,000
A power had also been created of working nearly
two millions of spindles ; and men, women, and chil¬
dren were trained to this business, capable of carrying
the cotton manufacture almost to any extent. In
1787, the power of spindles capable of being worked
was estimated as follows :
In the water-mills, - - 286,000
In the jennies, - - * 1,665,100
Total spindles, 1,951,100
In the branches applicable to muslin and callico, it
was calculated that employment was given to 100,000
men and women, and at least 60,000 children ; many
of the latter having been taken from ditferent parishes
and hospitals in Great Britain.
The quantity of the raw material of cotton wool
consumed in this manufacture, which did not amount
to 6,000,000 pounds in 1781, and was only about
11,000,000 pounds six years ago, had amounted in the
year 1787 to the enormous height of 22,000,000 lb.
and upwards ; and the astonishing rapidity of this in¬
crease is in some measure to be attributed to the exten¬
sion of these branches to the goods of India, particu¬
larly the callicoes and muslins.
British callicoes were first made in Lancashire about
the year 1772, but the progress was slow till within
these last 12 years. The quantity manufactured has
since extended from about 50,000 to 1,000,000 ot
pieces made in the course of a single year.
British muslins were not successfully introduced un¬
til the year 1781, and were carried to no great extent
until 1785, after which period the progress during two
years became rapid beyond all example. 1 be acquisi¬
tion of cotton wool of a superior quality from Deme-
rara and the Brazils, and the improvements made in
the spinning fine yarns upon the mule jennies had gi-
ven a spring to this branch of the cotton manufactory,
which extended it beyond what it was possible to have
conceived. Above halt a million pieces ol muslin of
different kinds, including shawls and handkerchiefs,
were computed to be annually made in Great Britain ;
while the quantity not only increased daily with the
new accession of powers that were bursting forth upon
the country, but the quality was exceedingly improv¬
ed ; and since a yearly supply ol about 300 bales of East
Indian cotton has been obtained by the way of Ostend,
yarns have been spun, and muslins have been wove,
equal to any from India. Nothing, therefore, but a
fine raw material appeared wanting to enable the Bri-
tisii manufacturer to carry this branch to the greatest
extent: and, of all others, it is that species ot cotton
goods which deserves most to be encouraged, because
1781,
1782,
i784*
*785.
1786,
1787,
Cotton wool used in
the Manufacture.
ib. 5,101,920
11,206,810
9»546»i79
11,280,238
17,992,888
i9>I5I»86y
21,600000
Supposed Value when
Manufactured.
L.2,000,000
3,900,000
3,200,000
3,950,000
6,000,000
6,500,000
7, coo,000
Such was the progress of the British cotton manu¬
factory till 1787 ; when, with establishments and me¬
chanical powers capable of bringing forward immense
quantities of goods into the consumption, this manu¬
facture was checked by a great and sudden reduction
of the prices of East India goods of the same species,
which were sold above 20 per cent, on an average un¬
der the lowest prices at which the British manufacturer
can afford to sell without loss.
The conduct in the East India Company quickly
operated to the great prejudice of the British manu¬
factures ; and there is no saying how far these might
be reduced, should that company be allowed to press
goods upon the market at prices which have no rela¬
tion to the original cost, and under circumstances where
every idea of protecting duties is annihilated in the
effect of the general system.
The home-manufacture of this article, however, in
all its different branches, has been greatly extended.
See its recent progress described in the article Cot¬
ton Manufacture, in the Supplement.
Lavender Cotton, See Santolina, Botany In¬
dex.
Philosophic Cotton, a name given to the flowers of
zinc, on account of their white colour, extreme light¬
ness, and resemblance to cotton.
Flax made to resemble Cotton. See Flax.
Silk-CoTTON. See Bombax, Botany Index.
Cotton- Weed. See Gnaphalium, Botany Index.
Cotton, Sir Robert, a most eminent English anti¬
quarian, descended from an ancient family, was born
in 1570. In bis 18th year he began to collect ancient
records, charters, and other MSS. Camden, Selden,
and Speed, acknowledged their obligations to him in
their respective works. He was highly distinguished
by Queen Elizabeth, and by James I. who created
him a baronet. He wrote many things himself ; but
our principal obligations to him are for his valuable li¬
brary, consisting of curious manuscripts, &c. which he
was 40 years in collecting. At his death in 1631, lie
left the property of it to his family, though designed
for public use. A large accession was made to this li¬
brary by private benefactions before the death of the
founder, and afterwards by the purchases of his heirs.
COT [ 696 ] C O U
Cotton and donations of others, who added to it a great num-
|| her of books, chiefly relating to the history and antiqui-
Coiyledo- t;es 0f our own nation. An act of parliament was ob-
n^s tained, at the request of Sir John Cotton, in 1790, for
■preserving it after his decease, under the above deno¬
mination, for public use. It is now fixed in the British
Museum. For statutes relating to it, see 12 and 13
W. III. c. 3. and 5 Anne, cap. 30.
Cotton, Charles, a burlesque poet, was descended
of a good family, and lived in the reign of Charles II.
and James II. His most celebrated piece is Scarroni-
des, or Travestie of the first and fourth books of the
TEneid. But though, from the title, one would be
apt to imagine it an imitation of Scarron’s famous
Travestie of the same author, yet, upon examination,
it will be found greatly to excel not only that, but
every other attempt of the same kind that has been
hitherto made in any language. He has also translated
several of Lucian’s dialogues, in the same manner, un¬
der the title of The Scoffer Scoff'd ;—and written ano¬
ther poem of a more serious kind, entitled The Wonders
of the Peak. The exact period of either Mr Cotton’s
birth or his death, is nowhere recorded ; but it is pro¬
bable the latter happened about the time of the Bevo-
lution. Neither is it better known what his circum¬
stances were with respect to fortune : they appear,
however, to have been easy, if one may judge from the
turn of his writings, which is such as seems scarcely
possible for any one to indulge whose mind was not
perfectly at ease. Yet there is one anecdote told of
him, which seems to show that his vein of humour
could not restrain itself on any consideration, viz. that
in consequence of a single couplet in his Virgil Traves¬
tie, wherein he has made mention of a peculiar kind of
rufi' worn by a grandmother of his who lived in the
Peak, he lost an estate of 400I. per annum ; the old
lady, whose humour and testy disposition he could by
no means have been a stranger to, being never able to
forgive the liberty he had taken with her ; and having
her fortune wholly at her disposal, although she had be¬
fore made him her sole heir, altered her will, and gave
it away to an absolute stranger.
COTTUS, or Bull-head, a genus of fishes be-
longing to the order of thoracici. See Ichthyology
Index.
COTULA, May-weed, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the syngenesia class. See Botany Index.
Cotula, or Cotyla, a liquid measure in use among
the ancients.
Fannius says the cotyla was the same thing with the
hemina, which was half a sextary.
At cotylas, quas siplaceat, dixisse licehit
Heminas recepit geminas sextarias unus.
Chorier observes, that the cotyla was used as a dry
measure as well as a liquid one ; from the authority of
Thucydides, who in one place mentions two cotylte of
wine, and in another two cotylas of bread.
COTURNIX. See Tetrao, Ornithology In¬
dex.
COTYLEDON, Navel wort, a genus of plants
belonging to the decandria class ; and ranking under
the natural order Succulentce. See Botany Index.
COTYLEDONES, in Anatomy, are certain glan-
3
dular bodies, adhering to the chorion of some ani- Coty!e«Io.|
mals. nes
COTYLEDONES, in Botany, the perishable porous side |j
lobes of the seed, which involve, and for some time fur- Couc i'n-
nish nourishment to, the embryo plant. See Botany ^
Index.
COTYTTO, the goddess of all debauchery. Her
festivals, called Cotyttia, were celebrated by the Athe¬
nians, Corinthians, Thracians, &c. during the night.
Her priests were called baptee, and nothing but debau¬
chery and wantonness prevailed at the celebration. A
festival of the same name was observed in Sicily, where
the votaries of the goddess carried about boughs hung
with cakes and fruit, which it was lawful for any per¬
son to pluck off. It was a capital punishment to reveal
whatever was seen or done at these sacred festivals. It
cost Eupolis his life for an unseasonable reflection upon
them. The goddess Cotytto is supposed to be the same
as Proserpine.
COUCH, in Painting, denotes a lay, or impression
of colour, whether in oil or water, wherewith the pain¬
ter covers his canvas, wall, wainscot, or other matter
to be painted.
The word is also used for a lay or impression on any
thing, to make it firm and consistent, or to screen it
from the weather,
Paintings are covered with a couch of varnish : a
canvas to be painted must first have two couches of
size, before the colours be laid ; two or three couches
of white lead are laid on wood, before the couch of gold
be applied : the leather-gilders lay a couch of water
and whites of eggs on the leather, before they apply
the gold or silver-leaf.
The gold-wire-drawers also use the word conch for
the gold or silver leaf wherewith they cover the mass
to be gilded or silvered, before thev draw it through
the iron that is to give it its proper thickness.
The gilders use couch for the quantity of gold or sil¬
ver leaves applied on the metals in gilding or silvering.
Each couch of gold is about one leaf, or two at most,
and each of silver three to gild : if the gilding be hatch¬
ed, there are required from eight to twelve couches •,
and only three or four if it be without hatching. To
silver there are required from four to ten couches, ac¬
cording to the beauty of the work.
Coucu-Grass. See Triticum, Botany Index.
COUCHANT, in Heraldry, is understood of a lion,
or other beast, when lying down, but with his head
raised j which distinguishes the posture of couchant
from dormant, wherein he is supposed quite stretched
out and asleep.
COUCHE, in Heraldry, denotes any thing lying
along: thus chevron-couche, is a chevron lying side-
wise, with the two ends on each side of the shield,
which should properly rest on the base.
COUCHER, or Courcher, in our statutes, is used
for a factor, or one that continues in some place or coun¬
try for traffic •, as formerly in Gascoign, for the buying
of wines. Anno 37 Edw. III. c. 16.
CouCHER, is also used for the general book in which
any religious house or cojporation register their parti¬
cular acts. Anno 3 and 4 Edw. VI. c. 10.
COUCHING of a Cataract, in Surgery. See
Surgery Index.
COVE,
C O V [ 697 ] C O V
C0fc COVE, a small creek or bay, where boats and small
Covenant, vessels may ride at anchor, sheltered from the wind and
- y sea.
COVENANT, in Law, is the consent and agree¬
ment of two or more persons to do, or not to do, some
act, or thing, contracted between them. Also it is
the declaration the parties make, that they will stand
to such agreement, relating to lands or other things •,
and is created by deed in writing, sealed and executed
by the parties, or otherwise it may be implied in the
contract as incident thereto. And if the persons do not
perform their covenants, a writ or action of covenant
is the remedy to recover damages for the breach of
them.
Covenant, in ecclesiastical history, denotes a con¬
tract or convention agreed to by the Scotch in the
vear 1638, for maintaining their religion free from
innovation. In 1581, the general assembly of Scotland
drew up a confession of faith, or national covenant,
condemning episcopal government, under the name of
hierarchy, which was signed by James I. and which he
enjoined on all his subjects. It was again subscribed
in 1590 and 1596. The subscription was renewed in
1638, and the subscribers engaged by oath to maintain
religion in the same state as it was in 1580, and to re¬
ject all innovations introduced since that time. This
oath annexed to the confession of faith received the
name of the covenant: as those who subscribed it were
called covenanters.
Covenant, in Theology, is much used in connection
with other terms ; as, 1. The Covenant of Grace is that
which is made between God and those who believe the
gospel, whereby they declare their subjection to him,
and he declares his acceptance of them and favour
to them. The gospel is sometimes denominated a
covenant of grace, in opposition to the Mosaic law.
2. Covenant of Redemption denotes a mutual stipulation,
tacit or express, between Christ and the Father,
relating to the redemption of sinners by him, previous
to any act on Christ’s part under the character of
Mediator. 3. Covenant of Works signifies, in the
language of some divines, any covenant whereby God
requires perfect obedience from his creatures, in such a
manner as to make no express provision for the pardon
of offences to be committed against the precepts of it,
on the repentance of such supposed offenders, but pro¬
nounces a sentence of death upon them : such, they
say, was the covenant made with Adam in a state
of innocence, and that made with Israel at Mount
Sinai.
Solemn League and CorsyANT, was established in the
year 1643, anc^ f°rmefi a bond of union between Scot¬
land and England. It was sworn and subscribed by
many in both nations; who hereby solemnly abjured
popery and prelacy, and combined together for their
mutual defence. It was approved by the parliament
and assembly at Westminster, and ratified by the gene¬
ral assembly of Scotland in 1645. King Charles I. dis¬
approved of it when he surrendered himself to the
Scots army in 1646: but in 1650 Charles If. declared
his approbation both of this and the national covenant
by a solemn oath ; and in August of the same year,
made a farther declaration at Dunfermline to the same
purpose, which was also renewed on occasion of his
coronation at Scone in 1651. The covenant was ra-
Vol. VI. Part II. f
tified by parliament in this year} and the subscription Covenant,
of it required by every member, without which the Coventry,
constitution of the parliament was declared null and ’ 'v ■1"1
void. It produced a series of distractions in the sub¬
sequent history of that country, and was voted illegal
by parliament, and provision made against it, Stat. 14.
Car. II. c. 4.
Ark of the Covenant, in Jewish antiquity. See Ark.
COVENTRY, a town of Warwickshire, in Eng¬
land, situated in W. Long. 1. 26. N. Lat. 52. 25. It
is an ancient place, and is supposed to derive its name
from a convent formerly situated here. Leofric, earl
of Mercia, who rebuilt the religions house after it had
been destroyed by the Danes, and was lord of the
place about the year 1040, is said, upon some provo¬
cation, to have loaded them with heavy taxes. Be¬
ing importuned by his lady, Godina, to remit them,
he consented, upon condition that she should ride na¬
ked through the town, which he little imagined she
would ever comply with. But he found himself mis¬
taken : for she accepted the offer, and rode through
the town with her long hair scattered all over her
body ; having first enjoined the citizens not to venture,
on pain of death, to look out as she passed. It is said,
however, that a certain taylor could not help peep¬
ing : and to this day there is an effigy of him at the
window whence he looked. To commemorate this
extraordinary transaction, and out of respect to the
memory of their patroness, the citizens make a proces¬
sion every year, with the figure of a naked woman
on horseback. After Leofric’s death, the earls of
Chester became lords of the city, and granted it many
privileges. At length it was annexed to the earldom
of Cornwall; and growing considerable, had divers
immunities and privileges conferred upon it by several
kings; particularly that of a mayor and two bailiffs
by Edward III.; and Henry VI. made it, in conjunc¬
tion with some other towns and villages, a distinct coun¬
ty, independent of the county of Warwick. But af¬
terwards Edward VI. for their disloyalty, deprived them
of their liberties, which were not restored till they
had paid a fine of 500 merks. By a charter from
James I. an alderman is allotted to each ward, with
the powers of the justices of the peace within the city
and its liberties. The walls were ordered to be de¬
molished at the Restoration ; and now nothing remains
of them but the gates, which are very lofty. Coventry
is noted for the two parliaments which were held in it ;
the one called the parliament of Dunces, and the other
of Devils. The former was so called on account of the
exclusion of the lawyers ; and the attainders of the duke
of York, the earls of Salisbury, Warwick, and March,
procured the other the epithet of Devils. The town-
house of Coventry is much admired for its painted win¬
dows, representing several kings and others that have
been benefactors to the city. The chief manufactures
carried on here are temmies and ribbands.
Coventry had 17,923 inhabitants in 1811. It sends
two members toparliament,and givestitle ofearlto anan-
cient family of the same name.—It is a bishop’s see. The
bishoprick is said to have been founded by Oswy king of
Mercia, in the year 656 or 657 ; and although it has a
double name, yet, like Bath and Wells, it is a single dio¬
cese. It was so wealthy, that King’Oft'a, by the favour
of Pope Adrian, constituted it an archiepiscopal see; but
4 £ this
C O U [ 608 ] c o u
Coventry th>s title was laid aside on the death of that king. In
II I075> Peter, the 34th bishop, removed the see to Ches-
Cougli. ter. In 1102, Robert de Limsey, his immediate suc-
cessor, removed it to Coventry 5 and Hugo Novant,
the 41st bishop, removed it back to Litchfield, but
with great opposition from the monks of Coventry.
The dispute was finally settled in a manner nearly
similar to that which is mentioned between Bath and
Wells. Here it was agreed that the bishop should be
styled from both places, and that Coventry should
have the precedence ; that they should choose the bi¬
shop alternately j and that they should both make one
chapter to the bishop, in which the prior of Coventry
should be the chief man. Matters continued thus till
tbe Reformation, when the priory of Coventry being
dissolved by King Henry VIII. the style of the bishop
continued as before. But an act of parliament passed
33d of King Henry VIII. to make the dean and
chapter of Litchfield one sole chapter to the bishop.
Th is see hath given three saints to the church ; and to
the nation one lord chancellor, three lord treasurers,
three presidents of Wales, one chancellor to the univer¬
sity of Cambridge, and one master of the wardrobe.
The old church built by King Oswy being taken down
by Roger de Clinton, the 37th bishop, he built the
beautiful fabric that now stands in 1148, and dedicated
it to the Virgin Mary and St Chad. During the
grand rebellion, the church suffered much j but soon
after the Restoration, it was repaired and beautified.
This diocese contains the whole counties of Stafford
and Derby (except two parishes of the former), the
largest part of Warwickshire, and nearly one half of
Shropshire, in which are 555 parishes, of which 250
are impropriate. It hath four archdeaconries, viz.
Stafford, Derby, Coventry, and Shrewsbury. It is
valued in the king’s books at 559k 18s. 2^d. and is
computed to be worth annually 2800I. The clergy’s
tenth is 590I. 16s. n^d. To this cathedral belong
a bishop, a dean, a precentor, a chancellor, a trea¬
surer, four archdeacons, twenty-seven prebendaries,
five priest-vicars, seven lay clerks or singing men,
eight choristers, and other under officers and ser¬
vants.
CO-VERSED Sine, in Geometry, the remaining
part of the diameter of a circle, after the versed sine is
taken from it. See Geometry.
COVERT, in Law.—Femme Covert denotes a wo¬
man married, and so covered by, or under the protec¬
tion of, her husband.
Covert Way, or Corridor, in Fortification, a space
of ground, level with the field on the edge of the ditch,
three or four fathoms broad, ranging quite round the
half moons and other works towards the country. It
has a parapet raised on a level, together with its ban¬
quets and glacis. See Fortification.
COVERTURE, in Law, is applied to the state and
condition of a married woman, who is under the power
of her husband, and therefore called femme convert.
COUGH, in Medicine. See Medicine Index.
Cough, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
Cough, called the husk, is a disease to which young
bullocks are subject. In this disorder the wind-pipe
and its branches are loaded with small taper rvorms.
Farmers count the disease incurable j but fumigations
with mercurials, as cinnabar, or with fcetids, as tobacco, Cuu»b
might prove serviceable. i|
COUHAGE, or Stinking Beans, a kind of kidney- t'0UlK'i
beans imported from the East Indies, where they are <r~"
used as a cure for the dropsy. The down growing on
the outside of the pod is so pointed as, like a nettle, to
sting the flesh, though not with so painful a sensation.
This, by a corruption of the word, is called cowitch.
See Dolichos, Botany Index.
COVIN, a deceitful compact or agreement between
two or more to deceive or prejudice a third person :
As, if a tenant for life conspire with another, that this
other shall recover the land which the tenant holds in
prejudice of him in reversion. Dr Skinner takes the
word to be a corruption of the Latin conventum, and
therefore writes it coven. See Conspiracy.
COVING, in building, is when houses are built
projecting over the ground plot, and the turned pro-
jecture arched with timber, lathed and plastered.
COVINUS, among the ancients, a kind of chariot,
in which the Gauls and Britons used to fight in battles.
COUL, or Cowl. See Cowl.
COULTER, in Husbandry, an iron instrument,
fixed in the beam of a plough, and serving to cut the
edge of each furrow. See Agriculture.
COUNCIL, or Counsel, in a general sense, an
assembly of divers considerable persons to concert mea¬
sures relative to the state.
In Britain, the law, in order to assist the king in the
discharge of his duties, the maintenance of his dignity,
and the exertion of his prerogative, hath assigned him
a diversity of councils to advise with.
1. The first of these is the high court of parliament.
See Parliament.
2. The peers of the realm are by their birth here¬
ditary counsellors of the crown j and may be called
together by the king, to impart their advice in all
matters of importance to the realm, either in time of
parliament, or, which hath been their principal use,
when there is no parliament in being. Accordingly,
Brocton, speaking of the nobility of his time, says, they
might properly be called “ consules a consulendo 5 reges
enim tales sibi associant ad consulendum.” And in the
law-books it is laid down, that the peers are created
for two reasons: \. Ad consulendum, 1. Ad defenden-
dum, regem: for which reasons the law gives them
certain great and high privileges; such as freedom
from arrests, &c. even when no parliament is sittings
because the law intends, that they are always assisting
the king with their counsel for the common-wealth,
or keeping the realm in safety by their prowess and
valour.
Instances of conventions of the peers, to advise the
king, have been in former times very frequent j though
now fallen into disuse, by reason of the more regular
meetings of parliament. Sir Edward Coke gives us an
extract of a record, 5 Henry IV. concerning an ex¬
change of lands between the king and the earl of Nor¬
thumberland, wherein the value of each was agreed
to be settled by advice of parliament (if any should
be called before the feast of St Lucia), or otherwise
by advice of the grand council of peers, which the king
promises to assemble before the said feast, in case no
parliament shall be called. Many other instances of
Council.
Ilacktt.
mmcnt.
C O U [ 699 ] c o u
this kind of meeting are to be found ander our ancient
kings : though the formal method of convoking them
had been so long left off, that when Iving Charles I. in
1640, issued out writs under the great seal to call a
council of all the peers of England, to meet and attend
his majesty at York, previous to the meeting of the
long parliament, the earl of Clarendon mentions it as
a new invention, not before heard ot : that is, as he
explains himself, so old, that it had not been practised
in some hundreds of years. But though there had not
for a long time before been an instance, nor has there
been any since, of assembling them in so solemn a man¬
ner, yet in cases of emergency, our princes have at se¬
veral times thought proper to call for, and consult as
many of the nobility as could easily be brought toge¬
ther ; as was particularly the case with King James II.
after the landing of the prince of Orange ; and with
the prince of Orange himself before he called the con¬
vention parliament which afterwards called him to the
throne.
Besides this general meeting, it is usually looked
upon to be the right of each particular peer of the
realm, to demand an audience of the king, and to lay
before him with decency and respect such matters as
he shall judge of importance to the public weal. And
therefore, in the reign of Edward II. it was made an
article of impeachment in parliament against the two
Hugh Spencers, father and son, for which they were
banished the kingdom, “ that they by their evil covin
would not suffer the great men of the realm, the king’s
good counsellors, to speak with the king, or to come
near him 5 but only in presence and hearing of said
Hugh the father and Hugh the son, or one of them,
and at their will, and according to such things as
pleased them.”
3. A third council belonging to the king, are, ac¬
cording to Sir Edward Coke, his judges of the courts
of law, for law-matters. And this appears frequently
in the English statutes, particularly 14 Edward HI.
c. 5. and in other books of law. So that when the
king’s council is mentioned generally, it must be de¬
fined, particularized, and understood secundum subjec-
tam inateriem; “ according to the subject matter
and if the subject be of a legal nature, then by the
king’s council is understood, his council for matters of
law ; namely, his judges. Therefore, when by statute
16 Richard II. c. 5. it was made a high offence to im¬
port into England any papal bulls, or other processes
from Rome ; and it was enacted, that the offenders
should be attached by their bodies, and brought before
the king and his council to answer for such offence ;
here, by the expression of king’s council^ were under¬
stood the king’s judges of his courts of justice, the sub¬
ject matter being legal : this being the general way of
interpreting the word council.
4. But the principal council belonging to the king
is his privy council, which is generally by way of
eminence, called the council. For an account of its
constitution and powers, see the article Privy Coun¬
cil.
Aulic Council. See Aulic.
Common Council, in the city of London, is a court
wherein are made all the bye-laws which bind the citi¬
zens. It consists, like the parliament, of two houses; an
upper, composed of the lord mayor and aldermen ; and a
lower, of a number of common-council men, chosen
by the several wards, as representatives of the body of
the citizens.
Council of War, an assembly of the principal offi¬
cers of an army or fleet, occasionally called by the ge¬
neral or admiral to concert measures for their conduct
with regard to sieges, retreats, engagements, &c.
Council, in church history, an assembly of prelates
and doctors, met for regulating matters relative to the
doctrine or discipline of the church.
National Council, is an assembly of the prelates o.
a nation under their primate or patriarch.
Oecumenical or General Council, is an assembly
which represents the whole body of the universal church.
The Romanists reckon eighteen of them ; Bullinger, in
his Treatise de Conciliis, six ; Dr Prideaux, seven ; and
Bishop Beveridge has increased the number to eight,
which, he says, are all the general councils which have
ever been held since the time of the first Christian em¬
peror. They are as follows : 1. The council of Nice,
held in the reign of Constantine the Great, on account
of the heresy of Arius. 2. The council of Constan¬
tinople, called under the reign and by the command of
Theodosius the Great, for much the same end that the
former council was summoned. 3. The council of
Ephesus, convened by Theodosius the younger at the
suit of Nestorius. 4. The council of Chalcedon, held
in the reign of Martinus, which approved of the Eu-
tychian heresy. 5. The second council of Constanti¬
nople, assembled by the emperor Justinian, condemned
the three chapters taken out of the book of Theodo-
rus of Mopsuestia, having first decided that it was law¬
ful to anathematise the dead. Some authors tell us,
that they likewise condemned the several errors of
Origen about the Trinity, the plurality of worlds, and
pre-existence of souls. 6. The third council of Con¬
stantinople, held by the command of Constantins Po-
gonatus the emperor, in which they received the defi¬
nitions of the five first general councils, and particu¬
larly that against Origen and Theodorus of Mopsuestia.
7. The second Nicene council. 8. The fourth council
of Constantinople, assembled when Louis II. was em¬
peror of the West. The regulations which they made
are contained in twenty-seven canons, the heads of
which are set down by M. du Pin, to whom the reader
is referred.
COUNSEL, in a general sense, signifies advice or
instruction how to behave in any difficult matter.
Counsel, or Advocates, in English courts of law,
are of two species or degrees; Barristers, and Ser¬
jeants. See these articles ; also Advocate.
From both these degrees some are usually selected
to be his majesty’s counsel, learned in the law; the two
principal of whom are called his attorney-general, and
solicitor-general. The first king’s counsel, under the de¬
gree of serjeant, was Sir Francis Bacon, who was made
so honoris causa, without either patent.or fee ; so that
the first of the modern order (who are now the sworn
servants of the crown, with a standing salary) seems to
have been Sir Francis North ; afterwards lord keeper
of the great seal to King Charles II. These king’s
counsel answer, in some degree, to the advocates of the
revenue, advocatifisci, among the Romans. l or they
must not be employed in any case against the'&rown
without special license; in which restriction thje^agree
4T2 ' ./ith
Council,
Counsel.
C O U [ 700 ] c 0 u
Counsel with the advocates of the fisc ; but, in the imperial
[| law, the prohibition was carried still farther, and per-
Count. l,apS was m0re for the dignity of the sovereign ; for,
excepting some peculiar causes, the fiscal advocates
were not permitted to be at all concerned in private
^ lackst.^ suits between subject and subject. A custom has of
' late years prevailed, of granting letters patent of pre¬
cedence to such barristers as the crown thinks proper
to honour with that mark of distinction ; whereby they
are entitled to such rank and preaudience as are assign¬
ed in their respective patents; sometimes next after
the king’s attorney-general, but usually next after his
majesty’s counsel next being. These, as well as the
queen’s attorney and solicitor-general, rank promiscu¬
ously with the king’s counsel ; and, together with
them, sit within the bar of their respective courts : but
receive no salaries, and are not sworn ; and therefore
are at liberty to be retained in causes against the crown.
And all other serjeants and barristers indiscriminately,
(except in the court of common pleas, where only ser¬
jeants are admitted), may take upon them the protec¬
tion and defence of any suitors, whether plaintiff or de¬
fendant-, who are therefore called their clients; like
the dependants on the ancient Homan orators. These
indeed practised gratis, for honour merely, or at most
for the sake of gaining influence j and so likewise it is
established with us, that a counsel can maintain no
action for his fees ; which are given, not as locaiio vel
conductio, hut as quiddam honorarium ; not as a salary
or hire, but as a mere gratuity, which a counsellor
cannot demand without doing wrong to his reputa¬
tion ; as is also laid down with regard to advocates in
the civil law, whose honorarium was directed, by a
decree of the senate, not to exceed in any case 10,000
sesterces, or about Sol. of English money. And in
order to encourage due freedom of speech in the law¬
ful defence of their clients, and at the same time to
check the unseemly licentiousness of prostitute and il¬
liberal men (a few of whom may sometimes insinuate
themselves even into the most honourable professions),
it hath been holden that a counsel is not answerable for
any matter by him spoken, relative to the cause in
hand, and suggested in the client’s instructions j al¬
though it should reflect upon the reputation of another,
and even prove absolutely groundless j hut if he men¬
tions an untruth of his own invention, or even upon in¬
structions, if it be impertinent to the cause in hand, he
is then liable to an action from the party injured. And
counsel guilty of deceit and collusion are punishable by
the statute AVestm. I. 3 Edw. I. c. 28. with imprison¬
ment for a year and day, and perpetual silence in the
courts : a punishment still sometimes inflicted for gross
misdemeanors in practice.
COUNSELLOR, in general, a person who advises
another : thus we say, a counsellor at law, a privy
counsellor, &c.
Counsellor at Law, a person retained by a cilent,
to plead his cause in a public court of judicature.
See Advocate, Barrister, Counsel, and Ser¬
jeant.
Prwy Counsellor. See Pricy Council.
COUNT, (Comes), a nobleman who possesses a do¬
main erected into a county. See Viscount.
English and Scottish counts we distinguish by the
title of carls; foreign ones still retain thair proper
name. The dignity of a count is a medium between
that of a duke and a baron. According to the modern
use, most plenipotentiaries and ambassadors assume the
title of counts, though they have no county j as the
count d’Avaux, &.c.
Anciently, all generals, counsellors, judges, and se¬
cretaries of cities under Charlemagne, were called
counts; the distinguishing character of a duke and count
being this, that the latter had hut one town under him,
but the former had several.
A count has a right to bear on his arms a coronet,
adorned with three precious stones, and surmounted with
three large pearls, whereof those in the middle and
extremities of the coronet advance above the rest.
Counts were originally lords of the court, or of
the emperor’s retinue, and had their name comites, a
comitando, or a commeando: hence those who were
always in the palace, or at the emperor’s side, were
called counts palatine, or comites a latere. See Pala¬
tine.
In the times of the commonwealth, comites among
the Romans was a general name for all those who
accompanied the proconsuls and propraetors into the
provinces, there to serve the commonwealth 5 as the
tribunes, praefects, scribes, &c.
Under the emperors, comites were the officers of
the palace. The origin of what we now call counts
seems owing to Augustus, who took several senators to
be his comites, as Dion observes, i. e. to accompany
him in his voyages and travels, and to assist him in the
hearing of causes ; which were thus judged with the
same authority as in full senate. Gallienus seems to
have abolished this council, by forbidding the senators
being found in the armies 5 and none of his successors
re-established it.
These counsellors of the emperor were really counts,
comites, i. e. companions of the prince $ and they
sometimes took the title thereof, but always with the
addition of the emperor’s name whom they accom¬
panied : so that it was rather a mark of their office
than a title of dignity. Constantine was the first who
converted it into a dignity 5 and under him it was
that the name was first given absolutely. The name
once established was in a little time indifferently con¬
ferred, not only on those who followed the court,
and accompanied the emperor, but also on most
kinds of officers j a long list whereof is given us by Du
Cange.
Eusebius tells us, that Constantine divided the counts
into three classes j the first bore the title of illustres,
the second that of clarissimi, and afterwards
the third were called perfcctissimi. Of the two first
classes was the senate composed : those of the third
had no place in the senate, but enjoyed several other of
the privileges of senators.
There were counts who served on land, others at
sea } some in a civil, some in a religious, and some
in a legal capacity ; as comes cerarii, comes sacrarum
largitionum, comes sacri consistorii, comes curia, comes
capella, comes archiatrorum,comes comm erciorum, comes
vestianus, comes horr corum,comes opsoniorvm or annonee,
comes domesticorum, comes equorum rtgiorum or comes
stabuli, comes domorum, comes excubitorvm,comes not or i-
orum, comes legum or professor injure, comes limitum or
marcarum, conies portus Roma, comes patrimonii, &.e.
The
C O U [ 701 ] c o u
Count. The Franks, Germans, &c. passing into Gaul and
—-v——' Germany, did not abolish the form of the Roman go¬
vernment : and as the governors ol cities and provinces
were called counts, comites, and dukes, duces, they con¬
tinued to be called so. They commanded in time of
war 5 and in time of peace they administered justice.
Thus, in the time of Charlemagne, counts were the
ordinary judges and governors of the cities.
These counts of cities were beneath the dukes and
counts who presided over provinces j the first being
constituted in the particular cities, under the jurisdic¬
tion of the latter. The counts of provinces were in
nothing inferior to dukes, who themselves were only
governors of provinces. Under the last of the second
race of French kings, they got their dignity rendered
hereditary, and even usurped the sovereignty when
Hugh Capet came to the crown ; his authority was
not sufficient to oppose their encroachments; and hence
it is they date the privilege of wearing coronets in their
arms *, they assumed it then, as enjoying the rights of
sovereigns in their particular districts or counties.
But, by degrees, most of the counties became reunited
to the crown.
The quality of count is now become very difterent
from what it was anciently ; being now no more than
a title, which a king grants upon erecting a territory
into a county, with a reserve of jurisdiction and sove¬
reignty to himself. At first there was no clause in
the patent of erection intimating the reversion of the
county to the crown in default of heirs male 5 but
Charles IX. to prevent their being too numerous, or¬
dained that duchies and counties, in default of heirs
male, should return to the crown.
The point of precedence between counts and mar¬
quises was formerly much controverted : the reason
was, that there were counts who were peers of France,
but no marquises •, but the point was given up, and
marquises took place ; though anciently, when counts
were governors of provinces, they were on a level even
with dukes.
William the Conqueror, as is observed by Camden,
gave the dignity of counts in fee to his nobles j annex¬
ing it to this or that county or province, and allotting
for their maintenance a certain proportion of money,
arising from the prince’s profits in the pleadings and
forfeitures of the provinces. To this purpose he quotes
an ancient record, thus : Hen. II. Rex Anglia; his
verbis comitem creavit; sciatis nos fecisse Hugonem
Bigot comitem de Norf Sfc. de tertio denarii de Nor¬
wich et Norfolk, sicut aliquis comes Anglia;, <$ e.
The Germans call a count, graaf or gruff; which,
according to a modern critic, properly signifies 7wr/ge;
and is derived from gravio or grajjio, of 1 write.
They have several kinds of these counts or grafts •, as
landgraves, marchgraves, burg-graves, and pals-graves
or counts palatine. These last are of two kinds : the
former are of the number of princes, and have the
investiture of a palatinate ; the others have only the
title of count palatine without the investiture of any pa¬
latinate. Some assert, that by publicly professing the
imperial laws for twenty years, the person acquires the
dignity of a count palatine ; and there are instances of
professors in law who have assumed the title according¬
ly ■, but there are others who question this right.
Count, in Law, denotes the original declaration in
a real action j as the declaration is in a personal one •,
the libellus of the civilians answers to both. Yet,
count and declaration are sometimes confounded, ami
used for each other j as, count in debt, count in appeal, v
&c.
Count-Wheel, in the striking part of a clock, a
wheel which moves round once in 12 or 24 hours. It
is sometimes called the locking-wheel. See Clock-
Making.
COUNTER, a term which enters into the composi¬
tion of divers words of our language, and generally
implies opposition ; but when applied to deeds, means
an exact copy kept of the contrary party, and some¬
times signed by both parties.
CouNTER-Changed, in Heraldry, the intermixture or
opposition of any metal with a colour.
CouNTER-Flory, in Heraldry, is said of a tressure
whose flowers-de-luce are opposite to others. See He¬
raldry.
CoUNTER-Drawing, in Painting, is the copying a
design or painting, by means of a fine linen-cloth, an
oiled paper, or other transparent matter, where the
strokes appearing through are followed with a pencil,
with or without colour. Sometimes it is done on
glass, and with frames or nets divided into squares
with silk or with thread, and also by means of in¬
struments invented for the purpose, as the parallelo¬
gram.
C 0 UN ter-Ermine, in Heraldry, is the contrary of
ermine, being a black field with white spots.
COUNTERFEITS, in Law, are persons that ob¬
tain any money or goods by counterfeit letters or false
tokens, who being convicted before justices of assize or
of peace, &c. are to suffer such punishment as shall be
thought fit to be inflicted under death, as imprison¬
ment, pillory, &c.
COUNTER-foil, or Counter-,y/oc&, in the exche¬
quer, that part of a tally which is kept by an officer of
the court.
CouNTER-Guard, in Fortification* \s a work raised
before the point of a bastion, consisting of two long
faces parallel to the faces of the bastion, making a
salient angle ; they are sometimes of other shapes, or
otherwise situated.
CouNTER-Light, or Counter-jour, a light opposite to
any thing, which makes it appear to disadvantage. A
single counter-light is sufficient to take away all the
beauty of a fine painting.
Cove ter-March, in military affairs, a change of the
face or wings of a battalion, by which means those that
were in the front come to be in the rear. It also signi¬
fies returning, or marching back again.
CouNTER-Mine, in War, a well and gallery drove
and sunk till it meet the enemy’s mine, to prevent its
effect.
Co UN ter- Paled, in Heraldry, is when the escutcheon
is divided into twelve pales parted per fesse, the two
colours being counter-changed ; so that the upper are of
one colour and the lower of another.
CouNTER-Part, in Music, denotes one part to be apT
plied to another. Thus the bass is said to be a counter¬
part to the treble.
CouNTER-Passant, in Heraldry, is when two lions
are in a coat of arms, and the one seems to go quite the
contrary way from the other.
CoUNTER-
Count
11
T ounter-
passant.
C O U [ 702 ] c o u
Ceutiter- ComtER-Point, in Music, a term derived from the
iioiut Latin preposition contra and the verbpungere ; because
h the musical characters by which the notes in each part
(uw !»••■>. s;gnJfied are placed in such a manner, each with re¬
spect to each, as to show how the parts answer one ano¬
ther. See Composition.
CouNTER-Pointed {Contre-pointe'), in Heraldry, is
when two cheverons in one escutcheon meet in the
points, the one rising as usual from the base, and the
other inverted falling from the chief j so that they are
counter to one another in the points. They may also
be counter-pointed when they are founded upon the
sides of the shield, and the points meet that way, called
counter-pointed in fesse.
COUNTERPOISE, in the manege, is the liberty
of the action and seat of a horseman j so that in all
the motions made by the horse, he does not incline his
body more to one side than to the other, but continues
in the middle of the saddle, being equally on his stir¬
rups, in order to give the horse the proper and reason¬
able aids.
COUNTER-potent {contre-potence), in Heral¬
dry, is reckoned a fur as well as vaire ermine j but
composed of such pieces as represent the tops of
crutches, called in Yvench pote7ices, and in old English
patents.
CountER-Proof, in rolling-press printing, a print
taken off from another fresh printed ; which by be¬
ing passed through the press, gives the figure of the
former, but inverted. To counter-prove, is also to
pass a design in black lead, or red chalk, through
the press, after having moistened with a sponge both
that and the paper on which the counter-proof is to be
taken.
Counter- Quartered {contre-ecarte/e,') in Heraldry,
denotes the escutcheon, after being quartered, to have
each quarter again divided into two.
CouNTER-Saliant, is when two beasts are borne in
a coat leaping from each other directly the contrary
way.
CouNTER-Scatp, in Fortification, is properly the ex¬
terior talus or slope of the ditch j but it is often taken
for the covered way and the glacis. In this sense we
say, the enemy have lodged themselves in the counter¬
scarp. Angle of the counter-scarp, is that made by
two sides of the counter-scarp, meeting before the mid¬
dle of the curtain.
CouNTER-Signing, the signing the writing of a supe¬
rior in quality of secretary. Thus charters are signed
by the king, and counter-signed by a secretary of state,
or lord-chancellor.
CouNTER-Time, in the manege, is the defence or re¬
sistance of a horse that interrupts his cadence, and the
measure of his manege, occasioned either by a bad
horseman or by the malice of a horse.
Counter, is also the name of a counting-board in a
shop, and of a piece of metal with a stamp on it, used
in playing at cards.
Counter of a Horse, that part of a horse’s fore¬
hand which lies between the shoulders and under the
neck.
Counters in a ship, are two. 1. The hollow arch¬
ing from the gallery to the lower part of the straight
piece of the stern, is called the upper-counter. 2. The
lower counter is between the transom and the lower ^ounl
part of the gallery. y
Counter, is also the name of two prisons in the city CoumJ
of London, viz. the Poultry and Woodstreet.
COUNTORS, Countours, or Counters, has
been used for Serjeants at law, retained to defend a
cause, or to speak for their client in any course of
law.
It is of these Chaucer speaks :
 A sheriff had he been, and a contour,
Was nowhere such a worthy vavasour.
They were anciently called sergeant contours.
COUNTRIES, among the miners, a term or ap¬
pellation they give to their works under ground.
COUNTRY, among geographers, is used indiffex*-
ently to denote either a kingdom, province, or lesser
disti-ict. But its most frequent use is in contradistinc¬
tion to town.
CouNTRY-Dance is of English origin, though now
transplanted into almost all the countries and courts of
Europe. There is no established rule for the composi¬
tion of tunes to this dance, because there is in music no
kind of time whatever which may not be measured by
the motions common in dancing ; and there are few
song tunes of any note within the last century, that
have not been applied to country-dances.
COUNTY, in Geography, originally signified the
territory of a count or earl, but now it is used in the
same sense with shire } the one word coming from the
French, the other from the Saxon.—In this view, a
county is a circuit or portion of the realm ; into fifty-
two of which the whole land, England and Wales, is
divided for its better government and the more easy
administration of justice.
For the execution of the laws in the several counties,
excepting Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham,
every Michaelmas term officers are appointed, under
the denomination of sheriffs. Other officers of the se¬
veral counties are, lord-lieutenant, who has the com¬
mand of the militia of the county ; custodes rotulo-
rum, justices of peace, bailiffs, high-constable, and co¬
roner.
Of the fifty-two counties, there are three of special
note, which are therefore termed counties palatine, as
Lancaster, Chester, and Durham. See Palatine.
CouNTY-Corporate, is a title given to several cities,
or ancient boroughs, on which our monarchs have
thought fit to bestow extraordinary privileges j annex¬
ing to them a particular territory, land, or jurisdiction ;
and making them counties of themselves, to be govern¬
ed by their own sheriffs and magistrates.
County Court, in English Law, a court incident to
the jurisdiction of the sheriff. It is not a court of i'e-
cord, but may hold pleas of debt or damages under
the value of 40s. Over some of which causes these
inferior courts have, by the express words of the sta¬
tute of Gloucester, a jurisdiction totally exclusive of
the king’s superior courts. For in order to be en¬
titled to sue an action of trespass for goods before the
king’s justiciars, the plaintiff is directed to make affi¬
davit that the cause of action does really and bona fide
amount to 40s. which affidavit is now unaccountably
disused, except in the court of exchequer. The sta¬
tute
c o u
[ 7° 3 3
c o u
County, tute also 43 Eliz. c. 6. which gives the judges in many
Coupar. personal actions, where the jury assess less damages
—-V ’ than 40s. a power to certify the same and abridge
the plaintiff of his full costs, was also meant to pre¬
vent vexation by litigious plaintiffs 5 who, for pur¬
poses of mere oppresion, might be inclinable to insti¬
tute such suits in the superior courts for injuries of a
trifling value. The county court may also hold plea
of many real actions, and of all personal actions to any
amount, by virtue of a special writ called jus tides;
which is a writ empowering the sheriff for the sake oi
dispatch to do the same justice in this county-court, as
might otherwise be had at Westminster. The free¬
holders of the county are the real judges in this court,
and the sheriff is the ministerial officer. The great
conflux of freeholders, which are supposed always to
attend at the county court (which Spelman calls forum
plcbeice justitice et theatrum comitivce potestatis, is the
reason why all acts of parliament at the end of every
session were wont to be there published by the sheriff j
why all outlawries of absconding offenders are there
proclaimed ; and why all popular elections which the
freeholders are to make, as formerly of sheriffs and con¬
servators of the peace, and still of coroners, verderors
and knights of the shire, must ever be made in plena
cnmitatu, or in full county-court. By the statute 2
Edw. VI. c. 25. no county-court shall be adjourned
longer than for one month, consisting of 28 days. And
this was also the ancient usage, as appears from the
laws of King Edward the elder •, prepositus (that is the
sheriff) ad quartern circiter septimanamfrequentem populi
concionem celebrato ; cuique jus dicito ; litesque singulas
dirimito. In those times the county-court was a court
of great dignity and splendour, the bishop and the
ealdorman (or earl), with the principal men of the shire,
sitting therein to administer justice both in lay and ec¬
clesiastical causes. But its dignity was much impaired,
when the bishop was prohibited, and the earl neglected
to attend it. And, in modern times, as proceedings are
removeable from hence into the king’s superior courts,
by writ of pone or recordare, in the same manner as from
hundred-courts and courts-barons •, and as the same writ
of false judgment may be had, in nature of a writ of
error, this has occasioned the same disuse of bringing
actions therein.
COUPAR, or Cupar, of Axgus, a town of Scot¬
land, in the valley of Strathmore, and though desig¬
nated in Angus, by far the greater part is situated in
the county of Perth. The town is placed on the Isla,
and is divided by a rivulet into two parts 5 that part
which lies south of this rivulet being all that belongs
to the county of Angus. The streets are well paved
and lighted, and the town has much improved of late
years } there is a town-house and steeple on the spot
where the prison of the court of regality stood. The
linen manufacture is carried on to a considerable extent,
nearly 200,000 yards of different kinds of cloth be¬
ing annually stamped here. The number of inhabi¬
tants in 1811 was 2590 in the town and parish. It is
distant about 12 miles from Perth, and nearly the same
distance from Dundee. The parish of Cupar extends
about 5 miles in length from south-west to north-east,
and is from 1 to 2 miles in breadth; it is divided
lengthways by an elevated ridge : a considerable ex¬
tent of haugh ground lies on the banks of the Isla,
2
which is frequently swelled by the rains, and lays nearly
600 acres under water. There are still visible at Cu¬
par, the vestiges of a Roman camp, said to have been
formed by the army ot Agricola in his 7th expedition.
On the centre of this camp, Malcolm IV. in 1104,
founded and richly endowed an abbey lor Cistertian
monks 5 from what remains, it must have been a house
of considerable magnitude.
Coupar, or Cupar, of Fife, a town in Scotland, ca¬
pital of the county of Fife, about 10 miles west oi
St Andrews 5 W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 56. 20. It
is situated on the north bank of the Eden, nearly in
the centre of the county 5 it boasts of great antiquity j
the thanes of Fife, from the earliest times ot which
any account has been transmitted to us, held here
their courts of justice j and in the rolls of parliament,
assembled in the beginning of the reign ot King Da¬
vid II. may be seen the names of commissioners from
the royal borough of Cupar. It is governed by a pro¬
vost, 3 bailies, a dean of guild, and 21 counsellors.
The revenue of the town amounts to 43°^* sterling per
annum. Cupar has the appearance ot a neat, clean,
well built, thriving town. The streets are well paved,
and upwards of one third of the town is newly built.
The church is a neat new building, and the spire is
much admired for its light and elegant appearance.
Adjoining to the town-house, the gentlemen ot the
county lately built a room tor county meetings, and
other apartments. The prisons are on the opposite side
of the town-house. In Cupar, and the neighbouring
country, a considerable quantity of coarse linens are
manufactured; about 500,000 yards are annually
stamped, the aggregate value ot which is nearly
30,000!. sterling. Population ot the town is about
4000. The parish of Cupar is an irregular square of
5 miles, divided into two parts by the river Eden, the
banks of which are covered with numerous farm houses,
and ornamented with elegant and stately villas. Cars-
logie, the seat of Colonel Clephane, is an ancient man¬
sion. Garlie bank, the property ot James Wemyss,
Esq. of Winthank, is celebrated for the treaty con¬
cluded on the 13th of June 1559, between the duke
de Chattelherault, on the part of the queen-regent,
and the earl of Argyle commanding the forces of the
congregation. The population ot the parish (inclu¬
ding the town of Cupar) in 1793, amounted to 3702 j
in 1801, there were 4463 inhabitants in the same di¬
strict, and in 1811 there were 4758.
COUPED, in Heraldry, is used to express the head,
or any limb, of an animal, cut oft from the trunk,
smooth ’, distinguishing it from that which is called
crossed, that is, forcibly torn off, and therefore is ragged
and uneven.
Couped, is also used to signify such crosses, bars,
bends, chevrons, &c. as do not touch the sides of the
escutcheon, but are, as it were, cut off from them.
COUPEE, a motion in dancing, wherein one leg is
a little bent, and suspended from the ground j and with
the other a motion is made forwards..
The word in the original French signifies a cut.
COUPLE GLOSS, in Heraldry, the fourth part of a
chevron, never borne but in pairs, except there be a
chevron between them, saith Guillim, though Bloom
gives an instance to the contrary.
COUPLET, a division of a hymn, ode, song, &c.
wherein
C O U [ 704 ] c o u
Couj.let wherein an equal number, or equal measure, of verses, is
H found in each part} which divisions, in odes, are called
Courayei'. strophes. Couplet, by an abuse of the word, is fre-
v quently made to signify a couple of verses.
COURAGE, in Ethics, is that quality of the mind,
derived either from constitution or principle, or both,
that enables men to encounter difficulties and dangers.
See Fortitude.
COURANT, a French term synonymous with cwr-
rent, and properly signifies running. See Current.
Courant, is also a term in music and dancing j
being used to express both the tune or air and the dance.
With regard to the first,. coMrawi or currant is a
piece of music in triple time : the air of the courant is
ordinarily noted in triples of minims; the parts to be
repeated twice. It begins and ends when he who
beats the measure falls his hands ; in contradistinction
from the saraband, which ordinarily ends when the
hand is raised. With regard to dancing, the courant
was long the most common of all the dances practised
in England : it consists, essentially, of a time, a step, a
balance, and a coupee ; though it also admits of other
motions. Formerly they leaped their steps ; in which
point the courant difi’ered from the low dance and pa-
vades. There are simple courants and figured courants,
all danced by two persons.
COURAP, the modern name for a distemper
very common in Java and other parts of the East
Indies. It is a sort of herpes or itch on the arm-pits,
groins, breast, and face ; the itching is almost perpe¬
tual ; and the scratching is followed by great pain and
a discharge of matter, which makes the linen stick so
to the skin as not easily to be separated without tear¬
ing off the crust. Courap is a general name for any
sort of itch ; but this distemper is thus called by way
of eminence. It is so contagious that few escape it.
For the cure, gentle and repeated purging is used, and
externally the sublimate in a small quantity is a good
topic.
COURAYER, Peter Francis, a Roman Catho¬
lic clergyman, distinguished by great moderation,
charity, and temper, concerning religious affairs, as
well as by learning, was born at Vernon in Normandy,
1681. W hile canon regular and librarian of the abbev
ot St Genevieve at Paris, he applied to our archbishop
Wake for the resolution of some doubts, concerning
the episcopal succession in England, and the validity
oi our ordinations: he was encouraged to this by the
friendly correspondence which had passed between the
archbishop and M. du Pin of the Sorbonne. The arch¬
bishop sent him exact copies of the proper records ;
and on these he built his “ Defence of English Ordi¬
nations,” which was published in Holland, in 1727.
This exposed him to a prosecution in his own country ;
he therefore took refuge in England ; where he was well
received, and presented the same year by the university
of Oxford with a doctor’s degree. As it is somewhat
uncommon for a Roman Catholic clergymen to be ad¬
mitted to degrees in divinity by Protestant universities,
the curious may be gratified with a sight of the diplo¬
ma, and the doctor’s letter of thanks, in “ The present
State of the Republic of Letters, for June 1728.”
In 1736, he translated into French, and published,
“ Father Paul’s History of the Council of Trent,” in
2 vols. folio, and dedicated it to Queen Caroline ; who
3
augmented to 200I. a pension of look a year, which Courav
he had obtained before from the court. The learned |j
Jer. Markland, in a letter to his friend Bowyer, Sep- Conilan
tember I75^> says> “ Mr Clarke has given me F.—
Courayer’s translation of the History of the Council
of Trent ; with whose preface 1 am so greatly pleased,
that if he be no more a papist in other tenets than he
is in those he mentions (which are many, and of the
most distinguishing class), I dare say there are very few
considerate Protestants who are not as good Catholics
as he is.” His works are many, and all in French :
he translated Sleidan’s “ History of the Reformation.”
He died in 1776, after two days illness, at the age of
95 ; and was buried in the cloister of Westminster-
abbey. In his will, dated leb. 3* *774 declares,
that he “ dies a member of the Catholic church, but
without approving of many of the opinions and su¬
perstitions which have been introduced into the Romish
church, and taught in their schools and seminaries;
and which they have insisted on as articles of faith,
though to him they appear to be not only not founded
in truth, but also to be highly improbable.” And his
practice, was conformable to this dec’aration ; for at
London he constantly went to mass, and at Falling in
the country, whither he often retired, as constantly at¬
tended the service of the parish church; declaring at all
times, that he “ had great satisfaction in the prayers of
the church of England.”
COURBARIL. See Hymenea.
COURIER, or Currier, (from the French courirt
“ to run,”) a messenger sent post, or express, to carry
dispatches.
The ancients too, had their couriers. We meet with
two kinds : 1. Those who ran on foot, called by the
Greeks hemerodromi, q. d. “ couriers of a day.”
Pliny, Corn. Nepos, and Caesar, mention some of
those who would run 20, 30, 36, and in the circus
even 40 leagues per day. 2. Riding couriers (curso-
res equitantes), who changed horses as the modern
couriers do.
Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus.
Herodotus says they were very ordinary among the
Pe rsians, and that there was nothing in the world more
swift than these kind of messengers. “ That prince
(says Xenophon) examined how far a horse would go
in a day ; and built stables, at such distances from each
other, where he lodged horses, and persons to take
care of them ; and at each place kept a person always
ready to take the packet, mount a fresh horse, and for¬
ward it to the next stage; and thus quite through his
empire.”
But it does not appear that either the Greeks or
Romans had any regular fixed couriers till the time
of Augustus ; under that prince they travelled in
cars ; though it would appear that they afterwards
went on horseback. Under the western empire they
were called viatores; and under that of Constan¬
tinople, cursores: whence the modern name. See
Post.
COURLAND, a duchy situated between E. Long.
21. 26. and between N. Lat. 56. 30. and 57. 20. It
is bounded by the river Dwina, which divides it from
Livonia on the north ; by Lithuania, on the east ;
by Samogitia, on the south, and by the Baltic sea on
the west; being 120 miles long and 30 broad. This
duchy
O O U [ 705 ] c o u
Caurland duc^y was formerly independent, and elected their own
H duke ; but it is now subject to Russia.
Courdng. COURSE (route), in Navigation, the angle con-
— v 1 tained between the nearest meridian and that point of
the compass upon which a ship sails in any particular
direction.
Course, in Architecture, denotes a continued range
of stones, level, or of the same height, throughout the
whole length of the building j and not interrupted by
any aperture. It forms a parapet to the intermedi¬
ate space between the body of the building and the
wings.
Couese Plinths, is the continuity of a plinth of
stone or plaster in the face of a building } to mark the
separation of the stories.
Course is also used for the time ordinarily spent
in learning the principles of a science, or the usual
points and questions therein. Thus, a student is said
to have finished his course in the humanity, in philoso¬
phy, &c.
Course is also used for the elements of an art ex¬
hibited and explained, either in writing or by actual
experiment. Hence our course of philosophy, anatomy,
chemistry, mathematics, &c. probably so called as go¬
ing throughout or running the whole length or course
of the arts, &c.
COURSES, a name by which the principal sails of
a ship are distinguished, viz. the main-sail, the fore¬
sail, and the mizen : the mizen stay-sail and fore-sail
are also sometimes comprehended in this denomination j
as are the main stay-sails of all brigs and schooners.
See Sail.
COURSING, among sportsmen. There are three
several sorts of courses with grehounds: 1. At the hare ;
2. At the fox $ and 3. At tha deer.
For the deer, there are two sorts of courses 5 the
one in the paddock, the other either in the forest
or the purlieu. For the paddock course, there must
be the grehound and the terrier, and the mongrel
grehound, whose business it is to drive away the
deer before the grehounds are slipped $ a brace or
a leash are the usual number slipped at a time, sel¬
dom at the utmost more than two brace. In cour¬
sing the deer in the forest or purlieu, there are two
ways in use ; the one is coursing from wood to wood 5
and the other, upon the lawns close by the keeper’s
lodge. In the coursing from wood to wood, the way
is to throw in some young hounds into the wood to
bring out the deer ; and if any deer come out that is
not weighty, or a deer or antler which is buck, sore,
or sorrel, then you are not to slip your grehounds,
which are held at the end of the wood, where the
keepers, who can guess very well on these occasions,
expect that the deer will come out. If a proper deer
come out, and it is suspected that the brace or leash of
grehounds slipped after him will not be able to kill
him, it is proper to waylay him with a couple of fresh
grehounds.
The coursing upon the lawn is the most agreeable
of all other ways. When the keeper has notice of this,
he will lodge a deer for the course and then, by co¬
ming under the wind, the grehounds may be brought
near enough to be slipped for a fair course.
The best method of coursing the hare, is to go out
and find a hare sitting j which is easily done in the
Vol. VI. Part II. f
summer, by walking across the lands, either stubble, Coursing,
fallow, or corn grounds, and casting the eye up and —v*"—>
down : for in summer they frequent those places for
fear of the ticks, which are common in the woods at
that season j and in autumn the rains falling from the
trees offend them. The rest of the year there is
more trouble required; as the bushes and thickets
must be beat to rouse them, and oftentimes they will
lie so close, that they will not stir till the pole almost
touches them : the sportsmen are always pleased with
this, as it promises a good course. If a hare lies near
any close or covert, and with her head that way, it
is always to be expected that she will take to that im¬
mediately on being put up; all the company are there¬
fore to ride up, and put themselves between her and
the covert before she is put up, that she may take the
other way, and run upon open ground. When a hare
is put up, it is always proper to give her ground, or
law, as it is called j that is, to let her run 12 score
yards or thereabouts, before the grehounds are slip¬
ped at her $ otherwise she is killed too soon, the greater
part of the sport is thrown away, and the pleasure of
observing the several turnings and windings that the
creature will make to get away is all lost. A good
sportsman had rather see a hare save herself after a fair
course, than see her murdered by the grehounds as soon
as she is up.
In coursing the fox, no other art is required, than
standing close, and in a clear wind, on the outside of
some grove where it is expected he will come out ;
and when he is come out, he must have head enough
allowed him, otherwise he will return back to the
covert. The slowest grehound will be able to over¬
take him, after all the odds of distance necessary ; and
the only danger is the spoiling the dog by the fox,
which too frequently happens. For this reason, no
grehound of any value should be run at this course j
but the strong, hard, bitter dogs, that will seize any
thing.
The laws of coursing established by the duke of
Norfolk, and other sportsmen of the kingdom of Eng¬
land, are these :
I. He that is chosen fewterer or letter-loose of the
dogs, shall receive the grehounds matched to run
together into his leash as soon as he comes into the
field : he is to march next to the hare-finder, or him
who is to start the hare, until he come to the form ;
and no horseman or footman is to go before or side¬
ways, but all straight behind, for the space of about
40 yards. 2. A hare ought never to be coursed with
more than a brace of grehounds. 3. The hare-
finder is to give the hare three sohoes before he puts
her up from her form or seat, to the end that the dogs
may be prepared and attend her starting. 4. If
there be not a particular danger of losing the hare,
she should have about twelve score yards law. 5. The
dog that gives the first turn, if after that there be
neither cote, slip, nor wrench, wins the wager. 6. A
go-by, or bearing the hare, is counted equivalent to
two turns. 7. If either dog turns the hare, he that
leads to the last covert wins. 8. If any dog turns the
hare, serves himself, and turns her again, it is as much
as a cote, and a cote is esteemed as much as two
turns. 9. If all the course be equal, he that bears
the hare shall win; and if he be not borne, the course
4 U shall
C O U [ 706 ] c o u
Coursing, shall then he judged dead. 10. If a dog take a fall
Court. in his course, and yet perform his part, he may
challenge the advantage of a turn more than he
gave. 11. If a dog turn the hare, serve himself,
and give divers cotes, and yet in the end shall stand
still in the field, the other dog, if he turns home to the
covert, although he gives no other, shall be adjudged
to win the wager. 12. If by misfortune a dog be rid
over in the course, that course shall be adjudged void,
and he that did the mischief is to make reparation to
the owner. 13. If a dog gives the first and last turn,
and there be no other advantage betwixt them, he that
gives the odd turn wins. 14. A cote is when a gre-
hound goes endways by the side of his fellow, and
gives the hare a turn. 15. A cote serves for two turns,
and two trippings or jerkings for a cote ; and if the
hare turns not quite about, she only wrencheth, in the
sportsman’s phrase. 16. If there be no cotes given by
either of the grehounds, but one serves the other at
turning, then he that gives the most turns wins the
wager. 17. Sometimes a hare does not turn, but
wrenches; for she does not turn, except she turns as it
were round. In these cases, two wrenches stand for
one turn. 18. He that comes in first at the death of
the hare takes her up, and saves her from breaking ;
he cherishes the dogs, and cleanses their mouths from
the wool; he is adjudged to have the hare for his pains.
19. Finally, those who are judges for the leash, must
give their judgment before they depart out of the field,
or else it is not to stand as valid.
COURT, an appendage to a house or habitation ;
consisting of a piece of ground inclosed with walls, but
open upwards.
Court is also used for the palace or place where a
king or sovereign prince resides.
Court, in a law sense, is defined to be a place
wherein justice is judicially administered. And, as,
by our excellent constitution, the sole executive power
of the laws is vested in the person of the king, it will
follow that all courts of justice, which are the me¬
dium by which he administers the laws, are derived
Comment ^rom ^ie Power crown. For whether created
' by act of parliament or letters patent, or subsisting by
prescription (the only methods by which any court
of judicature can exist), the king’s consent in the two
former is expressly, and in the latter impliedly, given.
In all these courts, the king is supposed in contem¬
plation of law to be always present $ but as that is in
fact impossible, he is there represented by his judges,
whose power is only an emanation of the royal prero¬
gative.
For the more speedy, universal, and impartial ad¬
ministration of justice between subject and subject,
the law hath appointed a prodigious variety of courts,
some with a more limited, others with a more exten¬
sive jurisdiction} some constituted to inquire only,
others to hear and determine j some to determine in
the first instance, others upon appeal and by way of
review. See Law, N° xcviii. xcix. c, cxli. clvi. clvii.
clviii. and the respective articles in the order of the al¬
phabet. One distinction may be here mentioned, that
runs throughout them all; viz. that some of them are
courts of record, others not of record. A court of re¬
cord is that where the acts and judicial proceedings are
sirolled in parchment for a perpetual memorial and
testimony : which rolls are called the records of the Court.
court, and are of such high and supereminent authori--y—
ty, that their truth is not to be called in question. For
it is a settled rule and maxim, that nothing shall be
averred against a record, nor shall any plea, or even
proof, be admitted to the contrary. And if the exist¬
ence of a record be denied, it shall be tried by nothing
but itself; that is, upon bare inspection whether there
be any such record or not: else there would be no end
of disputes. But if there appears any mistake of the
clerk in making up such record, the court will direct
him to amend it. All courts of record are the king’s
courts in right of his crown and royal dignity, and
therefore no other court hath authority to fine or im¬
prison : so that the very erection of a new jurisdic¬
tion, with power of fine or imprisonment, makes it in¬
stantly a court of records. A court not of record is
the court of a private man ; whom the law will not
intrust with any discretionary power over the fortune
or liberty of his fellow subjects. Such are the courts-
baron incident to every manor, and other inferior ju¬
risdictions ; where the proceedings are not enrolled or
recorded; but as well their existence as the truth of the
matters therein contained shall, if disputed, be tried
and determined by a jury. These courts can hold no
plea of matters cognizable by the common law, unless
under the value of 40s. ; nor of any forcible injury
whatsoever, nor having any process to arrest the person
of the defendant.
In every court there must be at least three consti¬
tuent parts, the actor, reus, mn& judex: the actor, or
plaintiff, who complains of an injury done ; the reus,
or defendant, who is called upon to make satisfaction
for it; and the judex, or judicial power, which is to exa¬
mine the truth of the fact, to determine the law arising
upon that fact, and, if any injury appears to have been
done, to ascertain, and by its officers to apply the re¬
medy. It is also usual in the superior courts to have
attorneys, and advocates or counsel, as assistants. See
Attorney and Counsel.
CouRT-Baron, in English Law, a court incident to
every manor in the kingdom, to be holden by the
steward within the said manor. This court-baron is
of two natures : the one is a customary court, apper¬
taining entirely to the copyholders, in which their
estates are transferred by surrender and admittance, and
other matters transacted relative to their tenures only.
The other is a court of common law, and it is the
court of the bai'ons, by which name the freeholders
were sometimes anciently called : for that it is held
before the freeholders who owe suit and service to the
manor, the steward being rather the register than the
judge. These courts, though in their nature distinct,
are equally confounded together. The court we are
now considering, viz. the freeholder’s court, was com¬
posed of the lord’s tenants, who were the pares of each
other, and were bound by their feodal tenure to assist
their lord in the dispensation of domestic justice. This
was formerly held every three weeks; and its most im¬
portant business is to determine, by writ of right, all
controversies relating to the right of lands within the
manor. It may also hold plea of any personal actions,
of debt, trespass on the case, or the like, where the
debt or damages do not amount to 40s. Which is
the same sum, or three marks, that bounded the ju¬
risdiction
Con it
Cousin-
C O u [707
risdiction of the ancient Gothic courts in their lowest
instance, orJierding courts, so called because four were
instituted within every superior district or hundred.
But the proceedings on a writ of right may be remo¬
ved into the county-court by a precept from the sherift
called a tolt, quia tollit atque eximit\causam e curia baro-
And the proceedings in all other actions may
]
COW
be removed into the superior courts by the king’s writs
of pone or accedas ad curiam, according to the nature
of the suit. After judgment given, a writ also ot
false judgment lies to the courts at Westminster to re¬
hear and review the cause, and not a writ of error;
for^this is not a court of record } and therefore, in
some of these writs of removal, the first direction given
is to cause the plaint to be recorded, recordarifacias
loquelam.
Court-Martial, a court appointed for the punishing
offences in officers, soldiers, and sailors, the powers of
which are regulated by the mutiny-bifl.
For other courts, see Admiralty, Arches, Bench,
Chancery, Chivalry, ComiON-Pleas, County,
Duchy, Ecclesiastical, Faculty, Forest,
Hustings, Leet, Legate, Mayor, Piepoudre,
Prerogative, Bequests, Stannary, STAR-Cham-
ber. University, &c.
COURTESY, or Curtesy, of England ; a certain
tenure whereby a man marrying an heiress seized of
lands of fee-simple, or fee-tail general, or seized as
heir of the tail special, and getteth a child by her that
cometh alive into the world, though both it and his
wife die forthwith ; yet, if she were in possession, he
shall keep the land during his life, and is called tenant
per legem Anglice, “ or tenant by the courtesy of Eng¬
land j” because this privilege is not allowed in any
country except Scotland, where it is called curialitas
Scotice.
COURTESAN, a woman who prostitutes herself
for hire, especially to people of superior rank. Lai's
the famous Theban courtesan, stands on record for re¬
quiring no less than 10,000 crowns for a single night.
Of all places in the world, Venice is that where courte¬
sans abound the most. It is now 300 years since the
senate, which had expelled them, was obliged to recal
them 5 in order to provide for the security of women of
honour, and to keep the nobles employed, lest they
should turn their heads to make innovations in the
state.
COURTRAY, a town of the Netherlands, situ¬
ated on the river Lys, about 23 miles south-west of
Ghent, and 14 east ofYpres. E. Long. 3. 10. N.
Lat. 50. 48.
COUSIN, a term of relation between the children
of brothers and sisters, who in the first generation are
called cousins-german, in the second generation, second
cousins, &c. If sprung from the relations of the fa¬
ther’s side, they are denominated paternal cousins ; if
on the mother’s, maternal.
The word is ordinarily derived from consanguineus ;
though Menage brings it from congenius, or congeneus,
q. d. ex eodem genere.
In the primitive times, it was allowed cousins-ger¬
man to marry, to prevent their making alliances in
heathen families: but Theodosius the Great prohi¬
bited it under pain of death $ on pretence that they
were, in some sort, brothers and sisters with regard to
each other.
Cousin, John, a celebrated French painter, who .
excelled in painting on glass. His picture of the Last
Judgment, in the vestry of the Minims of the Wood of
Vincennes, is much admired. He was also a good
sculptor. He wrote several works on geometry and
perspective } and died after the year 1689.
COUSU, in Heraldry, signifies a piece of another
colour or metal placed in the ordinary, as if it were
sewed on, as the word imports. This is generally of
colour upon colour, or metal upon metal, contrary to
the general rule of heraldry.
COUTANCES, a port town of Normandy, in the
department of La Manche. W. Long. 1. 32. N. Lat.
49. 10. This town, anciently called Constantin or Cose-
dia, is pleasantly situated among meadows and rivulets
about five miles distant from the sea. By the remains
of a Roman aqueduct, and other ancient ruins, it appears
to be a place of great antiquity. It is the see of a bi¬
shop, suffragan of Rome j and has a magnificent cathe¬
dral, esteemed one of the finest pieces of Gothic archi¬
tecture in Europe. The trade of this town is very in¬
considerable, and the fortifications are quite demolish¬
ed. They have several religious houses, and two pa¬
rochial churches. Population 11,000 in 1815.
COUTHUTLAUGH, from the Saxon couth,
“ knowing,” and utlaugh, “ outlaw j” he that wit¬
tingly receives a man outlawed, and cherishes or
conceals him : for which offence he was in ancient
times subject to the same punishment with the outlaw'
himself.
COVERT, in Heraldry, denotes something like a
piece of hanging, or a pavilion falling over the top of
a chief or other ordinary, so as not to hide, but only to
be a covering to it.
COW. See Bos, Mammalia Index.
Cow-Burner. See Buprestis, Entomology In¬
dex.
Sea-Cow. See Trichecus, Mammalia Index.
Cow-Itch, or Couhage. See Couhage and DoLI-
chos, Botany
Cow's-Lip. See Primula, Botany Index.
COWARD, in Heraldry, a term given to a lion
borne in an escutcheon, with his tail doubled, or turned
in between his legs.
COWEL, Dr John, a learned and eminent civi¬
lian, born about the year 1554. In 1607 *ie compiled
a Law Dictionary, which gave great offence to Sir
Edward Coke and the common lawyers : so that they
first accused him to James I. as asserting that the king’s
prerogative was in some cases limited j and when they
failed in that attempt, they complained of him to the
house of commons, as a betrayer of the rights of the
people, by asserting that the king was not bound by
the laws ; for which he was committed to custody,
and his book publicly burnt. He also published In-
stitutiones Juris Anglicani, in the manner of Justinian’s
Institutes j and died in the operation for the stone, in
1611.
COWES, a town and harbour on the north-east
coast of the isle of Wight in Hampshire. It has no
market, but is the best place for. trade in the whole
island ; but as it lies low, the air is accounted unhealthy.
4 U 2 It
Cousin
Cowes.
COW [ 708 ] cow
Cowes It is eight miles south-east of Portsmouth. W. Long.
^ tl I. 25. N. Lat 50. 45.
°^’ e^’ ■ COWL, or Coul, a sort of monkish habit worn by
the Bernardines and Benedictines. The word is formed
from cucullus, by confounding the two first syllables in¬
to one, as being the same twice repeated. There are
two kinds of cowls: the one white, very large, worn
in ceremony, and when they assist at the office ; the
other black, worn on ordinary occasions, in the streets,
&c.
F. Mabillon maintains the coul to be the same thing
in its origin with the scapular. The author of the
apology ot the emperor Henry IV. distinguishes two
forms of couls ; the one is a gown reaching to the
feet, having sleeves, and a capuchin, used in cere¬
monies $ the other a kind of hood to work in, called
also a scapular, because it only covers the head and
shoulders.
COW7LEY, Abraham, an eminent poet, was born
at London in 1618. His father, who was a grocer,
eying before he was born, his mother procured him
to be admitted a king’s scholar at Westminster.
His first inclination to poetry arose on his lighting
on Spenser’s Fairy Queen, when he was but just able
to read ; and this inclination so far improved on him,
that at 13 he began to write several poems; a col¬
lection of which was published in 1613, when he
was but 15. He has been represented as possessed
of so bad a memory that his teachers could never
bring him to retain the ordinary rules of grammar.
But the fact was, as Dr Johnson notices, not that he
could not learn or retain the rules; but that being
able to perform his exercises without them, he spared
himself the trouble. In 1636 he was elected a scholar
of Trinity college, Cambridge, and removed to that
university. Here he went through all his exercises
with a remarkable degree of reputation; and at the
same time must have pursued his poetical turn with
great eagerness, as it appears that the greatest part of
his poems were written before he left that university.
He had taken his degree of master of arts before
j643» when, in consequence of the turbulence of the
times, he, among others, was ejected from the col¬
lege ; whereupon, retiring to Oxford, he entered him-
selt of St John’s college; and that very year, under the
denomination of a scholar of Oxford, published a satire
called the Puritan and the Papist. It is apparent,
however, that he did not remain very long at Oxford ;
for his zeal to the royal cause engaging him in the
service of the king, who was very sensible of his abili¬
ties, and by whom he was frequently employed, he
attended his majesty in many of his journeys and expe¬
ditions, and gained not only that prince’s esteem, but
that of many other great personages, and’ in particular
of Lord Falkland, one of the principal secretaries of
state.
During the heat of the civil war, he was settled in
the earl of St Alban’s family ; and when the queen-
mpther was obliged to retire into France, lie accom¬
panied her thither, laboured strenuously in the affairs
of the royal family, undertook several very dangerous
journeys, on their account, and was the principal in¬
strument in maintaining an epistolary correspondence
between the king and queen, whose letters he. cipher¬
ed and deciphered with, his own hand.. His poems,
entitled The Mistress, were published at London in
1647; and his comedy called The Guardian, after-
wards altered and published under the title of Cutter
of Coleman-street, in 1650. In 1656 it was thought
proper by those on whom Mr Cowley depended that
he should come over into England, and, under pretence
0 Pnvacy and retirement, should give notice of the
posture of affairs in this nation. Upon his return he
published a new edition of all his poems, consisting of
four parts; viz. I. Miscellanies. II. The Mistress, or
beyerai copies of Love-verses. HI. Pindaric Odes
written 111 imitation of the style and manner of Pindar’
1V. Davidets, a sacred poem of the troubles of David,
in tour books.
Soon after his arrival, however, he was seized, in
the search after another gentleman of considerable note
in the king s party; but although it was through mis-
take that he was taken, yet when the republicans
found all their attempts of every kind to bring him
over to their party proved ineffectual, he was commit-
ted to a severe confinement, and it was even with con¬
siderable difficulty that he obtained his liberty; when
venturing back to France, he remained there, in his
former situation, till near the time of the kina’s re-
t"rn; ,lis stay in England he wrote hfs Two
Books of Plants, published first in 1662; to which he
afterwards added four books more; and all six, toge¬
ther with his other Latin poems, were printed at Lon¬
don in 1678. It appears by Mr Wood’s Fasti Oxoni-
enses, that our poet was created doctor of physic at Ox¬
ford, December 2. 1657.
Soon after the Restoration he became possessed of a
very competent estate, through the favour of his prin¬
cipal friends the duke of Buckingham and the earl of
St Alban’s; and being now upwards of 40 years of
age, he took up a resolution to pass the remainder of
a life which had been a scene of tempest and tumult,
in that situation which had ever been the object of his
wishes, a studious retirement. His eagerness to get
out of the bustle of a court and city made him less
careful than he might have been in the choice of a
healthful habitation in the country; by which means
he found his solitude from the very beginning suit
less with the constitution of his body than with his
mind. His first rural residence was at Barn Elms, a
place which, lying low, and being near a large river,
was subject to a variety of breezes from land and wa¬
ter, and liable in the winter-time to great inconveni¬
ence from the dampness of the soil. The consequence
ol this Mr Cowley too soon experienced, by being
seized with a dangerous and lingering fever. On his
recovery from this he removed to Cbertsey, a situation
not much more healthy, where he had not been long
before he was seized with another consuming disease.
Having languished under this for some months, he a.t
length got the better of it, and seemed pretty well re¬
covered from the bad symptoms, when one day in the
beat of summer 1667, staying too long in the fields to
give some directions to his labourers, he caught a most
violent cold, which was attended with a defluxion
and stoppage in his breast; and for want of time¬
ly care, by treating it as a common cold, and re¬
fusing advice till it was past remedy, he departed thjs
life on the 28th of July in that year, being the 49th
of his age ; and on the 3d of August following, he
was
Cowley.
COW [ 709 ] cow
Cowley. ™as interred in Westminster-abbey, near the ashes of
«—y—w Chaucer, and his beloved Spenser. He was a man of
a very amiable character, as well as an admirable
genius. King Charles II. on the news of his death,
declared “That Mr Cowley had not left a better man
behind him in England.” A monument was erected to
his memory by George Villiers duke of Buckingham in
i675-.
Besides the works already mentioned, Mr Cowley
wrote, among other things, A Proposition for the
Advancement of Experimental Philosophy j A Dis¬
course by wray of Vision concerning the Government of
Oliver Cromwell; and Several Discourses by way of
Essays in Prose and Verse. Mr Cowley had designed
also a Discourse concerning Style, and a Review of the
Principles of the Primitive Christian Church, but was
prevented by Death. A spurious piece, entitled The
Iron Age, was published under Mr Cowley’s name
during his absence j and, in Mr Dryden’s Miscellany
Poems, we find A poem on the Civil War, said to be
written by our author, but not extant in any edition of
his works. An edition of his works was published by
Dr Spratt, afterwards bishop of Rochester, who also
prefixed to it an account of the author’s life. The
reverend editor mentions, as very excellent of their kind,
Mr Cowley’s letters to his Friends $ none of which,
however, were published.
The moral character of Mr Cowley appears, from
every account of it, to have been very excellent ; “ He
is represented by Dr Spratt (says Dr Johnson), as the
most amiable of mankind ; and this posthumous praise
may be safely credited, as it has never been contradicted
by envy or by faction.”
As a poet, his merits have been variously estimated.
Lord Clarendon has said he made a flight above all
men *, Addison, in his account of the English poets,
that he improved upon the Theban bard ; the duke of
Buckingham upon his tomb-stone, that he was the
English Pindar, the Horace, the Virgil, the delight,
the glory of his time. And with respect to the harsh¬
ness of his numbers, the eloquent Spratt tells us, that
if his verses in some places seem not as soft and flowing
as one would have them, it was his choice and not his
fault.
“ Such (says Mr Knox) is the applause lavished on
a writer who is now seldom read. That he could ever
be esteemed as a Pindaric poet, is a curious literary
phenomenon. He totally mistook his own genius when
he thought of imitating Pindar. He totally mistook
the genius of Pindar, when bethought his own inco¬
herent sentiments and numbers bore the least resem¬
blance to the wild yet regular sublimity of the The¬
ban. He neglected even those forms, the strophe, an¬
tistrophe, and epode, which even imitative dulness can
copy. Sublime imagery, vehement pathos, poetic
fire, which constitute the essence of the Pindaric ode,
are incompatible with witty conceits, accurate anti¬
theses and vulgar expression. All these imply the
coolness of deliberate composition, or the meanness of
a little mind ; both of them most repugnant to the
truly Pindaric ode, in which all is rapturous and noble.
Wit of any kind wmuld be improperly displayed in such
composition : but to increase the absurdity, the wit of
Cowley is often false. That he had a taste for Latin
poetry, and wrote in it with elegance, the well known
epitaph on himself, upon his retirement, and an ad- Cowley,
mirable imitation of Horace, are full proofs. But ——y——
surely his rhetorical biographer makes use of the
figure hyperbole, when he affirms that Cowley has ex¬
celled the Romans themselves. He was inferior to
many a writer of less name in the Musce Anglicance.
But still he had great merit j and I must confess I
have read his Latin verses with more pleasure than
any of his English can afford.” Essays, vol. ii. p.
363—365*
To Cowley’s compositions in prose Mr Knox has
paid a very honourable testimony. He says, that in
this department he is an elegant, a pleasing, a judicious
writer $ and that it is much to be lamented that he
did not devote a greater part of his time to a kind of
writing which appeared natural to him, and in which
he excelled.
Dr Joseph Warton observes, that it is no caricature
of Cowley to represent him as being possessed of a
strained affectation of striving to be witty upon'all oc¬
casions. “ It is painful (adds this excellent critic),
to censure a writer of so amiable a mind, such inte¬
grity of manners, and such sweetness of temper. His
fancy was brilliant, strong, and sprightly $ but his taste
false and unclassical, even though he had much learn-
ing.”
Dr Beattie has characterised Cowley in the follow¬
ing terms. “ I know not whether any nation ever
produced a more singular genius than Cowley. He
abounds in tender thoughts, beautiful lines, and em-
phatical expressions. His wit is inexhaustible, and his
learning extensive ; but his taste is generally barbarous,
and seems to have been formed upon such models as
Donne, Martial, and the worst parts of Ovid : nor
is it possible to read his longer poems with pleasure, ,
while we retain any relish for the simplicity of ancient
composition. If this author’s ideas had been-fewer,
his conceits would have been less frequent j so that in 1
one respect learning may be said to have hurt his genius.
Yet it does not appear that Greek and Latin did him
any harm ; for his imitations of Anacreon are almost the
only parts of him that are now remembered or read. .
His Davideis, and his translations of Pindar, are desti¬
tute of harmony, simplicity, and, every other classical
grace.”
But the works of this celebrated poet have been no¬
where so amply criticised as in his Life by Dr Johnson. .
After a particular examination of the different pieces,
the Doctor, in taking a general review of Cowley’s
poetry, observes, that “he wrote with abundant fertility,
but negligent or unskilful selection j with much thought,
but with little imagery ; that he is never pathetic, and
rarely sublime, but always either ingenious or learned,
either acute or profound.” Of his prose he speaks with
great approbation. “ No author (says he) ever kept
his verse and his prose at a greater distance from each
other. His thoughts are natural, and his style has a ,
smooth and placid equality, which has never yetobtained
its due commendation. Nothing is far sought or hard
laboured; but all is easy without feebleness, and familiar
without grossness.” Upon the whole, he concludes as
follows : “ It may be affirmed, without any encomiastic
fervour, that he brought to his poetic labours a mind
replete with learning, and that his passages are embel¬
lished with all the ornaments which books could sup-
Pty ? »
COW [7
Cowley, ply that he was the first who imparted to English
( owper. numbers the enthusiasm of the greater ode and the
^ gaiety of the less ; and he was qualified for spright¬
ly sallies and for lofty flights j that he was among
those who freed translation from servility, and, in¬
stead of following his author at a distance, walked by
his side ; and that though he had left versification yet
improveable, he left likewise from time to time such
specimens of excellence as enabled succeeding poets to
improve it.”
So many of Cowley’s productions being now esteem¬
ed scarcely worthy of a perusal, while others of them
are distinguished by their beauty, Dr Hurd (the pre¬
sent bishop of Worcester), thought proper to make a
selection of them, which he published in 1772, under
the title of Select Works of Mr Abraham Cowley,
in two volumes ; with a preface and notes by the
Editor.
COW PER, William, a distinguished modern poet,
was born at Berkhamstead in Hertfordshire, in the year
1732. His father, who was rector of the parish, was
nephew to Lord Chancellor Cowper. Mr Cowper
was educated at Westminster school $ and in that cele¬
brated seminary he acquired his classical knowledge.
But it would appear from his poem, entitled “ Tiroci¬
nium" that the impressions which he then received
were not favourable to this system of education, and
gave him a permanent dislike to public schools.
Through family interest, the honourable and lucrative
place of clerk to the house of lords had been provided
for him 5 he was therefore entered at the Temple for
the §tudy of the law, in order to qualify him for it. In
this situation his manners were amiable and decent;
and though it is probable that he did not refuse to in¬
dulge in those pleasures which are usual among young
men similarly situated, yet there seems no reason to
suppose that he had any peculiar causes for self-accu¬
sation. His natural disposition was timid and diffident;
his spirits were constitutionally weak, even to the bor¬
ders of absolute unfitness for worldly concerns j so that
when the time came for assuming that post to which he
had been destined, he shrunk with such terror from the
idea of making his appearance before the most august
assembly in the nation, that, after a violent struggle
with himself, he actually resigned the employment, and
with it all his prospects in life. It appears to have
been under the agitation of mind which this circum¬
stance occasioned, and which threw him into a serious
illness, that he was led to a deep consideration of his
state in a religious view ; and from the system he had
adopted, this course of reflection excited in him the
most alarming and distressful apprehensions. In vain
did his theological friends set before him those encou¬
raging views which the theory of Christian justification
is calculated to present, and which to many is the
source of a confidence perhaps as excessive as their
former fears j the natural disposition of his mind fitted
it to receive all the horrors, without the consolations of
his faith. We are told, that “ the terror of eternal
judgment overpowered and wholly disordered his facul¬
ties j and he remained seven months in a continual ex¬
pectation of being instantly plunged into final misery.”
In this shocking condition he became the subject of me-
tlicai care, and he was placed in the receptacle for lu-
2
o ] COW
natics kept by Dr Cotton at St Alban’s, an amiable
and worthy physician, and the author of some well-
known poems. At length he recovered a degree of se¬
renity ; hut his mind had acquired that indelible tinge
of melancholy by which it was ever after characterised,
and which rendered his whole life little more than a
succession of intervals of comfort between long parox¬
ysms of settled despondency. It is unnecessary to fol¬
low him through all his scenes of retirement. Part of his
time was spent at the house of his relation, Earl Cowper,
at Cole-green 5 and part at Huntingdon, with his inti¬
mate friend the reverend Mr Unwin. After the death
of the latter, he removed with his widow to Olney in
Buckinghamshire, which was thenceforth the principal
place of his residence. The affectionate intimacy he
enjoyed with this lady is strongly expressed in the" fol¬
lowing lines, which have probably been understood by
most readers as expressive of a conjugal union :
—Witness, dear companion of my walks,
Whose arm this twentieth winter I perceive
Fast lock’d in mine, with pleasure such as love
Confirm’d by long experience of thy worth
And well-tried virtues could alone inspire—
Witness a joy that thou has doubled long.
Task, Book I.
At Olney he contracted a close friendship with the
reverend Mr Newton, then minister there, and since
rector of St Mary Woolnoth, London, whose religious
opinions were in unison with his own. When Mr
Newton published his volume of Hymns, called “ The
Olney’s Collection,” it was enriched with some com¬
positions from the pen of Cowper, distinguished by the
letter C. They bear internal evidence of a cultivated
understanding, and an original genius. His time was
now wholly dedicated to that literary leisure, in which
•the mind, left to its own operations, follows up that
line of pursuit which is the most congenial to its taste,
and the most adapted to its powers. In his garden, m
his library, and in his daily walks, he seems to have
disciplined his muse to the picturesque and vivid habits
of description, which will always distinguish Cowper
among our national poets. No writer, with the ex¬
ception of Thomson, seems to have studied nature with
more diligence, and to have copied her with more fide¬
lity. An advantage which he has gained over other men,
by his disdaining to study her “ through the spectacles
of hooks,” as Dryden calls it; and by his pursuing her
through her haunts, and watching her in all her atti¬
tudes, with the eye of a philosopher as well as of a
poet. As Mr Cowper had no relish for public con¬
cerns, it was not singular that he should have neglected
the study of the law, on which he had entered. That
knowledge of active life, which is so requisite for the
legal profession, would hardly be acquired on the banks
of the Ouse, and in silent contemplations on the beau¬
ties of nature. In this retreat, he exchanged for the
society and converse of the muses, the ambition and
tumult ol a forensic occupation ; dedicating his mind
to the cultivation of poetry, and storing it with those
images which he derived from the inexhaustible trea¬
sury of a rich and varied scenery, in a most beautiful
and romantic country. The first volume of his poems,
which was published by Mr Newton in 1787, consists
cow
[ 711 3
cow
Cowper,
of various pieces, on various subjects. It seems, that
he had been assiduous in cultivating a turn for grave
and argumentative versification, on moral and ethical
topics. Of this kind is The Table Talk, and several
other pieces in the collection. He who objects to
these poems as containing too great a neglect of
harmony in the arrangement of his words, and use
of expressions too prosaic, will condemn him on prin¬
ciples of criticism which are by no means just, if the
object and style of the subject be considered. Horace
apologized for the style of his own satires, which are,
strictly speaking, only ethical and moral discourses, by
observing, that those topics required the. pedestrian and
familiar diction, and a form of expression not carried
to the heights of poetry. But if the reader will forego
the delight of smooth versification, and recollect that
poetry does not altogether consist in even and polished
metre, he will remark, in these productions, no ordinary
depth of thinking and of judgment, upon the most im¬
portant objects of human intercourse ; and he will be
occasionally struck with lines, not unworthy of Dryden
for their strength and dignity. His lighter poems are
well known. Of these, the verses supposed to be
written by Alex. Selkirk, on the island of Juan Fernan¬
dez, are in the most popular estimation. There is great
originality in the following stanza.
I am out of humanity’s reach ;
I must finish my journey alone j
Never hear the sweet music of speech }
I start at the sound of my own.”
It would be absurd to give one general character of
the pieces that were published in this volume : yet,
this is true concerning Mr Cowper’s productions ; that
in all the varieties of his style, there may still be dis¬
cerned the likeness and impression of the same mind ;
the same unaffected modesty, which always rejects un¬
seasonable ambitions and ornaments of language ; the
same easy vigour; the same serene and cheerful hope,
derived from a steady and unshaken faith in the dogmas
of Christianity. Mr Cowper, perhaps, does not derive
praise from the choice and elegance of his words ; but
he has the higher praise of having chosen them with¬
out affectation. He appears to have used them as he
found them ; neither introducing fastidious refinements
nor adhering to obsolete barbarisms. He understood
the whole science of numbers, and he has practised
their different kinds with considerable happiness; and,
if his verses do not flow so softly as the delicacy of a
modern ear requires, that roughness, which is objected
to his poetry, is his choice, not his defect. But this
sort of critics, who admire only what is exquisitely po¬
lished, like Cuyp’s pictures, these lovers of “ gentle-
Or ness without sinews,” ought to take into their esti-
Life of mate, that vast effusion of thought which is so abun-
Cowlfy. dantly poured over the writings of Cowper, without
which human discourse is only an idle combination of
sounds and syllables. The favourable reception which
this volume experienced, produced another of superior
merit. His principal performance was undoubtedly
“ The Task,” a poem. The occasion that gave birth
to it was trivial. A lady had requested him to write
a piece in blank verse, and gave him for its subject a
thing next to her, viz. the sofa. This he expanded in¬
to one of the finest moral poems our language has pro¬
duced. It is written in blank verse as desired ; and
though in that respect it resembles Milton’s, it is ne- '
vertheless original and highly characteristic. It is not
too stately for familiar description, or too depressed
for sublime and elevated imagery. If it has any fault,
it is that of being too much laden with idiomatic ex¬
pression ; a fault which the author, in the rapidity with
which his ideas and his utterance seem to have flowed,
very naturally incurred. In this poem, his fancy ran
with the most excursive freedom. The poet enlarges
upon his topics, and confirms his argument by every
variety of illustration. He never however dwells upon
them too long, and leaves off in such a manner, that
it seems it was in his power to have said more. The
arguments of the poem are various. The works of
nature, the associations with which they exhibit them¬
selves, the designs of Providence, and the passions of
men. Of one advantage, the writer has amply availed
himself. The work not being rigidly confined to any
precise subject, he has indulged himself in all the
laxity and freedom of a miscellaneous poem. Yet he
has still adhered so faithfully to the general laws of
congruity, that whether he inspires the softer affections
into his reader, or delights him wdth keen and playful
raillery, or discourses on the ordinary manners of hu¬
man nature, or holds up the bright pictures of religious
consolation to his mind, he adopts, at pleasure, a dic¬
tion just and appropriate, equal in elevation to the
sacred effusions of pious rapture, and sufficiently easy
and familiar for descriptions of domestic life ; skilful
alike in soaring without eflort, and descending without
meanness. He who desires to put into the hands of
youth a poem, which not destitute of poetic embellish¬
ment, is free from all matter of a licentious tendency,
will find in the Task a book adapted to his purpose.
It would be absurd and extravagant austerity to con¬
demn those poetical productions in which love consti¬
tutes the leading feature. That passion has in every
age been the concernment of life, the theme of the
poet, the plot of the stage. Yet there is a kind of
amorous sensibility, bordering on morbid enthusiasm,
which the youthful mind too often imbibes from the
glowing sentiments of the poets. Their genius de¬
scribes, in the most splendid colours, the operations of
a passion which requires rebuke rather than incentive,
and lends to the most grovelling sensuality the en¬
chantments of a rich and creative imagination. But
in the Task of Cowper, there is no licentiousness of
description. All is grave, majestic, and moral. A
vein of sober thinking pervades every page, and, in
finished poetry, describes the insufficiency and vanity
of human pursuits. Not that he is always severe. He
frequently enlivens the mind of his reader by sportive
descriptions, and by representing in elevated measures,
ludicrous objects and circumstances, a species of the
mock heroic, so admired in Phillip’s Splendid Shilling.
The historical account he has given of chairs, in the
first book of the Task, is a striking specimen of his
powers of versification, and of his talent for humour
in this latter style. The attention is horvever the most
detained by those passages, in which the charms of ru¬
ral life, and the endearments of domestic retirement,
are described. The Task abounds with incidents, in¬
troduced as episodes, and interposing an agreeable re¬
lief to the grave and serious part of the poetry. His
Crazy
Cowper.
cox
[ 71
Cowpe*,
. Cox.
Crazy Kate is a description of the calamity of a disor¬
dered reason, admirably exact and affecting.
“ She begs an idle pin of all she meets.”
What poet would have introduced so minute a circum¬
stance into his representation ! and yet that minuteness
constitutes its happy effect.
Of his talent for painting there cannot be a better
specimen than his sketch of the melancholy man, pro¬
bably sketched from what too faithful remembrance
suggested of himself:
Look where he comes—In this embower’d alcove
Stand close concealed, and see a statue move j
Lips busy, and eyes fixt, foot falling slow,
Arms hanging idly down, hands clasp’d below,
Interpret to the marking eye, distress,
Such as its symptoms only can express.
That tongue is silent now j—that silent tongue
Could argue once, could jest or join the song,
Could give advice, could censure or commend,
Or charm the sorrows of a drooping friend.
Renounc’d alike its office and its sport,
Its brisker and its graver strains fall short $
Both fall beneath a fever’s secret sway,
And like a summer brook are past away.
Retirement.
His John Gilpin is universally known, and may be
considered as a sportive piece of humour, which would
have done credit to many writers, but can hardly be
said to have added to Mr Cowper’s reputation. His
next work was a translation of the Iliad and Odyssey
into Miltonic blank verse. It is an unjust piece of cri¬
ticism to compare the version of Mr Pope to that of
Mr Cowper. The merits of each are distinct and ap¬
propriate. Mr Pope has exhibited Homer as he would
have sung had he been born in England. Mr Cowper
has endeavoured to pourtray him as he wrote in Greece,
adhering frequently to the peculiarities of his original’s
idiom, and desiring to preserve his strength and energy,
together with his harmony and smoothness. Mr Cow¬
per died of a severe and lingering illness, at East De¬
reham, in Norfolk, April 25. 1800.
COX, Richard, a learned prelate, and principal
pillar of the Reformation, was born at Whaddon in
Buckinghamshire, of low parentage, in the year 1499.
From Eton school he obtained a scholarship in King’s
college in Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in
1519: he was thence invited to Oxford by Cardinal
Wolsey, and was there made one of the junior canons
of Cardinal college. In 1525 he was incorporated
bachelor; and the following year took the degree of
master of arts in the same university. In this situa¬
tion he became remarkable for his learning and poeti¬
cal abilities ; but his attachment to the opinions of
Luther rendered him hateful to his superiors, who strip¬
ped him of his preferment, and threw him into prison
on a suspicion of heresy. Being, however, soon re¬
leased, he was chosen master of Eton school, which
flourished remarkably under his care. In 1537 he
commenced doctor of divinity at Cambridge 5 in 1540
was made archdeacon of Ely; and the following year
prebendary of that cathedral, on its being new found¬
ed by King Henry VIII. In 1546 he was made dean
of Christ-church, Oxford. By the recommendation
3
2 ] COX
of Archbishop Cranmer and Bishop Goodrich, to the
latter of whom he had been chaplain, he not only ob¬
tained the above preferments, but was chosen precep¬
tor to Prince Edward, on whose accession to the throne
he became a favourite at court, was sworn of the privy
council, and made king’s almoner. In 1547 he was
elected chancellor of Oxford ; in 1548 canon of Wind¬
sor; and the next year dean of Westminster. About
this time he was appointed one of the commissioners
to visit the university of Oxford ; in which office his
zeal for reformation was so excessive, that he destroyed
a number of curious and valuable books, for no better
reason than because they were written by Roman Ca¬
tholics. On the accession of Queen Mary he was strip¬
ped of all his preferments and committed to the Mar-
shalsea. He was, however, soon released, and imme¬
diately left the kingdom. Having resided some time
at Strasburg with his intimate friend Peter Martyr,
on the death of Queen Mary he returned to England,
and, with other divines, he was appointed to revise the
liturgy. He often preached before the queen ; and in
1559 was preferred to the .see of Ely, which he con¬
tinued to enjoy upwards of 21 years. He was, how¬
ever, no favourite with the queen ; the reason assigned
for which was, his zealous opposition to her retaining
the crucifix and wax-candles on the altar of the royal
chapel ; also his strenuous defence of the marriage of
the clergy, which her majesty always disapproved. He
died on the 22d of July 1581, aged 81. He was a
man of considerable learning, a zealous and rigid bul¬
wark of the church of England, and an implacable ene¬
my both to Papists and Puritans. In a letter to Arch¬
bishop Parker, he advises him to proceed vigorously in
reclaiming or 'punishing the Puritans, and not to be
discouraged at the frown of the court-favourites who
protected them ; assuring him that he might expect the
blessing of God on his pious labours to free the church
from their dangerous attempts, and to establish uni¬
formity. This zealous reformer we find had not total¬
ly lost sight of the Popish text, compel them to come
in; but a stronger proof of his implacability and self-
importance appears in his letter to the lord treasurer
Burleigh, in which he warmly expostulates with the
council for interposing in behalf of the Puritans, or
meddling in affairs of the church, admonishing them to
keep their own sphere. Such language from a bishop
would make a modern privy council stare. Plis works
are, 1. Two Latin Orations on the Dispute between
Dr Tresham and Peter Martyr, Lond. 1549, 4to.
2. Liturgy of the Church of England j in compiling,
and afterwards correcting which, he was principally
concerned. 3. The Lord’s Prayer in verse, commonly
printed at the end of David’s Psalms by Sternhold and
Hopkins. 4. Translation of the four Gospels, the Acts
of the Apostles, and the Epistle to the Romans, in the
new translation of the Bible in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. 5. Resolutions of some Questions concern¬
ing the Sacrament in the Collection of Records at the
end of Bui'net’s History of the Reformation. 6. Se¬
veral Letters to the Queen and others published in
Strype’s Annals of the Reformation. He is also said
to have been concerned in the declaration concerning
the divine institution of bishops, and to have assisted
Lyle in his Grammar.
COXWOLD, a town in the north riding of York¬
shire,
Cor,
Coswold
C R A
Cox wold shire, 14 miles north of York.
|j Lat. 54. 16.
Crab. COYPEL, Anthony, an excellent French painter,
~ * born at Paris in 1661. Noyel Coypel, his father, be¬
ing chosen by M. Colbert to be director of the academy
at Rome, he took his son with him into Italy, where
Anthony Coypel formed himself on the works of the
greatest masters, and on his return to France was made
first painter to the duke of Orleans. That prince em¬
ployed him in painting the grand gallery of the royal
palace, and allowed him a pension. In I7I4> he vvas
director of the Academy of Painting and Sculpture.
In 17155 he was made the first painter to the French
king, and was ennobled on account of his merit. He
died in 1722. M. Coypel, his son, also excelled in the
same art.
COZENING ; tricking, or defrauding.—In law, it
denotes an offence where any thing is done deceitfully,
whether belonging to contracts or not, which cannot be
properly termed by any special name.
COZUMEL, an island near the western coast of
Jucatan, where Cortez landed and refreshed his troops
before entering upon the conquest of Mexico. W.
Long. 89. O. and N. Lat. I3'
CRAB. See Cancer, Entomology Index.
Crab's Claws, in the Materia Medico, are the tips
of the claws of the common crab broken off at the verge
of the black part, so much of the extremity of the claws
only being allowed to be used in medicine as is tinged
with this colour. The blackness, however, is only su¬
perficial ; they are of a grayish white within, and when
levigated furnish a white powder.
Crab’s claws are of the number of the alkaline ab¬
sorbents ; but they are superior to the generality of
them, in some degree, as they are found on a chemical
analysis to contain a volatile urinous salt.
Crab's Eyes, in Pharmacy, are a strong concretion
in the head of the cray-fish. They are rounded on one
side, and depressed and sinuated on the other, consider¬
ably heavy, moderately hard, and without smell. We
have, them from Holland, Muscovy, Poland, Denmark,
Sweden, and many other places. What are usually met
with in the shops are prepared by art.
Crab’s eyes are much used both in the shop medicines
and extemporaneous prescription, being accounted ab¬
sorbent.
CRAB-Lice, a troublesome kind of vermine, which
stick so fast with their claws to the skin as to render it
difficult to dislodge them. They are called plactulce,
morpiones, petolce, and pessolatw: they usually infest
the arm-pits and pudenda. Cleanliness is the best pre¬
ventive. But these vermine may be easily removed
with the application of a little mercurial ointment.
Crab, a sort of wooden pillar, whose lower end,
being let down through a ship’s deck, rests upon a
socket like the capstern ; and having in its upper end
three or four holes, at different heights, through the
middle of it, one above another, into which long bars
are thrust, whose length is nearly equal to the breadth
of the neck. It is employed to wind in the cable, or
to purchase any other weighty body which requires a
great mechanical power. This differs from a cap-
stern, as not being furnished with a drum-head, and
by having the bars to go entirely through it, reaching
from one side of the deck to the other j whereas those
Vol. VI. Part II. f
C R A
of the capstern, which are superior in number, reach Crat*
only about eight inches or a foot into the drum-head, 11
according to its size. See Capstern. Cuudw
Crab-Yows, a name in Jamaica for a kind of ulcer
on the soles of the feet, with hard callous lips, so hard
that it is difficult to cut them. The ungt. ccerul. fort.
is their cure.
CRACATOA, the most southerly of a cluster of
islands lying in the entrance of the straits of Sunda in
the East Indies. Its whole circumference does not
exceed nine miles ; and off its north-eastern extremity
is a small island forming a road, in which Captain
Cook anchored when visiting this island on his last voy¬
age. On the southern part of the small island is a
reef of rocks, within which is a tolerable shelter a-
gainst all northerly winds, there being 27 fathoms wa¬
ter in the mid channel, and 18 near the reef. Be¬
tween the two islands there is a narrow passage for
boats. The shore that constitutes the west side of the
road runs in a north-westerly direction, having a b^nk
of coral running into the sea for a little way, so that
it is difficult for boats to land except at the time of
high water i but the anchoring ground is very good
and free from rocks. In the inland parts the ground
is elevated, rising on all sides gradually from the sea,
and is entirely covered with wood, excepting a few
spots which are cleared by the inhabitants for sowing
rice. The climate is reckoned very healthy in com¬
parison with the neighbouring countries, but it is very
thinly inhabited. There are abundance of turtle on
the coral reefs ; but other refreshments are scarce, and
sold at an extravagant price. Water is not plentiful :
Captain Cook was obliged to supply himself from a
small spring opposite to the southern extremity of the
small island above mentioned. To the southward is a
hot spring, whose waters are used as a bath by the in¬
habitants. The road where the Resolution anchored
lies in S. Lat. 8. 6. j and by observation, in 105. 36.
E. Long, by the time-keeper in 104. 48. The varia¬
tion of the compass one degree W. On the full and
change days it is high water at seven o’clock in the
morning, and the tide rises three feet four inches per-
dicular.
CRACKOW, or Cracow, a city of Poland, situa¬
ted in a palatinate of the same name. E. Long. 20.
16. N. Lat. 50. 8. It was formerly the capital of
Poland, where the kings were elected and crowned,
and was once almost the centre of the Popish do¬
minions j but since the peace in 1814 it was created a
free town, governed by its own magistrates, under the
protection of Austria and Russia.
Crackow stands in an extensive plain, watered by
the Vistula, which is broad but shallow : the city and
its suburbs occupy a vast tract of ground, but are so
badly peopled, that they scarcely contain 16,000 in¬
habitants. The great square in the middle of the
town is very spacious, and has several well built houses,
once richly furnished and well inhabited, but most of
them now either untenanted or in a state of melan¬
choly decay. Many of the streets are broad and hand¬
some j but almost every building bears the most strik¬
ing marks of ruined grandeur: the churches alone
seem to have preserved their original splendour. The
devastation of this unfortunate town was begun by the
Swedes at the commencement of the present century,
4 X the
[ 7*3 3
W, Long. 1. 10. N.
C R A [ 7
Crackovr. when it was besieged and taken by Charles XII. but
' /   the mischiefs it suffex-ed from that ravager of the north
were far less destructive than those it experienced du¬
ring the late dreadful commotions, when it underwent
repeated sieges, and was alternately in possession of
the Russians and Confederates. The efiects of can¬
non, grape, and musket shot, are still discernible on the
walls and houses. In a word, Crackow exhibits the re¬
mains of ancient magnificence, and looks like a great
capital in ruins : from the number of fallen and falling
houses one would imagine it had lately been sacked, and
that the enemy had left it only yesterday. The town is
surrounded with high walls of brick, strengthened by
round and square towers of whimsical shapes, in the an¬
cient style of fortification: these walls were built bv
Venceslaus king of Bohemia during the short period in
which he reigned over Poland.
I he university of Crackow was formerly, and not
unjustly, called the mother of Polish literature, as it
principally supplied the other seminaries with profes¬
sors and men of learning ; but its lustre has been great¬
ly obscured by the removal of the royal residence to
Warsaw, and still more by the late intestine convul¬
sions. In this city the art of printing was first intro¬
duced into Poland by Haller; and one of the earliest
books was the Constitutions and Statutes compiled by
Casimir the Great, and afterwards augmented by his
successors. I lie characters are Gothic, the same which
were universally used at the invention of printing: the
great initial letters are wanting, which shows that they
were probably painted and afterwards worn away. The
year in which this compilation was printed is not posi¬
tively known ; but its publication was certainly ante¬
rior to 1496, as it does not contain the statutes passed
by John Albert in that year. The most flourishing
period of the university was under Sigismond Augus¬
tus in the 16th century, when several of the German
reformers fled from the persecutions of the emperor
Charles V. and found an asylum in this city. They
gave to the world several versions of the sacred writings,
and other theological publications, which diffused the
reformed religion over great part of Poland. The pro¬
tection which Sigismond Augustus afforded to men of
learning of all denominations, and the universal tolera¬
tion which he extended to every sect of Christians, cre¬
ated a suspicion that he was secretly inclined to the new
church ; and it was even reported that he intended to
renounce the Catholic faith, and publicly profess the re¬
formed religion.
Towards the southern part of the town, near the
Aistula, rises a small eminence or rock, upon the top of
which is built the palace, surrounded with brick walls
and old towers, which form a kind of citadel to the
town. This palace owes its origin to Ladislaus Jaghel-
lon ; but little of the ancient structure now appears,
as the greatest part was demolished by Charles XII. in
1701, when he entered this town in triumph after the
battle of Clissow. It has been since repaired. The
remains of the old palace consist of a few apartments,
which are left in their ancient state as they existed in
the last century. This palace was formerly the resi¬
dence of the kings of Poland, who, from the time of
Ladislaus Locketec, have been crowned at Crackow.
The Polish and German historians differ concerning the
4 ] C R A
time when the title of king was first claimed by the so¬
vereigns of this country ; but the most probable account
is, according to Mr Cox, that in 1295 Premislaus as¬
sumed the regal title, and was inaugurated at Gnesna by
the archbishop of that diocese. He was succeeded by
Ladislaus Locketec, who offending the Poles by his ca¬
pricious and tyrannical conduct, was deposed before he
was crowned ; and Venceslaus king of Bohemia, who
had married Richsa daughter of Premislaus, being elect¬
ed in his stead, was in 1300 consecrated at Gnesna.
Ladislaus, after flying from his country and undergoing
a series of calamitous adventures, was at length brought
to a sense ol his misconduct. Having regained the
affection of his subjects, he was restored, in the life¬
time of \enceslaus, to part of his dominions; and he
recovered them all upon the demise of that monarch in
the year 1305 : he governed, however, for some years
without the title of king; but at length in 1320 was
crowned at Crackcw, to which place he transferred the
ceremony of the coronation ; and afterwards enacted,
that for the future his successors should be inaugurated
in the cathedral of this city.
Since that period all the sovereigns have been conse¬
crated at Crackow, excepting the last king. Previous
to his election a decree was issued by the diet of
convocation, that the coronation should he solemnized
for this turn at Warsaw, without prejudice in future to
the ancient right of Crackow ; a proviso calculated to
satisfy the populace, but which will not probably pre¬
vent any future sovereign from being crowned at War¬
saw, now become the capital of Poland and the resi¬
dence of its kings. The diadem and other regalia used
at the coronation are still kept in the palace of Crac-
kovv, under so many keys, and with such care, that it
it is impossible to obtain a sight of them.
Adjoining to the palace stands the cathedral, also
within the walls of the citadel. Here all the sove¬
reigns, from the time of Ladislaus Locketec, have been
interred, a few only excepted, viz. Louis and Ladis¬
laus II. who were kings of Hungary as well as of
Poland, and whose bodies were deposited in Hungary $
Alexander, who died and was buried at Vilna ; Henry
of Valois, interred in France; and the late monarch
Augustus III. The sepulchres of the kings of
Poland are not distinguished by any peculiar mag¬
nificence ; their figures are carved in marble of no
extraordinary workmanship, and some are without in¬
scriptions.
The bishop of Crackow was formerly the first in the
kingdom, and very often a cardinal. His revenues
were large. The town has three suburbs, and had
25,736 inhabitants in 18JO.
CRADLE, a well known machine in which infants
are rocked to sleep.
It denotes also that part of the stock of a cross bow
where the bullet is put.
Cradle, in Surgery^ a case in which a broken leg
is laid after being set.
Cradle, in engraving, is the name of an instrument
used in scraping mezzotintos, and preparing the plate.
It is formed of steel, resembling a chissel with one
sloping side, upon which are cut hollow lines very
near each other, and at equal distances. The acting
part of this tool is made circular, and the corners are
rounded
Cvacko
C R A [ 715 ] C R A
Cradle rounded. After being properly tempered, it must be
|j sharpened on the whetstone. There are various sizes
:r»nganor. 0f this instrument.
Cradle, among shipwrights, a frame placed under
the bottom of a ship, in order to conduct her smoothly
and steadily into the water when she is going to be
launched ; at which time it supports her weight while
she slides down the descent or sloping passage called t/ie
ivatjs, which are for this purpose daubed with soap and
tallow.
CRAFT, a general name for all sorts of vessels
employed to load or discharge merchant ships, or
to carry alongside or return the stores of men of war.
Such are lighters, hoys, barges, prames, &c. See those
articles.
CRAKE, or Corn-crake. ' See Rallus, Orni¬
thology Index.
CRAIL, or Careil, a borough town of Scotland,
situated on the sea-coast of the county of Fife, about
seven miles south-east of St Andrews. Population,
1600. W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 56. 17.
CRAMBE, Sea-carbage, Sea-beach Kale, or
Sea-Colewort, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetradynamia class, and in the natural method ranking
under the 39th order, Siliquosce. See Botany In¬
dex.
CRAMERIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria class. See Botany Index.
CRAMOND, Over and Nether, two villages
about four miles west of Edinburgh j of which only
the last deserves notice, as having been once a famous
naval station of the Romans. It is situated at the in¬
flux of the river Almond into the Forth. Three Ro¬
man roads meet at this place, which was called by them
Alaterva, and whither they brought their grain for the
support of their troops. The village contains about
300 inhabitants. Here are the remains of a bath and
sudatory j and many altars, medals, &c. have been
dug up.
CRAMP, a spasmodic affection of the muscles of
different parts of the body, as those of the neck,
arms, legs, &c. accompanied with a violent but tran¬
sitory pain. See Medicine Index.
Cramp-FM, or Torpedo. See Raja, Ichthyolo¬
gy Index.
CnAMP-Iron, or Cramps, a piece of iron bent at each
end, which serves to fasten together pieces of wood,
stones, or other things.
CRAMPONEE, in Heraldry, an epithet given to
a cross which has at each end a cramp or square piece
coming from it ; that from the arm in chief towards
the sinister angle, that from the arm on that side down¬
wards, that from the arm in base towards the dexter
side, and that from the dexter arm upwards.
CRANAGE, the liberty of using a crane at a wharf,
and also the money paid for drawing up wares out of a
ship, &c. with a crane.
CRANE. See Ardea, Ornithology Index.
Crane, in Mechanics, a machine used in building
for raising large stones and other weights. See Me¬
chanics.
Crane's Bill. See Geranium, Botany Index.
Crane-FIij, a species of Tipula. See Entomolo¬
gy Index.
CRANGANOR, a Dutch factory on the Malabar
coast in the East Indies, seated in E. Long. 75. 5. N. Cramranor
Lat. 10. O. See CoCHIN. ij
CRANIOLARIA, a genus of plants belonging to t'runnier.
the didynamia class ; and in the natural method rank- v
ing under the 40th order, Bcrsonatce.
CRANIOSCOPY, a science which traces the con¬
nexion between the form of the skull and the powers of
the mind. See Supplement.
CRANIUM, in Anatomy, an assemblage of several
bones which cover and enclose the brain and cerebel¬
lum, popularly called the skull. See Anatomy Index.
—The word comes from the Greek of
galea, “ helmet.”
CRANK, a contrivance in machines, in manner of
an elbow, only of a square form, projecting out from
an axis or spindle ; and serving, by its rotation, to
raise and fall the pistons of engines for raising water.
Crank, in sea language. A ship is said to be crank¬
sided, when for want of a sufficient quantity of ballast
or cargo, she cannot bear her sails, or can bear but
small sail for fear of oversetting. She is said to be
crank by the ground, when her floor is so narrow that
she cannot be brought on ground without danger.
Crank is also an iron brace which supports the lan-
thorns on the poop-quarters, &c.
CRANMER, Thomas, a celebrated archbishop,
reformer, and martyr, was the son of Thomas Cran-
mer, Esq. of Aslacton in Nottinghamshire, where our
author was born in 1489. At the age of 14, he was
admitted a student of Jesus College, Cambridge, of
which he afterwards became fellow j but marrying the
relation of an innkeeper’s wife, he lost his fellowship
and quitted the college. On the death of his wife
he was re-admitted fellow of Jesus College. In 1523
he took the degree of doctor of divinity, and was made
theological lecturer and examiner. The plague being
at Cambridge, he retired to the house of a relation at
Waltham Abbey, where, meeting with Fox the king’s
almoner, and Gardiner the secretary, he gave his opi¬
nion concerning King Henry’s marriage with Catha¬
rine much to the satisfaction of his majesty. This
opinion was, that instead of disputing about the vali¬
dity of the king’s marriage with Catharine, they should
reduce the matter to this simple question, “ Whether
a man may marry his brother’s wife or not ?” When
the king was told of it, he said, “ This fellow has got
the right sow by the ear.” He then sent for him to
court, made him one of his chaplains, and ordered him
to write in vindication of the divorce in agitation.
This book having quieted the tender conscience of the
king, he was desirous that all Europe should be con¬
vinced of the illegality of his marriage with Queen Ca¬
tharine ; and for that purpose sent Cranmer to France,
Italy, and Germany, to dispute the matter with the
divines of those countries. At Nuremberg Cranmer
married a second wife. Being returned to England,
in March 1533 he was consecrated archbishop of Can¬
terbury \ in May following he pronounced the sen¬
tence of divorce between the king and queen ; and
soon after married the amorous monarch to Ann Bo-
leyn. Being now at the head of the church, he exert¬
ed himself in the business of the Reformation. The
Bible was translated into English, and monasteries dis¬
solved, principally by his means.
In 1536 the royal conscience again required the as-
4X2 sistance
C R A
Cranmer. sistance of our archbishop: in this year he divorced the
—v-—' king from Ann Boleyn. In 1537 he visited his dio¬
cese, and endeavoured to abolish the superstitious ob¬
servance of holidays. In 1539 he and some of the
bishops fell under the king’s displeasure, because they
could not be brought to give their consent in parlia¬
ment that the monasteries should be suppressed for the
king’s sole use. He also strenuously opposed the act
for the six articles in the house of lords, speaking three
days against it; and upon the passing of that statute
sent away his wife into Germany. In 1540 he was
one of the commissioners for inspecting into matters of
religion and explaining some of its chief doctrines.
The result of the commission was the book entitled A
necessary Enidition of any Christian man. After Lord
Cromwell’s death (in whose behalf he had written to
the king), he retired and lived in great privacy, med¬
dling not at all with state affairs. In 1541 he gave
orders, pursuant to the king’s directions, for taking
away superstitious shrines; and exchanging Bishops-
bourn for Beckeshourn, united the latter to his diocese.
In 1542 he procured the “Act for the advancement
of true religion and the abolishment of the contrary,”
which moderated the rigour of the six articles. But
the year following, some enemies preferring accusations
against him, he had like to have been ruined, had not
the king interposed in his behalf. His majesty conti¬
nued afterwards to protect him from his enemies ; and
at his death appointed him one of the executors of his
will, and one of the regents of the kingdom. In 1556
he crowned young Edward, during whose short reign
he promoted the reformation to the utmost of his
power ; and was particularly instrumental in composing,
correcting, and establishing the liturgy by act of par¬
liament. He had also a share in compiling the thirty-
nine articles of religion.
I553 he opposed the new settlement of the crown
upon Lady Jane Gray, and would no way be concern¬
ed in that affair (though at last, through many impor¬
tunities, he was prevailed upon to set his hand to it) ;
neither would he join in any of Dudley’s ambitious
projects. Upon Queen Mary’s accession to the throne,
he was committed to the Tower; partly for setting
his hand to the instrument of Lady Jane’s succession,
and partly for the public offer he had made a little be¬
fore of justifying openly the religious proceedings of
the late king. Some of his friends, foreseeing the storm
that was likely to fall upon him, advised him to fly,
but he absolutely refused. In the ensuing parliament,
on November the 3d, lie was attainted, and at Guild¬
hall found guilty of high treason ; whereupon the fruits
of his archbishopric were sequestrated. In April 1 554,
lie and Kidley and Latimer were removed to Oxford,
in order for a public disputation with the Papists ;
which was accordingly held there towards the middle
of the month, with great noise, triumph, and impudent
confidence on the Papists side, and with as much gra¬
vity, learning, modesty, and convincing sufficiency on
the side of the Protestant bishops. The 20th of April,
two days after the end of these disputations, Cranmer
and the two others were brought before the commis¬
sioners, and asked, Whether they would subscribe (to
Popery) ? which they unanimously refusing, were con¬
demned as heretics. From this sentence the archbishop
appealed to the last judgment of the Almighty ; and
C R A
wrote to the council, giving them an account of the
disputation, and desiring the queen’s pardon for his
treason, which it seems was not yet remitted. By the
convocation, which met this year, his Defence of the
true and Catholic Doctrine of the Sacrament of the
Body and Blood of our Saviour Christ was ordered to
be burnt. Some of his friends petitioned the queen in
his behalf; putting her in mind how he had once pre¬
served her in her father’s time by his earnest interces¬
sions with him for her, so that she had reason to be¬
lieve he loved her, and would speak the truth to her
more than all the rest of the clergy. All endeavours
in his behalf, however, were ineffectual; and the arch¬
bishop being degraded and most ignominiously treated,
was at last flattered and terrified into an insincere re¬
cantation and renunciation of the Protestant faith. But
this triumph was not sufficient to gratify the pious ven¬
geance of the Romish Mary. On the 24th of Feb. 1556,
a writ was signed for the burning of Cranmer ; and
on the 24th March, which was the fatal day, he was
brought to St Mary’s Church, Oxford, and placed
on a kind of stage over against the pulpit, where Dr
Cole, provost of Eton, was appointed to preach a ser¬
mon on the occasion. While Cole was haranguing,
the unfortunate Cranmer expressed great inward con¬
fusion ; often lifting up his hands and eyes to heaven,
and frequently pouring out floods of tears. At the
end of the sermon, when Cole desired him to make an
open profession of his faith, as he had promised him he
would, he first prayed in the most fervent manner;
then made an exhortation to the people present, not to
set their minds upon the world, to obey the king and
queen, to love each other, and to he charitable. Af¬
ter this he made a confession of his faith, beginning
with the creed, and concluding with these words :
“ And I believe every word and sentence taught by
our Saviour Jesus Christ, his apostles, and prophets, in
the Old and New Testament.—And now (added he)
I come to the great thing that so much troubleth my
conscience, more than any thing I ever said or did in
my whole life ; and that is, the setting abroad a writ¬
ing contrary to the truth, which I here now renounce
as things written with my hand contrary to the truth
which I thought in my heart; and written for fear of
death, and to save my life if it might be : that is, all
such bills and papers which I have written or signed
with my hand since my degradation, wherein I have
written many things untrue. And forasmuch as my
hand offended, writing contrary to my heart, my hand
shall first be punished ; for, may I come to the fire, it
shall be first burned. As for the pope, I refuse him as
Christ’s enemy and antichrist, with all his false doctrine.
And as for the sacrament, I believe as I have taught
in my hook against the bishop of Winchester.” Thun¬
derstruck as it were with this unexpected declaration,
the enraged Popish crowd admonished him not to dis¬
semble. “ Ah ! (replied he with tears) since I lived
hitherto, I have been a hater of falsehood and a lover
of simplicity, and never before this time have I dissem¬
bled.” Whereupon they pulled him off the stage with
the utmost fury, and hurried him to the place of his
martyrdom over against Baliol college ; where he put
off his clothes in haste, and standing in' his shirt, and
without shoes, was fastened with a chain to the stake.
Some pressing him to agree to his former recantation,
he
[ 7.6 ]
Cianmer.
C R A [7
he answered, showing his hand, “ This is the hand
that wrote it, and therefore it shall first suffer punish¬
ment.” Fire being applied to him, he stretched out
his right hand into the flame, and held it there unmo¬
ved (except that once with it he wiped his face) till it
was consumed j crying with a loud voice, “ This hand
hath offended and often repeating, “ This unworthy
right hand.” At last the fire getting up, he soon ex¬
pired, never stirring or crying out all the while ; only
keeping his eyes fixed to heaven, and repeating more
than once, “ Lord Jesus receive my spirit.” Such was
the end of the renowned Thomas Cranmer, in the 67th
year of his age.
It was noticed above, that after the passing of the
act for the six articles, Archbishop Cranmer sent his
wife into Germany. But she afterwards returned again
to England 5 and Mr Strype informs us, that “ in the
time of King Edward, when the marriage of the clergy
was allowed, he brought her forth, and lived openly
with her.” Mr Gilpin says, “ he left behind him a
widow' and children 5 but as he always kept his family
in obscurity for prudential reasons, we know little
about them. They bad been kindly provided for by
Henry VIII. j who, without any solicitation from the
primate himself, gave him a considerable grant from
the abbey of Walbeck in Nottinghamshire, which his
family enjoyed after his decease. King Edward made
some addition to his private fortune; and his heirs were
restored in blood by an act of parliament in the reign
of Elizabeth.
Archbishop Cranmer wrote a great number of books :
many of them he published himself j and many of them
still remain in MSS. viz. two folio volumes in the
king’s library, several letters in the Cotton collection,
&c.
Mr Gilpin remarks, that “ the character of the
archbishop hath been equally the subject of exaggera¬
ted praise and of undeserved censure. The most inde¬
fensible parts of the archbishop’s character are the rea¬
diness with which he sometimes concurred in the un¬
justifiable proceedings of Henry VIII. and the instances
wherein he showed himself to be actuated by intolerant
principles.
“ He first recommended himself to Henry by the zeal
which he displayed in promoting the king’s divorce
from Queen Catharine. As to this, it may be allow¬
ed, that Dr Cranmer might think the marriage wrong:
but though it possibly might be a point of conscience
with the king, it could, however, be none with him ;
and there was manifestly a difference between advising
not to do a thing, and advising to undo it when al¬
ready done, at least in a matter of so disputable a na¬
ture. On the other hand, to repudiate a woman with
whom the king had cohabited near 20 years as his
wife, and to illegitimate a daughter, bred up in the
highest expectations, and now marriageable, were acts
of such cruelty, that it seems to indicate a want of
feeling to be in any degree accessary to them. To
this mav be added, that the notoriety of the king’s
passion for Ann Boleyn, which all men believed to be,
if not the first mover, at East the principal spring of
his pretended scruples, threw a very indelicate impu¬
tation on all who had any concern in the afiair. No
serious churchman, one would imagine, could be fond
of the idea.of administering to the king’s passions. It
7 ] C R A
is with concern, therefore, that we see a man of Dr Cianmer.
Cranmer’s integrity and simplicity of manners acting "
so much out of character as to compound an affair of
this kind, if not with his conscience, at least with all
delicacy of sentiment j and to parade through Europe,
in the quality of an ambassador, defending everywhere
the king’s pious intentions. But the cause (continues
Mr Gilpin) animated him. With the illegality of the
king’s marriage, he endeavoured virtually to establish
the insufficiency of the pope’s dispensation ; and the lat¬
ter was an argument so near his heart, that it seems to
have added merit to the former. W'e cannot, indeed,
account for his embarking so zealously in this business,
without supposing his principal motive was to free his
country from the tyranny of Home, to which this step
very evidently led. So desirable an end would in some
degree, he might imagine, sanctify the means.”
Of two of the instances of persecution in which
Archbishop Cranmer was concerned, Mr Gilpin gives
the following account. “ Joan Bocher and George
Paris where accused, though at different times ; one for
denying the humanity of Christ, the other for denying
his divinity. They were both tried and condemned to
the stake j and the archbishop not only consented to
these acts of blood, but even persuaded the aversion of
the young king into a compliance. “ Your majesty
must distinguish (said he, informing his royal pupil’s
conscience) between common opinions and such as are
the essential articles of faith. These latter we must on
no account suffer to be opposed.” Mr Gilpin justly ob¬
serves, that “ nothing even plausible can be suggested
in defence of the archbishop on this occasion, except
only that the spirit of Popery was not yet wholly re¬
pressed.” These instances of injustice and barbarity
were indeed totally indefensible, and a great disgrace to
Cranmer, and to all who were concerned in them. It
does not appear that he endeavoured to promote the
death of Lambert ; but, as Mr Gilpin observes, it were
to be wished he had rid his hand of the disputation
likewise. The public disputation, in which Cranmer
bore some part, proved the means of bringing Lambert
to the stake.
One of the most honourable transactions of Arch¬
bishop Cranmer’s life, w'as the firm stand that he made
against the act of the six articles. This act was so
strongly supported by the king, that even the Protest¬
ants in parliament made little opposition to it. But
Cranmer opposed it with great' zeal and steadiness.
“ The good archbishop (says Mr pilpin) never ap¬
peared in a more truly Christian light than on this oc¬
casion. In the midst of so general a defection (for
there were numbers in the house who had hitherto.
shown great forwardness in reformation) he alone made
a stand. Three days he maintained his ground, and
baffled the arguments of all opposers. But argument
was not their w'eapon, and the archbishop saw him¬
self obliged to sink under superior power. Henry or¬
dered him to leave the house. The primate refused :
‘ It was God’s business (he said), and not man’s.’
And when he could do no more, he boldly entered his,
protest. Such an instance of fortitude is sufficient to
wipe off many of those courtly stains which have fasten¬
ed on his memory.”
His behaviour in the cause of the duke of Norfolk
was also entitled to great commendation. “The last.
act
C R A [7
Cranmer. set of this reign (says Mr Gilpin) was an act of blood,
' and gave the archbishop a noble opportunity of showing
how well he had learned that great Christian lesson of
forgiving an enemy. Almost without the shadow of
justice, Henry bad given directions to have the duke of
Norfolk attainted by an act of parliament. The king’s
mandate stood in lieu of guilt, and the bill passed the
bouse with great ease. No man, except the bishop of
Winchester, had been so great an enemy to the archibi-
shop as the duke of Norfolk. He had always thwart¬
ed the primate’s measures, and oftener than once had
practised against his life. How many would have seen
with secret pleasure the working of Providence against
so rancorous an enemy J satisfied in having themselves
no hand in his unjust fate ! But the archbishop saw
the afl’air in another light: he saw it with horror j and
although the king had in a particular manner interest¬
ed himself in this business, the primate opposed the bill
with all his might j and when his opposition was vain,
he left the house with indignation, and retired to Croy¬
don.”
He was indeed remarkable for the placability of his
temper, and for showing kindness to those by whom he
had been greatly injured. Hence it is mentioned in
Shakespeare’s Henry \III. as a common saying con¬
cerning him :
 “ Do my lord of Canterbury
But one shrewd turn, and he’s your friend for ever.”
Archbishop Cranmer was a great friend and patron
of learned foreigners, who had been persecuted for their
attachment to the principles of the reformation. Mr
Gilpin says, “ the suftering professors of Protestantism,
who were scattered in great numbers about the various
countries of Europe, were always sure of an asylum
with him. His palace at Lambeth might be called a
seminary of learned men : the greater part of whom
persecution had driven from home. Here, among other
celebrated reformers. Martyr, Bucer, Aless, Phage,
found sanctuary. Martyr, Bucer, and Phage, were
liberally pensioned by the archbishop till be could
otherwise provide for them. It was his wish to fix
them in the two universities, where he hoped their great
knowledge and spirit of inquiry would forward his de¬
signs of restoring learning; and he at length obtained
professorships for them all. Bucer and Phage were
settled at Cambridge ; where they only showed what
might have been expected from tbem, both dying with¬
in a few months after their arrival. But at Oxford
Martyr acted a very conspicuous part, and contributed
to introduce among the students there a very liberal
mode of thinking.
Of the learning of Archbishop Cranmer, Mr Gilpin
remarks, that “ it was chiefly confined to his profes¬
sion. He had applied himself in Cambridge to the stu¬
dy of the Greek and Hebrew languages; which though
esteemed at that time as the mark of heresy, appeared
to him the only sources of attaining a critical knowledge
of the Scriptures. He had so accurately studied canon
law, that he was esteemed the best canonist in Eng¬
land ; and his reading in theology was so extensive,
and his collections from the Fathers so very volumi¬
nous, that there were few points in which he was not
accurately informed, and in which he could not give
the opinions of the several ages of the church from
18 ] C R A
the times of the apostles. He was a sensible writer, Cranrac
rather nervous than elegant. His writings were en» -v—
tirely confined to the great controversy which then sub¬
sisted, and contain the whole sum of the theological
learning of those times. His library was filled with a ‘
very noble collection of books, and was open to all men
of letters.
Mr Gilpin, after remarking that Archbishop Cran¬
mer preached often wherever he visited, says, “ In his
sermons to the people, he was very plain and instruc¬
tive ; insisting chiefly on the essentials of Christianity.
The subjects of his sermons, for the most part, were
from whence salvation is to be fetched, and on whom
the confidence of men ought to lean. They insisted
much on doctrines of faith and works j and taught
what the fruits of faith were, and what place was to be
given to works; they instructed men in the duties
they owed their neighbour, and that every one was our
neighbour, to whom we might any way do good ; they
declared what men ought to think of themselves after
they had done all j and, lastly, what promises Christ
hath made, and who they are to whom he will make
them good. Thus he brought in the true preaching of
the gospel, altogether different from the ordinary way
of preaching in those days ; which was to treat con¬
cerning saints, to tell legendary tales of them, and to
report miracles wrought for the confirmation of tran-
substantiation and other popish corruptions. And such
a heat of conviction accompanied his sermons, that
the people departed from them with minds possessed of
a great hatred of vice, and burning with a desire of
virtue.”
He was a great economist of his time. Mr Gilpin
says, “ he rose commonly at five o’clock, and conti¬
nued in his study till nine. These early hours, he
would say, were the only hours he could call his own.
After breakfast he generally spent the remainder of the
morning either in public or private business. His
chapel hour was eleven, and his dinner-hour twelve.
After dinner he spent an hour either in conversation
with his friends, in playing at chess, or in what he
liked better, overlooking a chess-board. He then re¬
tired again to his study till his chapel-bell rang at five.
After prayers, he generally walked till six, which was
in those times the hour of supper. His evening meal
was sparing. Often he ate nothing; and when that
was the case, it was his usual custom, as he sat down
to table, to draw on a pair of gloves ; which was as
much as to say, that bis hands had nothing to do.
After supper, he spent an hour in walking and another
in his study, retiring to his bedchamber about nine.
This was his usual mode of living when he was most
vacant, but very often his afternoons as well as his
mornings were engaged in business. He generally,
however, contrived, if possible, even in the busiest day,
to devote some portion of his time to bis books be¬
sides the morning. And Mr Fox tells us, he always
accustomed himself to read and write in a standing pos¬
ture ; esteeming constant sitting very pernicious to a
studious man.”
Mr Gilpin also observes, “ that he was a very ami¬
able master in his family, and admirably preserved the
difficult medium between indulgence and restraint. He
had, according to the custom of the times, a very nu¬
merous retinue, among whom the most exact order
was
C R A [ 719 ] C R A
was observed. Every week the steward of his house¬
hold held a kind of court in the great hall of his pa¬
lace j in which all family affairs were settled, servants
wages were paid, complaints were heard, and faults
examined. Delinquents were publicly rebuked, and
after the third admonition discharged. His hospi¬
tality and charities wrere great and noble j equal to
his station, greater often than his abilities. . A plenti¬
ful table was among the virtues- of those days. His
was always bountifully covered. In an upper room was
spread his own, where he seldom wanted company of
the first distinction. Here a great many learned fo¬
reigners were daily entertained, and partook of his
bounty. In his great hall a long table was plentifully
covered every day for guests and strangers of a lower
rank : at the upper end of which were three smaller
tables, designed for his own officers and inferior gen¬
tlemen. Among other instances of the archbishop’s
charity, we have one recorded which was truly noble.
After the destruction of monasteries, and before hospi¬
tals were erected, the nation saw no species of greater
misery than that of wounded and disbanded soldiers.
For the use of such miserable objects as were landed on
the southern coasts of the island, the archbishop fitted
up his manor-house of Beckesbourn in Kent. He form¬
ed it indeed into a complete hospital j appointing a
physician, a surgeon, nurses, and every thing proper,
as well for food as physic. Nor did his charity stop
here. Each man, on his recovery, was furnished with
money to carry him home, in proportion to the distance
of his abode.”
To conclude with the character given by Mr Hume 5
“ Archbishop Cranmer was undoubtedly a man of me¬
rit j possessed of learning and capacity; and adorn¬
ed with candour, sincerity, and beneficence, and all
those virtues which were fitted to render him useful
and amiable in society. His moral qualities procured
him universal respect; and the courage of his martyr¬
dom, though he fell short of the rigid inflexibility ob¬
served in many, made him the hero of the Protestant
party.”
CRANNY, in glass-making, an iron instrument
wherewith the necks of glasses are formed.
CRANTARA, among the ancient Britons, was a
sort of military signal used for collecting the distant and
scattered warriors to the standard of their chief. A
pi’ince having immediate occasion for the assistance of
his followers to repel some sudden invasion or engage in
some expedition, besides striking the shield and sound¬
ing the horn to give warning to those who were within
hearing, he sent the crantara, or a stick burnt at the
end and dipped in the blood of a goat, by a swift mes¬
senger, to the nearest hamlet, where he delivered it
without saying one word but the name of the place of
rendezvous. This crantara, which was well understood
to denounce destruction by fire and sword to all who
did not obey this summons, w7as carried with great ra¬
pidity from village to village ; and the prince in a little
time found himself surrounded by all his warriors ready
to obey his commands.
GRANTOR, a Greek philosopher and poet, was
born at Solos in Cilicia. He left his native country
where he was admired ; went to Athens, and there
studied with Polemon under Xenocrates. He was
considered as one of the chief supporters of the Pla¬
tonic sect ; and was the first who wrote commentaries Grantor
upon Plato’s works. He flourished 270 years before ||
Christ. Crndiaw.
CRAPE, a light transparent stuff, in manner of r"
gauze : made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the
mill ; woven without crossing, and much used in mourn-
in£-
Crapes are either craped, i. e. crisped, or smooth; the
first double, expressing a closer mourning ; the latter
single, used for that less deep. Note, White is re¬
served for young people, or those devoted to virginity.
The silk destined for the first is more twisted than that
for the second ; it being the greater or less degree of
twisting, especially of the warp, which produces the
crisping given it when taken out of the loom, steeped
in clear water, and rubbed with a piece of wax for the
purpose.
Crapes are all dyed raw. The invention of this
stuff came originally from Bologna: but the chief ma¬
nufacture of it is said to be at Lyons.
History tells us, that St Bathilda, queen of France,
made fine crape (crepa) of gold and silver, to lay over
the body of St Eloy. The Bollandists own they cannot
find what this crepa was. Binet says, it was a frame
to cover the body of the saint: but others, with rea¬
son, take it to be a transparent stuff, through which
the body might be seen; and that this was the crepa
whence our word crape was formed.
CRAPULA, among physicians, a term for Sur¬
feit.
CRASHAW, Richard, who was in his lifetime
honoured with the friendship of Cowley, and since his
death by the praise of Mr Pope, who condescended
both to read his poems, and to borrow from them, was
the son of William Crashaw, an eminent divine, and
educated at the Charter-house near London. He was
then sent to Pembroke-hall in Cambridge, and was af¬
terwards of Peter-house, where he was fellow ; in
both which colleges he was distinguished for his Latin
and English poetry. Afterwards he was ejected from
his fellowship, together with many others, for denying
the covenant in the time of the rebellion ; and he*
changed his religion, being by catholic artifices per¬
verted to the church of Rome ; not converted, but ra¬
ther, as Pope says, outwitted. He went to Paris, in
hopes of recommending himself to some preferment
there ; but being a mere scholar, was incapable of ex¬
ecuting the new plan he had formed. There he fell
into great distress, which Cowley the poet hearing of
in 1646, very kindly sought him out, gave him all the
assistance he could, and at last got him recommended to
Henrietta Maria queen of England, then residing at
Paris. Obtaining from her letters of recommendation,
he travelled into Italy ; and by virtue of those letters
became secretary to a cardinal at Rome, and at last one
of the canons or chaplains of the rich church of our lady
at Loretto, some miles distance from thence, where he
died and was buried about 1650.* Before he left Eng¬
land, he wrote certain poems, entitled, “ Steps to the
Temple because (says Wood) he led his life in
the temple of God, in St Mary’s church, near to his
college. There, as we learn from the preface to
these poems, he lodged under Tertullian’s roof of
angels. There he made his nest more gladly than
David’s swallow near the house of God ; where, like
a
c R A [ 720 ] C R A
Crash aw a primitive saint, he offered more prayers in the night
jl than others usually ofl’er in the day. There he penned
(rassus. t|)e sajf] poems called “ Steps to the Temple for Happy
*_v " ' Souls to Climb to Heaven by.” To the said Steps are
joined other poems called, “ The Delight of the Muses,”
wherein ax-e several Latin poems, which though of a
mere human mixture, yet they are sweet as they are in¬
nocent. He hath also written Carmen Deo Nostro,
being hymns and other sacred poems, addressed to the
countess of Denbigh. He was excellent in five lan¬
guages besides his mother tongue, namely, Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, Italian, and Spanish.
CHASIS (from Kgxyvvpu, “ to mix,”) the temper of
the blood peculiar to every constitution.
Crasis, in Grammar, is a figuj-e whereby two dif¬
ferent letters are either contracted into one long letter
or a diphthong. Such, e. g. is for for
ecX'/iSix, &c. tv%vs for rv^oi, &c. where 1 and a are con¬
tracted into < ; and e and ct into ij; and s and 0 into ».
CRASSAMENTUM, in Physic, the thick red or
fibrous part of the bload, otherwise called cruor, in con¬
tradistinction to the serum or aqueous part.
CRASSULA, Lesser Orpine, or Live-evcr; a
genus of plants, belonging to the pentandria class $ and
in the natural method ranking under the 13th order,
.Succulentce. See Botany Index.
CRASSUS, M. Licinius, a celebrated Roman,
surnamed Rich on account of his opulence. At first
he was very circumscribed in his circumstances, but
by educating slaves and selling them at a high price he
soon enriched himself. The cruelties of Cinna obliged
him to leave Rome, and he retired to Spain, where he
remained concealed for eight months. After Cinna’s
death he passed into Africa, and thence to Italy, where
he served Sylla and ingratiated himself in his favour.
M hen the gladiators with Spartacus at their head had
spread an universal alarm in Italy and defeated some
of the Roman generals, Crassus was sent against them.
A battle was fought, in which Crassus slaughtei'cd
12,000 of the slaves, and by this decisive blow soon
put an end to the war, and was honoured with an
* ovatio at his return. He was soon after made consul
with Pompey in the year of Rome 682, and in this
high office lie displayed his opulence by entertaining
the populace at 10,000 tables. He was afterwards
censor, and ioi’med the first triumvirate with Pompey
and Caesar. As his love of riches was more predo¬
minant than that of gloi-y, Ci'assus never imitated the
ambitious conduct of his colleagues, but was satisfied
with the province of Syi’ia, which seemed to promise
an inexhaustible source of wealth. With hopes of en¬
larging his possessions he set off from Rome, though
the omens proved unfavourable, and every thing seem¬
ed to threaten his ruin. He crossed the Euphrates,
and forgetful of the rich cities of Babylon and Seleu-
cia, he hastened to make himself master of Parthia.
He was betrayed in his march by the delay of Arta-
vasdes king of Armenia, and the perfidy of Ariamnes.
He was met in a large plain by Surena the general of
the forces of Orodes king of Parthia, and a battle was
fought in which 20,000 Romans were killed and
10,000 taken prisoners. The darkness of the night
favoured the escape of the rest ; and Crassus, forced by
the mutiny and turbulence of his soldiers, and the
treachery of his guides, trusted himself to the general
3
of the enemy on pretence of proposing terms of accom- Crasuis, i j
niodation, and he was killed. His head was cut oft’ and Cratagus
sent to Orodes, who poured melted gold down his•v--
throat, and insulted his misfortunes. Though he has
been called avaricious, yet he showed himself always
ready of lending money to his friends without interest.
He was fond of philosophy, and his knowledge of his¬
tory was great and extensive.
CRAIYEGUS, Wild service tree, Hawthorn,
&.C. a genus of plants, belonging to the icosandria
class j and in the natural method ranking under the
36th order, Pomacecv. See Botany Index.
The oxycanthus, hawthorn, or white thorn, grows
naturally all over Europe. It is sometimes cultivated
as an ornamental tree, but it is chiefly propagated for
the purpose of planting as a fence.. In order to pro¬
pagate a quantity of quicks, one method is generally
practised j namely, first burying the haws, and taking
them up to sow the October following ; though, says
Hanbury, there is another way more preferable j
namely, to prepare the beds, and sow the haws soon
alter they are gathered. Whoever pursues the former
method, having gathered what quantity of haws will
answer his purpose, should in some bye-corner of the
kitchen-garden or nursery dig a hole or pit capacious
enough to receive them ; some of the earth which came
out of the hole, after the haws are put in it, should be
laid upon them ; and being thus carefully covered down,
they may remain there till October. Then, having
ground well dug, and cleared of the roots of all
troublesome weeds, and the mould being fit for work¬
ing, the beds should be made for the haws. Four
feet is a very good width of these beds, as they may
be easily reached over to be weeded j and if the alleys
between be each one foot and a half wide, they will
be of a good size. The beds being marked out with a
line, sufficient mould must be raked out to cover the
haws an inch and a half deep. This being done, and the
bottom of the beds being made level and even, the
haws should be sown, and afterwards gently tapped
down with the back of the spade 5 and then the fine
mould, which had been raked out of the beds, must
be thrown over them, covering them an inch and a
half deep. In the spring the plants will come up, and
in the summer following should be kept clear of weeds j
though it does sometimes happen, that few of them
will appear till the second spring after sowing. Some¬
times the young plants are planted out from the seed¬
beds at one, two, or three years old ; but the best plants
are obtained by transplanting them into fresh mould
the first or second year, letting them remain in the
nursery two or three years longer. The practice of
the London nurserymen is this : The strongest of the
seed-bed plants having been drawn at two or three years
old for sale, they clean the beds entirely by drawing
the remaining weak underling plants, and transplanting
them into fresh beds in this manner, which they call
bedding them : The ground having been trenched, and
the tips of the plants as well as the lower fibres of their
roots having been taken off with a sharp knife, they
strain a line along one side of the bed $ and by chop¬
ping with a spade by the side of the line, leave a clift
or drill of a depth proportioned to the length of the
plants to be laid in; and drawing the loose mould
somewhat towards them, leave the side of the drill next
to
Crataeus
Crato.
C R A [7
to the line with a smooth polished face. Against this
face the plants are set up, leaning towards the line,
about three inches asunder, leaving their heads about
J an inch above the mould, and placing their roots at
such a depth as to bury their stems from two to three
inches deeper than they stood in the seed-bed. The
loose mould being returned and pressed gently to the
roots with the foot, the line is removed, and another
row planted in the same manner about a foot from the
first.
CRATCHES, in the manege, a swelling on the
pastern, under the fetlock, and sometimes under the
hoof’, for which reason it is distinguished into the
sinew cratches, which affect the sinew, and those upon
the coronet, called quittor-bones.
CRATER, Cur, in Astronomy, a constellation of
the southern hemisphere ; whose stars, in Ptolemy’s
catalogue, are seven j in Tycho’s, eight; in Hevelius’s,
ten*, in the Britannic catalogue, thirty-one.
Crater is also used to signiiy the mouth or opening
of a volcano or burning mountain, from whence the fire
is discharged. See Volcano.
CRATES, of Thebes, a famous philosopher, was
the disciple of Diogenes the Cynic. It is said that he
threw all his money into the sea, that he might the
more freely apply himself to the study of philosophy.
Others assert that he placed it into another person’s
hands, with orders to give it to his children if they
should happen to be fools : For (said Crates), if they
should be philosophers, they will have no need of it:
in which case it was to be given to the people. He
flourished about 328 years before Christ.
He ought not to be confounded with Crates, a famous
Academic philosopher, the disciple and friend of Pole-
mon. This last Crates had Arcesilaus and other cele¬
brated philosophers for his disciples $ and flourished
about 300 years before Christ.
CRATEVA, the Garlic Pear ; a genus of plants
belonging to the dodecandria class ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 25th order, Putaminece.
See Botany Index.
CRATINUS, an ancient comic poet, of whom we
should scarcely have known any thing, had not Quin¬
tilian, Horace, and Persius, mentioned him, Eupolis,
and Aristophanes, as the great masters of what we
call the ancient comedy. It is gathered that he died
in the 87th Olympiad. Suidas tells us that he wrote
2t plays, and that he was splendid and bright in his
characters.
CRATIPPUS, a celebrated Peripatetic philosopher,
was a native of Mitylene, where he taught philosophy :
hut at length went to Athens, where Brutus and the son
of Cicero were his disciples. Pompey went to see him
after the battle of Pharsalia, and proposed to him his
difficulties in relation to the belief of a Providence:
when Cratippus comforted him, and by forcible argu¬
ments answered his objections. He wrote some piects
about divination : and is supposed to be the same with
him whom Tertullian, in his book De Amnia, has rank¬
ed among the writers upon dreams.
CRATO, a small town of Portugal, in the province
of Alentejo, with a rich priory. It is the chief com-
mandery which the knights 0! Malta have in Portugal.
W. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 38. 50.
Vol. VI. Part II. f
2l] C Pt A
CRAVEN, a town of France, in Burgundy, re¬
markable for a battle fought there between the English
and French. E. Long. 3. 30. N. Lat. 47. 42. v
CRAWFORD, Dr Adair, an eminent Irish phy¬
sician. See Supplement.
Craven, or Cravent, a word of reproach, used in
trials by battel. See Battel.
CRAX, the Curassou, a genus of birds belonging
to the order of gallinae. See Ornithology Index.
CRAY Fish, or Craw Fish. See Cancer, Ento¬
mology Index.
GRAYER, Caspar de, a celebrated painter, was
born at Antwerp in 1585, and was a disciple of Ra¬
phael Coxis, the son of that Coxis who had studied
under Raphael ; but he soon showed such proof of
genius, and of an elevated capacity, that he far sur¬
passed his master. Afterwards he made judicious ob¬
servations on the particular excellencies of the most re¬
nowned masters to which he had any access; and taking
nature for his constant director and guide, he formed
for himself a manner that was exceedingly pleasing.
The first work which established him in the favour of
the court at Brussels, rvas a portrait of Cardinal Fer¬
dinand, brother to the king of Spain, which he painted
at full length, and as large as life. In that picture
he succeeded so happily, that it was sent to Madrid,
and received there with such concurrent approbation
of the king and the whole court, that it laid the foun¬
dation of the fame and fortune of Grayer. For the
king, as an acknowledgement of the painter’s merit,
sent him a gold chain with a medal j and added, as a
farther instance of his favour, an appointment for a
considerable pension. But nothing places the talents
of Crayer in a stronger light, than the testimony of so
excellent an artist as Rubens. That great man went
to Antwerp particularly to visit Crayer, and to see
his works; and after examining attentively a picture
of his painting, in the refectory of the abbey of Affleg-
hem, he publicly declared that no painter could sur¬
pass Crayer. Nor was this master less distinguished
by Vandyck, who always expressed a real esteem and
friendship for him, and painted his portrait. He had
somewhat less fire in his composition than Rubens,
but his design is frequently more correct. His com¬
positions generally consisted of a small number of fi¬
gures ; and with discreet judgment, he avoided the en¬
cumbering his design with superfluous particulars, or
loading his subject with any thing that seemed not to
contribute to its elegance or probability. He grouped
his figures with singular skill, and his expressions have
all the truth of nature. There is a remarkable variety
in his draperies, and an equal degree of simplicity in
their folds; and as to his colouring, it is admirable.
Of all his contemporary painters, he was accounted to
approach nearest to Vandyck, not only in history but
in portrait. He principally painted religious subjects,
and was continually at work ; and although he lived to
a great age, yet his temperance and constant regularity
preserved to him the full use of all his faculties $ and
to the last month of his life his pencil retained the same
force and freedom which it possessed in his most vigo¬
rous time. The subject of that picture which was so
honoured by the approbation of Rubens is the Centurion
alighting from his horse to prostrate himself at the feet
4 Y of
Craven
1!
Crayer.
C R A [ 722 ] C R A
C tayer of our Saviour. It is a capital design of Grayer j and
f! although it consists of a great number of figures, the
Crayon- harmony and union are well preserved.
panning., CRAYON, a general name for all coloured stones,
earths, or other minerals and substances, used in de¬
signing or painting in pastel •, whether they have been
beaten and reduced to a paste, or are used in their pri¬
mitive consistence, after sawing or cutting them into
long narrow slips. In this last manner are red crayons
made, of blood stone or red chalk •, black ones, of char¬
coal and black-lead. Crayons of all other colours are
compositions of earths reduced to paste.
Chayox-Painting. Whether the painter works with
oil-colours, water-colours, or crayons, the grand object
ol his pursuit is still the same ; a just imitation of na¬
ture. But each species has its peculiar rules and me¬
thods. Painting with crayons requires in many respects
a treatment different from painting in oil-colours 5 be¬
cause all colours used dry are in their nature of a much
warmer complexion than when wet with oils, &c. For
this reason, in order to produce a rich picture, a much
greater portion of what painters term cooling teints must
be applied in crayon painting than would be judicious
to use in oils. Without any danger of a mistake, it is
to be supposed, the not being acquainted with this ob¬
servation is one great cause why so many oil painters
have no better success when they attempt crayon-paint¬
ing. On the contrary, crayon painters being so much
used to their teints, which are of a cold nature when
used wet, are apt to introduce them too much when
they paint oils, which is seldom productive of a good
effect.
We shall now endeavour to give the student some
directions towards the attainment of excellence in this
art.
Of the Application of the Crayons, with some previous
Dispositions. The student must provide himself with
some strong blue paper, the thicker the better, if the
grain is not too coarse or knotty, though it is almost
impossible to get any entirely free from knots. The
knots should be levelled with a penknife or razor,
otherwise they will prove exceedingly troublesome.
After this is done, the paper must be pasted very smooth
on a linen cloth, previously strained on a deal frame,
the size according to the artist’s pleasure : on this the
picture is to be executed ; but it is most eligible not to
paste the paper on till the whole subject is first dead
coloured. I he method of doing this is very easy, by
laying the paper with the dead colour on its face, upon
a smooth board or table, when, by means of a brush,
the backside ol the paper must be covered with paste ;
the frame with the strained cloth, must then be laid on
the pasted side of the paper ; after which turn the paint¬
ed side uppermost, and lay a piece of clean paper upon
it, to prevent smearing it: this being done, it may be
stroked gently over with the hand 5 by which means all
the air between the cloth and the paper will be forced
out.
When the paste is perfectly dry, the student may
proceed with the painting. The advantages arising
ii’om pasting the paper on the frame according to this
method, after the picture is begun, are very great, as
the crayons will adhere much better than any other
way j which will enable the student to finish the pic¬
ture with a firmer body of colour and greater lustre.
When the painters want to make a very correct copy
of a picture, they generally make use of tiffany or
black gauze, strained tight on a frame, which they lay
fiat on the subject to be imitated, and with a piece of
sketching chalk trace all the outlines on the tiffany.
They then lay the canvas to be painted on flat upon
the floor, placing the tiffany with the chalked lines up¬
on it, and with an handkerchief brush the whole over j
this presents the exact outlines of the picture on the
canons. The crayon-painter may also make use of
this method when the subject of his imitation is in
oils ; but in copying a crayon picture, he must have
recourse to the following method, on account of the
glass.
The picture being placed upon the easel, let the out¬
lines be drawn on the glass with a small camel’s hair
pencil dipped in lake, ground thin with oils, which
must be done with great exactness. After this is ac¬
complished, take a sheet of paper of the same size, and
place it on the glass, stroking over all the lines with
the hand, by which means the colour will adhere to
the paper, which must he pierced with pin-holes pretty
close to each other. The paper intended to be used
for the printing must next be laid upon a table, and
the pierced paper placed upon it ; then with some
fine pounded charcoal, tied up in a piece of lawn, rub
over the pierced lines, which will give an exact out¬
line 5 but great care must be taken not to brush this
off till the whole is drawn over with sketching chalk,
which is a composition made of whiting and tobacco-
pipe clay,' rolled like the crayons, and pointed at each
end.
Crayon-
painting.
When a student paints immediately from the life, it
will be most prudent to make a correct drawing of the
outlines on another paper, the size of the picture he is
going to paint, which he may trace by the preceding
method, because erroneous strokes of the sketching
chalk (which are not to he avoided without great ex¬
pertness) will prevent the crayons from adhering to
the paper, owing to a certain greasy quality in the com¬
position.
The student will find the sitting posture, with the
box of crayons in his lap, the most convenient method
for him to paint. The part of the picture he is im¬
mediately painting should be rather below his face j
lor, if it be placed too high, the arm will be fatigued.
Let the windows of the room where he paints be dark¬
ened, at least to the height of six feet from the
ground j and the subject to be painted should be situa¬
ted in such a manner, that the light may fall with
every advantage on the face, avoiding too much shadow,
which seldom has a good effect in portrait painting,
especially if the face he paints from has any degree of
delicacy.
Before he begins to paint, let him be attentive to
his subject, and appropriate the action or attitude pro¬
per to the age of the subject: if a child, let it be
childish j if a young lady, express more vivacity than
in the majestic beauty of a middle-aged woman, who
also should not be expressed with the same gravity as a
person far advanced in years. Let the embellish¬
ments of the picture, and introduction of birds, ani¬
mals, &c. be regulated by the rules of propriety and
consistency.
The features of the face being correctly drawn with
chalks,
C R A t 723 ] C R A
Cravon- chalks, let the student take a crayon of pure carmine, .
Paritinir. and carefully draw the nostril and edge of the nose
—-v ' next the shadow ; then, with the faintest carmine teint,
lay in the highest light upon the nose and forehead,
which must he executed broad. He is then to proceed
gradually with the second teint, and the succeeding
ones, till he arrives at the shadows, which must be co¬
vered brilliant, enriched with much lake, carmine, and
deep green. This method will at first offensively strike
the eye, from its crude appearance ; but in the finish¬
ing, it will be a good foundation to produce a pleasing
effect, colours being much more easily sullied when too
bright than when the first colouring is dull, to raise the
picture into a brilliant state. The several pearly teints
discernible in fine complexions must be imitated with
blue verditer and white, which answers to the ultra-
marine teints used in oils. But if the parts of the face
where these teints appear are in shadow, the crayons
composed of black and white must be substituted in their
place.
Though all the face when first coloured should be
laid in as brilliant as possible, yet each part should be
kept in its proper tone ; by which means the rotundity
of the face will be preserved.
Let the student be careful, when he begins the eyes,
to draw them with a crayon inclined to the carmine
teint, of whatever colour the irises are of j he must
lay them in brilliant, and at first not loaded with co¬
lour, but executed lightly : no notice is to be taken of
the pupil yet. The student must let the light of the
eye incline very much to the blue cast, cautiously
avoiding a staring white appearance (which, when
once introduced, is seldom overcome), preserving a
broad shadow thrown on its upper part by the eye¬
lash. A black and heavy teint is also to be avoided in
the eyebrows; it is therefore best to execute them
like a broad glowing shadow at first, on which, in the
finishing, the hairs of the brow are to be painted 5 by
which method of proceeding, the former teints will
show themselves through, and produce the most pleasing
effect.
The student should begin the lips with pure carmine
and lake, and in the shadow use some carmine and
black *, the strong vermilion teints should be laid on af¬
terwards. He must beware of executing them with
stiff, harsh lines, gently intermixing each with the
neighbouring colours, making the shadow beneath
broad, and enriched with brilliant crayons. He must
form the corner of the mouth with carmine, brown
ochre, and greens, variously intermixed. If the hair
is dark, he should preserve much of the lake and deep
carmine teints therein ; this may easily be overpowered
by the warmer hair-teints, which, as observed in paint¬
ing the eyebrows, will produce a richer effect when
the picture is finished ; on the contrary, if this method
is unknown or neglected, a poverty of colouring will
be discernible.
After the student has covei-ed over, or, as artists
term it, has dead-coloured the head, he is to sv/eeten
the whole together, by rubbing it over with his fin¬
ger, beginning at the strongest light upon the fore¬
head, passing his finger very lightly, and uniting it
with the next teint, which he must continue till the
whole is sweetened together, often wiping his finger
on a towel to prevent the colours being sullied. He
must be cautious not to smooth or sweeten his picture Crayon,
too often, because it will give rise to a thin and scanty Painting,
effect, and have more the appearance of a drawing ‘ ■ v ■
than a solid painting ; as nothing but a body of rich
colours can constitute a rich effect. To avoid this (as
the student finds it necessary to sweeten with the fin¬
ger), he must commonly replenish the picture with more
crayon.
When the head is brought to some degree of for¬
wardness, let the back ground be laid in, which must
be treated in a different manner, covering it as thin as
possible, and rubbing it into the paper with a leather
stump. Near the face the paper should be almost free
from colour, for this will do great service to the head,
and by its thinness give both a soft and solid appear¬
ance. In the back ground also, no crayon that has
whiting in its composition should be used, but chiefly
such as are the most brilliant and the least adulterated.
The ground being painted thin next the hair, will give
the student an opportunity of painting the edges of the
hair over in a light and free manner when he gives the
finishing touches.
The student having proceeded thus far, the face,
hair, and back ground being entirely covered, he must
carefully view the whole at some distance, remarking
in what respect it is out of keeping, that is, what parts
are too light, and what too dark, being particularly at¬
tentive to the white or chalky appearances, which must
be subdued with lake and carmine. The above method
being properly put into execution, will produce the ap¬
pearance of a painting principally composed of three
colours, viz. carmine, black, and white, which is the
best preparation a painter can make for the producing
a fine crayon picture.
The next step is, to complete the back-ground
and the hair, as the dust, in painting these, will fall
on the face, and would much injure it if that was
completed first. From thence proceed to the fore¬
head, finishing downward till the whole picture is com¬
pleted.
In painting over the forehead the last time, begin
the highest light with the most faint vermilion teint,
in the same place where the faint carmine was first
laid, keeping it abroad in the same manner. In the
next shade succeeding the lightest, the student must
work in some light blue teints, composed of verditer
and white, intermixing with them some of the deeper
vermilion teints, sweetening them together with great
caution, insensibly melting them into one another, in¬
creasing the proportion of each colour as his judgment
shall direct. Some brilliant yellows may also he used,
but sparingly ; and towards the roots of the hair,
strong verditer teints, intermixed with greens, will be
of singular service. Cooling crayons, composed of
black and white, should succeed these, and melt into the
hair. Beneath the eyes, the sweet pearly teiuts are
to be preserved, composed of verditer and white, and
under the nose, and on the temples, the same mav
be used j beneath the lips, teints of this .kind also are
proper, mixing them with the light greens and some
vermilion.
In finishing the cheeks, let the pure lake clear them
from any dust contracted from the other crayons; then
with the lake may be intermixed the bright vermilion ;
and last of all (if the subject should require it) a few
4 Y 2 touches
c R A [ 724 ] C R A
Crayon- touches of the orange-coloured crayon, hut with extreme
painting, caution j after, sweeten that part with the finger as lit-
tie as possible, for fear of producing a heavy disagree¬
able effect on the cheeks; as the beauty of a crayon-
picture consists in one colour showing itself through, or
rather between, another: this the student cannot too
often remark, it being the only method of imitating
beautiful complex'ions.
The eye is the feature most difficult to execute in
crayons, as every part must be expressed with the ut¬
most nicety, to appear finished ; at the same time that
the painter must preserve its breadth and solidity while
he is particularizing the parts. To accomplish this,
it will be a good general rule for the student to use his
crayon in sweetening as much, and his finger as little,
as possible. When he wants a point to touch a small
part with, he may break off a little of his crayon
against the box, which will produce a corner fit to work
with in the minutest parts. If the eye-lashes are dark,
he must use some of the carmine and brown ochre, and
the crayon of carmine and black; and with these he
may also touch the iris of the eye (if brown or hazel),
making a broad shadow, caused by the eye-lash. Red
teints of vermilion, carmine, and lake, will execute
the corners of the eye properly ; but if the eyelids are
too red, they will have a disagreeable sore appearance.
I he pupil of the eye must be made of pure lamp¬
black : between this and the lower part of the iris,
the light will catch very strong, but it must not be
made too sudden, but be gently diffused round the pu¬
pil till it is lost in shade. When the eye-balls are suf¬
ficiently prepared, the shining speck must be made with
a pure white crayon, which should be first broken to
a point, and then laid on firm ; but as it is possible
they may be defective in neatness, they should be cor¬
rected with a pin, taking off the redundant parts, by
which means they may be formed as neat as can be re¬
quired.
The difficulty with respect to the nose, is to pre¬
serve the lines properly determined, and at the same
time so artfully blended into the cheek, as to express its
projection, and yet no real line to be perceptible upon
a close examination ; in some circumstances it should be
quite blended with the cheek, which appears behind it,
and determined entirely with a slight touch of red chalk.
The shadow caused by the nose is generally the darkest
111 the whole face, partaking of no reflection from its
surrounding parts. Carmine and brown ochre, car¬
mine and blacks, and such brilliant crayons, will com¬
pose it. best.
J lie student having before prepared the lips with the
strongest lake and carmine, &c. must with these co¬
lours make them completely correct; and when finish-
mg, introduce the strong vermilions, but with great
caution, as they are extremely predominant. This, if
properly touched, will give the lips an appearance
equal, if not superior, to those executed in oils, not¬
withstanding the seeming superiority the latter has by
means of glazing (a), of which the former is entirely
destitute. <
. When the student paints the neck, he should avoid Craycr-
expressing the muscles tco strong in the stem, nor paimino.
should the hones appear too evident on the chest, as  
both have an unpleasing effect, denoting a violent agi¬
tation of the body ; a circumstance seldom necessary to
express in portrait painting. The most necessary part
to be expressed, and which should ever be observed,
(even in the most delicate subjects), is a strong mark¬
ing just above the place where the collar bones unite ;
and if the head is much thrown over the shoulders,
some notice should be taken of the large muscle that
rises from behind the ear, and is inserted into the pit
between the collar bones. All inferior muscles should
be, in general, quite avoided. The student will find
this caution necessary, as most subjects, especially thin
persons, have the muscles of the neck much more evi¬
dent than would be judicious to imitate. As few necks
are too long, it may be necessary to give some addition
to the stem, a fault on the other side being quite unpar¬
donable, nothing being more ungraceful than a short
neck. In colouring the neck, let the student preserve
the stem of a pearly hue, and the light not so strong ae
on the chest. If any part of the breast appears, its
transparency must also be expressed by pearly teints ;
but the upper part of the chest should be coloured
with beautiful vermilions delicately blended with the
other.
Of the Drapery. Dark blue, purple, black, pink,
and all kinds of red draperies also, should be first tin¬
ged with carmine, which will render the colours much
more brilliant than any other method; over this should
be laid on the paper the middle teint (a medium be¬
tween the light and dark teints), of which the drapery
is to be painted, except the dark masses of shadow,
which should be laid on at first as deep as possible ;
these, sweetened with the finger, being destitute of the
smaller folds, will exhibit a masterly breadth, which
the lesser folds when added ought by no means to
destroy. With the light and dark teints, the smaller
parts are next to be made with freedom, executing as
much with the crayon, and as little with the finger, as
possible ; in each fold touching the last stroke with the
crayon, which stroke the finger must never touch. In
the case of reflections, the simple touch of the cravon
will he too harsh, therefore fingering will be necessary
afterwards, as reflected lights are always more gentle
than those which are direct. With respect to reflec¬
tions in general, they must always partake of the same
colour as the object reflecting, but in the case of single
figures, it may be useful to make some particular obser¬
vations.
In a blue drapery, let the reflections be of a greenish
cast; in green draperies make them of a yellow teint ;
in yellow, of an orange; in orange, reflect a reddish
cast; all reds, something of their own nature, but in¬
clined to the yellow : black should have a reddish re¬
flection ; the reflection of a reddish teint will also pre¬
sent purples to the best advantage.
Of whatever colour the drapery is, the reflection
on the face must partake thereof, otherwise the pic¬
ture,
The method with which painters in oils express transparency in the lips is, by painting them, first with
iiignt vermilion teints, and, when dry^ touching them ever with pure lake.
Crayon-
[minting-
C R A [72
ture, like painting on glass, will have but a gaudy
eft'ect.
Linens, lace, fur, &c. should he touched spiritedly
with the crayon, fingering very little, except the latter 5
and the last touches, even of this, like all other parts,
should he executed with the crayon, without sweetening
with the finger.
The methods above recommended have been prac¬
tised by the most celebrated crayon painters, whose
works have been held in public estimation j but the
knowledge of, and ability to execute, each separate part
with brilliancy and truth, will be found very insuffi¬
cient to constitute a complete painter, without his
judgment enables him to unite them with each other,
by correctness of drawing, propriety of light and sha¬
dow, and harmony of colouring. In order to accom¬
plish this, the student should carefully avoid finishing
one part in particular, till he has properly considered
the connection it is to have with the rest. The ne¬
glect of this is the principal reason why the perfor¬
mances of indifferent painters are so destitute of what is
termed breadth, so conspicuously beautiful in the works
of great masters. It must he granted, that this obser¬
vation relates more particularly to large compositions,
where a diversity of figures requires such a judicious
disposition, that each may assist in the combination of
a kind of universal harmony ; yet, even in portrait¬
painting, the student should be particularly attentive
to observe this idea of breadth, if he is desirous of ac¬
quiring that importance and dignity which constitutes
excellence in painting.
Of the Materials. The perfection of the crayons con¬
sists, in a great measure, in their softness; for it is im¬
possible to execute a brilliant picture with them if they
are otherwise ; on which account great care should
he observed in the preparing them, to prevent their
being hard. In all compositions, flake-white and
white-lead should be wholly rejected, because the
slightest touch with either of these would unavoidably
turn black.
The usual objection to crayon-paintings is, that they
are subject to change ; but whenever this happens, it is
entirely owing to an injudicious use of the above-men¬
tioned whites, which will stand only in oils. To obvi¬
ate the had effects arising from the use of such crayons,
let the student make use of common whiting prepared,
in the following manner.
Take a large vessel of water, put the whiting inter
it, and mix them well together ; let this stand about
half a minute, then pour off the top into another ves¬
sel, and throw the gritty sediment away ; let what is
prepared rest about a minute, and then pour it off as
before, which will purify the whiting and render it
free from all dirt and grittiness. When this is done,,
let the whiting settle, and then pour the water from it ;
after which, lay it on the chalk to dry, and keep it for
use, either for white crayons, or the purpose of preparing
teints with other colours, for with this all other teints-
may be safely prepared. If the student chooses to make
crayons of the whiting immediately after it is washed,
it is not necessary to dry it on the chalk, for it may
be mixed instantly with any other colour, which will save
considerable trouble. All colours of a heavy or gritty
nature, especially blue verditer, must be purified by.
washing after this method.
5 ] C R A
The student must be provided with a large, flexible
pallet-knife, a larije stone and muUer to levigate the
colours, two or three large pieces of chalk to absoib
the moisture from the colours after they are levigated,
a piece of flat glass to prevent the moisture from being
absorbed too much, till the colours are rolled into form,
and vessels for water, spirits, &c. as necessity and con¬
venience as shall direct.
I. itEDS. It is rather difficult to procure either good
carmine or good lake. Good carmine is inclined to the
vermilion teint, and good lake to the carmine teint.
The carmine crayons are prepared in the following
manner.
1. Carmine. x\s their texture is inclinable to hard¬
ness, instead of grinding and rolling them, take a
sufficient quantity of carmine, lay it upon the grind¬
ing-stone, mix it with a levigating knife with spirit of
wine till it become smooth and even. The. chalk-stone
being ready, lay the colour upon it to absorb the
spirit; but be careful that it is laid on in a proper state
for painting. If it is levigated too thin, the crayons
will be too flat; and if too thick, it will occasion a
waste of colour, by their adhering to the pallet-knife;
but practice will render the proper degree of consistency
familiar. The simple colour being prepared, the next
step is to compose the different teints by a mixture
with whiting; the proportion to be observed consisting
of 20 gradations to one, which may be clearly under¬
stood by the following directions. Take some of the
simple colour, and levigate it with spirit of wine, ad¬
ding about one part of washed whiting to three parts
of carmine, of which, when properly incorporated, make
two parcels. The next gradation should be composed
of equal quantities of carmine and whiting, of which
four crayons may be made. The third composition
should have one fourth carmine and three fourths
whiting; of'this make six crayons, which will be a
good proportion for the rest. The last teint should
be made of whiting, very faintly tinged with carmine,
of which- make about eight crayons, which will com¬
plete the above-mentioned proportion. As these com¬
pound teints are levigated, they are to be laid imme-
ately upon the chalk, that the moisture may be ab¬
sorbed to the proper degree of dryness for forming
into crayons, which may be known by its losing the
greater part of its adhesive quality when taken into the
hand.; if the consistency is found to be right, it may he
then laid upon the glass, which having no pores, will
prevent the moisture from being carried off before it is
convenient to form it into crayons, otherwise the cray¬
ons would be full of cracks and very brittle, which
will be a great inconvenience when they are used in
painting.
2. Lake. This is a colour very apt to be hard ; to
prevent which the student must observe the following
particulars. Take about half the quantity of lake in¬
tended for the crayons, and grind it very fine with spi¬
rit of wine ; let it dry, and then pulverize it, which
is easily done if the lake is good ; then take the other
half, and grind it with spirits, after which mix it with
the pulverized lake, and lay it out directly in crayons
on the chalk. This colour will not hear rolling. The
simple colour being thus prepared, proceed with the
compound crayons as directed before, and in the same,
degrees of gradation as the carmine teints.
3. Vei-milion
C R A [ 726 ] C R A
Cistyon* 3* Vermilion. The best is inclined to the carmine
pointing, teint. Nothing is required to prepare this colour more
than to mix it on the stone with soft water or spirits,
after which it may be rolled into crayons. The difle-
rent telnts are produced by a mixture of the simple
colour with whiting, according to the proportion already
given.
II. Blues, i. Prussian blue is a colour very apt
to bind, and is rendered soft with more difficulty than
carmine and lake. The same method of preparation is
to be followed with this as is directed with respect to
lake, only it is necessary to grind a larger quantity of
the pure colour, as it is chiefly used for painting dra¬
peries. The different teints may be made according
to necessity, or the fancy of the painter. 2. Blue ver-
diter is a colour naturally gritty, and therefore it is
necessary to wash it well. Its particles are so coarse
as to require some binding matter to unite them, other¬
wise the crayons will never adhere together. To ac¬
complish this, take a quantity sufficient to form two or
three crayons, to which add a piece of slaked plaste.r of
Paris about the size of a pea $ mix these well toge¬
ther, and form the crayons upon the chalk. This blue
is exti’emely brilliant, and will be of great use in height¬
ening draperies, &c. The teints must be formed with
whiting as directed in the former instances, and are high¬
ly serviceable for painting flesh, to produce those pearly
teints so beautiful in crayon pictures. It is not necessary
to mix the compounds with spirits, as clear water will
be sufficient.
III. Greeks. Brilliant greens are produced with
great difficulty. In Switzerland, they have a method
of making them far superior to ours. We usually
take yellow ochre, and after grinding it with spirits,
mix it with the powder of Prussian blue, then tem¬
per it with a knife, and lay the crayons on the
chalk, without rolling them. Instead of this, some
use king’s yellow mixed with Prussian blue, and others
brown ochre and Prussian blue. The crayons made of
the twro last may be rolled. Various teints may be pro¬
duced by these colours, according to fancy or necessity ;
some to partake more of the blue, and others of the
yellow.
1^ . Yellows, i. King’s yellow is the most useful
and the most brilliant, levigated with spirit of wine, to
compose the different teints as before directed. 2. Yel¬
low ochre, and Naples yellow ground with spirits, will
make useful crayons. 3. Orange is produced with king’s
yellow and vermilion ground together with spirits, and
the teints formed as in other cases, but no great quan¬
tity of them is required.
V. Browns. i. Cullen’s earth is a fine dark
brown. After six or eight of the simple crayons are
prepared, several rich compound teints may be pro¬
duced from it, by a mixture with carmine, in various
degrees. Black, carmine, and this colour, mixed to¬
gether, make useful teints for painting hair $ several
gradations may be produced from each of these by a
mixture with whiting. Roman or brown ochre is an
excellent colour, either simple or compounded with
carmine. Whiting tinged in several degrees with
either of these, will prove very serviceable in paint¬
ing. 2. Umber may be treated in just the same man¬
ner ; only it is necessary to levigate it with spirit of
wine.
VI. Purples. Prussian blue ground with spirits and Crayon
mixed with pulverized lake, will produce agood purple, paintiriij.
Carmine, thus mixed with Prussian blue, will produce a -v-!—-
purple something different from the former. Various
teints may be made from either of these compounds by
a mixture with whiting.
Til. Black, i. Lamp-black is the only black that
can be used with safety, as all others are subject to
mildew j but as good lamp black is very scarce, the
student will, perhaps, find it most expedient to make
it himself; the process of which is as follows : Pro¬
vide a tin cone, fix it over a lamp at such a height
that the flame may just reach the cone for the soot
to gather within it. When a sufficient quantity is
collected, take it out, and burn all the grease from
it in a crucible. It must then be ground with spirits,
and laid on the chalk to absorb the moisture. Various
gray teints may be formed from this by a mixture
with whiting, as mentioned in the former instance.—-
2. Vermilion mixed with carmine : this is a composi¬
tion of great use, and teints made from this with whi¬
ting will be found to be very serviceable, 3. Carmine
and black is another good compound, of which five or
six gradations should be made, some partaking more of
the black, and others having the carmine most predo¬
minant, besides several teints by a mixture with whi¬
ting. 4. Vermilion and black is also a very useful com¬
pound, from rvhich several different teints should be
made. 5. Prussian blue and black is another good com¬
pound, and will be found of singular service in painting
draperies.
It is impossible to lay down rules for the forming
every teint necessary in composing a set of crayons,
there being many accidental compositions, entirely de¬
pendent on fancy and opinion. The student should
make it a rule to save the leavings of his colours ; for
of these he may form various teints, which will occa¬
sionally be useful.
Of Rolling the Crayons, and disposing them for paint¬
ing. The different compositions of colours must be cut
into a proper magnitude, after they are prepared, in
order to be rolled into pastils, for the convenience of
using them. Each crayon should be formed in the left
hand with the ball of the right, first formed cylindri-
cally, and then tapering at each end. If the composi¬
tion is to dry, dip the finger in water ; if too wet,
the composition must be laid upon the chalk again to
absorb more of the moisture. The crayons should be
rolled as quick as possible ; and when finished, must
be laid upon the chalk again, to absorb all remain¬
ing moisture. After the gradation of teints from
one colour is formed, the stone should be well scraped
and cleansed with water before it is used for another
colour.
When the set of crayons is completed according to
the rules prescribed, they should be arranged in classes
for the convenience of painting with them. Some thin
drawers, divided into a number of partitions, is the
most convenient method of disposing them properly.
The crayons should be deposited according to the se¬
veral gradations of light. The bottom of the partitions
must be covered with bran, as a bed for the colours;
because it not only preserves them clean, hut prevents
their breaking.
The box made use of when the student paints should
be
Crayon-
painting
II
Creation.
C R E [727
be about a foot square, with nine partitions. In the tain
upper corner on the left hand (supposing the box to
be in the lap when he paints), let him place the black
, and gray crayons, those being the most seldom used ;
in the second partition, the blues ; in the third, the
greens and browns j in the first partition on the left
band of the second row, the carmines, lakes, vermi¬
lions, and all deep reds 5 the yellows and orange in
the middle, and the pearly teints next ; and as these
last are of a very delicate nature, they must be kept
Very clean, that the gradations of colour may be
easily distinguished $ in the lower row, let the first
partition contain a piece of fine linen rag to wipe
the crayons with while they are using *, the second,
all the pure lake and vermilion teints ; and the other
partition may contain those teints which, from their
complex nature, cannot be classed with any of the
former.
CRAZE mill, or Crazing Mill, a mill in all re¬
spects like a grist-mill to grind corn, and so called by
the tin miners, who use it to grind their tin, which is
yet too great after trambling.
CREAM, a general name applicable to all substan¬
ces that separate from a liquor, and are collected upon
its surface j but more particularly applied to the fol¬
lowing.
Cream of Lime, is that part of the lime which had
been dissolved in the water in its caustic state, but ha¬
ving again attracted some fixed air from the atmo¬
sphere, becomes incapable of solution, and therefore
separates from the water in the mild state of chalk or
limestone.
Cream of Milk, generally called simple cream, is
the most oily part of the milk ; which being naturally
only mixed, and not dissolved in the rest, soon sepa¬
rates from them, as being specifically lighter ; after
which it collects on the surface *, from which it is ge¬
nerally skimmed, to complete the disengagement of the
oily parts, for the purpose of making butter, from the
caseous and serous parts. See Agriculture Index.
Cream of milk is not only an agreeable aliment when
recent, but also useful in medicine as a lenient, when
applied to tetters and erysipelas attended with pain and
proceeding from an acrid humour.
Cream of Tartar, the trivial name of the super¬
tartrate or the acidulous tartrate of potash. It is also
denominated crystals of tartar. In this salt there is
an excess of the tartaric acid. See Chemistry In¬
dex.
GREAT, in the manege, an usher to a riding ma¬
ster j or a gentleman bred in the academy, with intent
to make himself capable of teaching the art of riding
the great horse.
CREATION, in its primary import, seems to sig¬
nify the bringing into being something which did not
before exist. The term is therefore most generally ap¬
plied to the original production of the materials where¬
of the visible world is composed. It is also, however,
used in a secondary or subordinate sense, to denote
those subsequent operations of the Deity upon the mat¬
ter so produced, by which the whole system ot nature
and all the primitive genera of things received their
form, qualities, and laws.
There is no subject concerning which there have
ieen more disputes than this of creation. It is cer-
2
] C R E
that none of the ancient philosophers had the Creation,
smallest idea of its being possible to produce a sub- '/
stance out of nothing, or that even the power of the
Deity himself could work without any materials to
work upon. Hence some of them, among whom was
Aristotle, asserted that the world was eternal both as
to its matter and form. Others, though they believed
that the gods had given the world its form, yet imagi¬
ned the materials whereof it is composed to have been
eternal. Indeed the opinions of the ancients, who had
not the benefit of revelation, were on this head so
confused and contradictory, that nothing of any con¬
sequence can be deduced from them. The freethinkers
of our own and of former ages have denied the possi¬
bility of creation, as being a contradiction to reason j
and of consequence have taken the opportunity from
thence to discredit revelation. On the other hand
many defenders of the sacred writings have asserted,
that creation out of nothing, so far from being a con¬
tradiction to reason, is not only probable, but de¬
monstrably certain. Nay, some have gone so far as to
say, that from the very inspection of the visible system
of nature, we are able to infer that it was once in a
state of non-existence. It would be impossible for us,
however, to enter into the multiplicity of arguments
used on both sides j nor can we pretend to settle it,
as the subject is confessedly above human comprehen-
sion. r
As to the works of creation which the Deity isyyhat
known to us to have performed; all other things, be-works of
side himself, are his creatures. Men and other ani-creation
mals that inhabit the earth and the seas ; all
mense varieties of herbs and plants of which
getable kingdom consists ; the globe of the earth, and formed,
the expanse of the ocean , these we know to have been
produced by his power. Besides the terrestrial world
which we inhabit, we see many other material bodies
disposed around it in the wide extent of space. The
moon, which is in a particular manner connected with
our earth, and even dependent upon it ; the sun, and
the other planets with their satellites, which, like the
earth, circulate round the sun, and appear to derive
from him life and heat; those bodies which we call
fixed stars, and consider as illuminating and cherishing
with heat each its peculiar system of planets ; and
the comets which at certain periods surprise us with
their appearance, and the nature of whose connection
with the general system of nature, or with any parti¬
cular system of planets, we cannot pretend to have
fully discovered ;—these are so many more of the
Deity’s works, from the contemplation of which we
cannot but conceive the most awful ideas of his crea¬
tive power.
Matter, however, whatever the varieties of form
under which it is made to appear, the relative dispo¬
sition of its parts, or the motions communicated to
it, is but an inferior part of the works of creation.
\Ye believe ourselves to be animated with a much higher
principle than brute matter ; in viewing the manners
and economy of the lower animals, we can scarcely
avoid acknowledging them even to consist of something
more than various modifications of matter and motion.
The other planetary bodies which seem to be in cir¬
cumstances nearly analogous to those of the earth, are
surely, as well as it, destined for the habitations of
rational,
the im-podi\
known to
the ve- ilave per_
C R E [ 728 1 '•ORE
Creation, rational, intelligent beings. The existence of intelli-
' gences of a higher order than man, though infinitely
below the Deity, appears extremely probable.—Of
these spiritual beings called Angels we have express in¬
timation in Scripture ; (see the article Angels). Such
are our notions concerning the existence of beings
essentially distinct from matter, and in their nature far
superior to it; these, too, must be the creatures of the
Deity, and of his works ol creation the noblest part.
But the limits of creation we must not pretend to de¬
fine. How far the regions of space extend, or how
they are filled, we know not. How the planetary
world, the sun and the fixed stars, are occupied, we
do not pretend to have ascertained. We are even igno¬
rant how wide a diversity of forms, what an infinity of
living animated beings may inhabit our own globe.
So confined is our knowledge of creation ; vet so
grand, so awful, that part which our narrow under-
2 standings can comprehend !
The pe- Concerning the periods of time at which the Deity
riodsof executed his several woiks of creation, it cannot be
which God plTtfnded tliat nianllin<l have had opportunities of re-
exeeuted ceiving particular information. From viewing
his wwks ^ie phenomena of nature, and considering the general
oferea- Jaws by which they are regulated, we cannot draw
any conclusive or even plausible inference with respect
to the precise period at which the universe must have
begun to exist. We know not, nor can we hope to
ascertain, whether the different systems of planets cir¬
culating round our sun and the other fixed stars, were
aH created at one period, or each at a different period.
We cannot even determine, from any thing that ap¬
pears on the face of nature, whether our earth was not
created at a later period than any of her fellow planets
which revolve round the same sun. Astronomers are,
from time to time, making new discoveries in the hea¬
vens ; and it is impossible to say whether some of these
successive discoveries may not be owing to successive
creations.
Philosophers have, indeed, formed some curious con¬
jectures concerning the antiquity of the earth, from
the appearances of its surface, and from the nature
and disposition of its interior strata. The beds of lava
in the neighbourhood of volcanoes have afforded
ground for some calculations, which, though they do
not fix the period of the earth’s origin, are yet thought
to prove that period to have been much more remote
*Rryd(ine's than the earliest age of sacred or profane history. * In
t'hZuvh tlie neigllb?urhood of Mount -/Etna, or on the sides of
Sicily and extensive mountain, there are beds of lava covered
Mnka. with a considerable thickness of earth ; and at least
another, again, which though knorvn from ancient mo¬
numents and historical records to have issued from the
volcano at least 2000 years ago, is still almost entirely
> destitute of soil and vegetation z in one place a pit has
been cut through seven different strata of lava ; and
these have been found separated from each other by
almost as many thick beds of rich earth. Now, from
the fact that a stratum of lava 2000 years old is yet
scantily covered with earth, it has been inferred by
the ingenious canon Recupero, who has laboured 30
years on the natural history of Mount ./Etna, that the
lowest of these strata which have been found divided
by so many beds of earth, must have been emitted
from the volcanic crater at least 14,000 years ago j
3
and consequently that the age of the earth, whatever Creat-vJ
it may exceed this term of years, cannot possibly be '—-v—
less. Other facts of a similar nature likewise concur
to justify this conjecture.
But all these facts are as nothing in comparison with
the long series which would be requisite to establish
such a conjecture as an incontrovertible truth. And
besides, any evidence which they can be supposed
to afford, may be very easily explained away. The
bed of lava which in the course of 2000 years has
scarce acquired a covering of earth, is confessed to
stand in a situation in which it is exposed to the spray
of the sea, and to all the violence of winds and rains.
In such a situation, it cannot be thought that a thick
bed of earth could, in any length of time, be formed
on it : we might as well expect depth of soil, and vi¬
gorous vegetation, on the craggy cliffs of hills. In
crevices here and there over it, in which the earth has
been retained, there is a depth of soil which supports
large trees. This fact, therefore, admits of no such
inference as that which Eecupero has pretended to de¬
duce from it. The local circumstances, again, of the
seven strata that have been pierced through are verv
different. They are situated at Jaci Reale, in a situa¬
tion where showers of ashes from the volcano must fre¬
quently fall ; and where whatever falls must be natu¬
rally retained and accumulated :—so that seven beds
of earth might be formed on these seven strata of lava
much sooner than one thin layer could be formed on
the stratum above mentioned. In other places, some
of which are within the influence of the same awful
volcano, and some adjacent to that of Vesuvius, soil
is known to have accumulated on lava with the help
of showers of ashes from the volcanoes, with sufficient
rapidity to justify this supposition concerning the co¬
verings of the strata at Jaci Real. From the obser¬
vation of these phenomena of volcanoes, therefore, no
facts have been gained that can help us to determine
with any certainty the earth’s age. And so wide is
the variety of circumstances to be here taken into ac¬
count, that it cannot be hoped that this desideratum
will be ever supplied from that quarter. See farther
the article Earth.
But by examining the composition and arrange¬
ment of the interior strata of the globe, and by view¬
ing the general appearance of its surface, the ingenuity
of philosophers has, with better hopes, sought to guess
at the length of time during which it must have ex¬
isted. Observing the exuvite of sea and land animals
deposited at profound depths under ground, and ac¬
companied with vegetable bodies in a good state of
preservation, as well as with oleaginous and bitumi¬
nous substances which have in all probability been
formed from vegetable bodies ; and remarking at the
same time with what confusion the other materials,
composing the crust of this terrestrial ball, are, in vaii-
ous instances not arranged, but cast together ; they
have concluded that the earth must have existed for
many an age before the earliest events recorded in sa¬
cred or profane history, and must have undergone manv
a revolution, before it settled in its present state. Such
at least are the ideas which Buffon and M. de Luc,
and also Dr Hutton f, seem desirous to impress us wi hf Ed. P/i;[
concerning its changes and antiquity. It will be only Tram.
doing justice to these philosophers to acknowledge, thatvoL l*
they
CUE [ 729 ] CHE
Creation, they have collected, with amazing industry, almost
v—"1' every fact in the natural history of the earth that can
serve to give plausibility to their conjectures. But
still their facts, besides the inconsistency of many of
them, are by far too scanty to warrant the conclusions
which they have deduced from them. See the article
Earth.
tLccoints The voice of profane history is far from being de-
it'thc an- cisive concerning the age of the world ", nor is it to be
Itiunity of expected that it should. When the earth first arose
he earth jnj0 existence, we can be at no loss to conceive that
me liuio- mankind were not spectators of the event j and we
Iry. may naturally imagine that the first human beings who
occupied it, would be too much busied in furnishing
themselves with the immediate necessaries and the con¬
veniences of life, to think of curious researches into
its origin, or even their own. Profane history is not,
however, without accounts of the age of the earth
and the origin of human society j but those accounts are
various and contradictory.—Plato, in his dialogue enti¬
tled Critias, mentions his celebrated Atalantis to have
been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before
the age in which he wrote. He asserts it to have
been well known to the Egyptian priests and to the
contemporary inhabitants of Attica. The learned world,
indeed, generally agree in regarding his accounts of
that island as a fiction, which the author himself did
not design to be understood in any other light: some,
however, are more credulous, and others go so far as to
acknowledge doubts : and if the existence of such an
island, at a period so distant, be admitted as a fact
worthy of any credit, the age of the world may be
reckoned as at least considerably more than 12,000
years. The pretensions of the Chinese represent the
world as some hundreds of thousands of years older:
Universalwe are also told* that the astronomical records of
Hist. vol. i. the ancient Chaldeans carried back the origin of society
Preface. to a very remote period j no less than 473,000 years.
The Egyptian priests reckoned between Menes and
\ Herod. Sethon 341 generations f. But these accounts are so
1. ii. c. 142-discordant, and so slenderly supported by evidence, that
we cannot hesitate to reject them all as false*, the fables
of historians scarce merit so much attention as the hypo¬
theses of philosophers.
Tlie era of When from profane we turn to sacred history, we
the crca- may reasonably expect more accurate and more cre-
tion as sta-dible information concerning the antiquity of the
cred'histo S^0'36* -^-s ^ie authenticity of the Holy Scriptures
,.y ' is so incontrovertibly established, wherever they af¬
ford evidence concerning any fact, that evidence must
be regarded as decisive. A fact so important as the
present may be thought highly worthy of a place in
them. Unfortunately, however, even the sacred wri¬
tings do not fix the era of the creation with sufficient
accuracy ; they leave us, in some measure, at a loss
whether to extend what they say concerning that era
to the whole contents of created space, or to confine
it to our earth and its inhabitants: different copies
give different dates j and even in the same copy, differ¬
ent parts relating the same events, either disagree or
do not speak decisively with regard to the length of the
time in which they passed.—In the beginning of the
sixth chapter of the first book of Kings, the time
which elapsed between the departure of the children
of Israel from Egypt, and the period at which Solo-
Yol. VI. Pait il. f
mon laid the foundation of his temple, is said to have Creation.
been 480 years: and in the book of Judges again,’ v-—
the age of all the patriarchs amounts to 592 years J.f Universal
The Hebrew copy of the Bible, which we. Christians v0'* *•
for good reasons consider as the most authentic, dates ! !t' ace'
the creation of the world 3944 years before the Chri-
tian era. The Samaritan Bible, again, fixes the era
of the creation 4305 years before the birth of Christ.
And the Greek translation, known by the name of
the Septuagint version of the Bible, gives 5270 as the
number of the years which intervened between those
two periods. As many other different calculations of
the years contained in the same intermediate space of
time, might be formed upon other dates in the sa¬
cred volume, differing in the different copies. By
comparing the various dates in the sacred writings,
examining how these have come to disagree and to
be diversified in different copies, endeavouring to re¬
concile the most authentic profane with sacred chro¬
nology, and eking out deficiency of dates and evi¬
dence with conjecture j some ingenious men have form¬
ed schemes of chronology, plausible indeed, but not
supported by sufficient authorities, which they would
gladly persuade us to receive in preference to any of
those above mentioned. Usher makes out from the
Hebrew Bible 4004 years, as the term between the
creation and the birth of Christ : Josephus, according
to .Dr Wills and Mr Whiston, make it 4658 years ;
and M. Pezron, with the help of the Septuagint, ex¬
tends it to 5872 years. Usher’s system is the most
generally received.
But though these different systems of chronology
are so inconsistent and so slenderly supported, yet the
differences among them are so inconsiderable in com-
pai’ison with those which arise before us when we con¬
template the chronology of the Chinese, the Chaldeans,
and the Egyptians, and they agree so well with the
general information of authentic history and with the
appearances of nature and of society, that they may be
considered as nearly fixing the true period of the cre¬
ation of the earth. ^
Profane history cannot be expected to contain anifoiuior-
account of the first events which passed after the ere- mation on
ation of the substances of which the universe consists. *
The conjectures of ancient philosophers on this sub- tainec] f10ta
ject cannot merit attention j for vague tradition, and any other
the appearances of nature, the only data on which source but
they could proceed in forming their conjectures, couldsacie<* ***"
admit of no fair injunctions concerning those events ; stu‘*‘
and besides, instead of listening to tradition, or exa¬
mining the appearances of nature, they generally con¬
sulted imagination, and imagination alone, on such oc¬
casions. Here, therefore, we have nothing to hope
but from the sacred writings. From them we may
expect historical information, not to be obtained from
any other source. What they communicate is com¬
municated on divine authority j and it is only on such
authority we can receive any accounts concerning the
creation. $
A few hints in the book of Job afford the earliest Hints eon-
information to be found in the scriptures concerning cerning the
the creation of the world. “ Where wast thou when
I laid the foundations of the earth, when the morning Job
stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted * chap,
for jov * ?” “ Behold, he put no trust in his servants, xxxviii.
4 Z * and ver* 4* ^ 7,
} Milne's
Lectures,
L.ect. I.
Mosaic ac¬
count of
tfae crea¬
tion.
jj Gen. i. i.
C R E
Creation, and Ills angels lie charged with folly*.”
—v-—1 man (or to Adam), he said, Behold, the fear of the
* Cl ap. iv. Lortj is wisdom, and to depart from evil is under-
-V'5i\xviii landingi.” These passages rather hint at than relate
>er. 28. facts. But it has been inferred from them, that there
were stars in the firmament, and angels in heaven, be¬
fore the formation of our globe •, that angels as well as
man have fallen •, and that other injunctions, besides
that of abstaining from the forbidden fruit, were laid
on Adam when he was first placed in Paradise J. If
the interpretation be admitted as just, the first of these
facts may be considered as forming, as it were, a point
with which our knowledge of the works of the Deity
commences : the period of time at which the second
event took place is not specified : and the precept to
Adam must no doubt have been uttered after he was
formed and inspired with intelligence. Yet with re¬
gard to the first of the above quotations from the book
of Job, the only one that is of importance to us at
present, it must be acknowledged, that it has been dif¬
ferently understood. The morning stars might sing
together, and the sons of God shout for joy, on account
both of their own creation and of the creation of the
earth at one time ; and yet Job, having been himself
made a conscious being at a much later period, not be
able to tell where he was at that era of exulting grati¬
tude and congratulation.
Moses relates, that|[ “ in the beginning God created
the heavens and the earth. And the earth (continues
he) was without form and void ; and darkness was
upon the face of the deep : and the spirit of God mo¬
ved upon the face of the waters. And God said, Let
there be light ; and there was light. And God saw
the light, that it was good : and God divided the
light from the darkness. And God called the light day,
and the darkness he called night: and the evening and
the morning were the first day.” During five succeed¬
ing days the work of creation was carried on. On
the second day, a firmament rvas made to separate the
waters, and that firmament called heaven: on the third
day the waters were collected into seas, and the land
from which the waters retired caused to produce grass
and trees and other plants : on the fourtli day, lights
were made to appear in the firmament} to enlighten
the earth, to divide the day from the night, and to
distinguish time into seasons and years: on the fifth
day the seas were peopled with whales and other fishes,
and the air with fowls : on the sixth day, the earth
was furnished with reptiles and quadrupeds of all kinds 5
and on the same day, the first human pair, the progeni¬
tors of all the human race, were created in God’s own
image.
Some difficulties occur in comparing this account of
the creation with the laws which appear at present to
in the above regulate the system of nature. We find it hard to con-
aecount. ceive how the earth, while yet a stranger to the influ¬
ence of the sun, could experience the vicissitude of day
and night; and are astonished at the rapidity with which
trees and herbage first overspread its surface. The con¬
dition of matter when the earth was without form and
void, and the operation of the spirit of God on the face
those diffi- of the waters are equally mysterious,
eulties. Dr Some ingenious men have eagerly laboured to re¬
move these difficulties^ Among those is Dr Burnet,
Difficulties
oceurring
9'
Attempts
to solve
Burnet's
theory.
[ 730 ] C R E
“ And unto whose theory of the earth has now been long consider- Creatiou
ed as fanciful and ill-founded. He supposes all the ' j
celestial bodies, even the sun and all the other planets
of the solar system, to have existed long before the
earth. The chaos on which the spirit of God moved,
consisted, according to him, of the first principles from
which all terrestrial bodies have been formed. When
those laws by which the material world is regulated
first began to operate on the mass, he supposes that
its grosser and heavier parts would sink towards the
centre, and there form a solid ball. Around this solid
ball two species of particles would still float together in
confusion. Of these he thinks one, being more vola¬
tile, would by degrees make its escape from the other,
would leave it still recumbent on the solid centre, and
spread around it in an atmosphere. The middle stra¬
tum he composes of aqueous and oleaginous fluids j
and he makes no doubt, that after the air had made
its escape, the levity of the oleaginous fluids would
enable them to rise above the aqueous, and dispose
themselves next the surface of the liquid mass. On
them he supposes the impure atmosphere to have then
deposited a quantity of terrene particles, sufficient to
form, by intermixture with the oils, a thick crust of
rich earth for the production of plants and herbage,
and to aflord an habitation to animals. This delicate
shell he was careful not to furrow with seas or load
with mountains: either of these would have reduced all
to confusion. Such is his earth } and after moulding it
with so much ingenuity, and into so happy a form, he
contents himself, without venturing to use the same
freedoms with the remaining part of Moses’s account of
the creation.
But Moses affords nothing that can be with anyObjectiont
propriety used in the foundation of such a theory : het0 Pr
tells not whether the chaos consisted of those terrene,nct s t'ieo*
and aqueous, and oleaginous, and aerial particles whicli '
Dr Burnet finds in it j he confines not the seas within
a crust of earth j nor does he inform us that the scene¬
ry of nature was not diversified by hills and vales. Be¬
sides, the author of this theory has, without any evi¬
dence, supposed matter to have been originally under the
influence of laws very different from those by which it
is at present regulated. Oil, indeed, while fluid, floats
above water: but in a concrete state, it sinks in water
like other solid bodies. If reduced into that state by
combination with terrene matters, sufficient to render
the mixture proper for the nourishment and production
of vegetables, its specific gravity will be still greater,
and it will consequently sink so much the sooner. How
a concrete substance, consisting of earth and oil, could
float on water, appears an inexplicable enigma. But we
need not here take farther pains in combating and tri¬
umphing over this theory, which has long since fallen
and-sunk to its grave. tJ
t Mr Whiston treats both the scriptures and the laws ^ whis.
of nature with greater reverence. Yet he certainly ton’s thee-
involves himself in no trifling difficulties in attempt-ry-
ing to solve those which Moses presents. He suppo¬
ses the sun, moon, and stars, to be-all more ancient
than the earth. The chaos from which the earth was
formed he represents as having been originally the
atmosphere of a comet. The six days of the creation
he would persuade us to believe equal to six of our
years 1
Creation.
Objections
to Mr
Whiston's
skewy.
CUE [73
years : for he Is of opinion, that the earth did not re¬
volve daily round its axis, but only annually round its
orbit, till after the fall of man.
On the first day or year, therefore, the more pon¬
derous parts of the chaos were, according to this theory,
conglomerated into an orb of earth, the chinks and in¬
terstices over that orb filled up with water, and the ex¬
terior part or atmosphere rarefied, so as to admit some
faint glimmering of the rays of the sun.
On the second day, the atmosphere was diffused to
its due extent around the earth, and reduced to a de¬
gree of rarity and purity which rendered it still more
suitable for the transmission of light j the earth was
still more consolidated $ and the waters being almost
entirely excluded from the interstices which they be¬
fore occupied, were partly spread over the surface of
the earth, and partly raised in vapour into the atmo¬
sphere or firmament.
On the third day, the earth’s surface became so irre¬
gular, in one place rising into hills, in another sinking
into vales, as to cause the waters, which were before
equally diffused, to collect into seas and lakes, leaving
large tracts of ground unoccupied. And no sooner was
a part of the earth’s surface left bare by the waters,
than the genial influence of the sun produced on it a
rich covering of herbage, and all the different species
of vegetables.
On the fourth day, the earth was rendered subject
to the regular influence of the sun, moon, and stars.
On the fifth day or year, things were so far advan¬
ced, that fishes and fowls were now produced from the
waters.
On the sixth day was the earth furnished with ani¬
mals $ and the lord of all the other animals, man, was
now created.
Such is Mr Whiston’s account of the phenomena of
the Mosaic creation. But he likewise assumes much
more than can be reasonably granted. The atmo¬
sphere of a comet could not well be the primitive chaos :
it is not an obscure, but a pellucid fluid ; and its exte¬
rior strata, if of the same nature with the matter of our
earth, must be scorified by its near approaches to the
Had the earth not begun to move round its axis
Creation.
sun.
13
M. de
hue’s theo
ry and ob-
jectiaas.
till after the work of creation was completed, the im¬
moderate degrees of heat and cold which its different
parts would have alternately felt, would in all proba¬
bility have proved fatal to both plants and animals.
Even the most artful interpretation of Moses’s words
cannot represent him as meaning to inform us that the
sun and moon were created at different periods. But
philosophy will scarce permit us to imagine that the
moon was formed before the earth. And therefore
we cannot upon good grounds agree with Mr Whiston,
that the creation of the earth was later than that of the
other bodies of the solar system.
Among others who have endeavoured to explain
the original formation of the earth, and the changes
which it has undergone, is M. de Luc. This cosmo-
logist, like Mr Whiston, thinks that the days of the
creation were much longer periods of time than our
present days. He seems to think that the earth had
existed long before the Mosaic creation $ but began at
that era to experience new changes, and to be regu¬
lated by new laws : that all the different events de¬
scribed by Moses in his history of the creation, actual-
i ] cue
ly took place in the order in which he relates them ;
but that Moses’s days are indefinite spaces of time, v——^
which must have been very long, but of which we can¬
not hope to ascertain the precise length, i hese are
ingenious conjectures ; but they do not appear neces¬
sary, nor are they justified by tacts, lor a fuller and
more close investigation ot this part of the subject, we
must refer to the article Earth : and shall now close
the present article with a short explanation ot what ap¬
pears to us the most natural way of understanding
Moses’s account of the creation.
It has been conjectured *, with great probability, * Universal
that the creation, ot which Moses is the historian, ^vaSp*g!;>
neither confined to the earth alone, nor extended to
the whole universe. The relation which all the pla¬
nets of the solar system bear to the same illuminating
body countenances the conjecture, that they, together
with the luminary by which they are enlightened were
all created at one period : but it would perhaps be to
conceive too meanly of the benevolence, wisdom, and
active power of the Deity, to suppose that before that
period these had never been exerted in any work of
creation. Yet even here we have not demonstrative
evidence.
On the supposition that the whole solar system was
created at once, which has at least the merit of doing
no violence to the narrative of Moses, the creation ot
the sun and the other planets may be understood to
have been carried on at the same time with the crea¬
tion of the earth. In that case, even in the course
of the first day, though not longer than our present
days, those bodies might be reduced to such order,
and their relative motions so far established, as to be¬
gin the distinction between light and darkness, day and
night.
On the second day, we may naturally understand
from Moses’s narrative, that the atmosphere was puri¬
fied, and the specific gravities of aqueous vapour and
atmospheric air so adjusted, as to render the latter ca¬
pable of supporting the former.
On the third day the waters were first collected into
lakes and seas : but in what manner, we cannot well
determine. Some call in the operation of earthquakes ;
others tell us, that when the earth was first formed,
the exterior strata were, at different parts over its sur¬
face, of different specific gravities ; and that the more
ponderous parts now sunk nearer the common centre,
while the lighter parts still remaining equally remote
from it as before, formed islands, continents, hills, and
mountains. But these are mere fancies ; and we have
no facts to offer in their stead. On the latter part of
this day vegetables were caused to spring up over the
earth. Their growth must have been much more ra¬
pid than we ever behold it now; but by what particu¬
lar act of supernatural power that might be effected,
we should in vain inquire.
On the fourth day the sun, moon, and stars, were
made to appear. But according to the conjecture
which we have mentioned, as plausible, though without
ascribing to it the evidence of certain truth, those hea¬
venly bodies are to be considered as having been creat¬
ed before this day. But they might now begin to exert
their full influence on the earth in the same manner as
they have since continued to do.
The creation of the inanimate world was now fi-
4 Z 2 msbed.
Crefition
CUE [7
nished, and the earth prepared for the reception of
f. ^ animals. On the fifth day, therefore, were the living
, le 1^11 lt\‘ inhabitants of the air and the waters created.
On the sixth day the inferior animals inhabiting the
earth were first created ; and after that, the whole work
was crowned by the creation of a male and female
of the human species. To the account of the creation
of the animals, nothing certain can be added in expla¬
nation of Moses’s narrative. No more but one pair of
the h uman species were at first created: the same eco¬
nomy might possibly be observed in the creation of the
inferior animals.
CREBILLON, Prosper Joliot de, a French wri¬
ter of tragedy, and usually ranked after Corneille and
Racine, was born at Dijon in 1674. He was origi¬
nally destined to the profession of the law, and placed
at Paris with that view ; but the impetuosity of his
passions rendering him unfit for business, he was ur¬
ged by some friends, who discerned very well his na¬
tural turn, to attempt dramatic compositions. He
complied, but not till after many refusals 5 and gave
at length a tragedy, which met with great success.
He then marched on in the career he had begun, but
was checked by a fit of love for an apothecary’s
daughter ; which fit of love ended in marriage. His
lather, doubly enraged at his son for thus surrender¬
ing himself to the two demons of Love and Poetry,
disinherited him ; but falling sick some years after, in
1707, he re-established him in all his rights, and died.
Crebillon was, however, little better for his acquisi¬
tions, the greatest part being probably wasted before
they came ; and thus, though high in fame, and at the
prime of life, he still continued poor. He lost his wife
in 1711, and fortune long frowned upon him, till at
last he obtained a place in the French academy, and
the employment of censor of the police. He was after¬
wards in more prosperous circumstanres, which con¬
tinued to the end of a long life. He died in 1762, at
the age of 88, much regretted on account of his nu¬
merous virtues. He was of a temperament extremely
robust, without which he could not have held out so
long j for he ate prodigiously, and continued to the
last so to do. He slept little, and lay as hard as if
upon the floor •, not from any pious principle of morti-
Iving, but because he liked it. He was always sur¬
rounded with about 30 dogs and cats ; and used to
smoke a good deal of tobacco, to keep his room sweet
against their exhalations. Whenever he was ill, he used
to manage himself according to his own fancy and feel¬
ings; for he made a jest of physic and physicians. He
was a dealer in bon mots. Being asked one day in full
company, which of his works he thought the best P
“ I don’t know (said he) which is my best produc¬
tion ; but this (pointing to his son) is certainly my
worst.”
CRECY, Crescy, oFCressy. See Cressy.
CREDENTIALS, letters of recommendation and
power, especially such as are given to ambassadors or
public ministers, by the prince or state that sends them
to foreign courts.
CREDIBILITY, a species of evidence, less indeed
than absolute certainty or demonstration, but greater
than mere possibility ; it is nearly allied to probability,
and seems to be a mean between possibility and demon¬
stration
32 ] C R E
CREDIT, in Commerce, a mutual trust or loan of
merchandise or money, on the reputation of the probitv
and solvability of a dealer.
Credit is either public or private. Every trader
ought to have some estate, stock, or portion of his
own, sufficient to carry on the traffic he is engaged in :
they should also keep their dealings within the extent
of their capital, so that no disappointment in their re¬
turns may incapacitate them from supporting their cre¬
dit. Aet traders of worth and judgment may some¬
times he under the necessity of borrowing money for
carrying on their business to the best advantage ; but
then die borrower ought to be so just to his own re¬
putation, and to his creditors, as to be well assured that
he has sufficient effects within his power to pay off his
obligations in due time. But if a trader should bor¬
row money to the extent of his credit, and launch out
into trade so as to employ it with the same freedom as
if it was his own proper stock, such a way of manage¬
ment is very precarious, and may be attended with
dangerous consequences. Merchants ought never to
purchase their goods for exportation upon long credit,
with intent to discharge the debt by the return of the
same goods ; for this has an injurious influence on trade
several ways ; and if any merchant has occasion to
make use of his credit, it should always be for the
borrowing of money, but never for the buying of goods;
nor is the large credit given to wholesale traders a
prudential or justifiable practice in trade.
he public credit of a nation is said to run high
when the commodities of that nation find a ready vent,
are sold at a good price, and when dealers may be safe¬
ly trusted with them : also when lands and houses find
ready purchasers ; when money is to be borrowed at
a low interest; when people think it safe and advan¬
tageous tOj venture large stocks in trade, &c. See
Credit, Supplement.
Letters of Credit, are those given to persons in
whom a merchant, &c. can trust, to take money of
his correspondent abroad, in case he happens to need
it.
Credit is also used for the currency which papers
or bills have in the public or among dealers. In this
sense credit is said to rise, when in negotiating the
shares of the company, they are received and sold at
prices above iwr, or the standard of their first creation.
Discredit is opposed to credit, and is used where money,
bills, &c. fall below pn/’.
Credit was also anciently a right which lords had
over their vassals ; consisting in this, that during a cer¬
tain time they might oblige them to lend them mo¬
ney. In this sense, the duke of Brittany had credit
during fifteen days on his own subjects, and those of
the bishop of Nantes; and the bishop had the same
credit or right among his subjects and those of that
prince.
CREDITON, a market town in Devonshire, con¬
siderable for a good woollen manufactory; it is situa¬
ted about 9 miles north-west of Exeter, in W. Long.
3. 50. and N. Lat. 50. 50.
CREDITOR, a person to whom any sum of money
is due, either by obligation, promise, or otherwise. See
Debt.
CREDULITY denotes a weakness of mind, by
reason of which a person yields his assent to proposi¬
tions
CEE
Credulity, tions or facts, before he has considered their evi-
Creech deuce.
u—- CREECH, Thomas, eminent for his translations
of ancient authors both in prose and verse, was son of
Thomas Creech, and born near Sherborne in Dorset¬
shire in 1659. He was educated in grammar learning
under Mr Curganven of Sherborne, to whom he after¬
wards dedicated a translation of one of Theocritus’s
Idylliums: and entered a commoner ol Wadham col¬
lege in Oxford in 1675. Wood tells us that his father
was a gentleman ; but Giles Jacob says, in his Lives
and Characters of English poets, that his parents cir¬
cumstances not being sufficient to afford him a liberal
education, his disposition and capacity for learning
raised him up a patron in Colonel Strangeways, whose
generosity supplied that defect. Be that as it will,
Creech distinguished himself much, and was accounted
a good philosopher and poet, and a diligent student.
June 13. 1683, he took the degree of master ol arts,
and not. long after was elected probationer fellow of All¬
souls college ; to which, Jacob observes, the great repu¬
tation acquired by his translation of Lucretius recom¬
mended him. Wood tells us, that upon this occasion
be gave singular proofs of his classical learning and
philosophy before his examiners. He also took the
degree of B. D. on the 18th of March 1696. He
now began to be well known by the works he publish¬
ed ; but Father Niceron observes, that they were of
no great advantage to his fortune, since his circumstan¬
ces were always indifferent. In 1699, having taken
holy orders, he was presented by his college to the li¬
ving ofWelvvynn in Hertfordshire j but this he had
not long enjoyed before he put an end to his own life.
The motives of this fatal catastrophe have been vari¬
ously represented. The author of the Nouvel/es de la
llepublique des Lettres informs us, that in the year 1700
Mr Creech fell in love with a woman who treated him
with great neglect, though she was complaisant enough
to several others. This affront he could not bear, and
resolved not to survive it. Whereupon he shut himself
up in his study, where he hanged himself about the
end of June 1700, and was found in that situation
three days after. The Poetical Register says nothing
of the particular manner of his death, but only that
he unfortunately made away with himself in the year
j 701 j and ascribes this fatal catastrophe of Mr Creech’s
life to the moroseness of his temper, which made him
less esteemed than his great merit deserved, and enga¬
ged him in frequent animosities and disputes upon that
account. But from an original letter of Arthur Char-
lett, preserved in the Bodleian librrury, it has lately
been discovered, that this unhappy event was owing
to a very different cause. There was a fellow colle¬
gian of whom Creech frequently borrowed money :
but repeating his applications too often, he met one
day with such a cold reception, that he retired in a
fit of gloomy disgust, and in three days was found
hanging in his study. Creech’s principal performances
are, 1. A translation of Lucretius. 2. A translation
of Horace j in which, however, lie has omitted some
few odes. 3. The Idylliums of Theocritus, with Ra-
pin’s Discourse of Pastorals. 4. A translation of Ma-
nilius’s Astronomicon. Besides translations of several
parts of Virgil, Ovid, and Plutarch ; printed in differ¬
ent; collections.
“CEE
CREED, a brief summary of the articles of a Creed
Christian’s belief. lj
The most ancient form of creeds is that which goes ^rc^latl0,,•
under the name of the apostolic creed : besides this, there ' "
are several other ancient forms and scattered remains of
creeds to be met with in the primitive records of the
church. The first is the form of apostolical doctrine,
collected by Origen ; the second is a fragment of a creed
preserved by Tertullian ; the third remains of a creed is
in the works of Cyprian ; the fourth, a creed composed
by Gregory Thaumaturgus, for the use of his own
church ; the fifth, the creed of Lucian the martyr j the
sixth, the creed of the apostolical constitutions. Besides
these scattered remains of the ancient creeds, there are
extant some perfect forms, as those of Jerusalem, Cee-
sarea, Antioch, &c.
The most universal creeds are, the Apostolical,
the Athanasian, and the Nicene creeds. See these
articles.
These three creeds are used in the public offices of
the church of England ; and subscription to them is
required of all the established clergy. Subscription
to these was also required of the dissenting teachers,
by the toleration act ; hut from which they are now
relieved by 19 Geo. III.
CREEK, a part of a haven, where any thing is
landed from the sea. So many landing places as there
are in a harbour or port, so many creeks there are. It
is also said to be a shore or bank whereon the water beats,
running in a small channel from any part of the sea j
from the Latin crepido. This word is used in the stat.
4 Hen. IV. c. 20. and 5 Eliz. c. 5.
CREENGLES. See Cringle.
CREEPER. See Certhia, Ornithology Index.
Creeper, in naval affairs, an instrument of iron
resembling a grappling, having a shank, and four hooks
or claws. It is used to throw into the bottom of any
river or harbour, with a rope fastened to it, to hook
and draw up any thing from the bottom which may
have been lost. See Plate CL.
CRELLIUS, John, a famous Socinian, born in
1590, in a village near Noremberg. la 1612, he went
into Poland, where the Unitarians had a school, in
which he became professor of divinity, and minister
at Crackow, where he died in 1632, aged 42. He
was the author, 1. Of a famous Treatise against the
Mystery of the Trinity j 2. Commentaries on a part of
the New Testament j and other works. All of them
are scarce.
CREMA, a city and bishop’s see of Italy, capital of
a district of the Milanese, called from it Cremasco ; it
stands almost in the middle between Milan and Mantua,
in E. Long. 10. 15. and N. Lat. 45. 20.
CREMASTER, in Anatomy, the name of a muscle
of the testicle, of which there is one on each side. See
Anatomy, Table of the Muscles.
CREMATION is sometimes used for burning, par¬
ticularly when applied to the ancient custom of burn-
in" the dead. The custom is well known to have
prevailed among most eastern nations, and continued
with their descendants after they had peopled the
different parts of Europe. Hence we find it prevail¬
ing in Greece, Italy, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Sweden,
Norway, and Denmark, till Christianity abolished
it.
CREMONA*.
[ 733 1
CUE [ 734 ] CUE
Cremona CREMONA, in Ancient Geography, a Roman co¬
ll lony» with municipal rights, settled beyond the Po, be-
Crco!i‘ low the confluence of the Addua, on the report of Han¬
nibal’s march into Italy (Polybius) : a town at this day
still maintaining its name and flourishing state. It was
an opulent and mercantile city ; but suffered greatly in
the civil wars of Augustus (Virgil). In the war with
Vitellius, it was destroyed by the partisans of Vespasi¬
an ; but was soon after rebuilt by the munificence of the
citizens and exhortations of Vespasian, (Tacitus.) Now
capital of the Cremonese, in the duchy of Milan. E.
Long. io. 30. N. Lat. 45.
CRENATED, a term used in botany. See Botany
Index.
CRENELLE, or Embattled, in Heraldry, is used
when any honourable ordinary is drawn, like the battle¬
ments on a wall to defend men from the enemies shot.
This attribute belongs to the arms of such as have de¬
fended castles for their prince or country, or of such as
are skilled in architecture.
CRENOPHYLAX, in antiquity, a magistrate of
Athens, who had the inspection of fountains.
CREOHIBA, in the customs of the middle age, a
robbery and murder committed in a wood, where the
body of the person killed was burnt in order to prevent
any discovery of the crime. The word, says Wende-
linus, is compounded oici'uy and diven, that is, “ wood-
robbers.”
CREOLES, a name originally given to the families
descended from the Spaniards who first settled at Mexico
in America. These are much more numerous than the
Spaniards properly so called, and the Mulattoes, which
two other species of inhabitants they distinguish } and
are excluded from all considerable employments. It is
now used in a more extensive sense, and applied to all
natives of the West Indies.
CREON, king of Corinth, was son of Sisyphus. He
promised his daughter Glance to Jason, who had repu¬
diated Medea. To revenge the success of her rival,
Medea sent her for a present a gown covered with poi¬
son. Glauce put it on, and was seized with sudden pains.
Her body took fire, and she expired in the greatest
torments. The house also was consumed by the fire,
and Creon and his family shared Glauce’s fate.
Creon, son of Mencetius, was father to Jocasta,
the wife and mother of Oedipus. At the death of
Laius, who had married Jocasta, Creon ascended the
vacant throne of Thebes. As the ravages of the
Sphvnx were intolerable, Creon offered his crown and
daughter in marriage to him who could explain the
enigmas which the monster proposed. Oedipus was
happy in his explanations, and he ascended the throne
of Thebes, and married Jocasta without knowing that
she was his mother, and by her he had two sons, Poly-
nices and Eteocles. These two sons mutually agreed
after their father’s death to reign in the kingdom each
a year alternately. Eteocles first ascended the throne
by right of seniority ; but when he was once in power
he refused to resign at the appointed time, and his
brother led against him an army of Argives to support
his right. The war was decided by a single combat be¬
tween the two brothers. They both killed one ano¬
ther, and Creon ascended the throne till Leodamus
the son of Eteocles should be of sufficient age to as-
2
sume the reins of government. In his regal capacity
he commanded that the Argives, and more particularly
Eolynices, who was the cause of all the bloodshed7
should remain unburied. If this was in any manner
disobeyed, the offenders were to be buried alive. An¬
tigone the sister of Polynices transgressed, and was ac¬
cordingly punished. Haemon the son of Creon, who
was passionately fond of Antigone, killed himself on
her grave, when his father refused to grant her pardon.
Creon was afterwards killed by Theseus, who had
made war with him because he refused burial to the
Argives.
CREPANCE, in the manege, a chop or cratch in
a horse’s leg, given by the spunges of the shoes of one
of the hinder feet crossing and striking against the
other hinder foot. I his cratch degenerates into an
ulcer.
CREPID^E, among the Romans, a kind of slippers
or shoes, which were always worn with the pallium, as
the calcei were with the toga.
CREPIS, Hawk-weed, a genus of plants belonging
to the syngenesia class ; and in the natural method rank°
ing under the 49*^ order, Composites. See Botany
Index.
CREPITATION, that noise which some salts
make over the fire in calcination, called also detona¬
tion.
Crepitation is also used in surgery, for the noise
made by the ends or pieces of bones, when the surgeon
moves a limb to assure himself by his ear of the exist¬
ence of a fracture.
CREPUNDIA, in antiquity, a term used to express
such things as were exposed along with children, as
rings, jewels, &c. serving as tokens whereby they af¬
terwards might be known.
CREPUSCULUM, in Astronomy, twilight j the
time from the first dawn or appearance of the morning
to the rising of the sun $ and again, between the setting
of the sun and the last remains of day.
Papias derives the word from creperuswhich, he
says, anciently signified uncertain, doubtful, q. d. a du¬
bious light. The crepusculum is usually computed to
begin and end when the sun is about 18 degrees below
the horizon ; for then the stars of the sixth magnitude
disappear in the morning and appear in the evening.
It is of longer duration in the solstices than in the
equinoxes, and longer in an oblique than in a right
sphere.
The crepuscula are occasioned by the sun’s rays re¬
fracted in our atmosphere, and reflected from the par¬
ticles thereof to the eye. See Twilight.
CRESCENT, the new moon, which as it begins to
recede from the sun, shows a little rim of light, termina¬
ting in points or horns, which are still increasing till it
become full and round in the opposition. The word is
formed from cresco, “ I grow.”
The term is also used for the same figure of the
moon in its wane or decrease, but improperly j be¬
cause the points or horns are then turned towards
the west, whereas they look to the east in the just cre¬
scent.
Crescent, in Heraldry, is a bearing in form of a
half moon. The Ottomans bear sinople, a crescent
montant, argent.
The
CEE [ 735 1 CEE
Crescent crescer1^ frequently used as a difference in coat
fU armour, to distinguish it for that of a second brother or
rescimbe- junior family.
“i- The figure of the crescent is the Turkish symbol ; or
~ » rather is that of the city of Byzantium, which bore this
device from all antiquity j as appears from medals struck
in honour of Augustus, Trajan, &c.
The crescent is sometimes montant, i. e. its points
look towards the top of the chief, which is its most or¬
dinary representation j whence some contend, that the
crescent, absolutely so called, implies that situation
though other authors blazon it montant, when the horns
are towards the dexter side of the escutcheon, in which
position others call it incroissant.
Crescents are said to be adossed, when their backs
or thickest parts are turned towards each other ; their
points looking to the sides of the shield. Crescent in¬
verted, is that whose points look towards the bottom ;
turned crescents are placed like those adossed 5 the dif¬
ference is, that all their points look to the dexter side
of the shield : conturned crescents, on the contrary, look
to the sinister side : affronted m appointed crescents, are
contrary to the adossed, the points looking towards each
other.
Crescent is also the name of a military order, insti¬
tuted by Renatus of Anjou, king of Sicily, &c. in
1448 ; so called from the badge or symbol thereof, a
crescent of gold enamelled. What gave occasion to
this establishment was, that Renatus took for his device
a crescent, with the word lo%, “ praise,” which, in the
style of rebus, makes/02s in crescent, q. d. by advancing
in virtue, one merits praise.
CRESCENTIA, the Calabash Tree j a genus of
plants belonging to the didynamia class ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 25th order, Putaminece.
See Botany Index.
The shells of calabashes are made use of for various
purposes. At Barbadoes, besides drinking-cups and
punch bowls, there are made of them spoons, dishes,
and other utensils for the slaves. Some of these shells
are so large, as to be capable of holding 15 pints of
water. The pulp is seldom eaten, except by cattle in
the time of drought. The wood, which is hard and
smooth, is made into stools, chairs, and other furni¬
ture.
CRESCIMBENI, John Maria, an Italian poet,
was born at Macerata in Ancona, 1663. His talents for
poetry and eloquence developed themselves early. His
verse? at first had too much pomp and point j but re¬
siding in Rome, and reading the best Italian poets,
brought him back to nature. He not only reformed
himself, but undertook to reform bad taste in general.
From this motive he projected the establishment of a
new academy, under the name of Arcadia; the mem¬
bers of which at first did not exceed 14, but after¬
wards increased much. They called themselves the
shepherds of Arcadia, and each took the name of some
shepherd and some place in that ancient kingdom.
The founder of this society was appointed the director
of it in 1690, and held this honourable post 38 years ;
namely, to the year of his death, which happened in
1728. Among a great number of works, in verse and
prose, the principal is, A Plistory of the Italian Poetry,
very much esteemed, and reprinted, in I731’ at ^ e"
nice, in six volumes 4to. This history is accompanied
with a commentary, containing anecdotes of Italian Crescimbe-
poets. He published also A History of the Academy ni
of Arcadia, together with the lives of the most illustri- N
ous Arcadians : and many other works. . ' •' .
CRESCY, or Cressy. See Cressy.
CRESS, Water Cress, or Cresses. See Sisym¬
brium, Botany Index.
Indian Cress. See Tropjeolum, Botany Index.
CRESSY, a port town of Picardy in France, about
44 miles south of Calais, and 27 north-west of Abbe¬
ville, remarkable on account of the victory obtained
there over the French by Edward III. of England, in
the year 1346. E. Long. 2. o. N. Lat. 50. 20.
Edward having encountered and overcome many
difficulties in his expedition, was at last so closely fol¬
lowed and harassed by the French army, commanded
by the king of France in person, that he determined
to make a stand at this place, and to give his pursuers
a check. For this purpose he chose his ground with
great judgment, on the gentle declivity of a hill, with
a thick wood in his rear. He ordered deep entrench¬
ments to be made on each flank, and waited with
firmness the approach of his enemies. The king of
France, dreading nothing so much as the escape of the
English, began the march of his great army from Ab¬
beville early in the morning, August 26. and continued
it several hours with great eagerness, till he received
intelligence that the English had halted at Cressy, and
were prepared to give him battle. He was advised at
the same time not to engage that day, when his troops
were much fatigued with their march, and in great
disorder j and he was disposed to have taken this ad¬
vice. But the discipline of these times was so imperfect,
that the orders given for halting were not obeyed ; and
one corps of this mighty host impelling another, they
continued advancing till they came into the presence of
their enemies in much confusion.
Edward had employed the forenoon of this import¬
ant day in drawing up his army in the most excellent
order, in three lines. The first line, which consisted
of 800 men at arms, 4000 English archers, and 600
Welch foot, was commanded by his young, amiable,
and heroic son, the prince of Wales, assisted by the
earls of Warwick and Oxford, and several other no¬
blemen. The second line, composed of 800 men at
arms, 4000 halbardiers, and 2400 archers, was led by
the earls of Arundel and Northampton j the last line
or body of reserve, in which were 700 men at arms,
5300 billmen, and 600c archers, was ranged along the
summit of the hill, and conducted by the king in per¬
son, attended by the lords Moubray, Mortimer, and
others. When the army was completely formed, Ed¬
ward rode along the lines, and by his words and looks
inspired his troops with the most ardent courage and
strongest hopes of victory. He then commanded the
cavalry to dismount, and the whole army to sit down
upon the grass, in their ranks, and refresh themselves
with meat, drink, and rest. As soon as the French
army came in view, they sprung from the ground,
full of strength and spirit, and stood ready to receive
them.
The king of France, assisted by the kings of Bohe¬
mia and Majorca, the dukes of Lorraine and Savoy,
and several other sovereign princes, with the flower of
the French nobility, laboured to restore some degree
of
c R E [ 736 ] C R E
of order to his prodigious army, and drew it up also in
three lines, but very indistinctly formed. The first line
was commanded in chief by the king of Bohemia ;
the second by the earl of Alen^on, the king of France’s
brother; and the third by Philip in person; and each
of these lines contained a greater number of troops than
the whole English army.
The battle of Cressy was begun aboat three o’clock
in the afternoon, August 26. by a great body of Ge¬
noese cross-bow men, in the French service, who let fly
their quarrels at too great a distance to do any execu¬
tion, and were presently routed by a shower of arrow's
from the English archers. The earl of Alen^on, after
trampling to death many of the flying Genoese, advan¬
ced to the charge, and made a furious attack on that
corps commanded by the prince of Wales. The earls
of Arundel and Northampton advanced with the se¬
cond line to sustain the prince, and Alen^on was sup¬
ported by as many troops as could crowd to his asist-
ance. Here the battle raged for some time with un¬
common fury ; and the earl of Warwick, anxious for
the fate of the day and the safety of the prince, sent a
messenger to the king, entreating him to advance with
the third line. Edward, who had taken his stand on
a wind mill on the top of the hill, from whence he had
a full view of both armies, asked the messenger, if his
son was unhorsed, or wounded, or killed P and being
answered, that the prince was unhurt, and performed
prodigies of valour. “ Go then,” said he, “ and tell
my son and his brave companions, that I will not de¬
prive them of any part of the glory of their victory.”
This flattering message being made known, inspired
the prince and his troops with redoubled ardour; and
the king of Bohemia, the earl of Alen^on, and many
other great men, being slain, the whole first and second
lines of the French army were put to flight. Philip,
undismayed at the slaughter of his troops, and the fall
of so many princes, advanced to the charge with the
line under his immediate command. But this body
soon shared the same fate with the other two; and
Philip, after having been unhorsed, and wounded in
the neck and thigh, was carried off the field by John
de Hainault, and fled with no more than five knights
and about 60 soldiers in his company, of all his mighty
army, which at the beginning of the battle consisted of
more than 120,000 men. Such was the famous vic¬
tory of Cressy, the greatest ever gained by any king
of England. After the battle, the king flew into the
arms of the prince of Wales, and grasping him to his
bosom, cried in an ecstasy of joy, “ My dear son, vou
have this day showed yourself worthy of the knight¬
hood which you lately received, and of the crown for
which you have feo bravely fought; persevere in your
honourable course.” The prince, as modest as he
was brave, sunk down on his knees, his face covered
with blushes, and begged his father’s blessing. Ed¬
ward continued with his army at Cressy three days,
employed in numbering and burying the dead. The
French had left on this bloody scene the king of Bo¬
hemia, 11 other princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights,
1500 gentlemen, 4000 men at arms, and 30,000 other
soldiers.
CREST, in armoury, denoted the uppermost part
of an armoury; or that part rising over the cask or
helmet. Next to the mantle, says Guillim, the crest
3
or congnizance claims the highest place; being seated Crct.
on the most eminent part of the helmet; yet °so as to fl*
admit an interposition of some escrol, wreath, chapeau Crete,
crown, &c. ’ -—
The ancient warriors wore crests to strike terror in
their enemies, as the sight of the spoils of animals they
had killed ; or to give them the more formidable mien,
by making them appear taller, &c.
In the ancient tournaments, the cavaliers had plumes
of feathers, especially those of ostriches and herons,
for their crests : these tufts they called plumarts; and
were placed in tubes, on the tops of high caps or
bonnets. Some had their crests of leather"; others of
parchment, pasteboard, &c. painted or varnished, to
keep out the weather; others of steel, wood, &c. on
which were sometimes represented a member or ordi¬
nary of the coat: as an eagle, fleur-de-lys, &c. but
never any of those called honourable ordinaries, as pale,
fesse, &c. The crests were changeable at pleasure ;
being reputed no other than as an arbitrary device or
ornament.
Herodotus attributes the rise of crests to the Carians
who first bore feathers on their casks, and painted figures
on their bucklers, whence the Persians called them
cocks.
The crest is esteemed a greater mark of nobility
than the armoury, as being borne at tournaments; to
which none were admitted till they had given proof
of their nobility. Sometimes it serves to distinguish
the several branches of a family. It has also served,
on occasion, as the distinguishing badge of factions.
Sometimes the crest is taken from the device; but
more usually it is formed of some piece of the arms:
thus, the emperor’s crest is an eagle; that of Castile,
a castle, &c. Families that exchange arms, as the
houses of Brunswick and Cologne have done, do not
change their crests; the first still retain the horse, and
the latter the mermaid.
Crest, in Heraldry, the figure placed above the
helmet in an achievement. See Heraldry.
Crest-fallen, a fault of a horse, when the upper
part of his neck, called the ci'est, hangs to one side ;
this they cure by placing it upright, clipping away the
spare skin, and applying plasters to keep it in a proper
position.
CRETA, or Chalk, in Natural History. See
Chalk, Mineralogy Index.
CRETE, one of the largest islands in the Mediter¬
ranean, lying between 22 and 27 degrees of north la¬
titude, and between 35 and 36 degrees of east lon¬
gitude. According to Strabo, this island is 287 miles
in length; and according to Pliny, 270; and accord¬
ing to Scylax, 312. As to its breadth, it is not, as
Pliny observes, above 55 miles where widest; whence
it was styled, as Stephanus observes, the Long Island.
It has the Archipelago to the north, the African sea
to the south, the Carpathian sea to the east, and the
Ionian to the west. Anciently it was known by the
names of Aeria, Chthonia, Idea, Curete, Macaris, &.c.
but its most common name was that of Crete.
The Cretan mythologists, quoted by Diodorus Si¬
culus, relate that the first inhabitants of the island
were the Dactyli Idsei, who dwelt around Mount Ida ;
they w'ere regarded as magicians, because they posses¬
sed a variety of knowledge, and were particularly skil-
CUE L 737 ] C R E
led In religious mysteries. Orpheus, who distinguished
^rcte' , himself so highly in poetry and music, was their disciple.
They discovered the use of lire, iron, and brass, and
invented the art of working these metals in Berecyn-
thius, a mountain near Aptera. Those invaluable
discoveries procured them divine honours. One of
them, named Hercules, rendered himself famous by his
courage and great exploits. He instituted the Olympic
games} though posterity, by a mistake arising from his
bearing the same name, have ascribed that institution
to the son of Alcmena j who, indeed, trode in the
steps of his predecessor, and raised himself also to im ¬
mortality.
The Dactyli Idsei were the ancestors of the Curetes.
These last at first inhabited the forests and caves of the
mountains. Afterwards they entered into domestic life,
and contributed, by their institutions, to the civilization
of mankind. They taught men to collect flocks of
sheep, to tame the ferocity of wild animals for domestic
purposes, and to invite bees into hives, that they might
rifle them of the fruit of their labours. They first
prompted men to the chase, and taught the use of the
bow. They were the inventors of swords and of
military dances. The noise which they made, by
dancing in armour, hindered Saturn from hearing the
cries of Jupiter, whose education Rhea had entrusted
to them. With the assistance of the nymphs, they
brought up that god in a cave in Mount Ida, feeding
him with the milk of the goat Amalthea, and with
honey.
To this period mythology assigns the origin of the
Titans j their abode near Gnossus, where stood the
palace of Rhea; their travels over the whole earth j
their war against Ammon, and his defence by Bacchus j
the nuptials of Jupiter and Juno, celebrated nigh the
river Therenus in Crete ; the gods, goddesses, and he¬
roes who descended from them.
The most illustrious of those heroes were Minos and
Rhadamanthus. They are said to have been the sons
of Jupiter and Europa, who was conveyed into the
island on a bull. Minos becoming king, built several
cities j the most considerable of which are—Gnossus,
on that side of the island which faces Asia, Phoestus
on the southern shore, and Cydon on the western,
facing Peloponnesus. He gave to his subjects a code
qrf admirable laws, which he pretended to have re¬
ceived from his father Jupiter in the grotto of Mount
Ida.
Rhadamanthus distinguished himself by the impartia¬
lity of his judgments, and by the inflexible severity with
which he inflicted punishment on the impious and wicked.
His empire extended over the chief isles of the Archi¬
pelago; and the inhabitants of the adjacent coasts of Asia
submitted to him on account of his high reputation for
probity and justice. Mythologists have constituted him
judge in the regions below, to determine the future state
of the righteous and the wicked. They have conferred
on him the same honours which were bestowed on Mi¬
nos, the justest of kings.
Thus far have been followed the Cretan traditions
as they are related by Diodorus ; but historians differ
about the truth of them. There are a variety of opi¬
nions concerning the first inhabitants of Crete. Strabo,
who has discussed them with great erudition, says, after
several pages on the subject; “ I am not fond of fables;
Vol. VI, Part II. f
yet I have detailed these at some length, because they ( iete.
are connected with theology. Every discourse concern-l——v—<
ing the gods should examine the religious opinions of
antiquity, and distinguish them from fable. The an¬
cients were pleased to conceal their knowledge of na¬
ture under a veil. It is now impossible to unfold the
meaning of their enigmas. But by exposing to light
the numerous allegories which they have left us, and by
examining attentively their mutual relations and difl’er-
ences, genius may perhaps be able to unfold the truths
which are couched under them.”
But leaving mythology for the more certain records
and monuments of history, we find that Crete received
its name from Cres, the first of its monarchs. He was
author of several useful inventions, which contributed
to the happiness of his subjects. Prompted by gratitude,
they endeavoured to perpetuate the memory of his fa¬
vours, and to immortalize his name, by naming the
island after him.
In order to distinguish the true Cretans from strangers,
they w'ere named Eteocretes. A number of colonies,
from different parts of Greece, settled in the island.
The agreeableness of the climate, and the fertility of
the soil, invited them to fix their habitation there.
The Laced£emonians, Argives, and Athenians, were
the principal people who sent colonies into Crete.
This is what makes Homer say, “ Crete is an extensive
island in the midst of the stormy main. The soil is
rich and fertile. It contains an immense number of
inhabitants. It is adorned with a hundred cities. Its
inhabitants speak in various languages. We find there
Achaeans, valiant Eteocretes, Cydonians, Dorians, and
godlike Pelasgians.” The Eteocretes inhabited the
southern division of the island ; they built there the
city of Prcesus, and erected a temple to Dictsean
Jove.
Cr6s was not the only monarch who reigned in the
island of Crete. He had a series of successors. But
history affords little information concerning them : only
the names of a few of them are preserved, and a small
number of events which happened under the reign of
some others, but blended and disfigured with an inter¬
mixture of fable. Among those monarchs we find two
Jupiters, and two of the name of Minos. However,
most writers confound them, and ascribe to one those
transactions and exploits which should be shared between
the two.
This remark chiefly regards Minos, who wfas esteemed
the wisest legislator of antiquity. The office assigned
him in the regions below is a clear and certain pi’oof of
his having gained an exalted reputation by his justice.
Greece, says Plato, has with great propriety adopted
the laws of Crete ; for they are founded on the solid
basis of reason and equity, and have a natural tendency
to render the people who live in subjection to them,
opulent and happy. One of those laws forbade “the
Cretans ever to carry their festivity so far as to intoxi¬
cate themselves with wine.” The following was very
suitable to repress the presumptuous ardour of youth :
“ Let young people not canvass the laws with an irrdis
creet curiosity ; let them not examine whether the law¬
giver has done right or wrong in promulgating them ;
but let them join unanimously in declaring them good,
snce they proceed from the gods. If any ol the old
men perceive something in them meriting amendment,
j A let
CEE [ 738 ] CEE
ie. let him mention it to the magistrate, or discuss it with
his equals, but never in the presence of the young
people.” That excellent code was engraven on tables
of brass : and Talos, chief minister to Minos, visited
all the towns and cities in the island, three times a-
year, to observe in what manner the laws were execu¬
ted and obeyed. The king of Crete, well knowing
that the marvellous is necessary to command the belief
and enforce the obedience of the people, pretended that
he had received those laws from his father Jupiter, in
the grotto of Mount Ida. In the same manner, Lycur-
gus, before promulgating his laws, repaired to Delphos,
and gave out they had received the sanction of Apollo.
A like reason induced Numa to pretend to an intimacy
with the nymph Egeria, and Mahomet to ascribe his
doctrines and institutions to the revelation of the angel
Gabriel.
In contradiction to this account, others of the ancients
describe Minos as a prince impotently abandoned to
the fury of his passions, and a barbarous conqueror.
Falling passionately in love with the nymph Dictynna,
who refused to gratify his wishes, he pursued her to the
brink of the shore, and forced her to plunge into the
sea, where she was saved by some fishermen, who recei¬
ved her in their nets. He was the first of the Greeks
who appeared in the Mediterranean at the head of a na¬
val armament. He conquered the Cyclades, expelled
the Carians, established Cretan colonies in those islands,
and committed the government of them to his son.
Being informed, while he was at Paros, that his son
Androgens w as slam at Athens, he declared war against
Egeus, and imposed on him a disgraceful tribute j from
the payment of which Theseus delivered his country.
He took arms against Nisus, king of Megara, made
him prisoner by thex treachery of his daughter Scylla,
and put him to death, together with Megarus, the son
of Hippomanes, who had brought some forces to his
assistance. Daedalus, who had by some means incur¬
red his displeasure, despairing of pardon from so severe
and inflexible a prince, employed the resources of his
inventive genius, in order to escape from his power.
He fled to Sicily, gained the protection of King Coca-
lus, and obtained an asylum in his court. Valerius
Elaccus has described his flight in a very lively and
picturesque manner. “ Thus Daedalus, with the wings
of a bird, ascended from Mount Ida. Beside him flew
the comrade of his flight, with shorter wings. They
appeared like a cloud rising in the air. Minos, seeing
his vengeance thus eluded, glowed with impotent rao-e.
In vain he follow'ed with his eyes the secure flight
of his enemies through the wide expanse of heaven.
His guards returned to Gortynia with their quivers
filed with arrows.” The Cretan monarch did not,
however, give up his prey. He equipped a fleet, pur¬
sued the fugitive to Sicily, and fell before the walls of
Camicum.
It is plain, that those actions cannot agree to the
character of that just monarch, whose merits raised
him to the office of determining, in the regions be¬
low, the unalterable fate of the righteous and the
wicked. We may, therefore, reasonably conclude,
that Minos the legislator is a different person from
the conqueror ; that it was the former who gained a
lasting reputation by his wisdom and justice j and the
latter who subdued most of the islands of the Archi- Crete,
pelago, but being enslaved by his passions, tarnished v—
his glory by his cruelty and merciless thirst for ven¬
geance.
The last king of Crete was Idomeneus. This prince,
accompanied by Merion, conducted 24 ships to the
assistance of Agamemnon. Homer informs us of the
illustrious exploits by which he signalized himself be¬
fore the walls of Troy. At his departure, he committed
the government of his kingdom to Leucus his adopted
son, promising him the hand of his daughter Clisithera
if he governed wisely in his absence. That ambitious
young man soon forgot the favours which had been so
lavishly bestowed on him. Gaining a number of par¬
tisans, he in a short time aspired to the immediate
possession of the crown. His impatience would not
wait till he should obtain it lawfully by marriage.
Flattering himslf, from the long absence of the king,
that he was perhaps fallen before Troy, he determined
to mount the throne. Mida, wife to Idomeneus, and
the princess Clithera, were an obstacle to his wishes..
But ambition knows no restraint, and tramples under
foot the most sacred obligations. The base wretch
having seduced the people from their allegiance, and
captivated the affections of the nobles, sacrificed those
unfortunate victims in the temple. When Idomeneus,
crowned with laurels, landed on the coast of Crete,
Leucus, who had now firmly established his power,
attacked him with an armed force 5 and obliged him to
reimbark. A different account is also given of the
banishment of Idomeneus. Servius says that he had
vowed, in a storm, to sacrifice to the gods the first
person that his eyes should behold on the Cretan shore $
that his son having met him first after his arrival, he
fulfilled his vow, by sacrificing him; and that the
island, being soon after depopulated by pestilence, the
inhabitants looked upon that affliction as the effect of
divine vengeance, and expelled the parricide ; who,
retiring to Italy, founded Salentum, on the Messapian
coast. But that opinion appears entirely groundless.
History mentions no son of Idomeneus. If he had a
son of his own blood, why did he adopt Leucus ? Why
did he trust to him the government of the island, when
he promised him his daughter in marriage ? The more
probable opinion is, that the plague was introduced
into the island by his ships, when he returned from
the siege of Troy, as Herodotus asserts ; and that
Leucus artfully made use of that pretext to expel his
lawful sovereign from the island. But it appears that
the usurper did not long enjoy the fruit of his crimes..
Soon after the departure of Idomeneus, monarchy was
abolished, and the government of Crete became repub¬
lican.
The republic of Crete has been celebrated by the
panegyric of Plato, served Lycurgus as a model for
that which he established in Lacedemon, and wasobe-
held by all Greece with respect and admiration. Stra¬
bo has thought it not unworthy of his pencil, and has
consecrated the leading features of its constitution to
lasting fame in his immortal work. It was indeed a
system of legislature, whose direct tendency was to call
forth the buds of virtue in the heart of infancy ; to
open and expand them in youth ; to inspire man, as
he reached maturity, with the love of his country, of
gloiy*
CUE [ 7^
glory, ancl of liberty ; and to comfort and support the
infirmities of age with the respect and esteem due to
the experience and wisdom of that period of life. It
laboured to form affectionate friends, patriotic citizens,
and worthy magistrates. It made no use, however, of
a multitude of acts and statutes to produce those inesti¬
mable advantages. They flowed all from one source ;
the public education of youth, judiciously directed.
The virtuous examples set before youth in the course
of that education, the illustrious deeds which were re¬
cited to them with high applause, the honours confer¬
red on valour and on noble actions, the opprobrium in¬
variably cast on vice ; these were the only means which
the Cretan lawgiver made use of to form a warlike, hu¬
mane, and virtuous nation.
The Cretan government, soon after the expulsion
of Idomeneus, became aristocratical. The power was
divided between the nobles and the people. Yet as
the chief employments were occupied by the nobles,
they directed the administration of affairs. Ten magi¬
strates were annually elected, by a majority of voices,
in the national assembly. These were named Cosmoi;
and their public office and character were the same
with those of the Ephori at Sparta. They were the
generals of the republic in time of war, and directed
all affairs of any importance. They had the right of
choosing certain old men for counsellors. Those old
men, to the number of twenty-eight, composed the
Cretan senate. They were chosen from among such
as had discharged the office of Cosmoi, or had distin¬
guished themselves by extraordinary merit and blame¬
less probity. Those senators continued in office du¬
ring life, possessed a weighty influence, and were con¬
sulted in every affair of any importance. This body
was a barrier opposed by the wisdom of the legislator
against the ambition of the ten chief rulers. He had
imposed another restraint on their power, by limiting
the period of their administration to one year. His
foresight went still farther. The suffrages of the peo¬
ple might be obtained by bribery or personal influence,
and of consequence their choice might sometimes fall
on a man unworthy of so honourable an office. When
that happened, he who had been undeservedly advan¬
ced to the dignity of Cosmos was degraded, either in a
national assembly, or simply by the voices of his col¬
leagues. This, doubtless, is what Plato alludes to,
when he says, “ Neither the commonwealth, which
approaches too near to a monarchical constitution, nor
that which affects a licentious liberty, is founded on the
solid basis of a just medium between anarchy and despo¬
tism. O Cretans ! O Lacedaemonians ! by establishing
yours on firmer foundations, you have avoided those fa¬
tal extremes.”
Such were the distribution of power and the ad¬
ministration of public affairs in the Cretan govern¬
ment. Its simplicity was admirable. A people who
were blessed with the sacred enjoyment of liberty, but
possessed not sufficient knowledge and discernment to
direct themselves, elected magistrates, to whom they
delegated their authority. Those magistrates, thus
arrayed with sovereign power, chose senators to assist
and direct their deliberations. These counsellors
could neither enact nor decide of themselves ; but they
held their office for life} and that circumstance con¬
tributed to strengthen their influence and to increase
9 ] CHE
their experience. The magistrates were animated by
the most powerful motives to distinguish themselves
when in office, by unwearied activity in the public
service. On one side, they were restrained by the
fear of degradation 5 on the other, actuated by the
hope of becoming one day members of the national
council.
Yet let us inquire what means the Cretan lawgiver
used to form virtuous citizens. All the Cretans were
subjected to the power of the magistrates ; and di¬
vided into two classes, the adults and the youth. Men
arrived at maturity were admitted into the first. The
second consisted of all the young men who were not
below the age of seventeen. The society of adults
ate together in public halls. There rulers, magistrates,
poor and rich, seated together, partook, without di¬
stinction, of the same simple fare. A large bowl, fill¬
ed with wine and water, which went round the com¬
pany from one to another, was the only drink that
they were allowed. None but the old men had a right
to call for more wine. Doubtless, the people, so ce¬
lebrated for wisdom, were not strangers to the power of
beauty; for a woman was appointed to preside at each
table. She openly distributed the most exquisite meats
to those who had distinguished themselves by their va¬
lour or wisdom. That judicious preference was so far
from exciting envy or jealousy, that it only prompted
every person to deserve it by brave and prudent con¬
duct. Near where the citizens sat, two tables were laid,
which they named Hospitable; all strangers and travel¬
lers were entertained at these; and there was also a
particular house set apart by the public, in which they
might spend the night.
To supply the public expences, every citizen was
obliged to bring a tenth part of his annual income into
the treasury. The chief magistrates were to take care
that every person contributed his proportion. In Crete,
says Aristotle, one part of the fruits of the earth, of the
produce of the flocks, of the revenues of the state, and
of the taxes and customs, is sacred to the gods $ the
other is distributed among the members of the commu¬
nity ; so that men, women, and children, all subsist at
the public expence.
After dinner, the magistrates and senators usually
spent some time in deliberating on the affairs of the
state ; they next x-ecounted the noble deeds which had
been done in war, celebx-ated the courage of their most
distinguished wari’iors, and animated the youth to he¬
roic valour. Those assemblies were the first school of
the youth. At the age of seven, the boy was per¬
mitted to handle the bow;—from that time he was
admitted into the society of the adults, where he con¬
tinued till the age of seventeen. There, sitting on
the ground, and clothed in a plain and coarse dress,
he served the old men, and listened, with respectful
silence, to their advices. His young heart was in¬
flamed with the recital of noble deeds in arms, and
glowed with ardour to imitate them. He acquired
habits of sobriety and temperance. And being con¬
stantly witness of illustrious examples of moderation,
wisdom, and patriotism, the seeds of virtue wex-e thus
sown and fostered in his heart before he attained the
use of reason.
He was early accustomed to arms and to fatigue,
that he might learn to endure excessive heat or cold,
5 A 2 to
Crete.
CUE [ 740 ] C R E
C?ete. to clamber and leap among bills and precipices, and to
"" v bear manfully the blows and wounds which he might
receive amid the gymnastic exercises or in battle. His
education was not confined to the gymnastic exercises j
he was also taught to sing the laws, which were writ¬
ten in verse, with a certain species of melody j in order
that the charms of music might dispose him to learn
them with more pleasure, and might impress them more
deeply on his heart, and that, if he should ever trans¬
gress them, he might not have the excuse of ignorance
to oiler. He next learned hymns in honour of the
gods, and poems composed in praise of heroes. When
he reached his seventeenth year, he retired from the so¬
ciety of the adults, and became a member of that of the
young men.
Here his education was still carried on. He exer¬
cised himself in hunting, wrestling, and fighting with
his companions. The lyre played tunes of martial
music ; and he learned to follow exactly the sounds
and measure of the musician. Those sports and exer¬
cises were sometimes attended with danger ; because
arms of steel were sometimes used in them. One
dance, in which the youth aspired most ardently to
excel, was the Pyrrhic, originally invented in Crete,
The performers in that dance were arrayed in com¬
plete armour :—they wore a light short coat, which
did not fall below the knee, and was bound with a
girdle going twice round the waist : on their feet and
legs were buskins $ above these they bore their arms,
and performed various military evolutions to the sound
of musical instruments. “ The Lacedaemonians and
Cretans (says Libanius) cultivated dancing with ama¬
zing ardour $ they considered that their laws had di¬
rected them to practise it for the most important pur¬
poses ; and it was scarce less dishonourable fora Lace-
dsemonian or Cretan to neglect the military dances, than
to desert his post in battle.”
Th ose Cretans who were opulent and high-born, were
permitted to form societies of young men of their own
age. They often strove, with emulation, who should
form the most numerous ones. The father of the young
man who formed one of those societies usually presided
in it. He had a right to educate those warlike youth,
to exercise them in running and in hunting, to confer
rewards and inflict punishments.
Friendship was in high estimation among the Cre¬
tans } but, says Strabo, the manner in which they
conducted the intercourse of friendship was pretty ex¬
traordinary, Instead of mild persuasion, they made
use of violence to gain the objects of their affections.
He who conceived an affection for a young man of
his own age, and wished to attach him to himself by
indissoluble bonds, formed a scheme for carrying him off
by violence. Three days before putting it into ex¬
ecution, he communicated it to his comrades. They
could not then interfere to prevent it $ because if they
had, they would have appeared to think the young
man unworthy of such an excessive attachment*. At
the appointed day they assembled to protect their com¬
panion. If the ravisher appeared to them not unwor¬
thy of the object of his affection, they made at first a
faint resistance in obedience to the law—-but, at last,
joyfully favoured his enterprise; if, on the other hand,
they thought him unworthy of the object of his choice,
they made such resistance as to prevent him from exe¬
cuting his. design. The feigned resistance continued Crete.
till the ravisher had conducted his friend into the hall ' 
of that society to which he belonged. They did not
regard him who possessed superior beauty and grace¬
fulness of person as the most amiable ; but him who
had most distinguished himself hy his modesty and
valour.
The ravisher loaded his young friend with favours,
aad conducted him wherever he desired ; they were
accompanied by those who had favoured the rape : he
carried him from feast to feast, procured him the plea¬
sures of the chase and good cheer 5 and after usino-
all possible means to gain his heart for the course of
two months, brought him back to the city, and was
obliged to give him up to his parents. But first he
presented him with a suit of armour, an ox, and a
drinking cup •, which were the usual and legal pre¬
sents on such occasions. Sometimes Ins generosity
went still farther j and he made more expensive pre¬
sents ; to defray tbe expence of which his comrades
contributed. The young man sacrificed the ox to Ju¬
piter, and gave an entertainment to those who had
assisted when he was carried olf. He then declared
his sentiments concerning a connection with his ravish¬
er, and told whether or not it was agreeable to him.
If he had reason to complain of the treatment which
he had received, the law allowed him to forsake a
friend so unworthy of the name, and to demand his pu¬
nishment.
It would have been disgraceful, adds Strabo, to a
young man who was handsome and well born, to be
rejected by his friends on account of the depravity of
his manners. Those who had been carried off recei¬
ved public honours. Theirs were the first places in the
halls and at the race. They were permitted to wear,
during the rest of life, those ornaments which they ow¬
ed to the tenderness of friendship; and that mark of
distinction testified to all who saw them, that they had
been the objects of some fond attachment.
When the youth had finished their exercises, and at¬
tained the legal age, they became members of the class
of adults $ being then considered as men, they were
permitted to vote in the national assemblies, and were
entitled to stand candidates for any public office. They
were then obliged to marry : but did not take home
their wives till such time as they were capable of ma¬
naging their domestic concerns.
“ The legislator (says Strabo) had considered li¬
berty as the greatest blessing that cities can enjoy. Li¬
berty alone can secure the property of the citizens of
any state. Slavery either robs them of it, or renders
it precarious. The first care of nations should there¬
fore be to preserve their liberty. Concord strength¬
ens and supports her empire j she flourishes wherever
the seeds of dissension are extinguished. Almost all
these hostilities which prevail among nations or indi¬
viduals spring either from an inordinate desire of
wealth or the love of luxury. Introduce, instead of
those baneful principles, frugality, moderation, and
equality of conditions ; you will thus banish envy, ha¬
tred, injustice, and haughty disdain.” This was what
the Cretan lawgiver happily effected. And the com¬
munity, which was regulated by his wise institutions,
rose to glory, opulence, and power $ and was ho¬
noured with th.e panegyrics of the most celebrated phi¬
losophers
Crete.
CUE [ 74i ] C R E
losopliers of Greece : but the highest honour it ever ob¬
tained, was that of serving Lycurgus as a model for the
admirable form of government which he established at
Sparta.
The republic of Crete continued to flourish till the
age of Julius Caesar. No other state has enjoyed so
long a period of strength and grandeur. The legisla¬
ture, regarding liberty as the only sure basis of a na¬
tion’s happiness, had instituted a system of laws, the
natural tendency of which was, to inspire men with an
ardent passion for liberty, and with such virtue and va¬
lour as are necessary to support and defend it. All the
citizens were soldiers : all of them were skilled in the
art of war. The valiant youth of other nations resorted
to Crete, to learn the exercises, manoeuvres, and evolu¬
tions, of the military art. “ Philopoemen (says Plu¬
tarch) being impatient of indolence, and eager to ac¬
quire skill i» arms, embarked for Crete. After spend¬
ing a considerable time in the noblest exercises among
that brave people, who were skilled in the art of war,
and accustomed to an austere and temperate life, he
returned to the Achaeans. The knowledge which he
had acquired made him so eminent among them, that
he was immediately appointed general of the caval¬
ry.”
On the other hand, the legislator, being persuaded
that conquests are generally unjust and criminal, that
they often exhaust the strength of the victorious na¬
tion, and almost always corrupt its manners, endea¬
voured to preserve the Cretans from the ambition of
conquest. The fertility of the island abundantly sup¬
plied their wants. They needed not that commerce
should introduce among them the riches of foreign
countries, along with which luxury and her train of at¬
tendant vices would also be introduced j and he knew
how to inspire them with an indifference for such ac¬
quisitions without expressly forbidding them. The
gymnastic exercises, which occupied the leisure of the
gallant youth j the pleasures of the chase ; the ardour
of friendship } the public shows, at which all the dif¬
ferent orders of the community, both men and women,
used to assemble j the love of equality, order, and their
country, with which he inflamed every breast ; the
wise institutions, which united a whole nation so closely
that they composed but one family 5—all these ties at¬
tached the Cretans to their native island : and finding
at home that happiness which was the object of their
wishes, they never thought of wandering abroad in
search of an imaginary glory, or of extending their
empire over other nations. Therefore, from the pe¬
riod at which that state assumed a republican form
till the time when they were attacked by the arms of
Rome, the nation was not once known to send a
hostile force into the territories of any of their neigh¬
bours. This instance of moderation is unparalleled in
history *, no other nation can divide the glory of it with
the Cretans. Individuals indeed might leave their
country to engage in foreign armies. Those princes
and states who knew their valour and skill in archery
eagerly sought to take them into their pay ; all the
neighbouring monarchs were desirous of having in
their armies a body of Cretan archers. Over the whole
world none were more celebrated than they for bend¬
ing the bow. “ The arrows of Gortynia (says Clau-
dian), aimed from a trusty bow, are sure to wound, and
never miss the destined mark.”
Though the multitude of independent cities which
flourished in Crete did not unite their arms to subju¬
gate the neighbouring islands, and drench them with
the blood of their inhabitants 5 yet they were not so
wise as to live in peace among themselves. Discord
often stalked among them with her flaming torch.
The most powerful wished to enslave the rest. Some¬
times Gnossus and Gortynia marched with social ban¬
ners against their neighbours, levelled their fortresses,
and subjected them to their power, at other times
they attacked each other with hostile violence, and saw
their bravest youth perish amid the horrors of civil
war. Lyctos and Cydon opposed an invincible barrier
to their ambition, and preserved their own liberty.
The last of these cities had acquired such strength and
influence, that she held the balance between the rival
powers of the island. Those wars destroyed a number
of the cities, and drenched the native country of Jupi¬
ter with blood.
To what source must we attribute those intestine dis¬
sensions ? One part of the island was occupied by the
Eteocretes, the original inhabitants ; the rest was peo¬
pled with colonies from Athens, Sparta, Argos, and
Samos. Perhaps the ancient grudges which had sub¬
sisted among those strangers, being still unextinguished
in their breasts, were easily rekindled by accident or
circumstances, and inflamed with new fury. We may
also suppose, that the most powerful among them, ex¬
ulting in their superiority, would endeavour to take
advantage of the weakness of the rest, and disregard
all laws but those of force : besides, the glowing ardour
of the youth, trained to military exercises, was ever
ready to fly to arms. Such probably were the causes
which fomented discord and hostility among a people
living under the same religion, customs, and laws.—
Whatever these might be, the Cretans being persua¬
ded that the firm union of their soldiers was essential to
victory, arrayed the bravest youths of the army in
splendid robes, and caused them to sacrifice to friend¬
ship before engaging in battle. In some countries it
would be very proper to oblige the generals on such oc¬
casions, to sacrifice to concord. If such a sacrifice were
performed with sincerity, it might preserve their glory
unstained, and prevent such deluges of blood from be¬
ing wasted without producing any advantages to the
state.
Their passion for war did not extinguish in the breasts
of the Cretans that exquisite sensibility which is the
mother and nurse of the fine arts. “ The Cretans
(says Sozomen) gave an illustrious proof of their mu¬
nificence to genius, by making Homer a present of a
thousand pieces of silver; and to perpetuate the me¬
mory of this act of generosity, they recorded it by an
inscription on a public column.” In Crete, adds Pto¬
lemy, men are still more desirous of cultivating their
understandings than of exercising their bodily powers.
Often when dissensions arose, the voice of wisdom and
the charms of poesy recalled them to reason and har¬
mony. Thales of Gortynia, the preceptor of Lycur¬
gus, was one of their most celebrated philosophers.
Being both a poet and legislator, he made a happy
use of his abilities and knowledge to extinguish among
his
Crete.
c R E [ 742 ] CUE
ete. ins countrymen the kindling sparks of discord. “ His
‘V'"—poems were moral discourses in verse, which recalled
the people to concord and submission to the, laws. U-
sing a regular measure, he recommended the austerity
ot his subject by the insinuating and powerful charm
of sentiment. So powerful were the effects of his ver¬
ses, which addressed at once the ears, the heart, and
the understanding ot Ins hearers, that their rage was
gradually softened. Next, opening their hearts to the
love ot peace, the advantages of which he described in
glowing colours, they forgot their intestine dissensions,
and ranged themselves around the standard of con¬
cord.'’ Ihat sage is said to have invented tunes for
the military dances and for the Cretan Pyrrhic. Men
who telt so strongly the influence of poetry and music
could scarcely be enemies to pleasure. Accordingly,
they had a custom of distinguishing their fortunate days
with white flint stones, their unfortunate days with
black. At the end ot the year they counted the num¬
ber of their white stones, and reckoned that they had
lived only so many days as were distinguished for having
been fortunate. They did not think mere existence,
without the enjoyment of pleasure, worthy of the name
of life. Jtor this reason, they caused to be inscribed on
their tombs : “ He lived so many days j he continued
in existence so long.”
A passion for glory is easily awaked in a feeling and
generous breast. The Cretans eagerly repaired to the
famous solemnities of Greece, and were often crowned
at the Olympic, Nemsean, and Pythian games $ others
ot them were favourites of the muses, and versified the
predictions of prophets, or celebrated the glorious deeds
ot their heroes. Several of them distinguished them¬
selves by historical composition. At the most ancient
games, a prize is said to have been bestowed on the
poet who sung the noblest hymn in honour of Apollo :
Chrysothemis of Crete sung and gained the prize.
The ravages of time have deprived us of almost all
their works $ and if Pindar had not preserved the me¬
mory of some ot their crowns, we should not know
even the names of the conquerors who wore them.
The temple of Diana at Ephesus, built by the Cretan
Ctesiphon and his son Metagenes, was not proof against
the frantic hand of the incendiary. Those ingenious
architects had built it on the principles of the Ionic
older j to the costliness of the materials, the elegance
of the architecture, the symmetry of the parts, and
the majesty and perfection of the whole, they had ad¬
ded solidity and strength, without which the rest must
have been of small value. Their names have descended
to posterity, but the pillars of that monument which
has perpetuated their memory have been dispersed
or destroyed. Scarce a vestige remains of that build¬
ing which was esteemed one of the seven wonders of
the world.
Nations are effaced from the earth like the monu¬
ments of their power, and after the revolution of several
ages we can scarcely trace m their posterity any remains
ol their ancient character. Some of them exist longer,
others shorter ; but we may almost always calculate the
period of their duration by the excellence of their laws,
and the fidelity with which they support and obey
them. The republic of Crete, being established on a
solid basis, knew no foreign master for a period of ten
2
centuries. She bravely repelled the attacks of those
princes who attempted to enslave her. At length the
time arrived when the warlike and victorious Homans
aspired to the empire of the world, and would suffer
none but their subjects or slaves to inhabit within the
reach of their arms. Florus does not scruple to ac¬
knowledge, that the Homans had no other motives for
invading Crete but the ambitious desire of subduing
the renowned native country of Jupiter. “ If any per^
son wish to know the reason which induced ue to attack
Crete (says he), the true reason was our desire to sub¬
due so celebrated an island. The Cretans had appear¬
ed to favour Mithridates, and the Romans thought pro¬
per to declare war against them on that pretext. Mark
Antony, lather of the triumvir, attacked them with
strong hopes of success ; but was severely punished for
his presumption and imprudence. The Cretans took a
great part of his fleet, hung up his soldiers and sailors
on the masts amid the sails and cordage, and returned
in triumph into their harbours.”
The Homans never forgot nor forgave a defeat. As
soon as the Macedonian war was brought to a happy
conclusion, they again took arms against the Cretans
to revenge their ignominy and loss. Quintus Metellus
was sent to Crete with a powerful armament. He met
with an obstinate and vigorous resistance. Panarus and
Lasthenes, two experienced leaders, collecting a body
of 20,000 young warriors, all eager for battle, and of
determined courage, employed their arms and arrows
successfully against the Romans, and protracted the
fate of Crete for three years. Those conquerors could
not make themselves masters of the island before de¬
stroying its bravest warriors. They lost a great num¬
ber of troops, and bought a bloody victory at the
price of many a danger and much fatigue. However,
their usual good fortune at length prevailed. The first
care of the conqueror was to abolish the laws of Minos,
and to establish in their room those of Numa. Strabo,
that enlightened philosopher, complains of this act of
severity ; and informs us, that in his days the original
laws of Crete were no longer in force, because the Ro¬
mans compelled the conquered provinces to adopt their
civil code. To secure themselves still more fully in the
possession of the island, they sent a powerful colony to
Gnossus.
From that era to the present time, that is, for a pe¬
riod of 1900 years, the Cretans have no longer formed
a separate nation, or made any figure among the states
and kingdoms of the world : their noble and ingenious
manners, their arts and sciences, their valour and their
virtues, are no more. They have lost these with the loss
of liberty. So true it is that man is not born for him¬
self ; and that, when deprived of that aid which Nature
has designed to strengthen and support his weakness,
the flame of genius and the ardent glow of valour are
extinguished in his breast; he becomes incapable of vi¬
gorous resolution, and sinks below the natural virtue
and dignity of the species.
The island of Crete, joined with the small kingdom
of Cyrene, on the Libyan coast, formed a Roman pro¬
vince. It was at first governed by a proconsul j a
questor and an assistant were afterwards sent there $ at
last, as Suetonius informs us, it was put under the go¬
vernment of a consul. This island was one of the first
places
CUE [ 743 ] C R E
places in the world that were favoured with the light
of the gospel. St Paul introduced the Christian faith
into Crete 5 and his disciple Titus, whom he left there
to cherish and cultivate that precious plant, became the
first bishop of the island. In the reign of the emperor
Leo, it had twelve bishops, who were all subject to the
patriarch of Constantinople. Constantine separated
Crete from Cyrene in the new division which he made
of the provinces of the empire. Leaving three sons,
Constantins, Constantine, and Constans, he assigned
Thrace and the eastern provinces to the first 5 to the
second, the empire of the west; the island of Crete,
Africa, and Illyria, to the third.
When Michael Balbus sat on the throne of Constan¬
tinople, the rebellion of Thomas, which lasted three
years, caused him to neglect the other parts of the
empire. The Agarenians (a people of Arabia), who
had conquered the finest provinces of Spain, seized that
opportunity. They fitted out a considerable fleet,
plundered the Cyclades, attacked the island of Crete,
and made themselves masters of it without opposition.
In order to secure their conquest, they built a fortress
which they named Khandak, “ intrenchment.” From
that citadel the barbarians made inroads into the inte¬
rior parts of the island, carrying havock and devasta¬
tion wherever they appeared. By repeated attacks,
they subdued all the cities in Crete except Cydon.
Michael made some ineffectual efforts to expel them
from Crete. The emperor Basilius the Macedonian
was not more successful. They defeated him in a
bloody battle ; but being vanquished by one of his ge¬
nerals, they were subjected to the payment of an an¬
nual tribute. At the end of ten years, the Arabians
refused the tribute. It was reserved for Nicephoros
Phocas, who was afterwards emperor, to deliver this
fine island from the yoke of the infidels. He landed
on the island with a numerous army, boldly attacked
them, and routed them in various engagements. The
Saracens, no longer daring to meet so formidable a
general in the field, fled for protection to their for¬
tresses. Phocas being plentifully supplied with all the
warlike machines necessary for a siege, levelled their
walls, and alarmed their hearts with terror. He took
their cities and fortresses, and drove them into Khan-
dak, their metropolis and last resource. In the course
of nine months he subdued the whole island, took their
king Curup and his lieutenant Aremas prisoners, and
reunited to the empire a province which had been 127
years in the hands of the infidels. It remained under
the dominion of the Romans till the time when Bald¬
win, count of Flanders, being raised to the throne, li¬
berally rewarded the services of Boniface, marquis of
Montferrat, by making him king of Thessalonica, and
adding the island of Crete to his kingdom. That lord,
being more covetous of gold than glory, sold it to the
Venetians in the year 1194; under whom it assumed
the name of Candia. See the sequel of its history un¬
der that article.
CRETIO, in antiquity, a certain number of days
allowed the heir to consider whether he would
act as heir to the deceased or not ; after which
time, if he did not act, he was excluded from the
state.
CREUX, a terra in sculpture, much used by the
French, though not yet naturalized among us : but
the want of a word of equal import in English, pleads
strongly for its admission into our language.
Creux originally signifies a hollow, cavity, or pit, out
of which something has been scooped or dug: hence it
is used to denote that kind of sculpture and graving
where the lines and figures are cut and formed within
the face or plane of the plate or matter engraven on.
In which sense it stands opposed to relievo ; where the
lines and figures are embossed, and appear prominent
above the face of the matter.
CREW, the company of sailors belonging to a ship,
boat, or other vessel.
The sailors that are to work and manage a ship are
regulated by the number of lasts it may carry } each
last making two tons. The crew of a Dutch ship, from
40 to 50 lasts, is seven sailors and a swabber; from 50
to 60 lasts, the crew consists of eight men and a swab¬
ber ; and thus increases at the rate of one man for
every ten lasts ; so that a ship of 100 lasts has 12 men,
&c. English and French crews are usually stronger
than Dutch ; but always in about the same proportion.
In a ship of war there are several particular crews, or
gangs, as the boatswain’s crew, the carpenter’s crew,
the gunner’s crew, &c.
CREVIER, John Baptist Lewis, a Parisian, was
trained under the celebrated Rollin, and afterwards be¬
came professor of rhetoric. Upon the death of his
master, in 1741, he took upon him to finish his Ro¬
man History. He published other works, and was
greatly serviceable to the cause of virtue and religion
as well as letters. His death happened in 1765, at a
very advanced age. Besides the continuation just men¬
tioned, he published, 1. An edition of Livius, cum
Notts, in 6 vols 4to, 1748 ; and afterwards another edi¬
tion, better adapted to the use of his pupils, in 6 vols
small 8vo. 2. La Hisloirc ties Empereurs des Romains
jusqu'a Constantin, 1749, 12 tom. i2mo. 3. Hist owe
ds VUniversite de Paris, 7 tom. i2mo. 4. Rhetorique
Francoise, a just and useful work. 5. Observations
sur PEsprit des Lo'rx.
CREUSA, in fabulous history, daughter of Creon
king of Corinth. As she was going to marry Jason,
who had divorced Medea, she put on a poisoned gar¬
ment, which immediately set her body on fire, and she
expired in the most excruciating torments. She had
received this gown as a gift from Medea, who wished
to take that revenge upon the infidelity of Jason.
Some call her Glauce. {Ovid, de Art. Am. i. 335.).
A daughter of Priam, king of Troy, by Hecuba. She
married .ZEneas, by whom she had, among other chil¬
dren, Ascanius. When Troy was taken, she fled in
the night with her husband ; but they were separated
in the midst of the confusion and tumult, and iEneas
could not recover her, nor hear where she was. Some
say that Cybele saved her, and carried her to her tem¬
ple, of which she became priestess. Paus.x. 25.— Virg.
Ain. iii. 592.
CREUSE, a department in the south of France,
which takes its name from the river Creuse. It con¬
tains 2300 square miles, and had a population of
227,000 in 1815. Gueret is the chief town.
CREX, a species of Rallus. See Ornithology
Index.
CRIB,
c R I [ 744 ] C R I
• Crib CRIB,, the rack or manger of a stable, or the stall
. II or cabin of an ox. It is also used for any small habi-
CriL'ht »i. ^ t.ltjor)} as a cottage, &c.
Grib, in the English salt-works, a name given to a
sort of case used in some places instead of the drab, to
put the salt into as it is taken out of the boiling
pan.
CRIBBAGE, a game at cards, to be learnt only by
practice.
CRIB RATION, in Pharmacy, the passing any sub¬
stance through a sieve or scarce, in order to separate
the finer particles from the grosser.
CRIBROSUM os, in Anatomy, called also os eth-
moides. See Anatomy Index.
CRICELASIA, the driving a ring or hoop. Dri¬
ving a hoop was one of the ancient gymnastics : this
hoop was as high as the breast of the person who used
it. It was commended for rendering the limbs pliable,
and for strengthening the nerves.
CRICETUS. See Mus, Mammalia Index.
CRICHTON, James, a Scots gentleman, who lived
in the 16th century, and who, on account of his extra¬
ordinary endowments both of body and mind, obtained
the appellation of the “ admirable Crichton by which
title he has been distinguished to the present day. The
time of this celebrated person’s birth is said, by the
generality of writers, to have been in 1551 5 but ac¬
cording to some he was born in August 1560. There
is a difference likewise between the biographers of
this extraordinary man, with regard to his family,
and the rank and situation of his father. By some
it is asserted, that James Crichton’s father was Ro¬
bert Crichton of Clunie, in the county of Perth ; and
that this Robert Crichton commanded Queen Mary’s
army at the battle of Langside in the year 1568. But
it is said by others, that this gentleman was of Elliock
in the same county, and that he was lord advocate of
Scotland in Queen Mary’s reign from 1561 to 1573 ;
part of which time he held that office in conjunction
with Spens of Condie. The mother of James Crich¬
ton was Elizabeth Stuart, the only daughter of Sir
James Stuart of Beatb, who was a descendant of Ro¬
bert duke of Albany the third son of King Robert the
second, by Elizabeth Muir or More, as she is common¬
ly called ; so that when the admirable Crichton boast¬
ed (as he did abroad), that he was sprung from Scot¬
tish kings, he said nothing but what was agreeable to
truth.
James Crichton is said to have received his gram¬
matical education at Perth, and to have studied philo¬
sophy in the university of St Andrew’s. His tutor in
that university was Mr John Rutherford, a professor at
that time famous for his learning, and who distinguish¬
ed himself by writing four books on Aristotle’s logic
and a commentary on his poetics. According to Al¬
dus Manutius, who calls Crichton first cousin to the
king, lie was also instructed, along with his majesty,
by Buchanan, Hepburn, and Robertson, as well as by
Rutherford ; and he had scarcely arrived at the 20th
year of his age, when he had run through the whole
ci,rcle of the sciences, and could speak and write to per¬
fection in ten different languages. Nor was this all ;
for he had likewise improved himself to the highest de¬
gree in riding, dancing, and singing, and in playing
apon all sorts of instruments.
3
Crichton, being thus accomplished, went abroad up- fri ,
on his travels, and is said to have gone to Paris j of " llc1to^
his transactions at which place the following account
is given. He caused placards to be fixed on all the
gates of the schools, halls, and colleges belonging to
the university, and on all the pillars and posts before
the houses of the most renowned men for literature in
the city, inviting all those who were well versed in anv
art or science, to dispute with him in the college of
Navarre, that day six weeks, by nine of the clock in
the morning, where he would attend them, and be
ready to answer to whatever should be proposed to him
in any art or science, and in any of these 12 languages,
Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, Spanish,
French, Italian, English, Dutch, Flemish, and Scla-
vonian ; and this either in verse or prose at the dis¬
cretion of the disputant. During this whole time, in¬
stead of closely applying to his studies, he regarded no¬
thing but hunting, hawking, tilting, vaulting, riding
of a well managed horse, tossing the pike, handling the
musket, and other military feats ; or else he employed
himself in domestic games, such as balls, concerts of
music vocal and instrumental, cards, dice, tennis, and
such like diversions of youth. This conduct so provo¬
ked the students of the university, that, beneath the
placard which was fixed on the Navarre gate, they cau¬
sed the following words to be written : “ If you would
meet with this monster of perfection, to make search
for him either in the tavern or bawdy-house is the
readiest way to find him.” Nevertheless, when the
day appointed arrived, Crichton appeared in the col¬
lege of Navarre, and acquitted himself beyond expres¬
sion in the disputation, which lasted from nine o’clock
in the morning till six at night. At length, the pre¬
sident, after extolling him highly for the many rare
and excellent endowments which God and nature had
bestowed upon him, rose from his chair, and accom¬
panied by four of the most eminent professors of the
university, gave him a diamond ring and a purse full of
gold, as a testimony of their love and favour. The
whole ended with the repeated acclamations and huzzas
of the spectators •, and henceforward our young dispu¬
tant was called the “ admirable Crichton.” It is added,
that he was so little fatigued with the dispute, that he
went on the very next day to the Louvre, where he had
a match of tilting (an exercise then in much request),
and in the presence of some of the princes of the coil t
of France, and a great many ladies, carried awav the
ring 15 times successively.
About two years after this we find him at Rome,
where he affixed a placard upon all the eminent places
of the city, in the following terms : Nos lacobus Cinch-
tonus Scotus, cuicumque rei propositce ex improviso re-
spondehimus. In a city which abounded in wit, this
bold challenge, to answer to any question that could be
proposed to him without his being previously adver¬
tised of it, could not escape the ridicule of a pas¬
quinade. It is said, however, that being nowise
discouraged, he appeared at the time and place ap¬
pointed •, and that, in the presence of the pope,
many cardinals, bishops, doctors of divinity, and pro¬
fessors in all the sciences, he displayed such wonderful
proofs of his universal knowledge, that he excited no
less surprise than he had done at Paris. Boccalini,
who was then at Rome, gives something of a different
relation
c R I [ 745 ] C R I
Crichton, relation of the matter. According to this author,
u v 1 the pasquinade against Crichton, which was to the
following effect, “ And he that will see it, let him go to
the sign of the Falcon and it shall be shown” made such
an impression upon him, that he left a place where he
had been so grossly affronted as to be put upon a level
with jugglers and mountebanks.
From Rome he went to Venice j where he contracted
an intimate friendship with Aldus Manutius, Lauren-
tius Massa, Speron Speronius, Johannes Donatus, and
various other learned persons, to whom he presented
several poems in commendation of the city and uni¬
versity. At length he was introduced to the doge
and senate, in whose presence he made a speech,
which was accompanied with such beauty of eloquence,
and such grace of person and manner, that he received
the thanks of that illustrious body, and nothing was
talked of through the whole city but this i'ara in terris
avisy this prodigy of nature. He held, likewise, dis¬
putations on the subjects of theology, philosophy, and
mathematics, before the most eminent professors, and
large multitudes of people. His reputation was so
great, that the desire of seeing and hearing him brought
together a vast concourse of persons from different
quarters to Venice. It may be collected from Ma¬
nutius, that the time in which Crichton exhibited
these demonstrations of his abilities was in the year
158°. _
During his residence at Venice, he fell into a bad
state of health, which continued for the space of four
months. However, before he was perfectly recover¬
ed, he went, by the advice of his friends, to Padua,
the university of which city was at that time in great
reputation. The next day after his arrival, there was
a meeting of all the learned men of the place, at the
house or Jacobus Aloysius Cornelius ; when| Crichton
opened the assembly with an extemporary poem in
praise of the city, the university, and the company
who had honoured him with their presence. After
this, he disputed for six hours with the most celebra¬
ted professors on various subjects of learning ; and he
exposed, in particular, the errors of Aristotle and his
commentators, with so much solidity and acuteness,
and at the same time with so much modesty, that he
excited universal admiration. In conclusion, he de¬
livered extempore an oration in praise of ignorance,
which was conducted with such ingenuity and elegance,
that his hearers were astonished. This exhibition of
Crichton’s talents was on the 14th of March 1581.
Soon after he appointed a day for another disputa¬
tion to be held at the palace of the bishop of Padua $
not for the purpose of affording higher proofs of his
abilities, for that could not possibly be done, but in
compliance with the earnest solicitations of some per¬
sons who were not present at the former assembly.
However, several circumstances occurred which pre¬
vented this meeting from taking place. Such is the
account of Manutius : but Imperialis relates, that he
was informed by his father, who was present upon the
occasion, that Crichton was opposed by Archangelus
Mercenarius, a famous philosopher ; and that he ac¬
quitted himself so well as to obtain the approbation of
a very honourable company, and even of his antagonist
himself.
Amidst the discourses which were occasioned by our
Vol. VI. Part II. f
young Scotsman’s exploits, and the high applauses that Crichton,
were bestowed upon his genius and attainments, there v-***-
were not wanting some who endeavoured to detract from
his merit. For ever, therefore, to confound these in¬
vidious impugners of his talents, he caused a paper to
be fixed on the gates of St John and St Paul’s church,
wherein he offered to prove before the university, that
the errors of Aristotle, and of all his followers, were
almost innumerable; and that the latter had failed
both in explaining their master’s meaning, and in
treating on theological subjects. He promised like¬
wise to refute the dreams of certain mathematical pro¬
fessors j to dispute in all the sciences, and to answer
to whatever should be proposed to him or objected a-
gainst him. All this he engaged to do, either in the
common logical way, or by numbers and mathemati¬
cal figures, or in 100 sorts of verses, at the pleasure
of his opponents. According to Manutius, Crichton
sustained this contest, without fatigue, for three days *,
during which time he supported his credit, and main¬
tained his propositions, with such spirit and energy,
that from an unusual concourse of people, he obtained
acclamations and praises, than which none more mag¬
nificent were ever heard by men.
irom Padua, Crichton set out for Mantua *, where
there happened to be at the time a gladiator, who
had foiled in his travels the most famous fencers in
Furope, and had lately killed three who had entered
the lists with him in this city. The duke of Mantua
was much grieved at having granted this man his pro¬
tection, as he found it to be attended with such fatal
consequences. Crichton being informed of his high¬
ness’s concern, offered his service, not only to drive
the murderer from Mantua, but from Italy ; and to
fight him for 1500 pistoles. Though the duke was
unwilling to expose such an accomplished gentleman to
so great a hazard ; yet relying upon the report he had
heard of his warlike achievements, he agreed to the
proposal ; and the time and place being appointed, the
whole court attended to behold the performance. At
the beginning of the combat Crichton stood only
upon his defence $ while the Italian made his attack
with such eagerness and fury, that, having over¬
acted himself, he began to grow weary. Crichton
now seized the opportunity of attacking his antagonist
in return ; which he did with so much dexterity and
vigour, that he ran him through the body in three
different places, of which wounds he immediately died.
Jhe acclamations of the spectators were loud and ex¬
traordinary upon this occasion ; and it was acknow¬
ledged by all of them, that they had never seen Art
grace Nature, or Nature second the precepts of Art,
in so lively a manner as they had beheld these twm
things accomplished on that dav. To crown the glory
of the action, Crichton bestowed the prize of his vic¬
tory upon the widows of the three persons who had lost
their lives in fighting with the gladiator.
It is asserted, that in consequence of this and his other
wonderful performances, the duke of Mantua made
choice of him for preceptor to his son Vicentio di Gon-
zaga, who is represented as being of a riotous temper and
a dissolute life. The appointment was highly pleasing to
the court. Crichton, to testify his gratitude to his friends
and benefactors, and to contribute to their diversion,
framed, we are told, a comedy, wherein he exposed
5 & and
C R I [ 746 ] C R I
Crichton, and ridiculed all the weaknesses and failures of the se-
 v'"—' veral employments in which men are engaged. This
composition was regarded as one of the most ingenious
satires that ever was made upon mankind. But the
most astonishing part of the story is that Crichton su¬
stained 15 characters in the representation of his own
play. Among the rest, he acted the divine, the philo¬
sopher, the lawyer, the mathematician, the physician,
and the soldier, with such inimitable grace, that every
time he appeared on the theatre he seemed to be a dif¬
ferent person.
From being the principal actor in a comedy, Crich¬
ton soon became the subject of a dreadful tragedy.
One night, during the time of carnival, as he was
walking along the streets of Mantua, and playing upon
his guitar, he was attacked by half a dozen people in
masks. The assailants found that they had no ordi¬
nary person to deal with, for they were not able to
maintain their ground against him. In the issue, the
leader of the company being disarmed, pulled off his
mask, and begged his life, telling him that he was the
prince his pupil. Crichton immediately fell upon his
knees and expressed his concern for his mistake al¬
leging, that what he had done was only in his own de¬
fence, and that if Gonzaga had any design upon his
life, he might always be master of it. Then taking his
own sword by the point, he presented it to the prince,
who immediately received it, and was so irritated by
the affront which he thought he had sustained in being
foiled with all his attendants, that he instantly ran
Crichton through the heart.
Various have been the conjectures concerning the
motives which could induce Vincentio di Gonzaga to
be guilty of so ungenerous and brutal an action. Some
have ascribed it to jealousy, asserting that he suspected
Crichton to be more in favour than himself with a lady
whom he passionately loved •, and Sir Thomas Urquhart
has told a story upon this head which is extravagant
and ridiculous in the highest degree. Others, with
great probability, represent the whole transaction as
the result of a drunken frolic : and it is uncertain, ac¬
cording to Imperialis, whether the meeting of the prince
and Crichton was by accident or design. However, it
is agreed on all hands that Crichton lost his life in the
rencounter. The time of his decease is said, by the
generality of his biographers, to have been in the be¬
ginning of July 15833 but others fix it to the same
month in the preceding year. There is a difference,
likewise, with regard to the period of life at which
Crichton died. The common accounts declare that he
was killed in the 32d year of bis age ; but Imperialis
asserts that he was only in his 22d year when that ca¬
lamitous event took place 3 and this fact is confirmed
by other writers.
Crichton’s tragical end excited a very great and ge¬
neral lamentation. If Sir Thomas Urquhart is to be
credited, the whole court of Mantua went three quar¬
ters of a year into mourning for him 3 the epitaphs
and elegies that were composed upon his death and
stuck upon his hearse, would exceed, if collected, the
bulk of Homer’s works 3 and, for a long time after-
wards, his picture was to be seen in most of the bed¬
chambers and galleries of the Italian nobility, repre¬
senting him on horseback, with a lance in the one
hand and a book in the other. The same author
tells us, that Crichton gained the esteem of kings and Crichton
princes, by his magnanimity and knowledge 5 of no- ^
blemen and gentlemen, by his courtliness and breed¬
ing 3 of knights, by his honourable deportment and
pregnancy of wit 3 of the rich, by his affability and
good fellowship 5 of the poor, by his munificence
and liberality 3 of the old, by his constancy and wis¬
dom 3 of the young, by his mirth and gallantry 5 of
the learned, by his universal knowledge ; of the sol¬
diers, by his undaunted valour and courage 3 of the
merchants and artificers, by his upright dealing and
honesty 3 and of the fair sex, by his beauty and hand¬
someness, in which respect he was a masterpiece of
nature.
Joannes Imperialis, in his life of Crichton, says,
that he was the wonder of the last age 3 the prodi¬
gious production of nature 3 the glory and ornament
of Parnassus, in a stupendous and unusual manner ;
and that, in the judgment of the learned world, he
was the phoenix of literature, and rather a shining par¬
ticle of the Divine Mind and Majesty than a model of
what could be attained by human industry. The
same author, after highly celebrating the beauty of his
person, asserts that his extraordinary eloquence and
his admirable knowledge of things testified that he
possessed a strength of genius wholly divine. “ What
(adds this writer) can more exceed our comprehen¬
sion, than that Crichton, in the 21st year of his age,
should be master of ten different languages, and per¬
fectly well versed in philosophy, mathematics, theolo¬
gy, polite literature, and all other sciences ? Besides,
was it ever heard in the whole compass of the globe,
that to these extraordinary endowments of the mind,
should be added a singular skill in fencing, dancing,
singing, riding, and in every exercise of the gymnastic
art ?” Nay, Imperialis, in his account of Crichton’s
death, declares, that the report of so sad a catastrophe
was spread to the remotest parts of the earth 3 that it
disturbed universal nature 3 and that in her grief for
the loss of the wonder she had produced, she threaten¬
ed never more to confer such honour upon mankind.
Compared with these extravagancies, the assertion of
Bayle that Crichton was one of the greatest prodigies
of wit that ever lived, and the testimony of Felix A-
stolfus concerning his wonderful memory, may be con¬
sidered as modest encomiums.
Such are the accounts which, by a succession of wri¬
ters, and particularly since the time of Mackenzie,
have been given of the admirable Crichton. These ac¬
counts are indeed so wonderful, that many persons have
been disposed to consider them as in a great measure,
if not entirely, fabulous. We shall therefore subjoin
from the Biographia Britannica the following observa¬
tion of Dr Kippis, with a view to ascertain what por¬
tion of faith is due to the different parts of the preced¬
ing narrative, or at least to assist the reader in forming
a proper judgment concerning them.
The doctor begins with observing, “ That no cre¬
dit can he granted to any facts that depend upon the
sole authority of Sir Thomas Urquhart. Mr Pennant
indeed speaks of him with approbation ; and Dr Samuel
Johnson laid a stress on his veracity, in the account
of Crichton which he dedicated to Dr Havvkesworth,
and is inserted in the 81st number of the Adventurer t
of vvliich account, it may be observed, that it is only
ai&
C R I
ericI)ton. an elegant summary of the life written by Mackenzie.
“—-V"—^ But with all deference to these respectable names, I
must declare my full persuasion that Sir Thomas Ur-
quhart is an author whose testimony to facts is totally
unworthy of regard j and it is surprising that a perusal
of his works does not strike every mind with this con¬
viction. His productions are so inexpressibly absurd and
extravagant, that the only rational judgment which can
be pronounced concerning him is, that he was little, if
at all, better than a madman. To the character of his
having been a madman must be added that of his being
a liar. Severe as this term may be thought, I appre¬
hend that a diligent examination of the treatise which
contains the memorials concerning Crichton would
show that it is strictly true. But of his total disregard
to truth there is incontestable evidence in another work
of his, entitled, The true Pedigree and Lineal Descent
of the most ancient and honourable Family of the
Urquharts in the House of Cromarty, from the Crea¬
tion of the World until the year of God 1652. In
this work it is almost incredible what a number of
falsities he has invented both with respect to names
and facts. Perhaps a more flagrant instance of im¬
posture and fiction was never exhibited j and the ab¬
surdity of the whole pedigree is beyond the power of
words to express. It can only be felt by those who
have perused the tract itself. Such a man therefore
can justly be entitled to no degree of credit, especially
\vhen he has a purpose to serve, as was the case with
Sir Thomas Urquhart. His design was to exalt his
own family and his own nation at any rate. With
respect to his own nation, there was no occasion
for having recourse to fiction, in order to display the
lustre of Scotland, in the eminent men whom it has
produced in arms and literature. The pencil of
truth alone would have been amply sufficient for that
purpose (a).
“ So far therefore as Sir Thomas Urquhart’s au¬
thority is concerned, the wonderful exhibitions of
Crichton at Paris, his triumph at Rome, his combat
with the gladiator, his writing an Italian comedy, his
sustaining fifteen characters in the representation of
that comedy, the extraordinary story of the amour
which is described as the cause of his death, the nine
months mourning for him at Mantua, and the poems
hung round his hearse to the quantity of Homer’s
works, must be regarded as in the highest degree
doubtful, or rather absolutely false. I cannot forbear
mentioning two circumstances, which show how much
Sir Thomas Urquhart was destitute of prudence, as
well as of scrupulosity, in his violations of truth. He
says that the duke of Mantua was pleased to confer
C R I
upon the young lady that was Crichton’s mistress and Crichton.
future wife, a pension of five hundred ducats a year •, \ 
and that the prince also bestowed as much upon her
during all the days of his life, ‘ which was (adds Sir
Thomas) but short; for he did not long enjoy him¬
self after the cross fate of so miserable an accident.’
Now it is well known that Vincenzo di Gonzaga suc¬
ceeded his father in the dukedom of Mantua in 1587,
and that he did not die till the year 1612 j which was
almost, if not entirely, thirty years after Crichton’s
decease. The other instance of the imprudence of
Sir Thomas Urquhart in the contrivance of his fictions,
occurs at the conclusion of his narrative, where he as¬
serts that the verity of the story which he hath related
concerning the incomparable Crichton, ‘ may be certi¬
fied by two thousand men yet living who have known
him.’ Two thousandmenyet living! that is, in 1652,
sixty-nine or seventy years after Crichton’s death, for
such was the time of Sir Thomas’s publication. Our
author would have been sadly puzzled to collect together
these two thousand living witnesses who could certify
the verity of his story.
“ With regard, however, to the account which is
given of the prodigious exertions of Crichton, both
corporeal and mental, at Paris, Mackenzie imagines
that he has found a full confirmation of them in a
passage produced by him from the Disquisitiones of
Stephen Pasquier, and which he considers as the testi¬
mony of an eye-witness. But the whole of what has
been built upon it by Mackenzie, and succeeding bio¬
graphers, is founded on a mistake. In the quotation
from the Disquisitiones, the name of Crichton is not
mentioned, and the author doth not appear to have
been personally present at the exhibitions of the ex¬
traordinary youth there described. The expressions
which are supposed to carry that meaning may well be
referred not to the writer himself, but to his country¬
men the French, before whom the young man is said
to have displayed his surprising talents. But the dis¬
cussion of this point is totally needless, because the
passage in question is not an original authority. The
book entitled Stephani Paschieri Disquisitiones is only
an abridgment in Latin of Pasquier’s Des Pecherches
de la France. Now, in this last work there is indeed
an account of a wonderful youth, such as is related in
Mackenzie’s quotation, and from which that passage
was formed. But this wonderful youth, whoever he
might be, was not the admirable Crichton : for Pas¬
quier, who does not tell his name, expressly says that
he appeared in the year 1445 (B)* ^he evidence,
therefore, produced by Mackenzie falls entirely to the
ground. Indeed, if the story of.Crichton’s exploits at
5 B 2 Paris
[ 747 ]
(a) This was probably meant as a satire, and not as a serious production.
(b) This matter has been set in a clear light by the writer of the following letter,
“ Sir,
“ We are informed by Sir John Hawkins, that Dr Johnson dictated from memory that account of the person
vulgarly named the Admirable Crichton, which is to be found in one of the papers of the Adventurer.
“ That account is plainly an abridgment of the life of Crichton by Dr George Mackenzie. Dr Mackenzie
supposes that Pasquier, the French lawyer and antiquary, was an eye-witness of the feats performed in arts as
well as in arms by Crichton. This is one of the grossest errors in biography which has occurred to me in the
course of my reading 5 and it is an error which I perceive is gaining ground daily, and bids fair in a short time
to be received as an indisputable truth.
“ The
C R I
CriehfcoB. Paris had been true, no man was more likely to be ac-
J quainted with them than Stephen Pasquier, who lived
at the time, and who would be fond enough of record¬
ing transactions so extraordinary. It may farther be
observed, that Thuanus, who was likewise a contem¬
porary, and who in his own life is very particular in
what relates to learned men, makes no mention of
Crichton. The only authority for his having ever re¬
sided in France at all (Sir Thomas Urquhart except¬
ed) is that of Dr John Johnston, who says Gallia pec¬
tus excolit. But this amounts to no proof of the truth
of the transactions related by Urquhart. The whole
which can be deduced from it is, that Crichton, in the
course of his travels, might make some stay in France
for the purpose of improvement. Even this, however,
doth not agree with the narration of Imperialis, who
informs us, that when troubles arose in Scotland on
account of religion, and Queen Mary fell into so
many calamities, Crichton was sent by his father
directly from that country to Venice as a place of secu¬
rity.
“ It is acknowledged by Sir John Hawkins, that
Sir Thomas Urquhart has produced no authorities in
support of his surprising narrations. But this defect,
Sir John thinks, is supplied in the Life of Crichton
which is given in Mr Pennant’s Tour. I am under the
necessity of saying, that this is by no means the case.
The article in Pennant was not drawn up by that in¬
genious and learned gentleman, but is the transcript of
a pamphlet that was printed some years ago at Aber¬
deen ; and which pamphlet is nothing more than a re¬
publication, with a few verbal alterations, of the Life
of Crichton written by Mackenzie. It doth not,
therefore, furnish a single additional testimony in con¬
firmation of Sir Thomas Urquhart’s stories, excepting
in the mistaken instance from Pasquier. In other re¬
spects it only borrows facts from Sir Thomas Urquhart,
[ 748 ]
C R I
without establishing them upon fresh proofs. It is ob¬
servable, that the earlier biographers of Crichton had
no knowledge of most of the transactions enlarged
upon by this extravagant writer j for if they had
known them, they would have been eagerly disposed
to relate them, and to do it with every circumstance
of exaggeration. How much this was the character
of Thomas Dempster, with regard to his own coun¬
trymen, is sufficiently understood, and hath frequently
been remarked j and yet his account of Crichton is un¬
commonly modest, compared with those of succeeding
authors. The extravagance of Imperialis in respect to
Crichton has already appeared. There seems indeed to
have been an universal tendency in the writers of this
young Scotsman’s life to produce wonder and astonish¬
ment. Mackenzie remarks, that Imperialis could not
but know the truth of all, or at least of most of, the
things he has related concerning Crichton, since he
lived upon the places in which they were transacted,
and had them from an eye and ear witness, even his
own father. It is, however, to be remembered, that
Imperialis’s Museum Historieum was not published tilt
1640, nearly sixty years after the events recorded by
him happened j to which may be added, that the in¬
formation he derived from his father was probably very
imperfect. Imperialis the elder was not born till 1568,
and consequently was only thirteen years old when
Crichton displayed his talents at Padua. What real
dependence, therefore, could there be on the accuracy
of the account given by a youth of that age ? He could
only relate, and perhaps from inadequate intelligence,
the things which were talked of when he was a boy.
Besides, ,iis authority is appealed to for no more than
a single fact, and that a doubtful one, since it does not
accord with Manutius’s narrative 5 and who ever
heard of the famous philosopher Archangelus Merce-
narius ?
“ The
Crichton.
. Th® error seems to have arisen from the folloiying circumstance: Dr Mackenzie had never read the ori¬
ginal work of Pasquier, entitled Recherches de la France ; what he quotes concerning the wonderful voung man
is taken from a Latin abridgement of that work: he refers to Steph. Pasch. Disquis. lib. v. cap. 23. and he
gives his quotation in Latin; indeed it does not appear that Dr Mackenzie had ever heard of the original
work. Now Pasquier, instead of saying that he was an eye-witness of the wonders exhibited by Crichton, says,
in the most unequivocal terms, that what he relates was taken ‘from a manuscript which was occasionally
u-.ed by him, {d'un hvre ecmt a la main, dontje tri* aide selon les occurrences'). And he adds, ‘ I will represent
the story in its own simple garb, without any artificial colouring, so that my readers may he the more inclined
to give credit to it, {yous representant cette histoire en sa simp licit*, sans y apporter aucun fard pour ce que
vous y adjoustres plus de foy). He then describes the narrative from the MS. which places the appearance of
this phenomenon in the year 1445, a full century before the birth of our Crichton. See Recherches de la France,
lib. vi. c. 38. 39. ’
* Mackenzie, although he had not read the original of Pasquier, appears to have read an author who
quotes the same story: ‘ The learned M. du Launoy (says he), in his History of the College of Navarre,
finding the history of this dispute recorded in a MS. History of the College of Navarre, and the like account
of a Spaniard in Anthemius, confounds the two together, and robs our author of the glory of this action, and
places it in the year 1445; whereas it should be in the year 1571.’ This charge of robbery is singular
enough. J 6
“ Let me only add, that Pasquier transcribes some verses written by George Chastelain, a French poet in the
reign of Charles VII. king of France, which allude to the same story; and that Pasquier himself was born at
1 ans in 1528, P^sed his life in that city, and was an eminent lawyer and pleader in 1571 ; so that it is impos¬
sible the feats ol Crichton, had they been really performed at Paris, could have been unknown to him, and most
improbable that, knowing them, he would have omitted to mention them ; for, in the same lib. vi. c. 39. he is at
* min P.a'r toIProduc<: e™™P1<-s of Sreat proficiency, displayed by men in a much humbler rank of life than that of
IfclJ 1787. phdosophers and public disputants... X am, See. *”
C R I [ 749 ] C R I
Crichton. “ The truth of the matter is, that some slight dr-
mimiJ cumstances excepted, neither Dempster nor Imperialis
have produced any evidences of Crichton’s extraor¬
dinary abilities besides those which are recorded by
the younger Aldus Manutius. He therefore is to be
regarded as the only living authority upon the subject.
Manutius was contemporary with Crichton ; he was
closely connected with him in friendship ; and he re¬
lates several things on his own personal knowledge.
He is a positive and undoubted witness with respect to
our young Scotsman’s intellectual and literary exer¬
tions at Venice and at Padua j and from him it is that
our account of them is given above. Nevertheless,
even Aldus Manutius is to be read with some degree
of caution. Dedications are apt to assume the style
of exaggeration, and this is the case with Manutius’s
dedication of the Paradoxa Ciceronis to Crichton. In
addition to the general language of such addresses,
he might be carried too far by his affection for his
friend, which appears to have been very great : nor
was the younger Aldus eminent for steadiness and
consistency of character. It is even said that by his
imprudencies he fell into contempt and misery. But
independently of any considerations of this kind, it
may be observed, that Manutius’s narrative, previous
to Crichton’s arrival at Venice, could not be derived
from personal knowledge. For that part of it (which
is sufficiently erroneous) he was probably indebted to
Crichton himself. Neither does he appear to have
been an eye-witness of the whole of the disputations
which were held at Padua *, for speaking of his young
friend’s praise of ignorance, he relates, that those who
were present told him afterwards how much they were
struck with that oration. However, at the other dis¬
putation, which lasted three days, Manutius seems cer¬
tainly to have attended *, for he concludes his accounts
of it with saying, that he was not only the adviser but
the spectator of Crichton’s wonderful contests. It is
evident, however, from the dedication, that his extraor¬
dinary abilities were not universally acknowledged and
admired. Some there were who detracted from them,
and were displeased with Manutius for so warmly sup¬
porting his reputation.
“ As to the real cause and manner of our young
Scotsman’s death, both of them still remain in some de¬
gree of obscurity. That he was killed in a rencounter
at the carnival at Mantua, is testified by too many authors
to be reasonably doubted. But whether there was that
particular malignity on the part of Vincenzo di Gon-
zaga, which is commonly ascribed to him, may be con¬
sidered as uncertain.
“ One important method yet remains by which we
may be enabled to form a judgment of Crichton’s ge¬
nius, and that is from a perusal of the four poems ot
his which are still preserved; It is, however, to be
feared, that these will not exhibit him in a very high
point of view. Some fancy, perhaps, may be thought
to be displayed in the longest of his poems, which was
written on occasion of his approach to the city of "V e-
nice. He there fepresents a Naiad as rising up before
him y and, by the order of the Muses and of Minerva,
directing him how to proceed. But this is a sentiment
which so easily presents itself to a classical reader, that
it can scarcely be considered as deserving the name
$f a poetical invention.. The three other poems of
Crichton have still less to recommend them. Indeed Crichton
his verses will not stand the test of a rigid examination !!
even with regard to quantity. Cncoides.
“ What then is the opinion which on the whole we '
are to form of the admirable Crichton ? It is evident
that he was a youth of such lively parts as excited
great present admiration, and high expectation with
regard to his future attainments. He appears to have
had a fine person, to have been adroit in his bodily ex¬
ercises, to have possessed a peculiar facility in learning
languages, to have enjoyed a remarkably quick and re¬
tentive memory, and to have excelled in a power of
declamation, a fluency of speech, and a readiness of
reply. His knowledge, likewise, was probably very
uncommon for his years; and this, in conjunction with
his other qualities, enabled him to shine in public dispu¬
tation. But whether his knowledge and learning were
accurate or profound, may justly be questioned ; and
it may equally be doubted whether he would have
arisen to any extraordinary degree of eminence in the
literary world. It will always be reflected upon with
regret, that his early and untimely death prevented
this matter from being brought to the test of experi¬
ment.”
From the portraits which remain of Crichton, it ap¬
pears that in his face and form he was beautiful and ele¬
gant, and that his body and limbs, though not muscu¬
lar or athletic, were well proportioned' and fitted for
feats of agility. The following catalogue of Crichton’s
works is given by Dempster: I. Odcz ad Laurenttum
Massavi plures. 2. Laudes Patavince, Carmen extempore
effusum, cum in Jacobi Moysii Cornelii domo experiment
turn ingenii coram tota Academics frequentia, non sine
multorum stupore, faceret. 3. Ignorationis Laudatio,
extemporale Thema ibidem redditnm, post sex horarum
disputationes, ut preesentes somnia potius fovere quant
rem se veram videre ajjirmarint, ait Manutius. 4. De
Appulso suo Venetias. 5. Odce ad Aldum Manutium.
6. Epistoles ad Diversos. 7. Prcefationes solemnes in
omnes Scientias sacras et prof anas.. 8. Judicium de
Philosophis. 9. Errores Aristolelis. 10. Arma an
Literee Prcestant, Controvcrsia oratorio. 11. Refuta-
tio Mathematicorum., I2t A Comedy in the Italian
language.
CRICK, among farriers, is when a horse cannot turn
his neck any manner of way, but holds it fore right, in¬
somuch that he cannot take his meat from the ground
without great pain.
CRICKET. See Gryllus, Entomology Index.
Cricket is also the name of an exercise or game,
with bats and a ball.
Mok-CmcKET. See Gryllotalpa, Entomology
Index.
CRICKLADE, a borough town of Wiltshire, si¬
tuated on the river Isis, about 26 miles south-west of
Oxford. It sends two members to parliament. Popu¬
lation 1 556. W. Long. 1. 55. N. Lat. 51. 35.
CRICOARYTENOIDiEUS, in Anatomy, a name
given to two muscles of the larynx. See Anatomy,
Table oj the Muscles.
CRICOIDES, in Anatomy, a cartilage of the larynx,
called also the annular cartilage. It occupies the lowest
part by way of base to the rest of the cartilages, and
to the lower part of it the aspera arteria adheres. See
Anatomy, Table of the Muscles.
CRICOTHYROIDiEUS*
C R I L 750 ] C R - I
othy- CRICOTHYROIDiEUS, in Anatomy, one of the
dwus five proper muscles of the larynx. See Anatomy,
l< Table of the Muncies.
inish- CRIM-TARTARS, a people of Asia, so called be-
ient. cause they originally came from Crimea. They rove
'y-™*-' from place to place in search of pastures, their houses
being drawn on carts. There are a great number of
them about Astrachan, to which place they flock
in the winter-time; but they are not permitted to en¬
ter the city : for this reason, they erect huts up and
down in the open fields: which are made either of
bulrushes or reeds, being about 12 feet in diameter,
of a round form, and with a hole at the top to let out
the smoke. Their fuel is turf or cow-dung; and when
the weather is very cold, they cover the hut with a
coarse cloth, and sometimes pass several days without
stirring out. They are generally of small stature,
with large faces, little eyes, and of an olive com¬
plexion. The men are generally so wrinkled in their
faces, that they look like old women. Their com¬
mon food is fish dried in the sun, which serves them
instead of bread ; and they eat the flesh of horses as
well as camels. Their drink is water and milk, espe¬
cially mares milk, which they carry about in nasty
leathern bags. Their garments are of coarse gray
cloth, with a loose mantle made of a black sheep’s
skin, and a cap of the same. The women are clothed
in white linen, with which they likewise dress their
heads, hanging a great many Moscovian pence about
them ; and there is likewise a hole left to stick fea¬
thers in. As for their religion, they are a sort of Ma¬
hometans ; but do not coop up their women like the
Turks.
CiiiM-Tartary, or Crimea. See Crimea.
CRIME and Punishment. The discussion and
admeasurement of crimes and punishments forms in
every country the code of criminal law ; or, as it is
more usually denominated in England, the doctrine ol
the pleas of the crown ; so called, because the king, in
whom centres the majesty of the whole community, is
supposed by the law to be the person injured by every
infraction of the public rights belonging to that com¬
munity ; and is therefore in all cases the proper prose¬
cutor for every public offence.
The knowledge of this branch of jurisprudence,
which teaches the nature, extent, and degrees of every
crime, and adjusts to it its adequate and necessary
penalty, is of the utmost importance to every indi¬
vidual in the state. For no rank or elevation in life,
i\q uprightness of heart, no prudence or circumspection
of conduct, should tempt a man to conclude, that he
may not at some time or other be deeply interested in
these researches. The infirmities of the best among
us, the vices and ungovernable passions of others, the
instability of all human affairs, and the numberless un¬
foreseen events which the compass of a day may bring
forth, will teach us (upon a moment’s reflection), that
to know with precision what the laws of our country
have forbidden, and the deplorable consequences to
which a wilful disobedience may expose us, is a matter
of universal concern.
In proportion to the importance of the criminal
law, ought also to be the care and attention of the le¬
gislature in properly forming and enforcing it. It
should he founded upon principles that are permanent,
2
uniform and universal ; and always conformable to Crime an i
the dictates of truth and justice, the feelings of huma- Punink-
nity, and the indelible rights of mankind : though it ment'
sometimes (provided there be no transgressions of those ' J
eternal boundaries) may be modified, narrowed, or
enlarged, according to the local or occasional necessi.
ties of the state which it is meant to govern. And
yet, either from a want of attention to those prin¬
ciples in the first concoction of the laws, and adopting
in their stead the impetuous dictates of avarice, ambi¬
tion, and revenge ; from retaining the discordant po¬
litical regulations, which successive conquerors or fac¬
tions have established, in the various revolutions of go¬
vernment ; from giving a lasting efficacy to sanctions
that were intended to be temporary, and made (as
Lord Bacon expresses it) merely upon the spur of the
occasion ; or, lastly, from too hastily employing such
means as are greatly disproportionate to their ends, in
order to check the progress of some very prevalent
offence;—from some, or from all, of these causes, it
hath happened, that the criminal law is in every coun¬
try of Europe more rude and imperfect than the civil.
We shall not here enter into any minute inquiries
concerning the local constitutions of other nations ; the
inhumanity and mistaken policy of which have been
sufficiently pointed out by ingenious writers of their
own*. But even with us in Britain, where our* As Baron
crown-law is with justice supposed to be more nearlyM?ntes-
advanced to perfection ; where crimes are more accu-^”erl,,u.9 o
rately defined, and penalties less uncertain and arbi-gecgai.ja
trary ; where all our accusations are public, and our&c.
trials in the face of the world ; where torture is un¬
known, and every delinquent is judged by such of his
equals, against whom he can form no exception, or
even a personal dislikeeven here we shall occasion¬
ally find room to remark some particulars that seem
to want revision and amendment. These have chief¬
ly arisen from too scrupulous an adherence to some
rules of the ancient common law, when the reasons
have ceased upon which those rules were founded ; from
not repealing such of the old penal laws as are either
obsolete or absurd; and from too little care and atten¬
tion in framing and passing new ones. The enacting
of penalties to which a whole nation shall be subject,
ought not to be left, as a matter of indifference to the
passions or interests of a few, who upon temporary
motives may prefer or support such a bill; but be
calmly and maturely considered by persons who know
what provisions the laws have already made to reme¬
dy the mischief complained of, who can from experi¬
ence foresee the probable consequences of those which
are now proposed, and who will judge without passion
or prejudice how adequate they are to the evil. It is
never usual in the house of peers even to read a private
bill which may affect the property of an individual,
without first referring it to some of the learned judges,
and hearing their report thereon. And surely equal
precaution is necessary, when laws are to be established
which may affect the property, the liberty, and per¬
haps even the lives of thousands. Had such a reference
taken place, it is impossible that in the i6th century it Comment.
could ever have been made a capital crime, to break
down (however maliciously) the mound of a fishpond,
whereby any fish shall escape ; or to cut down a cher¬
ry-tree in an orchard. Were even a committee ap¬
pointed
i
C R I [ 751 ] CRT
Dime and pointed but once in 100 years to revise the criminal
Punish- law, it could not have continued to this hour a felony
ment. without benefit of clergy, to be seen for one month in
^ the company of persons who call themselves, or are
called, Egyptians,
It is true, that these outrageous penalties, being
seldom or never inflicted, are hardly known to be the
law by the public \ but that rather aggravates the
mischief, bv laying a snare for the unwary, let they
cannot but occur to the observation of any one, who
hath undertaken the task of examining the great out¬
lines of our law, and tracing them up to their prin¬
ciples j and it is the duty of such a one to hint them
with decency to those whose abilities and stations
enable them to apply the remedy. We now proceed
to consider (in the first place) the general nature of
crimes.
I. A crime, or misdemeanour, is an act committed,
©r omitted, in violation of a public law, either forbid¬
ding or commanding it. This general definition com¬
prehends both crimes and misdemeanours j which, pro¬
perly speaking, are mere synonymous terms •, though,
in common usage, the word “ crimes” is made to de¬
note such offences as are of a deeper and more atro¬
cious dye } while smaller faults, and omissions of less
consequence, are comprised under the gentler name of
“ misdemeanours” only.
The distinction of public wrongs from private, of
crimes and misdemeanours from civil injuries, seems
principally to consist in this $ that private wrongs, or
civil injuries, are an infringement or privation of the
civil rights which belong to individuals, considered
merely as individuals $ public wrongs, or crimes and
misdemeanours, are a breach and violation of the pub¬
lic rights and duties due to the whole community,
considered as a community, in its social aggregate ca¬
pacity. As if I detain a field from another man, to
which the law has given him a right, this is a civil in¬
jury, and not a crime j for here only the right cf an
individual is concerned, and it is immaterial to the
public which of us is in possession of the land \ but
treason, murder, and robbery, are properly ranked a-
mong crimes; since, besides the injury done to indi¬
viduals, they strike at the very being of society j which
cannot possibly subsist, where actions of this sort are
suffered to escape with impunity.
In all cases the crime includes an injury; every pub¬
lic offence is also a private wrong, and somewhat more ;
it affects the individual, and it likewise affects the com¬
munity. Thus treason in imagining the king’s death,
involves in it conspiracy against the individual, which
is also a civil injury ; but as this species of treason in
its consequences principally tends to the dissolution of
government, and the destruction thereby of the order
and peace of society, this denominates it a crime of
the highest magnitude. Murder is an injury to the
life of an individual; but the law of society considers
principally the loss which the state sustains by be¬
ing deprived of a member, and the pernicious ex¬
ample thereby set for others to do the like. Rob¬
bery may be considered in the same view : it is an in¬
jury to private property ; but, were that all, a civil
satisfaction in damages might atone for it; the public
mischief is the thing, for the prevention of which our
laws have made it a capital offence. In these gross
and atrocious injuries the private wrong is swallowed Crime and
up in the public ; we seldom hear any mention made Punish-
of satisfaction to the individual ; the satisfaction to the ment.
community being so very great. And indeed, as the
public crime is not otherwise avenged than by forfei¬
ture of life and property, it is impossible afterwards
to make any reparation for the private wrong ; which
can only be had from the body or goods of the ag¬
gressor. Rut there are crimes of an inferior nature,
in which the public punishment is not so severe, but it
affords room for a private compensation also; and
herein the distinction of crimes from civil injuries is
very apparent. For instance, in the case of battery,
or beating another, the aggressor may be indicted for
this at the suit of the king, for disturbing the public
peace, and be punished criminally by fine and impri¬
sonment ; and the party beaten may also have his pri¬
vate remedy by action of trespass for the injury, which
he in particular sustains, and recover a civil satisfac¬
tion in damages. So also, in case of a public nuisance,
as digging a ditch across a highway, this is punishable ‘
by indictment, as a common offence to the whole
kingdom, and all his majesty’s subjects : but if any in¬
dividual sustains any special damage thereby, as lam¬
ing his horse, breaking his carriage, or the like,
the offender may be compelled to make ample satis¬
faction, as well for the private injury as for the public
wrong.
II. The nature of crimes and misdemeanours in ge¬
neral being thus ascertained and distinguished, we
proceed in the next place to consider the general na¬
ture of punishments: Which are evils or inconvenien¬
ces consequent upon crimes and misdemeanours *, be¬
ing devised, denounced, and inflicted by human laws,
in consequence of disobedience or misbehaviour in
those to regulate whose conduct such laws were re¬
spectively made. And herein we will briefly consider
the power, the end, and the measure, of human pu¬
nishment.
I. As to the power of human punishment, or the
right of the temporal legislator to inflict discretionary
penalties for crimes and misdemeanours. It is clear,
that the right of punishing crimes against the law of
nature, as murder and the like, is, in a state of mere
nature, vested in every individual. For it must be
vested in somebody ; otherwise the laws of nature
would be vain and fruitless, if none were empowered
to put them in execution ; and if that power is vested
in any one, it must also be vested in all mankind;
since all are by nature equal. Whereof the first mur¬
derer Cain was so sensible, that we find him expres¬
sing his apprehensions, that whoever should find him
would slay him. In a state of society this right is
transferred from individuals to the sovereign power;
whereby men are prevented from being judges in their
own causes, which is one of the evils that civil go¬
vernment was intended to remedy. Whatever power
therefore individuals had of punishing offences against
the law of nature, that is now vested in the magi¬
strate alone ; who bears the sword of justice by the
consent of the whole community. And to this pre¬
cedent natural power of individuals must be referred
that right, which some have argued to belong to every
state (though, in fact, never exercised by any), of
punishing not only their own subjects, but also foreign
ambassadors, ,
c R I t 752 ] C R I
Crime and ambassadors, even with death itself j in case they have
Punish- offended, not indeed against the municipal laws of the
. ment- country, but against the divine laws of nature, and
' become liable thereby to forfeit their lives for their
guilt.
As to offences merely against the laws of society,
which are only mala prohibita, and not mala in se;
the temporal magistrate is also impowered to inflict
coercive penalties for such transgression : and this by
the consent of individuals ; who, in forming societies,
did either tacitly or expressly invest the sovereign
power with a right of making laws, and of enforcing
obedience to them when made, by exercising, upon
their non-observance, severities adequate to the evil.
The lawfulness, therefore, of punishing such criminals
is founded upon this principle, that the law by which
they suffer was made by their own consent; it is a part
of the original contract into which they entered, when
first they engaged in society ; it was calculated for, and
has long contributed to, their own security.
This right therefore, being thus conferred by uni¬
versal consent, gives to the state exactly the same
power, and no more, over all its members, as each
individual member had naturally over himself or
others j which has occasioned some to doubt, how far
a human legislature ought to inflict capital punishments
for positive offensives $ offences against the municipal
law only, and not against the law of nature ; since no
individual has naturally a power of inflicting death up¬
on himself or others for actions in themselves indifferent.
With regard to offences wta/fl in se, capital punishments
are in some instances inflicted by the immediate com¬
mand of God himself to all mankind 5 as, in the case
of murder, by the precept delivered to Noah, their com¬
mon ancestor and representative, “ Whoso sheddeth
man’s blood, by man shall his blood be shed.” In
other instances they are inflicted after the example of
the Creator, in his positive code of laws for the regu¬
lation of the Jewish republic; as in thfe case of the
crime against nature. But they are sometimes inflict¬
ed without such express warrant or example, at the
will and discretion of the human legislature ; as for
forgery, for theft, and sometimes for offences of a
lighter kind. The practice is thus justified by that
great and good man Sir Matthew Hale: “ When of¬
fences grow enormous, frequent, and dangerous to a
•kingdom, or state, destructive or highly pernicious to
civil societies, and to the great insecurity and danger
of the kingdom or its inhabitants, severe punishment,
and even death itself, is necessary to be annexed to laws
in many cases by the prudence of lawgivers. ” It is
therefore the enormity, or dangerous tendency, of the
crime, that alone can warrant any earthly legislature
in putting him to death that commits it. It is not its
frequency only, or the difficulty of otherwise prevent¬
ing it, that will excuse our attempting to prevent it bv
a wanton efl'usion of human blood. For though the
end of punishment is to deter men from ofl'ending, it
never can follow from thence, that it is lawful to^ de¬
ter them at any rate ami by any means ; since there
may be unlawful methods of enforcing obedience even
to the justest laws. Every humane legislator will be
therefore extremely cautious of establishing laws that
inflict the penalty of death, especially for slight offen¬
ces, or such as are merely positive. He will expect a
3
better reason for his so doing than that loose one which Cn'me ar
generally is given ; that it is found by former experi- Funis],!*
ence that no lighter penalty will be effectual. For is roent.
it found upon farther experience, that capital punish-
ments are more effectual P Was the vast territory of
all the Russias worse regulated under the late empress
Elizabeth, than under her more sanguinary predeces¬
sors ? Is it now, under Catharine II. less civilized, less
social, less secure ? And yet we are assured, that nei¬
ther of these illustrious princesses have, throughout their
whole administration, inflicted the penalty of death :
and the latter has, upon full persuasion of its being use-
jess, nay even pernicious, given orders for abolishinir
it entirely throughout her extensive dominions. But
indeed, were capital punishments proved by experience
to be a sure and effectual remedy, that would not prove
the necessity (upon which the justice and propriety de¬
pend) of inflicting them upon all occasions when other
expedients fail. It is feared this reasoning would ex¬
tend a great deal too far. For instance, the damage
done to our public roads by loaded waggons is univer¬
sally allowed, and many laws have been made to pre¬
vent it, none of which have hitherto proved effectual.
But it does not therefore follow, that it would be just
for the legislature to inflict death upon every obstinate
carrier, who defeats or eludes the provisions of for¬
mer statutes. Where the evil to be prevented is not
adequate to the violence of the preventive, a sovereign
that thinks seriously can never justify such a law to the
dictates of conscience and humanity. To shed the
blood of our fellow creature is a matter that requires
the greatest deliberation, and the fullest conviction of
our own authority ; for life is the immediate gift of
God to man ; which neither he can resign, nor can it
be taken from him, unless by the command or per¬
mission of Him who gave it, either expressly revealed,
or collected from the Jaws of nature or society by clear
and indisputable demonstration.
M e would not be understood to deny the right of
the legislature in any country to enforce its own laws
by the death of the transgressor, though persons of
some abilities have doubted it; but only to suggest a
few hints for the consideration of such as are, or may
hereafter become, legislators. When a question arises,
whether death may be lawfully inflicted for this or
that transgression, the wisdom of the law's must de¬
cide it: and to this public judgment or decision all
private judgments must submit; else there is an end
of the first principle of all society and government.
The guilt of blood, if any, must lie at their doors,
who misinterpret the extent of their warrant ; and
not at the doors of the subject, who is bound to re¬
ceive the interpretations that are given by the sovereign
power.
2. As to the end, or final cause, of human punish¬
ments. I his is not by way of atonement or expia¬
tion for the crime committed ; for that must be left to
the just determination of the Supreme Being; but as
a precaution against future offences of the same kind.
This is effected three ways: either by the amend¬
ment of the offender himself; for which purpose all
corporeal punishments, fines, and temporary exile or
imprisonment, are inflicted ; or, by deterring others
by the dread of his example from offending in the like
way, “ nt p<x,na (as Tully expresses it), adpaucas, me-
“ tus
C R I [ 753 ] C R I
Ciime and “ tus ad omnes, perveniat; ^vliich gave rise to all igno-
J’uniih- minious punishments, and to such executions of justice
. as are open and public ; or, lastly, by depriving the
party injuring of the power to do future mischief;
which is effected by either putting him to death, or
condemning him to perpetual confinement, slavery, or
exile. The same one end, of preventing future crimes,
is endeavoured to be answered by each of these three
species of punishment. The public gains equal security,
whether the offender himself be amended by wholesome
correction, or whether he be disabled from doing any
farther harm : and if the penalty fails of both these
effects, as it may do, still the terror of his example
remains as a warning to other citizens. The method,
however, of inflicting punishment ought always to be
proportioned to the particular purpose it is meant to
serve, and by no means to exceed it j therefore the
pains of death, and perpetual disability by exile,
slavery, or imprisonment, ought never to be inflicted,
but when the offender appears incorrigible: which
may be collected either from a repetition of minuter
offences j or from the perpetration of some one crime
of deep malignity, which of itself demonstrates a
disposition without hope or probability of amendment:
and in such cases it would be cruelty to the public
to defer the punishment of such a criminal till he
had an opportunity of repeating perhaps the worst of
villanies.
3. As to the measure of human punishments. From
what has been observed in the former articles, we may
collect, that the quantity of punishment can never be
absolutely determined by any standing invariable rule;
but it must be left to the arbitration of the legislature
to inflict such penalties as are warranted by the laws of
nature and society, and such as appear to be the best
calculated to answer the end of precaution against fu¬
ture offences.
Hence it will be evident, that what some have so
highly extolled for its equity, the lex talionis, or “ law
of retaliation,” can never be in all cases an adequate or
permanent rule of punishment. In some cases indeed it
seems to be dictated by natural reason : as in the case
of conspiracies to do an injury, or false accusations of
the innocent 5 to which we may add that law of the
Jews and Egyptians, mentioned by Josephus and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, that whoever without sufficient cause
was found with any mortal poison in his custody, should
himself be obliged to take it. But, in general, the dif¬
ference of persons, place, time, provocation, or other
circumstances, may enhance or mitigate the offence ;
and in such cases retaliation can never be a proper
riieasure of justice. If a nobleman strikes a peasant,
all mankind will see, that if a court of justice awards
a return of the blow, it is more than a just compen¬
sation. On the other hand, retaliation may sometimes
he too easy a sentence ; as, if a man maliciously should
put out the remaining eye of him who had lost one
before, it is too slight a punishment for the maimer
to lose only one of his : and therefore the law of the
Eocrians, which demanded an eye tor an eye, was in
this instance judiciously altered ; by decreeing, in imi¬
tation of Solon’s laws, that he who struck out the eye
of a one-eyed man, should lose both his own in re¬
turn. Besides, there are very many crimes, that will
in no shape admit of these penalties, without manifest
Vol. VI. Part II. t
absurdity and wickedness. Theft cannot be punished Crime and
by theft, defamation by defamation, forgery by forgery, Punish-
adultery by adultery, and the like. And we may add, ment
that those instances, wherein retaliation appears to be ' v"
used, even by the divine authority, do not really pro*
ceed upon the rule of exact retribution, by doing to the
criminal the Same hurt he has done to his neighbour,
and no more j but this correspondence between the
crime and punishment is barely a consequence from
some other principle. Death is ordered to be punished
with death j not because one is equivalent to the other,
for that would he expiation, and not punishment.
Nor is death always an equivalent for death: the
execution of a needy decrepid assassin is a poor satis¬
faction for the death of a nobleman in the bloom of his
youth, and full enjoyment of his friends, his honours,
and his fortune. But the reason upon which this sentence
is grounded seems to be, that this is the highest penalty
that man can inflict, and tends most to the security of
the world: by removing one murderer from the earth,
and setting a dreadful example to deter others : so that
even this grand instance proceeds upon other principles
than those of retaliation. And truly, if any measure
of punishment is to be taken from the damage sustained
by the sufferer, the punishment ought rather to exceed
than equal the injury ; since it seems contrary to reason
and equity, that the guilty (if convicted) should suffer
no more than the innocent has done before him 5
especially as the suffering of the innocent is past and
irrevocable, that of the guilty is future, contingent,
and liable to be escaped or evaded. With regard
indeed to crimes that are incomplete, which consist
merely in the intention, and are not yet carried into
act, as conspiracies and the like j the innocent has a
chance to frustrate or avoid the villany, as the con¬
spirator has also a chance to escape his punishment j
and this may be one reason why the lex talionis is
more proper to be inflicted, if at all, for crimes that
consist in intention, than for such as are carried into
act. It seems indeed consonant to natural reason, and
has therefore been adopted as a maxim by several theo¬
retical writers, that the punishment due to the crime of
which one falsely accuses another, should be inflicted
on the perjured informer. Accordingly, when it was
once attempted to introduce into England the law of
retaliation, it was intended as a punishment for such
only as preferred malicious accusations against others ;
it being enacted by statute 37 Edw. III. c. 18.
that such as preferred any suggestions to the king’s
great council should put in sureties of taliation j that
is, to incur the same pain that the other should have
had, in case the suggestion were found untrue. But,
after one year’s experience, this punishment of talia¬
tion was rejected, and imprisonment adopted in its
stead.
But though from what has been said it appears, that
there cannot be any regular determinate method of
rating the quantity of punishments for crimes, by any
one uniform rule $ but they must be referred to the
will and discretion of the legislative power : yet there
are some general principles, drawn from the nature and
circumstances of the crime, that may be of some as¬
sistance in allotting it an adequate punishment.
As, first, with regard to the object of it: for the
greater and more exalted the object of an injury is,
5 C the
CRT [ 75+ ] CRT
Crime ami the more care should he taken to prevent that injury^
i unish- and of course under this aggravation the punishment
nicr‘t‘ should be more severe. Therefore treason in eon-
^ spiring the king’s death is (in Britain) punished with
greater rigour than even actually killing any private
subject. And yet, generally, a design to transgress
is not so flagrant an enormity as the actual completion
of that design. For evil, the nearer we approach it,
is the more disagreeable and shocking; so that it
requires more obstinacy in wickedness to perpetrate
an unlawful action, than barely to entertain the
thought of it; and it is an encouragement to repentance
and remorse, even till the last stage of any crime,
that it never is too late to retract j and that if a man
stops even here, it is better for him than if he proceeds ;
for which reason an attempt to rob, to ravish, or to
kill, is far less penal than the actual robbery, rape, or
murder. But in the case of a treasonable conspiracy,
the object whereof is the king’s majesty’s, the bare
intention will deserve the highest degree of severity j
not because the intention is equivalent to the act itself 5
but because the greatest rigour is no more than ade¬
quate to a treasonable purpose of the heart, and there is
no greater left to inflict upon the actual execution itself.
Again, The violence of passion, or temptation, may
sometimes alleviate a crime : as theft, in case of hunger,
is far more worthy of compassion, than when committed
through avarice, or to supply one in luxurious excesses.
To kill a man upon sudden and violent resentment is
less penal than upon cool deliberate malice. The age,
education, and character, of the offender; the repetition
(or otherwise) of the offence ; the time, the place, the
company wherein it was committed; ail these, and a
thousand other incidents, may aggravate or extenuate
the crime (a).
Farther, As punishments are chiefly intended for
the prevention of future crimes, it is but reasonable#
that among crimes of different natures those should be
most severely punished, which are the most destructive
of the public safety and happiness ; and, among crimes
of an equal malignity, those which a man has the most
frequent and easy opportunities of committing, which
cannot be so easily guarded against as others, and
which therefore the offender has the strongest induce¬
ment to commit: according to what Cicero observes,
Ea sunt animadvertenda peccata maxime, quee difficil-
limeprcscaventur. Hence it is, that for a servant to rob
his master is in more cases capital than for a stranger.
If a servant kills his master, it is a species of treason ;
in another it is only murder. To steal a handkerchief,
or other trifle of above the value of twelvepence, pri¬
vately from one’s person, is made capital ; but to carry
off a load of corn from an open field, though of fifty
times greater value, is punished with transportation
only. And in the island of Man this rule was formerly
carried so far, that to take away a horse or an ox was
there no felony, but a trespass ; because of the difficulty
in that little territory to conceal them or carry them off’: Crime and
but to steal a pig or a fowl, which is easily done, was a Piinulu
capital misdemeanour, and the offender was punished ment*
with death. '-“—v—
Lastly, As a conclusion to the whole, we may observe,
that punishments of unreasonable severity, especially
when indiscriminately inflicted, have less effect in pre¬
venting crimes, and amending the manners of a people,
than such as are more merciful in general, yet properly
intermixed with due distinctions of severity. It is the
sentiment of an ingenious writer, who seems to have well
studied the springs of human action, that crimes are
more effectually prevented by the certainty than by the
severity of punishment; for the excessive severity of
the laws (says Montesquieu) hinders their execution.
When the punishment surpasses all measure, the public
will frequently prefer impunity to it. This’also the sta¬
tute 1 Mar. st. 1. c. 1 recites in its preamble, “ that the
state of every king consists more assuredly in the love of
the subjects towards their prince, than in the dread of
laws made with rigorous pains ^ and that laws made for
the preservation of the commonwealth without great
penalties, are more often obeyed and kept than law’s
made with extreme punishments.” Happy had it been
for the nation if the subsequent practice of that deluded
pflncess in matters of religion, had been correspondent
to these sentiments of herself and parliament in matters
of state and government! We may further observe, that
sanguinary laws are a bad symptom of the distemper of
any state, or at least of its weak constitution. The laws
of the Roman kings, and the twelve tables of the
decemviri, were full of cruel punishments : the Porcian
law, which exempted all citizens from sentence of death,
silently abrogated them all. In this period the republic
flourished : under the emperors severe punishments were
revived, and then the empire fell.
It is, moreover, absurd and impolitic to apply the
same punishment to crimes of different malignity. A
multitude of sanguinary laws, (besides the doubt that
may be entertained concerning the right of making
them) do likewise prove a manifest defect either in the
wisdom of the legislative, or the strength of the exe¬
cutive, power. It is a kind of quackery in govern¬
ment, and argues a want of solid skill, to apply the
same universal remedy, the ultimum supplicium, to every
case of difficulty. It is, it must be owned, much easier
to extirpate than to amend mankind ; yet that magis¬
trate must be esteemed both a weak and a cruel sur¬
geon, who cuts off every limb which through igno¬
rance or indolence he will not attempt to cure. It has
been therefore ingeniously proposed, that in every state
a scale of crimes should be formed, with a correspond¬
ing scale of punishments, descending from the greatest
to the least. But if that be too romantic an idea, yet
at least a wise legislator will mark the principal divi¬
sions, and not assign penalties of the first degree to of¬
fences of an inferior rank. Where men see no distinc¬
tion
(a) Thus Demosthenes (in his oration against Midas) finely works up the aggravations of the insults he
had received, “ I was abused (says he) by my enemy, in cold blood, out of malice, not by heat of wine, in
the morning, publicly, before strangers as well as citizens; and that in the temple, whither the duty of my
4‘ office called me.” J
f
C R 1 [ 755 ] CRT
Crime and tion mai^e in tlie nature and gradations of punishment,
Fumsh- the generality will be led to conclude there is no dis-
ment. tinction in the guilt. Thus in France the punishment
of robbery, either with or without murder, is the same :
hence it is, that though perhaps they are therefore
subject to fewer robberies, yet they never rob but
they also murder. In China murderers are cut to pie¬
ces, and robbers not: hence in that country they never
murder on the highway, though they often rob. And
in Britain, besides the additional terrors of a speedy
execution, and a subsequent exposure or dissection,
robbers have a hope of transportation, which seldom is
extended to murderers. This has the same effect here
as in China, in preventing frequent assassination and
slaughter.
Yet though in this instance we may glory in the
wisdom of our law, we shall find it more difficult to
justify the frequency of capital punishments to be found
therein *, inflicted (perhaps inattentively) by a multi¬
tude of successive independent statutes, upon crimes
very different in their natures. It is a melancholy
truth, that among the variety of actions which men
are daily liable to commit, no less than 160 have been
declared by act of parliament to be felonies without
benefit of clergy ; or, in other words, to be worthy of
instant death. So dreadful a list, instead of diminish¬
ing, increases the number of offenders. The injured,
through compassion, will often forbear to prosecute ;
juries, through coriipasion, will sometimes forget their
oaths, and either acquit the guilty or mitigate the na¬
ture of the offence ; and judges, through compassion,
will respite one half of the convicts, and recommend
them to the royal mercy. Among so many chances of
escaping, the needy and hardened offender overlooks
the multitude that suffer: he boldly engages in some
desperate attempt; and, if unexpectedly, the hand of jus¬
tice overtakes him, he deems himself peculiarly unfor¬
tunate in falling at last a sacrifice to those laws which
long impunity has taught him to contemn. See the
article Crimes in the Supplement.
As to the trials and mode of punishment, see AR¬
RAIGNMENT ; Trial, and the references therefrom;
Conviction; Judgment; Attainder; Corruption
of Blood; Forfeiture; Execution; the several
Crimes under their respective names. See Law Index.
Persons capable or incapable of committing Crimes ;
or (which is all one) of suffering the censures of the
Jaw upon the commission of forbidden acts.
All the several pleas and excuses which protect the
committer of a forbidden act from the punishment
which is otherwise annexed thereto, may be reduced
to this single consideration, the want or defect of will.
An involuntary act, as it has no claim to merit, so
neither can it induce any guilt: the concurrence of
the will, when it has its choice either to do or to avoid
the fact in question, being the only thing that renders
human actions either praiseworthy or culpable. In¬
deed, to make a complete crime, cognizable by human
laws, there must be both a will and an act. For
though, in foro conscientue^ a fixed design or will to
do an unlawful act is almost as heinous as the commis¬
sion of it; yet as no temporal tribunal can search the
heart, or fathom the intentions of the mind, otherwise
than as they are demonstrated by outward actions, it
therefore cannot punish for what it cannot know. For
which reason, in all temporal jurisdictions, an overt act, Crime and
or some open evidence of an intended crime, is neces- Punish-
sary in order to demonstrate the depravity of the will,
before the man is liable to punishment. And as a vi- ,
cious will without a vicious act is no civil crime ; so,
on the other hand, an unwarrantable act without a vi¬
cious will is no crime at all. So that to constitute a
crime against human laws, there must be, first, a vi¬
cious \vill ; and, secondly, an unlawful act consequent
upon such vicious will.
Now there are three cases in which the will does
not join with the act: I. When there is a defect of
understanding. For where there is no discernment,
there is no choice ; and, where there is no choice,
there can be no act of the will, which is nothing else
but a determination of one’s choice to do or abstain
from a particular action ; he, therefore, that has no
understanding, can have no will to guide his conduct.
2. Where there is understanding and will sufficient
residing in the party, but not called forth and exerted
at the time of the action done ; which is the case of
all offences committed by chance or ignorance. Here
the will sits neuter, and neither concurs with the act
nor disagrees to it. 3. Where the action is constrained
by some outward force and violence. Here the will
counteracts the deed ; and is so far from concurring
with, that it loaths and disagrees to what the man is 0-
bliged to perform. Infancy, idiocy, lunacy, and intoxi¬
cation, fall under the first class ; misfortune and igno¬
rance may be referred to the second ; and compulsion or
necessity may properly rank in the third. See Infan¬
cy, Idiocy, Drunkenness, Misfortune, Igno¬
rance, Necessity.
CRIMEA, or Crim Tartary, anciently the Cher-
sonesus Taurica, a peninsula situated directly to the
south of St Petersburg, between the 51st and 55th de¬
grees of latitude, and in 46 longitude. Its southern and
western coasts lie on the Euxine, its northern and east¬
ern on the Rotten sea and the Palus Maeotis. It is
joined, however, to the continent on the north by a
small neck of land not more than six miles broad. This
peninsula has been known more than 3000 years since
the first naval expedition of the Argonauts ; a story,
though mixed with fable, yet well founded in its prin¬
cipal facts. The mountainous parts were inhabited by
the Tauri, probably a colony of Scythians ; and its
coasts on the west, the east, and the south, by Greeks.
The Scythians were driven out by Mithridates : the
Greeks by the Sarmatians ; and these again by the A-
lani and Goths, a northern horde of Scythians. The
Hungarians, the Cossacks and Tartars, succeeded in
their turn ; while the Genoese, in the 12th century,
held a temporary and precarious possession of the sea¬
ports, which they were obliged to yield to the Turks in
1475. At the peace of 1774, the Tartars of the Cri¬
mea were declared independent; and in I7^3> ^is pe¬
ninsula was united to the Russian empire.
From the above-mentioned isthmus, on which is
built the fortress of Or-kapi or Perekop, to the first
rising of the hill at Karasubasar, the country is one
continued flat : elevating itself, by an easy gradation,
to the summit of the hill, which forms the south side
of the peninsula and the shore of the Euxine sea.
The surface of the soil is almost all of one kind, a red-
dish-gray loam j on digging, you find it more or less
5 C 2 mixed
c R I [ 75^ ] CRT
Crimea, mixed with a black earth, and the hills abound with
"""v marie. The whole flat from Perekop to the river
Salgir, which may he an extent of 80 miles, is full of
salt marshes and lakes; from whence the neighbouring
Kussian governments, as well as the Crim itself, Ana¬
tolia, and Bessarabia, are supplied with salt. The
most remarkable of these lakes are five in number;
Koslof and KefFa, so called after the towns near which
they lie, are very large; the Tusla, about 15 versts
from Perekop, on the road from Keflfa ; the Red lake,
not far from the last mentioned ; and the Black lake.
Besides these, there are many other swamps and lakes,
from whence the inhabitants get salt for their own con¬
sumption.
The greatest part of the peninsula is so level that a
man may travel over the half of it without meeting
with a river or even the smallest brook. The inhabi¬
tants of the villages, therefore, make a pit in the yard
of every house for receiving the rain or the water that
runs from the hills. The whole tract is bare of every
kind of tree. Not a bush or a bramble is to be seen,
and the herbage is extremely scanty. This, however,
does not proceed so much from the unfruitfulness of
the place, as from the vast herds of cattle which rove
the whole year long from place to place ; by which
means all the grass in spring, summer, or autumn, no
sooner appears through the long drought which succeed¬
ed the rainy season, but it is immediately devoured or
trodden down. The universal prevalence of this custom
of keeping cattle to wander up and down, joined to the
slothfulness of the Tartars, with their inaptitude and
aversion to agriculture, is the reason of the total neglect
of that science here. Otherwise, were the land divided
into portions and properly managed, there would be a
sufficiency for the cattle, and the rest would be fruitful
in corn and grain. By this means alone the Crim
would become a fertile country, and no natural defect
would be found in opposition to the welfare of its inha¬
bitants. The truth of this is well known by their neigh¬
bours ; where, of a hundred Tartars, one perhaps fol¬
lows husbandry, who finds it to answer to so much pro¬
fit, that he has not only enough for his own use, but
wherewith to sell to the ninety-nine.
This peninsula, which is indeed but a little district,
yet, from the many advantages conferred upon it by
nature, may be esteemed peculiarly rich, is divided
into the hill country and the flat. The latter, which
extends from Perekop to Koslof and the river Bulga-
nap, to Karasubasar, KefFa, and Yenicali, is strewn
there and there with little Tartar villages, maintained
by cattle and the produce of the salt lakes. The high¬
lands, or hill country, form the southern part of the
Crim, along the straight coast of the Black sea, and
stretching westward in a right line from KefFa to the
vicinity of Belbek. These hills are composed of layers
of chalk; which, in the headlands and promonto¬
ries, is soft, but more inland quite hard. The strata
of the high hills are like those of the promontories,
and take a direction from north to south. These qua¬
lities of the strata prevail not throughout the whole
hills, but only in the large and lofty ones, such as the
two that rise near Karasubasar, and one very high by
Achmetsched, which bears the name of Aktau. The
other smaller hills lie scattered and dispersed, but take
the names of the greater ones, to which they seem to Crime*,
belong ; as the great ridge of Caucasus does, which ex- —y—
tends beyond the Donau, through Bulgaria, and are
named Balkans.
All accounts agree in this, that nature has favoured
those highland countries with great, advantages, and
blessed them with abundance of all things. A number
of springs that flow from the mountains form the two
considerable rivers Salgir and Karasu, which run into
the Rotten sea. The former, which takes its rise
from a cavern in a high hill near Achmetsched, falls
straight into the plain below, and waters a great part
of the Crim ; the other, commencing behind Karasu¬
basar, falls likewise into the plain, and mingles witk-
the Salgir. There are many other little rivers and
streams, which run eastward, and either join the two
fore-mentioned or fall immediately into the Rotten sea.
All the streams, for the whole length of the hills,
which begin at KefFa, and proceed in a chain of the
same height, flow to the north or tlie north-east, except¬
ing the one behind Achmetsched, where the great
mountain Aktau is, which falls on the other side; this
river, rising on the northern side of this mountain,
flows, as was before observed, towards the north-east,
to the Salgir and the Rotten sea ; as likewise those
which spring on the western side take their course
westward to the Bulganak, and thence straight to the
Black sea; which also receives all the other little ri¬
vers that arise from these hills, as the Amma, the
Katscha, the Belbek, the Kasulkioi, &c.
The mountains are well covered with wood fit for
the purpose of ship-building, and contain plenty of
wild beasts. The valleys consist of fine arable land ;
on the sides of the hills grow corn and vines in great
abundance, and the earth is rich in mines. But these
mountaineers are as careless and negligent as the inha¬
bitants of the deserts; slighting all these advantages;
and, like their brethren of the lowlands, are sufficient¬
ly happy if they are in possession of a fat sheep and as
much bread as serves them to eat.
About 20 years ago this peninsula was uncommonly
full of inhabitants and wealth. They reckoned at that
time at least 1200 villages; but, from the subsequent
troubles in the Crim, it lost more than a third part of
its inhabitants, but they have again begun to increase.
The people were composed of various nations, who
lived together under the Tartars in the most unbound¬
ed freedom ; but in the late Turkish war they either
put themselves under the Russian government, and
were transferred to that empire, or fled to Abcasia and
the Tschirkassian hills.
The houses in the towns, as well as the villages,
are for the most part of square timbers, having the in¬
terstices filled with brick work, if the possessor can af*
ford it, and those of the poorer sort with turf. The
chinks and crannies are made tight with clay, and then
plastered within and without. The covering is com¬
monly either of bricks or of turfs. Only the medseheds,
minarets, and baths, are of stone, and a few extreme¬
ly handsome of marble. They have chimneys in the
chambers, at which they likewise dress their victuals;
hut stoves in the Russia manner none, fn extreme
frosts a great iron pan of charcoal is brought into the
room, for. making it comfortable. Their custom is,
to
C R I
Crimea. *° s‘*- uPon ^°'v sofas, with Turkish coverings and cu-
u—y~—/ shions, or upon a clay seat, somewhat raised above the
earth and spread with a carpet. In these rooms are
cupboards and chests, often covered with cushions, to
serve as seats j in which they keep their gold, silver,
and valuables. Such are the inner apartments or ha-
rams, in which the women generally live ; the others
are not so fine. These contain only a sofa, or a bank
of clay covered with a carpet, as in the chimney
rooms.
The rich Tartars, and their nobility or murzas (ex¬
cepting only such as are about the person of the khan),
commonly dwell all the year round in the country,
coming only to town when they have business there.
There are but few towns in the Crim, at least in com¬
parison of its former population. The Krimskoi Tar¬
tars have no tribunal of justice, controversies and quar¬
rels being seldom heard of among them j and if a dis¬
pute should arise, it is immediately settled by an appeal
to the Koran. Little dift’erences in the villages inevi¬
tably happening about property, or other matters not
taken notice of in that code, are amicably adjusted by
the eldermen or abeses j but in the towns all weighty
concerns, excepting the single case of murder or homi¬
cide, are brought before the kaimakan, or commandant,
who settles them absolutely without appeal.
The residence of the khans of the Crimea was for-
mei’ly Bachtschisarai, in which city they held their seat
for upwards of 200 years. They went thither from
Eski-Crim, or Old Crim, the capital city of the Ge¬
noese, upon Bengli Ghirei Khan’s plundering the sea¬
ports, and driving all the Genoese from their stations.
Before Eski-Crim, and indeed upon the first coming
of the Tartars into this peninsula, the sovereign resi¬
dence was at Koslof; but here they remained not long.
Under the late khan Shagin Ghirei it was held at Kef-
fa, the ancient Theodosia 5 which is ten miles distant
from Eski-Crim, said to be the Cimmerium of the
ancients.
The principal cities or towns of the Crimea are :
I. Bachtschisarai, an extensive and wealthy city, ly¬
ing in a vale between two high mountains, and sur¬
rounded by a number of gardens. From this circum¬
stance it had its name j bachtschi, signifying in the Tar¬
tarian language “ a garden,” and sarai, “ a palace.”
It formerly contained 3000 houses, and many sumptu¬
ous medscheds. The palace of the khans, with its gar¬
dens and ponds, was much improved under the go¬
vernment of Khan Kerim Ghirei, under whose govern¬
ment the last Turkish war took its rise. In this palace
is the burial-place of all the khans of Crimea, wherein
all the khans that have reigned here lie interred. The
fine Krimskoi vines, with their large clusters of grapes,
grow in great plenty all about this town, and a profu¬
sion of other delicious fruits, from whence the neigh¬
bouring parts of Russia are supplied. 2. Kejf'a, the
present residence of the khans, stands on the shore of
a large harbour in the Black sea. Its site is on the
declivity of a long ridge of mountains : and is mantled
by a stone wall, fortified by several towers, and encom¬
passed by a deep ditch. On both sides of the city for¬
merly stood castles, and in the middle of them a lofty
turret for the purpose of giving signals by fire. Before
the wall were wide extended suburbs j. containing a-
mong other considerable buildings, medscheds, churches
C R I
for the Greek and Armenian worship: of all which Crime*,
now only the vestiges remain. The castles and towers v—y——
lie also in ruins ; and not one-third part of the houses
of the city itself are now remaining, and those chiefly
built of materials taken from the aforesaid ruins. They
formerly reckoned KefFa to contain 4000 houses, in¬
cluding the suburbs, with a number of medscheds and
Christian churches; but this number has been much
diminished by the last Turkish war. The present inha¬
bitants consist mostly of Tartars ; who carry on a trade
by no means inconsiderable, in commodities brought
from Turkey. The late khan, an intelligent and en¬
lightened personage, made this city the place of his re¬
sidence, and brought hither the mint from Bachtschi¬
sarai, built himself a palace, and erected a divan, which
assembled three times a-week, and the fourth time was
held in the palace of the khan, in which he always
personally assisted. Here is also a customhouse, the
management of which is farmed out. 3. Karasubasar,
likewise a very rich city in former times, stands at the
beginning of the mountains, about half-way between
Kelfa and Bachtschisarai. It is a large trading town j
contains a considerable number of dwelling houses and
medscheds, but the greatest part of them in decay, and
many fine gardens. This place is the most famous in
all the Crim for its trade in horses, and has a market
once a-week for that article of traffic : to which arc
likewise brought great numbers of buffaloes, oxen,
cows, camels, and sheep for sale. Near this city flows
one of the principal rivers of the Crim, called the
Karasu, that is, the Black water. Of this river thoy
have an opinion in Russia, that one part of it flows
upwards for several versts together. But this is in some
sort true, not only of the Karasu, but of all the rivers
of the Crim that have a strong current. The Tartars,
who dwell either in the valleys or on the sides of the
mountains (frequently without considering whether
the place is supplied with water or not), dig canals
either from the source of the next river, or from that
part of it which lies neai’est to their particular habita¬
tion, about an arshine in breadth, for their gardens
and domestic use. From these they cut smaller ones
through the villages, to supply them with water, and
not unfrequently to drive a mill. These canals ap¬
pear, to the imagination of the common people, to
run in a contrary direction to the current of the river j
and in fact these canals do lie, in many places for a
verst in length, some fathoms higher than the level of
the stream from whence they are supplied. 4, Achmct-
sted, a pretty large city not far from Batlxtschisarai j
now made the capital of all the Crimea by the regu¬
lations of Prince Potemkin in the summer of 1785.
5. Koslof, formerly a very considerable trading town,
lies on the western side of the peninsula, in a bay of
the Black sea j which, as well as the sound at Keffa,
might rather be called a road than a haven. This was
the first town the Tartars possessed themselves of on
their first entrance into the Crim, and established a
customhouse therein, after the example of the Genoese,
which is now farmed out.
The other remarkable places are, Sudak, which is
built on tbe hills upon the shore of the Black sea, at
the south side of the peninsula, and is famous for its
excellent wine, resembling Champagne both in colour
and strength j A/uschti, on the same side, among ths
hills.
[ 757 ]
C B. I f 758 ] C R I
Crimea hills on the sea shore $ Baluklava, where there is a fine
(1 harbour, and perhaps the only one on the Black sea,
Cringle, containing ample room for a very good fleet j Inker-
v ?7ian may be noticed for its commodious though not
very large haven, called Achtiar; and Hangup, the old
Chersonesus: which were all formerly very flourishing
towns; but are now either in ruins, or dwindled into
small villages.
All these places, so long as the Genoese remained
masters of the Grim, were well fortified; but the Tar¬
tars, in taking them, demolished all the works. While
they were under the Turks, they left the fortresses of
Keffa, Kertsch, and Koslof, and built the fort Arabat
on the neck of land between the sea of Azof (or Palus
Moeotis) and the Rotten sea, where Perekop also is.
In Arabat are but few houses ; but here the warlike
stores of the khans were kept.—Perekop, called by the
Turks Or-capi, is a fortress of moderate strength ;
standing about the middle of the neck of land that
joins the peninsula with the continent. This isthmus,
which is at least six miles broad, is cut through with a
wide and deep ditch lined with stone, and reaches from
the Black to the Rotten sea. This was formerly kept
without water, but now is filled from both seas. On
the Crimean side a high wall of earth runs the whole
length of it, straight from one sea to the other. The
people pass over the ditch by means of a drawbridge,
and through the wall by a gateway. The walls of the
fortress are some fathoms from the road side; of which
the ruins are only now discernible, namely, large brick
houses, with a number of bomb-shells and cannon-balls
about them, which were formerly kept in the fortress.
At least two miles from this is a pretty populous but
miserable place, which was probably the town to which
this fort belonged. Near the gate is a customhouse,
where all imports and exports pay duty.
This peninsula was formerly extremely populous ; the
number of its inhabitants, in Tartars, Turks, Greeks,
Armenians, Jews, and others, amounted to above
200,000 men. Afterwards a part of the Christian po¬
pulation removed to other parts of the Russian empire,
particularly the government of Azof; and many other
inhabitants, particularly Tartars, have gone to Taman
and Abchasia : but since the beginning of the present
century, a rapid increase has taken place, partly from
the influx of emigrants ; and at present the peninsula is
more populous than ever.
The Crim was heretofore divided into 24 kaduliks
cr districts ; namely, Yenikali, Kertsch, Arabat, Es-
ki-krim, Keffa, Karasubasar, Sudak, Achmetsched,
Italof, Bachtschisarai, Baluklava, Mangup, Inkerman,
Koslof, Or, Mansur, Tarkan, Sivasch, Tischongar,
Sarubulat, Barun, Argun, Sidschugut, and Schirin.
Several of these districts are named after the town
or village wherein the governor dwells.
CRIMEN falsi. See Falsi Crimen.
CRIMSON, one of the seven red colours of the
dyers. See Dyeing.
CRINGLE, a small hole made in the bolt-rope of
a sail, by intertwisting one of the divisions of a rope,
called a strand, alternately round itself and through
the strands of the bolt-rope, till it becomes threefold,
and assumes the shape of a wreath or ring. The use
of the cringle is generally to contain the end of some
rope, which is fastened thereto for the purpose of Cr.Vle
drawing up the sail to its yard, or of extending the 'fl”6
skirts by the means of bridles, to stand upon a side Critham.
wind. The word seems to be derived from krinckelen '—v —
(Belg.) “ to run into twists.”
CRINUM, Asphodel-lily ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the hexandria class; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 6th order, Spathacece. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CRISIS, in Medicine, is used in different senses, both
by the ancient and modern physicians. With some it
means frequently no more than the excretion of any
noxious substance from the body. Others take the
word for a secretion of the noxious humours made in a
fever. Others use it for the critical motion itself; and
Galen defines a crisis in fevers, a sudden and instanta¬
neous change, either for the better or the worse, pro¬
ductive of recovery or death.
CRISPIN and Crispianus, two legendary saints,
whose festival, as marked in the kalendar, is on the
25th of October. According to the legend, they
were brethren, born at Rome; from whence they tra¬
velled to Soissons in France, about the year 303, to
propagate the Christian religion ; and because they
would not be chargeable to others for their mainte¬
nance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers : but the
governor of the town discovering them to be Christians,
ordered them to be beheaded. From which time the
shoemakers made choice, of them for their tutelar saints.
CRISTiE, in Surgery, a term for certain excres¬
cences about the anus and pudenda. See Medicine
Index.
CRISTA GALLI, in Anatomy, an eminence in the
middle of the os ethmoides, advancing within the cavi¬
ty of the cranium ; and to which is fastened that part
of the dura mater which divides the brain, c&We&falx.
It has its name from its figure, which resembles that
of a cock’s comb. In adults, this process appears of a
piece with the septum narium. See Anatomy Index.
CRITERION, or Criterium, a standard by which
propositions and opinions are compared, in order to
discover their truth or falsehood.
CRITHE, in Surgery, commonly called the stye, is
a sort of tubercle that grows on the eyelids. When
small, it is seated on the edge of the eyelid ; but when
large, it spreads further. When they do not suppu¬
rate they become wens. They are apt to disappear
and return. If there is inflammation, endeavour to sup¬
purate it with the white bread poultice : if it is hard,
destroy it with a mixture of equal parts of hog’s lard
and quicksilver. If the lower eyelid is affected, the
tumour is more frequently on its inside ; and then it is
best to dissect it, or to make way for it outwardly by
applying a caustic on the skin just upon it.
CRITHUM, Samphire ; a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the pentandria class ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 45th order, Umbellatce. See Bota¬
ny Index.—Its leaves are an excellent pickle used for
sauces, and are by many eaten raw in salads. It is of
a saltish relish, palatable, and comfortable to the sto¬
mach. It is not very easily preserved in gardens. It
must be sown on gravelly or rocky ground, half an inch
deep ; in which situation the plants will come up, and
last some years.
CRITHOMANCY,
C R I [ 759 ] C R I
ritliomau- CBITHOMANCY, a kind of divination, perfonn-
cy ed by considering the dough or matter of the cakes
.11. offered in sacrifice, and the meal strewed over the vic-
Cnticisnr t;ms to ^JUed, Hence, in regard they ordinarily
used barley-meal in these ceremonies, this kind of di¬
vination was called crithomancy, fromxgrOii, barley, and
fAxvrua., divination.
CRIT1AS, one of the 30 tyrants set over Athens
by the Spartans. He was eloquent and well bred, but
of dangerous principles. He cruelly persecuted his
enemies, and put them to death. He was killed about
400 years before the Augustan age, in a battle against
those citizens whom his oppression had banished. He
had been among the disciples of Socrates, and had
written elegies and other compositions, of which some
fragments remain.
CRITICAL days and SYMPTOMS, among physi¬
cians, are certain days and symptoms in the course of
acute diseases, which indicate the patient’s state, and
determine him either to recover or grow worse. See
Medicine Index.
CRITICISM, the art of judging with propriety
concerning any object or combination of objects. But,
in a more limited sense, the science of criticism is con¬
fined to the fine arts. The principles of the fine arts
are best unfolded by studying the sensitive part of our
nature, and by learning what objects are naturally
agreeable and what are naturally disagreeable. The
man who aspires to be a critic in these arts, must
pierce still deeper: he must clearly perceive what ob¬
jects are lofty, what low, what are proper or impro¬
per, what are manly, and what are mean or trivial.
Hence a foundation for judging of taste, and for rea¬
soning upon it: where it is conformable to principles,
we can pronounce with certainty that it is correct *,
otherwise, that it is incorrect, and perhaps whimsical.
Thus the fine arts, like morals, become a rational sci¬
ence 5 and, like morals, may be cultivated to a high
degree of refinement.
Manifold are the advantages of criticism, when thus
studied as a rational science. In the first place, a tho¬
rough acquaintance with the principles of the fine arts
redoubles the entertainments those arts afford. To
the man who resigns himself entirely to sentiment or
feeling, without interposing any sort of judgment,
poetry, music, painting, are mere pastime 5 in the prime
of life, indeed, they are delightful, being supported by
the force of novelty and the heat of imagination : but
they lose their relish gradually with their novelty ;
and are generally neglected in the maturity of life,
which disposes to more serious and more important
occupations. To those who deal in criticism as a re¬
gular science, governed by just principles, and giving
scope to judgment as well as to fancy, the fine arts
are a favourite entertainment 5 and in old age main¬
tain that relish which they produce in the morning of
life.
In the next place, a philosophical inquiry into the
principles of the fine arts, inures the reflecting mind
to the most enticing sort of logic : the practice of
reasoning upon subjects so agreeable tends to a habit;
and habit strengthening the reasoning faculties, pre¬
pares the mind for entering into subjects more difficult
and abstract. To have, in this respect, a just con¬
ception of the importance of criticism, we need but
2
reflect upon the common method of education j which, Criticism,
after some years spent in acquiring languages, hurries v'"”—1
us, without the least preparatory discipline, into the
most profound philosophy: a more effectual method
to alienate the tender mind from abstract science, is
beyond the reach of invention : and accordingly, with
respect to such speculations, the bulk of our youth
contract a sort of hobgoblin terror, which is seldom,
if ever, subdued. Those who apply to the arts are
trained in a very different manner : they are led, step
by step, from the easier parts of the operation to
what are more difficult j and are not permitted to
make a new motion till they be perfected in those
which regularly precede it. The science of criticism
appears then to be a middle link, connecting the dif¬
ferent parts of education into a regular chain. This
science furnisheth an inviting opportunity to exercise
the judgment: we delight to reason upon subjects that
are equally pleasant and familiar j we proceed gradu¬
ally from the simpler to the more involved cases : and
in a due course of discipline, custom, which improves
all our faculties, bestows acuteness upon those of rea¬
son, sufficient to unravel all the intricacies of philoso-
phy.
Nor ought it to be overlooked, that the reasonings
employed upon the fine arts are of the same kind with
those which regulate our conduct. Mathematical and
metaphysical reasonings have no tendency to improve
social intercourse j nor are they applicable to the com¬
mon affairs of life : but a just taste in the fine arts, de¬
rived from rational principles, furnishes elegant subjects
for conversation, and prepares us finely for acting in the
social state with dignity and propriety.
The science of rational criticism tends to improve
the heart not less than the understanding. It tends,
in the first place, to moderate the selfish affections : by
sweetening and harmonizing the temper, it is a strong
antidote to the turbulence of passion and violence of
jmrsuit $ it procures to a man so much mental enjoy¬
ment, that, in order to be occupied, he is not tempted
in youth to precipitate into hunting, gaming, drinking;
nor in middle age, to deliver himself over to ambition ;
nor in old age, to avarice. Pride and envy, two dis¬
gustful passions, find in the constitution no enemy more
formidable than a delicate and discerning taste : the
man upon whom nature and culture have bestow'ed
this blessing feels great delight in the virtuous dispo¬
sitions and actions of others j he loves to cherish them,
and to publish them to the world : faults and failings,
it is true, are to him not less obvious ; but these he
avoids, or removes out of sight, because they give him
pain. On the other hand, a man void of taste, upon
whom the most striking beauties make but a faint im¬
pression, has no joy but in gratifying his pride or en¬
vy by the discovery of errors and blemishes. In a
word, there may be other passions, which, for a sea¬
son, disturb the peace of society more than those men¬
tioned: but no other passion is so unwearied an anta¬
gonist to the sweets of social intercourse : these pas¬
sions, tending assiduously to their gratification, put a
man perpetually in opposition to others j and dispose
him more to relish bad than good qualities, even in a
companion. How different that disposition of mind,
where every virtue in a companion or neighbour, is,
by refinement of taste, set in its strongest light; and
defects
C R I E 76° ] CKO
Criticism defects or blemishes, natural to all, are suppressed, or
W kept out of view !
■UZ*^ 1 s.’ In the next place, delicacy of taste tends not less to
invigorate the social affections than to moderate those
that are selfish. To be convinced of this tendency,
we need only reflect, that delicacy of taste necessarily
heightens our sensibility of pain and pleasure, and of
course our sympathy, which is the capital branch of
every social passion. Sympathy, in particular, invites
a communication of joys and sorrows, hopes and
fears : such exercise, soothing and satisfactory in it¬
self, is necessarily productive of mutual good-will and
affection.
One other advantage of rational criticism is reserved
to the last place, being of all the most important;
which is, that it is a great support to morality. No
occupation attaches a man more to his duty than that
of cultivating a taste in the fine arts : a just relish of
what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in
writing or painting, in architecture or gardening, is
a fine preparation for the same just relish of those qua¬
lities in character and behaviour. To the man who has
acquired a taste so acute and accomplished, every action
wrong or improper must be highly disgustful: if, in any
instance, the overbearing power of passion swav him from
his duty, he returns to it upon the first reflection with
redoubled resolution never to be swayed a second time :
he has now an additional motive to virtue, a conviction
derived from experience, that happiness depends on re¬
gularity and order, and that a disregard to justice or
propriety never fails to be punished with shame and re¬
morse.
For this rule of criticism applicable to the fine arts,
and derived from human nature, see Architecture,
Beauty, Congruity, Comparison, Grandeur’
See.
CRITO, an Athenian philosopher, flourished 400
years before Christ. He was one of the most zeal¬
ous disciples of Socrates, and supplied him with what¬
ever he wanted. He had several scholars who proved
great men, and he composed some dialogues which are
lost.
CRITOLAUS, a citizen of Tegea in Arcadia.
He with two brothers fought against the three sons of
Demonstratus of Pheneus, to put an end to a long war
between their respective nations. These brothers of
Critolaus were both killed, and he alone remained to
withstand his three bold antagonists. He conquered
them ; and when at his return his sister deplored the
death of one of his antagonists, to whom she was be¬
trothed, he killed her in a fit of resentment. The of¬
fence deserved capital punishment; but he was pardon¬
ed on account of the services he had rendered his coun¬
try. He was afterwards general of the Achajans ; and
it is said that he poisoned himself because he had been
conquered at Thermopylae by the Romans, about 146
years before the Augustan age.
CRIZZELLING, in the glass trade, a kind of
roughness arising on the surface of some kinds of glass.
Ibis was the fault of a peculiar sort of glass made in
Oxfordshire and some other places, of black flints, a
crystallized sand, and a large quantity of nitre, tartar,
and borax. The glass thus made is very beautiful, but,
from the too great quantities of the salts in the mixture’
3
is subject to crizzel; that is, the salts in the mixture,from Crizzdlin
their too great proportion, are subject, either from the |j
adventitious nitre ol the air from without, or from warm ^',ocodile.
liquors put in them, to be either increased in quantity or
dissolved, and thereby induce a scabrities or roughness
irrecoverably clouding the transparence of the glass.
This is what was called crizneUing; but by using an
Italian white pebble, and abating the proportions of
the salts, the manufacture is now carried on with ad¬
vantage, and the glass made with these salts is whiter
than the finest Venetian, and is subject to no faults.
CROATIA, a part of the ancient Illyricum, is
bounded on the east by Sclavonia and Bosnia, ob the
south and south-west by Morlachia, and on the north by
the Drave, which separates it from a part of Sclavonia.
It is about 160 miles in length and 100 in breadth, and
was once divided between the Hungarians and Turks;
but now the greatest part of it is subject to the house of
Austria. Ihe Croats derive their origin from the
Sclavi; and their language is a dialect of the Sclavo-
nian, approaching very near to that of the Poles. The
country is divided into two parts, viz. that under, and
that beyond, the Save. The soil, where cultivated, is
fiuitful in wine, oil, &.c. but being a frontier country,
and much exposed to inroads, it is not well cultivated!
It contains 9421 square miles, and 800,000 inhabi¬
tants. In 1809 the part of Croatia lying south of the
Save was ceded to France, and united with the Illyrian
provinces, but in 1815 it was restored to Austria.’
CROCODILE. See Lacerta, Erpetology
Index.
Jtossil Crocodile, one of the remarkable discoveries
m the fossil world which later times have produced.
It is the skeleton of a large crocodile, almost entire,
found at a great depth under ground, bedded in stone.
This was in the possession of Linkius, who wrote many
pieces of natural history, and particularly an accurate
description of this curious fossil. It was found in the
side of a large mountain in the interior of Ger¬
many, and in a stratum of black stone, somewhat
like slate, (marl probably), but of a coarser texture, the
same with that in which the fossil fishes in many parts
of the world are found. This skeleton had the back
and ribs very plain, and was of a much deeper black
than the rest of the stone ; as is also the case in the
fossil fishes which are preserved in this manner. The
part of the stone where the head lay was not found ;
this being broken off just at the shoulders, but that ir¬
regularly ; so that in one place a part of the back of
the head was visible in its natural form. The two
shoulder bones were very fair, and three of the feet
were well preserved: the legs were of their natural
shape and size, and the feet preserved even to the ex¬
tremities of the five toes of each.
Crocodile (crocodilus'), in Rhetoric, a captious and
sophistical kind of argumentation, contrived to seduce
the unwary, and draw them speciously into a snare. It
has its name crocodile from the following occasion, in¬
vented by the poets. A poor woman, begging a cro¬
codile that had caught her son walking by the river¬
side to spare and restore him, was answered, that lie
would restore him, provided she would give a true an¬
swer to a question he should propose : the question was,
Will I restore thy son or not: To this the poor wo¬
man
CEO [ ?6i ] CEO
Crocodile man, suspecting a deceit, sorrowfully answered, Tbou
II wilt not: and demanded to have him restored, because
Croesus. gjie jja^ answere(J truly. Thou best, says the croco¬
dile j for if I restore him thou hast not answered truly:
I cannot therefore restore him without making thy an¬
swer false. Under this head may be reduced the pro¬
positions called mentientes ox insolubiles ; which destroy
themselves. Such is that of the Cretan poet: Omnes
ad unum Cretenses semper mentiuntur: “ all the Cre¬
tans, to a man, always lie.” Either then the poet lies
when he asserts that the Cretans all lie, or the Cretans
do not all lie.
CROCUS, Saffron ; a genus of plants belonging
to the triandria class j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 6th order, Ensatce. See Botany In¬
dex.
Crocus, in Chemistry, denotes any metal calcined
to a red or deep yellow colour.
Crocus Metallorum, an emetic preparation of anti¬
mony and nitre. See Chemistry Index.
CROESUS, the last king of Lydia, remarkable for
his riches, his conquests, his temporary prosperity, and
the sad reverse of his fortune. He subdued the Phry¬
gians, Mysians, Paphlagonians, Thracians, and Cari-
ans ; amassed together immense riches j and became
one of the most powerful and magnificent princes in
the world. He drew the learned to his court, and
took a pleasure in conversing with them. Thales of
Miletus, Pittacus of Mitylene, Bias of Priene, Cleo-
bulus of Lindus, and most of the other “ wise men,”
as they are emphatically styled, who lived in that age,
as well as iEsop the fabulist, and the elegant Greek
poets of the times, were bountifully received at the
court of Croesus. There is still on record a memorable
conversation between that prince and Solon, which
seemed to predict the subsequent events of his reign,
and which had a late but important influence on the
character and fortune of the Lydian king. Croesus
having entertained his Athenian guest, according to
the ancient fashion, for several days, before he asked
him any questions, ostentatiously showed him the mag¬
nificence of his palace, and particularly the riches of
his treasury. After all had been displayed to the best
advantage, the king complimented Solon upon his cu¬
riosity and love of knowledge j and asked him, as a
man who had seen many countries, and reflected with
much judgment upon what he had seen, Whom of all
men he esteemed most happy ? By the particular oc¬
casion, as well as the triumphant air with which the
question was proposed, the king made it evident that
he expected flattery rather than information. But So¬
lon’s character had not been enervated by the debilita¬
ting air of a court j and he replied with a manly free¬
dom, “ Tellus, the Athenian.” Croesus, who had
scarcely learned to distinguish, even in imagination,
between wealth and happiness, inquired with a tone of
surprise, why this preference to Tellus ? “ Tellus,”
rejoined Solon, “ was not conspicuous for his riches
or his grandeur, being only a simple citizen of Athens j
but he was descended from parents who deserved the
first honours of the republic. He was equally fortu¬
nate in his children, who obtained universal esteem by
/their probity, patriotism, and every useful quality of
the mind or body : and as to himself, he died fighting
gallantly in the service of his country, which his va-
Vol. VI. Part II. t
lour rendered victorious in a doubtful combat; on Ciccsus.
which account the Athenians buried him on the spot—y——
where he fell, and distinguished him by every honour
which public gratitude can confer on illustrious me¬
rit.”
Croesus had little encouragement, after this answer,
to ask Solon, in the second place, Whom, next to Tel¬
lus, he deemed most happy ? Such, however, is the
illusion of vanity, that he still ventured to make this
demand ; and still, as we are informed by the most cir¬
cumstantial of historians, entertained hopes of being
favourably answered. But Solon replied with the same
freedom as before, “ The brothers Cleobis and Biton,
two youths of Argos, whose strength and address were
crowned with repeated victory at the Olympic games ;
who deserved the affection of their pai’ents, the grati¬
tude of their country, the admiration of Greece ; and
who, having ended their lives with peculiar felicity,
were commemorated by the most signal monuments
of immortal fame.” “ And is the happiness of a king,
then,” said Croesus, “ so little regarded, O Grecian
stranger, that you prefer to it the mean condition of
an Athenian or Argive citizen ?” The reply of Solon
sufficiently justified his reputation for wisdom. “ The
life of man,” said he, “ consists of 70 years, which
make 25,550 days; an immense number: yet in the
longest life, the events of any one day will not be found
exactly alike to those of another. The affairs of men
are liable to perpetual vicissitudes: the Divinity who
presides over our fate is envious of too much prospe¬
rity ; and all human life, if not condemned to calami¬
ty, is at least liable to accident. Whoever has unin¬
terruptedly enjoyed a prosperous tide of success may
justly be called fortunate; but he cannot before his
death be entitled to the epithet of happy.”
The events which soon followed this conversation,
prove how little satisfaction is derived from the posses¬
sion of a throne. Victorious in war, unrivalled in
wealth, supreme in power, Croesus felt and acknow¬
ledged his unhappiness. The warmest affections of his
soul centred in his son Atys, a youth of the most
promising hopes, who had often fought and conquered
by his side. The strength of his attachment was ac¬
companied with an excess of paternal care, and the
anxiety of his waking hours disturbed the tranquillity
of his rest. He dreamed that his beloved son was slain
by a dart; and the solicitude with which he watched
his safety, preventing the youth from his usual occu¬
pations and amusements, and thereby rendering him
too eager to enjoy them, most probably exposed him
to the much-dreaded misfortune. Reluctantly permit¬
ted to engage in a party of hunting, the juvenile ar¬
dour of Atys, increased by the impatience of long re¬
straint, made him neglect the precautions necessary in
that manly amusement. He was slain by a dart aim¬
ed at a wild boar of monstrous size, which had long
spread terror over the country of the Mysians. The
weapon came from the hand of Adrastus, a Phrygian
prince and fugitive, whom Croesus had purified from
the involuntary guilt of a brother’s blood, and long
distinguished by peculiar remarks of bounty. To the
grateful protection of the Phrygian, Croesus recom¬
mended, at parting, the safety of his beloved son. A
mournful procession of Lydians brought to Sardis the
dead body of Atys. The ill-fated murderer followed
5 D behind.
c R O [ 762 ] C R O
Croesus, behind. When they approached the royal presence,
■—Adrastus stepped forward and entreated Croesus to put
him to death ; thinking life no longer to be endured
after killing, first his own brother, and then the son of
his benefactor. But the Lydian king, notwithstanding
the excess of his affliction, acknowledged the innocence
of Adrastus, and the power of fate. “ Stranger, your
action is blameless, being committed without design.
I know that my son was destined to a premature death.”
Adrastus, though pardoned by Croesus, could not par¬
don himself. When the mourners were removed, he
privately returned, and perished by his own hand on
the tomb of Atys.
Two years Croesus remained disconsolate for the loss
of his son : and might have continued to indulge his
unavailing affliction during the remainder of life, had
not the growing greatness of Persia, which threatened
the safety of his dominions, roused him from his dream
of misery. (See Lydia.)—-He marched against Cyrus
with a great army, but was defeated ; and retreating
to his capital Sardis, was there besieged. The city
was taken by assault; and as a Persian soldier wras go¬
ing to kill Croesus, that prince’s only surviving son,
who had hitherto been dumb, terrified at his danger,
cried, Stop soldier, and touch not Croesus. But though
delivered by this extraordinary accident from the blind
rage of the soldier, he seemed to be reserved for a
harder fate. Dragged into the presence of his conque¬
ror, he was loaded with irons j and the stern, unrelent¬
ing Cyrus, of whose humane temper of mind we have
so beautiful, but so flattering, a picture in the philoso¬
phical romance of Xenophon, ordered him, with the
melancholy train of his Lydian attendants, to he com¬
mitted to the flames. An immense pile of wood and
other combustibles was erected in the most spacious
part of the city. The miserable victims, hound hand
and foot, were placed on the top of the pyre. Cyrus,
surrounded with his generals, witnessed the dreadful
spectacle. Either from an abominable principle of su¬
perstition he had bound himself by a vow to sacri¬
fice Croesus as the first fruits of his Lydian victory, or
from a motive of curiosity, equally cruel and impious,
to try whether Croesus, who had so magnificently
adorned the temples and enriched the ministers of the
gods, would be helped in time of need by the miracu¬
lous interposition of his much honoured protectors.
Meanwhile the unfortunate Lydian, oppressed and con¬
founded by the intolerable weight of his present cala¬
mity compared with the security and splendour of his
former state, recollected his memorable conversation
with the Athenian sage, and uttered with a deep groan
the name of Solon. Cyrus asked by an interpreter,
“ Whose name he invoked ?” “ His," replied Croesus,
emboldened by the prospect of certain death, “ whose
words ought ever to speak to the heart of kings.”
This reply not being satisfactory, he was commanded
to explain at full length the subject of his thoughts.
Accordingly he related the important discourse which
had passed between himself and the Athenian, of which
it was the great moral, That no man could be called
happy till his death.
The words of a dying man are -fitted to make a
strong impression on the heart. Those of Croesus
deeply affected the mind of Cyrus. The Persian con¬
sidered the speech of Solon as addressed to himself.
Z
He repented of his intended cruelty towards the unfor- Cicesus
tunate prince, who had formerly enjoyed all the pomp [j
of prosperity : and dreading the concealed vengeance Croisade.
that might lurk in the bosom of fate, gave orders that * ■/
the pyre should be extinguished. But the workmen
who had been employed to prepare it, had performed
their task with so much care, that the order could not
speedily be obeyed. At that moment, Croesus calling
on Apollo, whose favourite shrine of Delphi had expe¬
rienced his generous munificence, and whose perfidious
oracle had made him so ungrateful a return ; the god,
it is said, sent a plentiful shower to extinguish the pyre.
This event, which saved the life, and which sufficiently
attested the piety, of Croesus, strongly recommended
him to the credulity of his conqueror. It seemed im¬
possible to pay too much respect to a man who was evi¬
dently the favourite of heaven. Cyrus gave orders
that he should be seated by his side, and thenceforth
treated as a king 5 a revolution of fortune equally sud¬
den and unexpected. But the mind of Croesus had un¬
dergone a still more important revolution : for, tutor¬
ed in the useful school of adversity, he learned to think
with patience and to act with prudence, to govern his
own passions by the dictates of reason, and to repay
by wholesome advice the generous behaviour of his Per¬
sian master.
The first advantage which he derived from the
change in Cyrus’s disposition towards him, was the
permission of sending his fetters to the temple of the
Delphian Apollo, whose flattering oracles had encou¬
raged him to wage war with the Persians. “ Behold,”
v/ere his messengers instructed to say, “ the trophies of
our promised success ! behold the monuments of the un¬
erring veracity of the god!” The Pythia heard their
reproach with a smile of contemptuous indignation,
and answered it with that solemn gravity which she
was so carefully taught to assume: “ The gods them¬
selves cannot avoid their own destiny, much less avert,
however they may retard, the determined fates of men.
Croesus has suffered, and justly suffered, for the crime
of his ancestor Gyges; who, entrusted as chief of the
guards, with the person of Candaules, the last king of
the race of Hercules, was seduced by an impious woman
to murder his master, defile his bed, and to usurp his
royal dignity. For this complicated guilt of Gyges
the misfortunes of Croesus have atoned j but know, that
through the favour of Apollo, these misfortunes have
happened three years later than the fates ordained.”
The Pythia then proceeded to explain her answers con¬
cerning the event of the war against Cyrus, and proved,
to the conviction of the Lydians, that her words, if
properly understood, portended the destruction, not of
the Persian, hut of the Lydian empire. Croesus heard
with resignation the report of his messengers, and ac¬
knowledged the justice of the Delphian oracle, which
maintained and increased the lustre of its ancient fame.
This fallen monarch survived Cyrus. The manner of
his death is not known.
CROFT, a little close adjoining to a dwelling-
house, and inclosed for pasture or arable land, or any
other purpose.—In some ancient deeds, crufta occurs
as the Latin word for a “ croft j” but cum toftis et
croftis is more frequent. Croft is translated in Abbo
Floriacensis by prcedium, a “ farm.”
CROISADE, or Crusade, a name given to the
expeditions
C R O
Crolsade. expeditions of the Christians against the infidels for the
—v—' conquest of Palestine.
These expeditions commenced in the year 1096.
The foundation of them was a superstitious veneration
for those places where our Saviour performed his mi¬
racles, and accomplished the work of man’s redemp¬
tion. Jerusalem had been taken, and Palestine con-
s See ^ra-quered, by Omar the successor of Abu Beer*, who
na, N° 76. succeecled Mahomet himself. This proved a consi¬
derable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from
all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy se¬
pulchre. They had, however, still been allowed this
liberty, on paying a small tribute to the Saracen ca¬
liphs, who were not much inclined to molest them.
But, in 1065, th”18 city changed its masters. The
Turks took it from the Saracens j and being much
more fierce and barbarous than the former, the pil¬
grims now found they could no longer perform their
devotions with the same safety they did before. An
opinion was about this time also prevalent in Eu¬
rope, which made these pilgrimages much more fre¬
quent than formerly. It was somehow or other ima¬
gined, that the thousand years mentioned in the 20th
chapter of the Revelations, were fulfilled j that Christ
tvas soon to make his appearance in Palestine, to judge
the world j and consequently that journeys to that
country were in the highest, degree meritorious, and
even absolutely necessary. The multitudes of pilgrims
which now flocked to Palestine meeting with a very
rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with
complaints against those infidels, who profaned the
holy city by their presence, and derided the sacred
mysteries of Christianity even in the place where they
were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a de¬
sign of uniting all the princes of Christendom against
the Mahometans; but his exorbitant encroachments
upon the civil power of princes had created him so
many enemies, and rendered his schemes so suspicious,
that he was not able to make great progress in the
undertaking. The work was reserved for a meaner in¬
strument.
Peter, commonly called the hermit, a native of A-
miens in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jeru¬
salem and being deeply affected with the dangers to
which that act of piety now exposed the pilgrims, as
well as with the oppression under which the eastern
Christians now laboured, formed the bold, and, in all
appearance, impracticable design of leading into Asia,
from the farthest extremities of the west, armies suf¬
ficient to subdue those potent and warlike nations that
now held the Holy Land in slavery. He proposed
his scheme to Martin II. who then filled the papal
chair; but he, though sensible enough of the advan¬
tages which must accrue to himself from such an un¬
dertaking, resolved not to interpose his authority till
he saw a greater probability of success. He summon¬
ed, at Placentia, a council consisting of 4000 ecclesia¬
stics and 30,000 seculars. As no hall could be found
large enough to contain such a multitude, the assembly
was held in a plain. Here the Pope himself, as well
as Peter, harangued the people, representing the dis¬
mal situation of their brethren in the east, and the in¬
dignity offered to the Christian name in allowing the
holy city to remain in the hands of the infidels. These
speeches were so agreeable to those who heard them,
C R O
that the whole multitude suddenly and violently de- Croisade.
clai’ed for the war, and solemnly devoted themselves to —v——
perform this service, which they believed to be so me¬
ritorious in the sight of God.
But though Italy seemed to have embraced the de¬
sign with ardour, Martin yet thought it necessary, in
order to insure perfect success, to engage the greater
and more warlike nations in the same enterprise. Ha¬
ving therefore exhorted Peter to visit the chief cities
and sovereigns of Christendom, he summoned another
council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of this
great and pious design being now universally diffused,
procured the attendance of the greatest prelates, nobles,
and princes j and when the Pope and the hermit re¬
newed their pathetic exhortations, the whole assembly,
as if impelled by an immediate inspiration, exclaimed
with one voice, “ It is the will of God ! it is the will
of God !” These words were deemed so memorable,
and so much the effect of a divine impulse, that they
were employed as the signal of rendezvous and battle
in all future exploits of these adventurers. Men of all
ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardour, and a
cross was affixed to their right shoulder by all who in-
listed in this holy enterprise.
At this time Europe was sunk in the most profound
ignorance and superstition. The ecclesiastics had
gained the greatest ascendant over the human mind ;
and the people, who committed the most horrid
crimes and disorders, knew of no other expiation than
the observances imposed on them by their spiritual
pastors.
But amidst the abject superstition which now pre¬
vailed, the military spirit had also universally diffused
itself j and, though not supported by art and discipline,
was become the general passion of the nations governed
by the feudal law. All the great lords possessed
the right of peace and war. They were engaged in
continual hostilities with one another: the open coun¬
try was become a scene of outrage and disorder : the
cities, still mean and poor, were neither guarded by
walls nor protected by privileges. Every man was
obliged to depend for safety on his own force, or his
private alliances ; and valour was the only excellence
which was held in esteem, or gave one man the pre¬
eminence above another. When all the particular su¬
perstitions, therefore, were here united in one great
object, the ardour for private hostilities took the same
direction y “ and all Europe (as the princess Anna
Comnena expresses herself) torn from its foundations,
seemed ready to precipitate itself in one united body
upon Asia.”
All orders of men, now deeming the croisades the
only road to heaven, were impatient to open the way
with their swords to the holy city. Nobles, artisans,
peasants, even priests, inrolled their names; and to
decline this service was branded with the reproach of
impiety or cowardice. The nobles who inlisted them¬
selves were moved, by the romantic spirit of the age,
to hope for opulent establishments in the east, the
chief seat of arts and commerce at that time. In pur¬
suit of these chimerical projects, they sold at the low¬
est price their ancient castles and inheritances, which
had now lost all value in their eyes. The infirm and
aged contributed to the expedition by presents and
money $ and many of them, not satisfied with this, at-
5 D 2 tended
[ 763 ]
c R O [ 764 ] C R O
Croisade. tended it in person, being determined, if possible, to
—"-y-"-»' breathe their last in sight of that city where their Sa¬
viour had died for them. Women themselves, con¬
cealing their sex under the disguise of armour, attend¬
ed the camp j and commonly forgot their duty still
more, by prostituting themselves to the army. The
greatest criminals were forward in a service which they
considered as an expiation for all crimes j and the most
enormous disorders were, during the course of these
expeditions, committed by men inured to wickedness,
encouraged by example, and impelled by necessity.
The multitude of adventurers soon became so great,
that their more sagacious leaders became apprehensive
lest the greatness of the armament would be the cause
of its own disappointment. For this reason they per¬
mitted an undisciplined multitude, computed at 300,000
men, to go before them under the command of Peter
the hermit, and Gautier or Walter, surnamed the
moneyless^ from his being a soldier of fortune. These
took the road towards Constantinople through Hun¬
gary and Bulgaria $ and, trusting that heaven, by su¬
pernatural assistance, would supply all their necessi¬
ties, they made no provision for subsistence in their
march. They soon found themselves obliged to ob¬
tain by plunder what they vainly expected from mi¬
racles ; and the enraged inhabitants of the countries
through which they passed, attacked the disorderly
multitude, and slaughtered them without resistance.
The more disciplined armies followed after j and, pas¬
sing the straits of Constantinople, they were mustered
in the plains of Asia, and amounted in the whole to
700,000.
The rage for conquering the Holy Land did not
cease with this expedition. It continued for very
near two centuries, and eight different croisades were
set on foot, one after another. The first was in the
year 1069, as already observed. The princes enga¬
ged in it were, Hugo, count of Vermandois, brother
to Philip I. king of France; Robert, duke of Nor¬
mandy ; Robert, earl of Flanders; Raimond, earl of
Toulouse and St Giles ; Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of
Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and Eustace ; Ste¬
phen, earl of Chartres and Blois; Hugo, count of St
Paul ; with a great number of other lords. The ge¬
neral rendezvous was at Constantinople. In this ex¬
pedition, the famous Godfrey besieged and took the
city of Nice. The city of Jerusalem was taken by the
confederated army, and Godfrey chosen king. The
Christians gained the famous battle of Ascalon against
the soldan of Egypt; which put an end to the first
croisade.
The second croisade, in the year 1144, was headed
by the emperor Conrad HI. and Louis VII. king of
France. The emperor’s army was either destroyed by
the enemy, or perished through the treachery of Manuel
the Greek emperor; and the second army, through the
unfaithfulness of the Christians of Syria, was forced to
break up the siege of Damascus.
The third croisade, in the year 1188, immediately
followed the taking of Jenisalem by Saladin the sol-
dan of Egypt. The princes engaged in this expedi¬
tion were, the emperor Frederic Barbarossa ; Frederic
duke of Suabia, his second son ; Leopold duke of Au¬
stria ; Berthold duke of Moravia ; Herman marquis
of Baden ; the counts of Nassau, Thuringia, Misser,
and Holland; and above 60 other princes of the em- Croisade,
pire ; with the bishops of Besan^on, Cambray, Mtm- ——y—1
ster, Osnaburg, Missen, Passau, Visburg, and several
others. In this expedition, the emperor Frederic de¬
feated the soldan of Iconium : his son Frederic, joined
by Guy Lusignan king of Jerusalem, in vain endea¬
voured to take Acre or Ptolemais. During which
transactions, Philip Augustus king of France, and
Richard I. king of England, joined the croisade ; by
which means the Christian army consisted of 300,000
fighting men : but great disputes happening between
the kings of France and England, the former quitted
the Holy Land, and Richard concluded a peace with
Saladin.
The fourth croisade was undertaken, in the year
1195, by the emperor Henry VI. after Saladin’s death.
In this expedition the Christians gained several battles
against the infidels, took a great many towns, and were
in the wray of success, when the death of the emperor
obliged them to quit the Holy Land, and return into
Germany.
The fifth croisade was published, by order of Pope
Innocent HI. in 1198. Those engaged in it made
fruitless efforts for the recovery of the Holy Land ; for,
though John de Neule, who commanded the fleet
equipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptolemais a little after
Simon of Montford, Reynard of Dampierre, and others;
yet the plague destroying many of them, and the rest
either returning, or engaging in the petty quarrels of
the Christian princes, there was nothing done ; so
that the soldan of Aleppo easily defeated their troops in
1204.
The sixth croisade began in 1228; in which the
Christians took the town of Damietta, but were forced
to surrender it again. The next year the emperor
Frederic made peace with the soldan for 10 years.
About 1240, Richard earl of Cornwall, and brother
to Henry III. king of England, arrived in Palestine
at the head of the English croisade ; but finding it most
advantageous to conclude a place, he re-embarked,
and steered towards Italy. In 1244, the Karasinians
being driven out of Persia by the Tartars, broke into
Palestine, and gave the Christians a general defeat
near Gaza.
The seventh croisade was headed by St Lewis, in the
year 1249, w^° to°^ ^e town of Damietta: but a
sickness happening in the Christian army, the king
endeavoured to retreat; in which, being pursued by the
infidels, most of his army were miserably butchered,
and himself and the nobility taken prisoners. Then a
truce was agreed upon for 10 years, and the king and
lords set at liberty.
The eighth croisade, in 1270, was headed by the same
prince, who made himself master of the port and castle
of Carthage in Africa; but dying in a short time he
left his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the
king of Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and joining
Philip the Bold, son and successor of Lewis, the king
of Tunis, after several engagements with the Christi¬
ans, in which he was always worsted, desired peace,
which was granted upon conditions advantageous to
the Christians; after which both princes embarked for
their own kingdoms. Prince Edward of England,
who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, sailed
towards Ptolemais, where he landed with a small body
C R O [ 765 ] C R O
Croisade. 300 English and French, and hindered Bendocdar
—-y——^ from laying siege to Ptolemais : but being obliged to
quit the Holy Land to take possession of the crown of
England, this croisade ended without contributing any
thing to the recovery of the Holy Land. In 1291, the
town of Acre, or Ptolemais, was taken and plundered
by the soldan of Egypt, and the Christians quite driven
out of Syi’ia. There has been no croisade since that
time, though several popes have attempted to stir up
the Christians to such an undertaking; particularly
Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311-
Though these croisades were effects of the most ab¬
surd superstition, they tended greatly to promote the
good of Europe. Multitudes indeed were destroyed.
M. Voltaire computes the people who perished in the
different expeditions at upwards of two millions.
Many there were, however, who returned $ and these
having conversed so long with people who lived in a
much more magnificent way than themselves, began
to entertain some taste for a refined and polished way
of life. Thus the barbarism in which Europe had been
so long immersed, began to wear off soon after this
time. The princes also who remained at home, found
means to avail themselves of the frenzy of the people.
By the absence of such numbers of restless and martial
adventurers, peace was established in their dominions.
They also took the opportunity of annexing to their
crown many considerable fiefs, either by purchase, or
by the extinction of the heirs j and thus the mischiefs
which must always attend feudal governments were
considerably lessened.
With regard to the bad success of the croisaders, it
was scarce possible that any other thing could happen
them. The emperors of Constantinople, instead of
assisting, did all in their power to disconcert their
schemes. They wei'e jealous, and not without reason,
of such an inundation of barbarians. Yet, had they
considered their true interest, they would rather have
assisted them, or at least stood neuter, than entered
into alliances with the Turks. They followed the
latter method, however, and were often of very great
disservice to the western adventurers, which at last
# gec occasioned the loss of their city*. But the worst
itantinopk, enemies the croisaders had, were their own internal
No. 144. feuds and dissensions. They neither could agree
while marching together in armies with a view to
conquest, nor could they unite their conquests under
one government after they had made them. They
set up three small states, one at Jerusalem, another at
Antioch, and another at Edessa. These states, instead
of assisting, made war upon each other, and on the
Gi’eek emperors ; and thus became an easy prey to the
common enemy. The hori-id cruelties they committed
also were such as must have inspired the Turks with
the most invincible hatred against them, and made them
resist with the greatest obstinacy,. They were such as
could have been committed only by barbarians inflamed
with religious enthusiasm. When Jerusalem was taken,
not only the numerous garrison were put to the sword,
but the inhabitants were massacred without mercy
and without distinction. No age or sex was spared,
even children at the breast wei’e barbax-ously murder¬
ed. Aqcoi’ding to Voltaire, some Christians, who bad
been suffered by the Turks to live in that city, led the
conquerors into the most private caves where women
had concealed themselves with their children, and not Croisade
one of them was suffered to escape. What eminently 11
shows the enthusiasm with which these conquerors , ^101X-
were animated, is their behaviour after this terrible
slaughter. They marched over heaps of dead bodies
towards the holy sepulchre ; and while their hands
were yet polluted with the blood of so many innocent
persons, sung anthems to the common Saviour of man¬
kind. Nay, so far did their religious enthusiasm
overcome their fury, that these ferocious conquerors
now burst into tears. If the absurdity and wickedness
of this conduct can be exceeded by any thing, it must
be by what follows. In the year 1 204, the frenzy of
croisading seized the children, who ai’e ever ready to
imitate what they see their parents engage themselves
in. Their childish folly was encouraged by the monks
and schoolmastei’s 5 and thousands of those innocents
were conducted fxom the houses of their parents on the
faith of these words, “ Out of the mouth of babes and
sucklings hast thou perfected praise.” Their base con¬
ductors sold a part of them to the Turks, and the rest
perished miserably.
CROISERS, a x’eligious order founded in honour
of the invention or discovery of the cross by the empress
Helena. They are dispersed in several parts of Europe,
particularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bohe¬
mia, those in Italy being at px-esent suppressed. These
religious follow the rule of St Augustine. They had in
En gland the name of crouched friars.
CROISES, or CroizES, in English antiquity, pil¬
grims bound for the Holy Land, or such as had been
there ; so called from a badge they wore in imitation
of a ci-oss. The knights of St John of Jerusalem,
created for the defence and protection of pilgrims, were
particularly called croises.
CROIX, Francis Petit de la, secretary and in-
terpreter to the king of France, in the Turkish and
Arabic languages, died November 4^ 1695, in his
73d year ; after having executed this employment for
the space of 44 years. And it appears, that he exe¬
cuted it with as much integrity as abilities ; for,
when the Algerines sought for peace of Louis XIV.
conditions were offered, by which they were required
to reimburse to this monarch 600,000 franks. The
terms being thought exorbitant, they had recourse to
stratagem; and they offered a large sum to La Croix,
who was the interpreter of all that passed, if he would
put into the treaty “ crowns of Tripoli,” instead of
“ French crowns j” which would have made to the Al¬
gerines a difference of more than 100,000 livres. But
the irxtegx-ity of the interpreter triumphed over the
temptation 5 which however was the greater, as it was
next to impossible he should be discovex-ed. Besides
the Turkish and the Arabic, the Persian and the Tar- .
tarian, he also understood the Ethiopian and Arme¬
nian languages. He is well known to the leax-ned
world by many works. He translated the “ History
of France” into the Turkish language. He digested
the thi-ee volumes of, “ Voyages into the East Indies”
of M. Thevenot. He made an accurate catalogue of
all the Turkish and Persian hooks which are in the
king’s librax-y. Pie composed two complete Diction¬
aries for the French and Turkish languages ; and,
when he was dying, be was about to present the world
with the histoi’y of Jenghis Khan. He undertook this
history.,,
iO!X,
narty.
C R O [ 766 ] CEO
history by the order of M. Colbert; for this minister,
altogether intent upon aggrandizing his master, was
accustomed every week to call together, either in the
king’s library or his own, certain of the learned,
whom, according as they excelled in their several de¬
partments in literature, he constantly set to work.
This history, which cost LaCroix more than ten years
labour, is useful not only to the learned who are
curious to know past events, or to geographers who
had hitherto been greatly ignorant of Grand Tartary,
but likewise to all who trade to China, Persia, or other
eastern parts of the world. There is a good map of
northern Asia drawn by M. de I’Isle, accompanying
the work; which M. Petit de la Croix, the author’s
son, not only revised, but, to render it more curious,
added to it an abridgement of the lives of all those
authors from whom it was extracted. It was trans¬
lated into English, and published at London, 1722,
Svo.
and the real rent in 1811 was io,86ol. 2s. 8d. for the
lands, 480I. sterling for the houses. The language is
generally Gaelic, but many speak that broad Scotch,
which is commonly called the Buchan or Aberdeenshire
dialect. Freestone, granite, and reddish-coloured por-
pbyry, are almost the only minerals, if we except to-
pwzes, similar to those ot Cairngorum, found in the
parish of Kincardine. Fisheries are very successfully
carried on, and pearls of considerable value are some¬
times found in the frith of Cromarty, where the river
Conal falls into that bay.
Population of the County of Cromarty at two periods.
Parishes.
Cromarty
Fodderty
Tarbat
Population Population in
in I7S5- *798—1798.
2096 2184
*483 1730
J584 1370
Cromarty,
Cromlech.
CROMARTY, a town of Scotland, capital of the
county of the same name. The town is small, and
situated upon a rock or point of land, which over¬
hangs the sea in a romantic manner, and is much ex¬
posed to the east wind ; it was formerly a royal borough,
but was disfranchised by an act of the privy council of
Scotland, in consequence of a petition for that purpose
presented by Sir John Urquhart, proprietor of the estate
of Cromarty ; it is now under the baronial jurisdiction
of the earl of Cromarty. The parish extends about
seven miles in length, and from one to four in breadth,
bounded by the frith of Cromarty on the north. On
the banks of the frith the surface is level, aid covered
with verdure. A bank about two miles from the coast,
extends the whole length of the parish, above which
the ground is covered with heath and moss. The soil is
everywhere wet and moorish, which makes the seasons
late, and the crop uncertain. The coast towards the
east is bold and rocky, some of the cliffs being nearly
250 feet perpendicular to the sea j the rest is flat and
sandy. After every storm a great quantity of sea weed
is thrown ashore, which is partly used as a manure, and
partly burnt into kelp. The harbour of Cromarty is in¬
ferior, perhaps, to none in Britain for safety j and at
the commodious quay, built at the joint expence of go¬
vernment and the proprietor of the estate of Cromarty,
vessels of 350 or 400 tons may lie in perfect security.
A considerable trade in the hempen or sack-cloth line
has been long established in Cromarty and the neigh¬
bourhood. Population of the town and parish in 1811,
24I3'
Cromarty, County of, in Scotland, forms a kind of
peninsula, washed on three sides by the friths of Cro¬
marty and Moray, and bounded on the south-west and
south by the county of Ross. With this are included
several detached tracts scattered through Ross-shire, the
whole amounting to 344 square miles. It was erected
into a distinct county about the end of the 17th cen¬
tury, at the request of Sir James M'Kenzie, earl of
Cromarty, to whom it almost entirely belonged. The
face of the country is pleasant j a long ridge of hills
extending the whole length in the middle of the county,
having a fine declivity on either side towards the shores
of the friths. The higher grounds are mostly covered
with heath, but towards the shores the soils are light
and early. The valued rent i? 12,897!. 2s. 2d. Scots;
5163 5284
In the returns for 1811, the population of the parish
was intermixed with that of Ross-shire. See Cro¬
marty, Supplement.
Cromarty, Frith of, is one of the finest bays in
Great Britain $ hence called by Buchanan Portus Salu-
tis. It is divided from the Moray frith by the county
of Cromarty, and washes the southern shore of the
county of Ross. It is about 16 miles in length, and
sometimes three in breadth. The entrance is between
two promontories or headlands, called the Sutors of
Cromarty, which are about a mile and a half distant:
there is the finest anchorage ground after passing the
Sutors, for several miles up the bay, with deep water
on both sides, almost close to the shore, where in most
places the coast is so smooth, that supposing a vessel to
part her cables (a thing scarcely probable), she might
run aground without sustaining much damage. Such
is the extent of sea-room in the bay, and such is the
capacity, that almost the whole British navy might lie
here in safety.
CROMLECH, in British antiquities, are huge,
broad, flat stones, raised upon other stones set up on end
for that purpose. They are common in Anglesea j
under which article a very large one is described. See
Plate CLXIV.
These monuments are spoken of largely by Mr Row¬
land, by Dr Borlase, and by Wormius, under the name
of Ara or altar. Mr Rowland, however, is divided in
his opinion ; for he partly inclines to the notion of their
having been altars, partly to their having been sepul¬
chres : he supposes them to have been originally tombs,
but that in after times sacrifices were performed upon
them to the heroes deposited within. Mr Keiller pre¬
serves an account of King Harold having been interred
beneath a tomb of this kind in Denmark, and Mr
Wright discovered in Ireland a skeleton deposited under
one of them. The great similarity of the monuments
throughout the north, Mr Pennant observes, evinces
the same religion to have been spread in every part,
perhaps with some slight deviations. Many of these
monuments are both British and Danish j for we find
them where the Danes never penetrated.
The cromlech, or cromleh, chiefly differs from the
Kisx-vaen, in not being closed up at the end and sides,
that
e n o [ 767 ] c r o
Cromlech, that is, in not so much partaking of the chest-like fi-
Cromwell. gUre • it is also generally of larger dimensions, and
' v sometimes consists of a greater number of stones : the
terms cromlech and kist-vaen are however indiscrimi¬
nately used for the same monument. The term cromlech
is by some derived from the Armoric word crum,
“ crooked or bowing,” and /?/?,“ stone,” alluding to the
reverence which persons paid to them by bowing. Row¬
land derives it from the Hebrew words carem~luach,
signifying a “ devoted or consecrated stone.” They are
called by the vulgar coetne Arthor, or Arthur's quoits,
it being a custom in Wales as well as Cornwall, to as¬
cribe all great or wonderful objects to Prince Arthur,
the hero of those countries.
CROMWELL, Thomas, earl of Essex, was the
son of a blacksmith at Putney, and born in 1498.
Without a liberal education, but endowed with a strong
natural genius, he considered travelling as the proper
means of improving his understanding j and to this
early token of his sound judgment he stood indebted
for the high rank and distinguished honours he after¬
wards enjoyed. He became by degrees the confi¬
dential favourite and prime minister of Henry VIII.;
and from the moment he acquired any authority in
the cabinet, he employed it in promoting the refor¬
mation, to his zeal for which he became a victim j
for, the more firmly to secure the Protestant cause, he
contrived to marry the king to Ann of Cleves, whose
friends were all Lutherans. Unfortunately Henry
took a disgust at this lady, which brought on Crom¬
well’s ruin j the king, with his usual cruelty and ca¬
price, taking this opportunity to sacrifice this minister
to the Roman Catholic party, to whom he seemed de¬
sirous of reconciling himself as soon as he had Catha¬
rine Howard in view. Cromwell was a great poli¬
tician, and a good man} but, like most statesmen, was
guilty of great errors. In his zeal for the new reli¬
gion, he had introduced the unjustifiable mode of at¬
tainder in cases of treason and heresy ; and his ene¬
mies, who were numerous (consisting of two classes,
the ancient nobility and gentry, who w'ere enraged to
see the highest honours bestowed on a man of mean
extraction, and the Roman Catholics, who detested
him), having pi’eferred many complaints against him,
availed themselves of his own law. He was attaint¬
ed of treason and heresy, convicted unheard, and be¬
headed in 1540. He was the chief instrument of the
suppression of the abbeys and monasteries, and of the
destruction of images and relics ; to him also we are
indebted for the institution of parish-registers of
births, marriages, and burials.
Cromwell, Oliver, stiled Lord Protector of the
commonwealth of England, one of the most extraor¬
dinary personages mentioned in history, was the son
of Mr Robert Cromwell of Hinchinbrooke in the
county of Huntingdon. His ancestors were of very
honourable extraction ; but no ways related to Tho¬
mas Cromwell earl of Essex, the prime minister and
favourite of Henry VIII. He was born in the parish
of St John Huntingdon, where his father mostly li¬
ved, on the 25th or 26th of April 1599, and educated
at the free school of that town. Little is known con¬
cerning him in his younger years, or indeed concern¬
ing his behaviour in private life. It is, however, re¬
lated by authors of unsuspected veracity, that when at
school he gave many signs of a very turbulent and Cromwell
restless disposition. He is also said from his early * ■ ■—v-—11 *
years to have been subject to the hypochondriac disor¬
der, and to many deceptions of the imagination. He
had a very remarkable one while at school. It hap¬
pened in the day-time, when he was lying melancho¬
ly upon his back in bed. A spectre, as he thought,
approached him, and told him that he should be the
greatest man in the kingdom. His father, being in¬
formed of this, was very angry, and desired his mas¬
ter to correct him severely. This, however, produ¬
ced no effect. Oliver persisted in the truth of his sto¬
ry, and would sometimes mention it, though his uncle
told him “ it was too traitorous to be repeated.”—
From this school Oliver was removed to Sidney col¬
lege in Cambridge, where he was admitted in 1616.
His progress in his studies is uncertain ; but he spent
much time in playing at foot-ball, cricket, and other
robust exercises, at which he was very expert. His
father dying after he had been about two years at col¬
lege, Cromwell returned home ; but the irregularity
of his life gave such offence to his mother, that, by the
advice of some friends, she sent him to London, and
placed him in Lincoln’s-inn. This expedient by no
means answ'ered the purpose ; her son gave himself
up to gaming, wine, and women, so that he quickly
dissipated all that was left him by his father. This
dissipation, however, could be but of very short conti¬
nuance j for he was married, before he was 21 years
of age, to Elizabeth, daughter of Sir James Bouchier
of Essex. Soon after his marriage he returned to the
country, where he led a very grave and sober life.
This sudden reformation has been ascribed to his fal¬
ling in with the Puritans ; but it is certain, that Mr
Cromwell continued then, and for some time after, a
zealous member of the church of England, and form¬
ed a close friendship with several eminent divines.
He continued at Huntingdon, where he settled after
his marriage, till an estate of between 400I. and
500I. per annum devolved on him by the death of
his uncle Sir Thomas Stuart. This induced him to
remove to the isle of Ely where the estate lay, and
here he embraced the puritanical doctrines. He was
elected a member of the third parliament of Charles I.
which met on the 10th of January 1628; and was a
member of the committee for religion, where he dis¬
tinguished himself by his zeal against popery. After
the dissolution of that parliament^ he returned again
into the country, where he continued to express much
concern for religion, to keep company with silenced
ministers, and to invite them often to lectures and ser¬
mons at his house. Thus he brought his affairs again
into a very indifferent situation : so that, by way of re¬
pairing the breaches he made in his fortune, he took
a farm at St Ives, which he kept five years. But this
scheme succeeded so ill, that he was obliged to give it
up ; and at last, chagrined with his disappointments,
and made uneasy by the treatment his party at that
time received, he formed a design of going over to
New England. In this, however, he was disappointed j
the king issued out a proclamation against all such
emigrations, and Cromwell was obliged to remain in
England against his will.
In 1638, Cromwell had first an opportunity of get¬
ting himself publicly taken notice of. The earl of
Bedford 5
C R O [ 768 ] C R O
Cromwell. Bedford, nnd some other persons of high rank, who
v -—v   had estates in the fen country, were very desirous of
having it better drained $ and though one project of
this sort had failed, they set on foot another, got it
countenanced by royal authority, and settled a part of
the profits upon the crown. This, though really in¬
tended for a public benefit, was opposed as injurious
to private property: and at the head of the opposers
was Mr Oliver Cromwell, who had considerable in¬
fluence in these parts. The vigour he showed on this
occasion recommended him to his friend and relation
Mr Hampden j who afterwards characterized him in
parliament, as a person capable of contriving and con¬
ducting great designs. But for all this he was not ve¬
ry successful in his opposition 5 and as his private af¬
fairs were still declining, he was in very necessitous
circumstances at the approach of the long parliament.
In this critical situation he got himself elected member
of parliament in the following manner. In the puri¬
tanical meetings which he constantly frequented, Oli¬
ver had most eminently distinguished himself by his
gifts of praying, preaching, and expounding. At one
of these meetings he met with one Richard Tims, a
tradesman of Cambridge. This man was so much ta¬
ken with Oliver, that he took it into his head to at¬
tempt getting him chosen burgess for the approaching
parliament. Being himself one of the common coun¬
cil, Tims imagined this design might be brought about;
and with this view went to Mr Wildbore a relation of
Cromwell’s, to whom he communicated his intention.
Wildbore agreed as to the fitness of the person; but
told him the design was impracticable, because Oliver
was not a freeman. Tims next addressed one Evett
on the same subject, who also made the same objec¬
tion. He recollected, however, that the mayor had
a freedom to bestow, and a scheme w'as immediately
laid for securing this freedom to Cromwell. On ap¬
plication to the mayor, however, he told them that
the freedom was already disposed of to another ; but
this objection being obviated by promising that person
a treedom from the town, the mayor being informed
that Cromwell was a man of great fortune, signified
his intention of bestowing the freedom upon him.
Our hero being informed of the good offices of his
friends, made his appearance in the court dressed in
scarlet richly laced with gold, and having provided
plenty of claret and sweetmeats, they were so freely
circulated among the corporation, that Mr Mayor’s
freeman was unanimously declared to be a very civil
worthy gentleman. When the election came on, the
mayor discovered his mistake, but it was now too late ;
the party among the burgesses was strong enough to
choose him, and accordingly did so at the election next
year.
When Cromwell first came into parliament, he af¬
fected great plainness, and even carelessness in his
dress. His attention to farming had entirely rustica¬
ted him, so that he made a very uncouth appearance,
“ Who (says Dr South) that had beheld such a bank¬
rupt, beggarly fellow, as Cromwell, first entering the
parliament house, with a thread-bare torn coat and
greasy hat, and perhaps neither of them paid for, could
have suspected, that, in the space of so few years, he
should, by the murder of one king, and the banish¬
ment of another, ascend the throne, be invested with
3
the royal robes, and want nothing of the state of a Cromwei!
king but the changing his hat into a crown ?” Crom- j
well was very active in promoting the famous Remon¬
strance* \ which in reality laid the foundation of the * See Un¬
civil war. He declared afterwards to Lord Falkland, tairc.
that if the remonstrance had not been carried, he de¬
signed to have converted the small remains of his
estate into ready money the next day, and to have left
the kingdom by the first opportunity. His firmness
on this occasion so effectually recommended him to
Hampden, Pym, and the other leaders of the popular
party, that they took him into all their councils 5 and
here he acquired that clear insight into things, and
that knowledge of men, of which he afterwards made
such prodigious use. His exploits during the civil
war, his murder of the king, and usurpation of the
kingdom, are related under the article Britain, N°
127—188.
With regard to the character of Cromwell, Mr
Hume expresses himself as follows: “ The writers
attached to this wonderful person make his character,
with regard to abilities, bear the air of the most ex¬
travagant panegyric : his enemies form such a repre¬
sentation of his moral qualities as resembles the most
virulent invective. Both of them, it must be confes¬
sed, are supported by such striking circumstances in
his fortune and conduct, as bestow on their represen¬
tation, a great air of probability. i What can be
more extraoi*dinary (it is said), than that a person of
private birth and education, no fortune, no eminent
qualities of body, which have sometimes, nor shining
qualities of mind, which have often raised men to the
highest dignities, should have the courage to attempt,
and the abilities to execute, so great a design as the
subverting one of the most ancient as well as best
established monarchies in the world ? That he should
have the power and boldness to put his prince and
master to an open and infamous death ? should banish
that numerous and strongly allied family—cover all
these temerities under a seeming obedience to a par¬
liament, in whose service he pretended to be retain¬
ed—trample too upon that parliament in their turn,
and scornfully expel them as soon as they gave him
ground of dissatisfaction—erect in their place the do¬
minion of the saints, and give reality to the most vi¬
sionary idea which the heated imagination of any fa¬
natic was ever able to entertain—suppress again that
monster in its infancy, and openly set himself up above
all things that ever were called sovereign in England—
overcome first all his enemies by arms, and all his
friends afterwards by artifice—serve all parties pa¬
tiently for a while, and afterwards command them
victoriously at last—overrun each corner of the three
nations, and subdue with equal facility both the riches
of the south, and the poverty of the north—be feared
and courted by all princes, and adopted a brother to
the gods of the earth—call together parliaments
with a word of his pen, and scatter them again by the
breath of his mouth—reduce to subjection a warlike
and discontented nation by means of a mutinous ar¬
my—command a mutinous army by means of sedi¬
tious and factious officers—be humbly and daily pe¬
titioned, that he would be pleased, at the rate of mil¬
lions a year, to be hired as master of those who had
formerly hired him for their servant—have the estates
C R O [ 769 ] C R O
Cromwell, and lives of three nations as much at his disposal as
—Y""—was once the little inheritance of his father, and be as
noble and liberal in the spending of them ? And, lastly,
(for there is no end of enumerating every particular of
his glory), with one word bequeath all this power and
splendour to his posterity—die possessed of peace at
home, and triumph abroad—be buried among kings,
and with more than regal solemnity, and leave a name
behind him not to be extinguished but with the whole
world j which, as it was too little for his praise, so it
might have been for his conquests, if the short line of
his mortal life could have stretched out to the extent of
his immortal designs ?
“ My intention is not to disfigure this picture
drawn by so masterly a hand ; I shall only endeavour
to remove from it somewhat of the marvellous 5 a cir¬
cumstance which, on all occasions, gives much ground
for doubt and suspicion. It seems to me that the
circumstance of Cromwell’s life in which his abilities
are principally discovered, is his rising, from a private
station, in opposition to so many rivals, so much ad¬
vanced before him, to a high command and authority
in the army. His great courage, his signal military
talents, his eminent dexterity and address, were all
requisite for this important acquisition. Yet will not
this promotion appear the effect of supernatural abili¬
ties, when we consider that Fairfax himself, a private
gentleman, who had not the advantage of a seat in
parliament, had through the same steps attained even
to a superior rank $ and, if endued with common ca¬
pacity and penetration, had been able to retain it.
To incite such an army to rebellion against the par¬
liament, required no uncommon art or industry: to
have kept them in obedience had been the more diffi¬
cult enterprise. When the breach is once formed
between the military and civil powers, a supreme and
absolute authority, from that moment, is devolved on
the general; and if he is afterwards pleased to em¬
ploy artifice or policy, it may be regarded on most
occasions as great condescension, if not as superfluous
caution. That Cromwell was ever able really to blind
or overreach either the king or the republicans, does
not appear : as they possessed no means of resisting the
force under his command, they were glad to temporize
with him j and, by seeming to be deceived, to wait
for an opportunity of freeing themselves from his do¬
minion. If he seduced the military fanatics, it is to
be considered that their interest and his evidently con¬
curred ; that their ignorance and low education ex¬
posed them to the grossest imposition ; and that he
himself was at bottom as frantic an enthusiast as the
worst of them; and in order to obtain their confi¬
dence, needed but to display those vulgar and ridi¬
culous habits which he had early acquired, and on
which he set so high a value. An army is so forcible,
and at the same time so coarse a weapon, that any
hand which wields it, may, without much dexterity,
perform any operation, and attain any ascendant in hu¬
man society.
“ The domestic administration of Cromwell, though
it discovers great ability, was conducted without any
plan either of liberty or arbitrary power: perhaps his
difficult situation admitted of neither. His foreign
enterprises, though full of intrepidity, were pernicious
to national interest; and seem more the result of im-
Vol. VI. Part II. f
petuous fury or narrow prejudices, than of cool fore- Cromwell.
sight and deliberation. An eminent personage, how- —v  
ever, he was in many respects, and even a superior
genius j but unequal and irregular in his operations :
and, though not defective in any talent except that of
elocution, the abilities which in him were most admi¬
rable, and which contributed most to his marvellous
success, were the magnanimous resolution of his en¬
terprises, and his peculiar dexterity in discovering the
characters and practising on the weaknesses of man¬
kind.
“If we survey the moral character of Cromwell,
with that indulgence which is due to the blindness and
infirmities of the human species, we shall not be in¬
clined to load his memory with such violent reproaches
as those which his enemies usually throw upon it. A-
midst the passions and prejudices of that time, that he
should prefer the parliamentary to the royal cause, will
not appear extraordinary; since even at present many
men of sense and knowledge are disposed to think,
that the question, with regard to the justice of the
quarrel, may be regarded as doubtful and ambiguous,
The murder of the king, the most atrocious of all his
actions, was to him covered under a mighty cloud of
republican and fanatical illusions ; and it is not impos¬
sible but he might believe it, as many others did, the
most meritorious action which he could perform. His
subsequent usurpation was the effect of necessity, as
well as of ambition; nor is it easy to see how the va¬
rious factions could at that time have been restrained
without a mixture of military and arbitrary authority.
The private deportment of Cromwell as a son, a hus¬
band, a father, a friend, is exposed to no considerable
censure, if it does not rather merit praise. And, upon
the whole, his character does not appear more extraor¬
dinary and unusual by the mixture of so much absurdity
with so much penetration, than by his tempering such
violent ambition and such enraged fanaticism with so
much regard to justice and humanity.” ,
That Cromwell continued a most complete and bi-
gotted enthusiast to the very last, appears from his be¬
haviour in his last sickness. His disease, which at first
was a kind of slow fever, brought on by the cares
and anxiety of his mind, soon degenerated into a ter¬
tian ague. For about a week the disorder continued
without any dangerous symptoms, insomuch that every
other day he walked abroad ; but one day after din¬
ner his five physicians coming to wait upon him, one
of them having felt his pulse, said that it intermitted.
At this Cromwell was surprised, turned pale, fell into
a cold sweat, and, when he was almost fainting, or¬
dered himself to be carried to bed ; where, by the as¬
sistance of cordials, being brought a little to himself,
he made his will with respect to his private affairs. The
next morning, when one of his physicians came to visit
him, Cromwell asked him, why he looked so sad P and
when answer was made that so it became every one
who had the weighty chai’ge of his life and health
upon him, “ Ye physicians (says Cromwell), think I
shall die : I tell you I shall not die this bout, I am sure
of it. Do not you think (said he to the physician,
looking more attentively at him), do not think that I
am mad : I speak the words of truth upon surer grounds
than your Hippocrates or Galen can furnish you with.
God Almighty himself bath given that answer, not to
5E my
c R O [ 77° ] C R O
Cromwell, niy prayers alone, but also to the prayers of those who
^ v —1 entertain a stricter commerce ami greater interest with
him. Go on cheerfully, banishing all sadness from your
looks j and deal with me as you would deal with a ser¬
ving man. Ye may have a skill in the nature of things,
yet nature can do more than all physicians put toge¬
ther, and God is far more above nature.” As this phy¬
sician was coming out of the chamber, he accidentally
met with another, to whom he expressed his fear that
the protector was turning light-headed. But the o-
ther informed him that the chaplains, being dispersed
the preceding night into different parts of the house,
had prayed for the protector’s recovery, and unani¬
mously received for answer that he should recover.
Nay, to such a degree of madness did they at last ar¬
rive, that, a public fast being kept at Hampton court,
they did not so much pray to God for the protector’s
health, as return thanks for the undoubted pledges
they had of his recovery. On this account, though the
physicians perceived his distemper increasing every
hour, they took no notice of his danger, till it became
necessary for him to appoint a successor while he had
any breath remaining. But being then in a lethargic
fit, he answered from the purpose ; upon which he was
again asked whether he did not name his eldest son
Kichard ? and to this question he answered, Yes. Be¬
ing then asked where his will was which he had for¬
merly made concerning the heirs of the kingdom : he
sent to look for it in his closet and other places, but
in vain ; for somebody had either stolen it, or he him¬
self had burnt it. Soon after, he expired, on the 3d of
September 1658, aged somewhat more than 59 years
and four months. This day of September he had al¬
ways reckoned to be the most fortunate for him in the
whole year. A violent tempest, which immediately
succeeded his death, served as a subject of discourse to
the vulgar. His partizans, as well as his opponents,
were fond of remarking this event j and each of them
endeavoured, by forced inferences, to interpret it as best
suited their particular prejudices.
It has been imagined by some, that Oliver Crom¬
well was poisoned: but for this there seems to be no
reasonable foundation. His body wTas opened by Hr
Bates. He found the brain somewhat overcharged
with blood, and the lungs a little inflamed ; but what
he reckoned to have been the principal cause of his
disorder was a total degeneracy of the substance of his
spleen into a matter resembling the lees of oil. This,
he thought, also accounted for the hypochondriac dis¬
positions to which Cromwell had from his infancy
been subject. Though the bowels were taken out,
and the body filled with spices wrapped in a fourfold
cere bloth, put first into a coffin of lead, and then into
one of wood, yet the corruption was so great that the
humour wrought itself through the whole, and thei'e
was a necessity of interring the body before the so¬
lemnity of the funeral. A very pompous funeral was
ordered at the public expence, and performed from
Somerset-house, with a splendour not only equal but
superior to that bestowed upon crowned heads. Some
have related that his body was deposited in Naseby-
field *, others, that it was wrapped in lead, and sunk in
the deepest part of the Thames, to prevent any insult
that might afterwards be offered to it. But it seems
beyond doubt that his body was interred at Westmin¬
ster: as we are informed, that on the order to disinter Cromwell
him after the Restoration, his corpse was found in a U
vault in the middle aisle of Henry VII.’s chapel. In Cronius'
the inside of the coffin, and on the breast of the corpse,
was laid a copper plate finely gilt, enclosed in a thin
case of lead. On one side of this plate were engraven
the arms of England impaled with those of Oliver, and
on the reverse the following legend : Olivertus P?'otec-
ior lleipublicce Anglue, Scotia;, et Hibernice, natus 25.
Aprilis 1599, inauguratus 16. Decembris 1653, mor-
hats 3. Septcmbris ann. 1658, hie situs est.
Cromwell was of a robust frame of body, and of a
manly though not agreeable aspect. His nose being
remarkably red and shining, was often made the sub¬
ject of ridicule. He left only two sons, Richard and
Henry : and three daughters ; one married to General
Fleetwood, another to Lord Fauconberg, and a third
to Lord Rich. His mother lived till after he was pro¬
tector $ and contrary to her orders he buried her with
great pomp in Westminster abbey. She could not
be persuaded that ever his power or his person was
in safety. At every noise she heard she would exclaim
that her son was murdered; and was never satisfied
that he was alive if she did not receive frequent visits
from him. She was a decent woman ; and by her fru¬
gality and industry had raised and educated a nume¬
rous family upon a small fortune. She had even been
obliged to set up a brewery at Fluntingdon, which she
managed to good advantage. Hence Cromwell, in the
invectives of that age, is often stigmatized with the
name of brewer. -Ludlow, by way of insult, mentions
the great accession which he would receive to his royal
revenues upon his mother’s death, who possessed a join¬
ture of 60 pounds a-year upon his estate. She was o£
a good family of the name of Stuart; and is by some
supposed to have been remotely allied to the royal fa¬
mily.
Cromwell, Richard, eldest son of Oliver Cromwell,
was by his father appointed successor to the protector¬
ship, but very soon deposed by the army *. They * See Un¬
discharged his debts, took all the household stuff, plate, No.
&c. gave him a protection for six months, and so hel89» I$°*
retired. He was by no means qualified to support the
station gained by the aspiring talents of his father. He
was of a moderate temper, and untainted with that fa¬
natical spirit which his father had so successfully culti¬
vated. On the Restoration he went abroad ; but re¬
turned in 1680 under the assumed name of Clark, and
settled in Cheshunt in Hertfordshire, where he lived pri¬
vately, and died in 1712, aged 86.
CRONENBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and in the landgraviate of Hesse
Cassel, with a strong castle. It is seated at the foot of
a high mountain, on a fertile soil, and is surround¬
ed with a double wall. E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. $Q.
T-5-
Cronenburg, a strong fortress of Denmark, in the
isle of Zealand, at the entrance of the Sound, where
the Danes take toll of such ships as are bound for the
Baltic. It was very richly furnished, but pillaged by
the Swedes in 1658, who took away the furniture,
among which were some statues of massy silver. It is
built upon piles. E. Long, 12. 50. N. Lat. 56. Q.
CRONIUS, in Chronology, the ancient name of
the Athenian month Hecatombceon j which was the
first
C R O [ 771 ] CEO
Cronios first of their year, and answered to the latter part of
|J our June and beginning of July.—-There were feasts
Cronstadt. callecl Cronienes celebrated at Athens in this month,
^ in honour of Saturn, answering to the Saturnalia of the
Homans.
CRONSLOT. See Cronstadt.
CRONSTADT, a sea-port town of Russia, where
the greatest part of the navy is stationed. It stands
upon the island of Retusari in the gulf of Finland j and
was founded by Peter I. as being provided with the
safest harbour in these parts, and as forming a strong
bulwark by sea for the defence of the new metropolis.
The only passage by which ships of burden can ap¬
proach Petersburgh, lies on the south side of Retusari,
through a narrow channel $ one side whereof is com¬
manded by Cronstadt, and the opposite by Cronslot and
the citadel. Cronslot, which stands upon a small island
of sand, is a circular building, and surrounded with
fortifications that jut into the water. There is another
fortress constructed on a sand bank. All large vessels
must sail between Cronstadt and these two fortresses,
exposed to the fire of the opposite batteries $ for the
other parts of the gulf are only from one to eleven feet
in depth. On the land side, the city is defended by
ramparts and bastions. The population amounts to
about 40,000, of whom at least 10,000 are sailors.
Cronstadt is built upon the south-eastern extremity
of the island, and is defended towards the sea by
wooden piers projecting into the water, and towards
the land by ramparts and bastions. It is a very strag¬
gling place; and occupies, like all the Russian towns,
a larger space of ground than the number of habita¬
tions seems to require ; the houses are mostly of wood,
excepting a few fronting the harbour, which are of
brick stuccoed white. These give the stranger a high
notion of the interior j but this is soon obliterated by
the mean appearance of the houses, and the almost
total want of pavement. Among the public buildings
are the imperial hospital for sailors, the barracks, and
the academy for marines and officers of the navy. That
seminary usually contains between three and four hun¬
dred cadets, who are clothed, maintained, and taught
at the expence of the crown. They are admitted at
the age of five, and are suffered to remain until they
reach their seventeenth year. They learn accounts,
mathematics, drawing, fortification, and navigation 5
and have masters in the French, German, English, and
Swedish languages. They are trained to naval affaii-s,
and make an annual cruise in the Baltic as far as Re¬
vel. Cronstadt has a separate haven appropriated to
the men of war, and another to merchant ships. Close
to the haven for merchant ships is a canal and several
dry docks, begun in 1719 by Peter I. for the purpose
of refitting the men of war. This useful work was ne¬
glected under his successor, and was not completed
until the reign of his daughter Elizabeth. It has been
still farther beautified and improved by the late em¬
press 5 and is now applied for building as well as careen¬
ing ships of the line. At the extremity of these docks
is a great reservoir 568 feet in length, which contains
water sufficient, and half the quantity over, to supply
all the docks j which is pumped into it by means of a
fire engine, the diameter of whose cylinder is six feet.
The length of this work, from the beginning of the
canal to the end of the last dock, is 4221 feet. The Cronstadt
sides of the docks are faced with stone, and the bottom |1
is paved with granite. They are 40 feet deep and 150 Cl0SS-
broad ; and are capable of containing nine men of war *" "1' f
upon the stocks.
CRONSTAT, a town of Transylvania, near the
frontiers of Moldavia, subject to the house of Austria.
E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 47. o.
CROP, the high part or end of any thing cut oft". It
is particularly used for the corn gathered off a field in
harvest. See AGRICULTURE Index.
CROSIER, or Crozier, a shepherd’s crook ; a sym¬
bol of pastoral authority, consisting of a gold or silver
staff, crooked at the top, carried occasionally before
bishops and abbots, and held in the hand when they
give the solemn benedictions. The custom of bearing a
pastoral staff before bishops is very ancient, as appeal's
from the life of St Caesarea of Arles, who lived about
the year 500. Among the Greeks none but the patri¬
archs had a right to the crosier. The crosiers were at
first no more than simple wooden staves in form of a T,
used to rest and lean upon. By degrees they were made
longer 5 and at length arrived at the form we now see
them off. Regular abbots are allowed to officiate with
a mitre and crosier.
Crosier, in Astronomy, four stars in the southern
hemisphere in the form of a cross, serving those who
sail in south latitudes to find the antarctic pole.
CROSLET, in Heraldry, is when a cross is crossed
again at a small distance from each of the ends. Upton
says it is not so often borne by itself in arms as other
crosses are, but often in diminutives, that is, in small
croslets scattered about the field. See Heraldry.
CROSS, a gibbet made with two pieces of wood
placed crosswise, whether they cross with right angles
at the top like a T, or in the middle of their length
like an X. The cross to which our Saviour was fasten¬
ed, and on which he died, was of the former kind j
being thus represented by old monuments, coins, and
crosses j and St Jerome compares it to a bird flying, a
man swimming, or praying with his arms extended.
The punishment of the cross was common among the Sy¬
rians, Egyptians, Persians, Africans, Greeks, Romans,
and Jews.
The death of the cross was the most dreadful of
all others, both for the shame and pain of it j and so
scandalous, that it was inflicted as the last mark of de¬
testation upon the vilest of people. It was the punish¬
ment of robbers and murderers, provided that they were
slaves too j but otherwise, if they were free, and had
the privileges of the city of Rome, this was then
thought a prostitution of that honour, and too infa¬
mous a punishment for such a one, let his crimes be
what they would.
The Mosaic law ordained, that the persons executed
should not be left upon the tree after sunset, because
he that is hanged in this manner is accursed of God,
Deut. xxi, 22. The Jews believe, that the souls of
those who remain upon the gibbet, and without burial,
enjoy no peace, and receive no benefit from the prayers
of other people j but wander up and down till their
bodies are buried : which agrees with the notions that
the Greeks and Romans had of this matter, as may be
seen in Horn. Iliad 4. and Virg. JEneid 6.
$E 2
The
C R O [ 772 ] C R O
The form of a cross being such as has been already
described, the body of the criminal was fastened to the
upright piece by nailing the feet to it, and on the other
transverse piece generally by nailing the hands on each
side. Now, because these parts of the body, being the
instruments of action and motion, are provided by na¬
ture with a much greater quantity of nerves than others
have occasion for ; and because all sensation is perform¬
ed by the spirit contained in these nerves $ it will fol¬
low, as Stanhope observes, that wherever they abound
the sense of pain must needs in proportion be more
quick and tender.
The Jews confess, that indeed they crucified people
in their nation, but deny that they inflicted this punish¬
ment upon any one alive. They first put them to death,
and then fastened them to the cross either by the hands
or neck. But there are indisputable proofs of their
crucifying men frequently alive. The worshipers of
Baal-peor and the king of Ai were hung up alive; as
were also the descendants of Saul, who were put into
the hands of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. xxi. 9.
Before crucifixion the criminal was generally scour¬
ged with cords: sometimes little bones, or pieces of
bones, were tied to these scourges, so that the con¬
demned person might suffer more severely. It was also
a custom that he who was to be crucified should bear
his own cross to the place of execution. After this
manner we find Christ was compelled to bear his own
cross; and, as he sunk under the burden, Simon the
Cyrenian was constrained to bear it after him and with
him. But whereas it is generally supposed that our
Lord bore the whole cross, i. e. the long and transverse
part both, this seems to be a thing impossible ; and
therefore Lipsius (in his treatise Tie Supplicio Crucis)
has set the matter in a true light, when he tells us that
Jesus only carried the transverse beam ; because the
long beam, or the body of the cross, was either fixed
in the ground before, or made ready to L-e set up as soon
as the prisoner came: and from hence he observes,
that painters are very much mistaken in their descrip¬
tion of our Saviour carrying the whole cross.
There were several ways of crucifying : sometimes
the criminal was fastened with cords to a tree ; some¬
times he was crucified with his head downwards. This
way St Peter chose out of respect to his master Jesus
Christ, not thinking himself worthy to be crucified
like him ; though the common way of crucifying was
by fastening the criminal with nails, one through each
hand, and one through both feet, or one through each
of them : for this was not always performed in the same
manner ; the ancients sometimes representing Jesus
Christ crucified with four nails, and sometimes with
three. The criminal was fixed to the cross quite na¬
ked ; and in all probability the Saviour of the world
was not used with any greater tenderness than others
upon whom the punishment was inflicted. The sol¬
diers divided his clothes among them, and cast lots for
his tunic, which is an under garment worn over the
flesh like a shirt.
The text of the gospel shows clearly, that Jesus
Christ was fastened to the cross with nails; and the
Psalmist (xxii. 16.) had foretold long before, that
they should pierce his hands and his feet: but there are
great disputes concerning the number of these nails..
The Greeks represent our Saviour as fastened to the
cross with four nails ; in which particular Gregory of Cross.
Tours agrees with them, one at each hand and foot. y-
But several are of opinioq, that our Saviour’s hands
and feet were pierced with three nails only, viz. one at
at each hand, and one through both his feet: and one
custom of the Latins is rather for this last opinion ; for
the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin
church have only three nails. Nonnus thinks that our
Saviour’s arms were besides bound fast to the cross
with chains ; and St Hilary speaks of the cords where¬
with be was tied to it.
Sometimes they who were fastened upon the cross
lived a good while in that condition. St Andrew is
believed to have continued three days alive upon it.
Eusebius speaks of certain martyrs in Egypt who were
kept upon the cross till they were starved to death.
Pilate was amazed at Jesus Christ dying so soon ; be¬
cause naturally he must have lived long, if it had not
been in his power to have laid down his life and to take
it up again. The thighs of the two thieves who were
crucified together with our Saviour, were broken in
order to hasten their death, that their bodies might
not remain upon the cross on the Sabbath-day (John
xix. 31, 32, 33.)» ancI to comply with the law of Mo¬
ses, which forbids the bodies to be left there after sun¬
set. But among other nations they were suffered to
remain upon the cross along time. Sometimes they
were devoured alive by birds and beasts of prey. Guards
were appointed to observe that none of their friends or
relations should take them down and bury them. The
story of the Ephesian matron and the soldier who was
set to guard the cross, is very well known. The Ho¬
man soldiers who had crucified Jesus Christ and the two
thieves continued near the crosses till the bodies were
taken down and buried.
Crosses were usually, in former times, erected on the
tops of houses, by which tenants pretended to claim the
privileges of the Templars Hospitallers, to defend them¬
selves against their rightful lords. This was condemned
by the statute Wil. II. c. 37. It was usual also, in
ihose days, to set up crosses in places where the corpse
of any of the nobility rested as it was carried to be bu¬
ried, that a transeuntibus pro ejus animo deprecentur.
Crosses, &c. are forbidden to be brought into England
by 13 Eliz. c. 2. on pain at a. preemumre, &c.
Invention of the Cross, an ancient feast solemnized
on the third of May, in memory of St Helena’s (the mo¬
ther of Constantine) finding the true cross of Christ deep
in the ground on Mount Calvary ; where she erected a
church for the preservation of part of it; the rest being
brought to Home and deposited in the church of the
Holy Cross of Jerusalem.
Theodoret mentions the finding of three crosses ; that
of Jesus Christ and those of the two thieves ; and that
they distinguished between them by means of a sick
woman, whp was immediately healed by touching the
true cross. The place is said to have been pointed out
to her by St Quiriacus, then a Jew, afterwards convert¬
ed and canonized.
Exaltation of the Cross, an ancient feast, held on the
14th of September, in memory of this, that Heracli¬
tus restored to Mount Calvary the true cross in 642,
which had been carried off 14 years before by Cosroes
king of Persia, upon his taking Jerusalem from, the em¬
peror Phocas.
The
C R O [ 773 ] C R O
Cross. The adoration of the cross appears to hare been
—~v practised in the ancient church •, inasmuch as the hea¬
thens, particularly Julian, reproached the primitive
Christians with it. And we do not find that their apolo¬
gists disclaimed the charge. Mornay, indeed, asserted,
that this had been done by St Cyril, but could not
support his allegation at the conference of Fountain-
bleau. St Helena is said to have reduced the adora¬
tion of the cross to its just principle, since she adored
in the wood, not the wood itself, which had been di¬
rect idolatry and heathenism, but him who had been
nailed to this wood. With such modifications some
Protestants have been induced to admit the adoration
of the cross. John Huss allowed of the phrase, provid¬
ed it were expressly added, that the adoration was re¬
lative to the person of Christ. But however Roman
Catholics may seem to triumph by virtue of such distinc¬
tion and mitigations, it is well known they have no
great place in their own practice. Imbert, the good
prior of Gascony, was severely prosecuted in 1683 for
telling the people, that in the ceremony of adoring the
cross, practised in that church on Good Friday, they
were not to adore the wood, but Christ, who was cru¬
cified on it. The curate of the parish told them the
contrary : it was the wood ! the wood ! they were to
adore. Imbert replied, was Christ, not the wood :
for which he was cited before the archbishop of Bour-
deaux, suspended from hie functions, and threatened
with chains and perpetual imprisonment. It little a-
vailed him to cite the bishop cf Meaux’s distinction j it
was answered that the church allowed it not.
Cnoss-Becrer (port-croix, cruciger), in the Romish
church, the chaplain of an archbishop or a primate,
who bears a cross before him on solemn occasions.
The pope has the cross borne before him every¬
where ; a patriarch anywhere out of Rome 5 and pri¬
mates, metropolitans, and those who have a right to the
pallium, throughout their respective jurisdictions.
Gregory XI. ferbade all patriarchs and prelates to
have it borne in presence of cardinals. A prelate bears
a single cross, a patriarch a double cross, and the pope
a triple one on his arms.
Cxoss-Bearei's also denote certain officers in the in¬
quisition, who make a vow before the inquisitors or
their vicars to defend the Catholic faith, though with
the loss of fortune and life. Their business is to pro¬
vide the inquisitors with necessaries. They were for¬
merly of great use j but in process of time some of
their constitutions were changed, and they were called,
of the penance of St Dominic.
Pectoral Cross, is a cross of gold or silver, or other
precious materials, often enriched with diamonds, which
the bishops, archbishops, &c. and regular abbesses,
wear hanging from the neck.
Order of the Cross, or Croisade, an order cf ladies
instituted in 1668 by the empress Eleonora de Gonza-
gua, wife of the emperor Leopold ; on occasion ol
the miraculous recovery of a little golden cross where¬
in were inclosed two pieces ot the true cross, out ot
the ashes of part of the palace. It seems the fire had
burnt the case wherein it was inclosed, and melted the
crystal, yet the wood remained untouched.
Maids of the Cross, a community of young women
instituted in 1265 at Roye in Picardy, and since dis¬
persed to Paris and other towns. They instruct young
persons of their own sex. Some take the three vows Cross,
of poverty, chastity, and obedience; others retain their ——v~“
liberty. They are under the direction of a superior.
Cross, in Heraldry, defined by Gnillim, an or¬
dinary composed of fourfold lines ; whereof two are
perpendicular, and the other two transverse; for so we
must conceive of them, though they be not drawn
throughout, but meet by couples, in four right angles
near the fesse point of the escutcheon. See He¬
raldry.
This bearing was first bestowed on such as had per¬
formed, or at least undertaken, some service for Christ,
and the Christian profession ; and is held by divers the
most honourable charge in all heraldry. What brought
it into such frequent use, was the ancient expeditions
into the Holy Land ; and the holy war pilgrims, af¬
ter their pilgrimage, taking the cross for their cogni¬
zance ; and the ensign oLthat war being the cross. In
those wars, says Mackenzie, the Scots carried St An¬
drew’s cross ; the French a cross argent ; the English
a cross or ; the Germans, sable ; the Italians, azure ;
the Spaniards, gules.
St George's Cross, or the red cross, in a field argent,
is now the standard of England ; that saint being the
reputed patron of this nation.
Nor is it only in crosses that the variety is so
great; the like is found in many other hearings, and
particularly in lions, and the parts of them ; whereof
Columbiere gives us no less than 96 varieties. Leigh
mentions but 46 several crosses ; Sylvanus Morgan,
26; Upton, 30; Johannes de Bado Aureo, 12; and
so others, whom it is needless to mention. Upton
owns he dares not presume to ascertain all the various
crosses used in arms, for that they are at present almost
innumerable; and therefore he only takes notice of
such as he had seen used in his own time.
Cross, in mining, two nicks cut on the superficies
of the earth, thus +, which the miners make when
they take the ground to dig for ore. This cross gives
the miners three days liberty to make and set on
stones. As many of these crosses as the miner makes,
so many mears of ground he may have in the vein,
provided he set on stones within three days after making
his cross or crosses. But if he make but one cross, and
a stander by makes the second, and a stranger makes
the third, every one is served with the next mear, ac¬
cording as they have first or last, sooner or later, made
their cross or crosses upon the ground.
Cross, in coins, a name given to the right side or
face, the other being called the pile or reverse. It
has been a common error, that the reverse was meant
by the cross ; because at this time, with us, it is mark¬
ed with figures disposed in that form : hut the stamp¬
ing the head of the prince in these kingdoms on the
right side of the coin, was preceded by a general cus¬
tom of striking on that part the figure of a cross j
while the other, called the pile, contained the arms or
some other device.
Cross, instead of a signature to a deed, &c. is de¬
rived from the Saxon practice of affixing the sign of
the cross, whether they could write or not.
Cross, in surveying, is an instrument which consists
of a brass circle, divided into four equal parts by two
lines crossing each other in the centre. At each ex¬
tremity of the lines is fixed a perpendicular sight, with.
small
C R O L 774 ] C R O
Cross. small holes below each slit, for the better discovering
“-'v——' of distant objects. The cross is mounted on a staff or
stand, to fix it in the ground, and it is found to be a
very useful instrument for measuring small pieces of
land, and taking offsets, &c.
Cnoss-Bai' Shot, a bullet with an iron bar passing
through it, and standing six or eight inches out at
both sides. It is used at sea for destroying the enemy’s
rigging.
Cross-BM. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
Cross-BUI, in chancery, is an original bill, by which
the defendant prays relief against the plaintiff.
Cross-Bows. See Bows and Archery.
Ciioss-gramed Stuff, in joinery. Wood is said to be
cross-grained, when a bough or branch has shot out of
it; for the grain of the branch shooting forward, runs
athwart that of the trunk.
In wood well grown this defect is scarce perceiv¬
able, except in workings but in deal-boards these boughs
make knots. If the bough grew up with the young
trunk, instead of a knot is found a curling in the stuff,
very sensible under the plane.
Csoss-Jack, pronounced cro-jeck, a sail extended on
the lower yard of the mizen-mast, which is hence
called the cross-jack yard. This sail, however, has
generally been found of little service, and is therefore
very seldom used.
Cnoss-Piece, a rail of timber extended over the
windlass of a merchant ship from the knight-heads to
the belfry. It is stuck full of wooden pins, which are
used to fasten the running rigging as occasion requires.
See Windlass.
Csoss-Staff, or Fot'e-staff, is a mathematical instru¬
ment of hard wood, consisting of a square staff of about
three feet long, having each of its faces divided like a
line of tangents, and having four cross pieces of une¬
qual lengths to sit on the staff, the halves of these be¬
ing as the radii to the tangent lines on the faces of the
staff’.—The instrument was formerly used in taking the
altitudes of the celestial bodies at sea.
CROSS-Tining, in Husbandry, a method of harrowing
land, consisting in drawing the harrow up the interval
it went down before, and down that which it was
drawn up.
Cnoss-Trees, certain pieces of timber, supported by
the cheeks and trestle-trees, at the upper ends of the
lower masts, athwart which they are laid to sustain
the frame of the top.
Cnoss-Tree Yard, is a yard standing square, just un¬
der the mizen-top, and to it the mizen-top is fastened
below. See CROSS-Jack.
CROss-JFort. See Valantia, Botany Index.
Ordeal of the Cross, a species of trial frequently
pi'actised in the days of superstition. See Ordeal.
Cross, an English artist, famous only for copying,
in the reigns of Charles I. and Charles II. Of this ta¬
lent there is a story current, more to the credit of his
skill than of his probity. He is said to have been em¬
ployed by Charles I. to copy the celebrated Madona
of Raphael in St Mark’s church at Venice •, and that,
having obtained leave of the state for that purpose, he
executed his piece so well as to bring away the origi¬
nal and leave his copy in the place of it. The decep¬
tion was not detected until it was too late to recover
the loss j and this piece was bought in Oliver Crom¬
well’s time by the Spanish ambassador for his master, Cron
who placed it in the Escurial. [|
CROSSEN, a handsome town of Silesia in Ger- Cr°talus.
many, and capital of a principality of the same name. ^-'V—*
It is situated at the confluence of the rivers Bobar
and Oder, in a fertile country abounding in wine and
fruits. There is a bridge over the Oder which is for¬
tified. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat. 52. 5.
CROSSOSTYLUS, in Botany, a genus of plants
belonging to the monadelphia class.
CROTALARIA, Rattle-wort j a genus of
plants belonging to the diadelphia class; and in the
natural method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilio-
nacece.
CROTALO, an instrument of military music, like
that described in the next article. The Turks were
the first, among the moderns, who introduced the
use of it for their troops. It is now common in Flan¬
ders and Florence, and other territories on the conti¬
nent. It has only one tone ; but its eifect in marking
time may be distinctly heard through the noise of forty
drums. This is the same instrument with the ancient
cymbalum.
CROTALUM, an ancient kind of castagnetta, or
musical instrument, found on medals in the hands of
the priests of Cybele. The crotalum differed from
the sistrum 5 though authors frequently confound the
two. It consisted of two little brass plates or rods,
which were shaken in the hand, and in striking against
each other made a noise.
It was sometimes also made of a reed split length¬
wise j one part whereof they struck against the other ;
and as this made a noise somewhat like that of a crane’s
bill, they called that bird crotalistria, a player on the
crotala : and Aristophanes calls a great talker a crola-
lum.
Clemens Alexandrinus attributes the invention to
the Sicilians ; and forbids the use thereof to the Chri¬
stians, because of the indecent motions and gestures that
accompany it.
CROTALUS, or Rattle-snake, in Zoology, a
genus belonging to the order of amphibia serpentes.
See Ophiology Index. The following is the account
given by Mr Catesby of the crotalus horridus, or Ame¬
rican rattle-snake. This grows sometimes to the length
of eight feet, and weighs between eight and nine
pounds. The colour of the head is brown j the eye
red j the upper part of the body of a yellowish-brown
colour, transversely marked with irregular broad black
lists. The rattle is of a brown colour, composed of
several horny, membranous cells, of an undulated py¬
ramidal figure. These are articulated within one ano¬
ther in such a manner that the point of the first cell
reaches as far as the basis of the protuberant ring of
the third, and so on ; which articulation, being very
loose, gives liberty to the parts of the cells that are in¬
closed within the outward rings to strike against the
sides of them, and so to cause the rattling noise which
is heard when the snake shakes its tail. This is the
most inactive and slow-moving of all the snakes, and is
never the aggressor except in what it preys upon. The
above gentleman is of opinion that no remedy is yet
discovered for the bite of this animal. He had fre¬
quently access to see Indians bitten by it, and always
thought that those who recovered were cured more
through
C R O [ 775 ] C R O
Crotalis tlirougli the force of nature, or by reason of the slight-
11 ness of the bite, than by the remedies used. He tells
Croto. us> t]iat {fog IndJans know their destiny the moment
tiiey are bitten ; and if the bite happens to be on any of
the large veins, they apply no remedies, as knowing them
to be entirely useless. He believes the reports of the
fascinating power of this serpent, though he never had
an opportunity of seeing it. See the article Poison
and Serpent.
CROTALYSTRI./E, in antiquity, a kind of mo-
rice dancers, admitted to entertainments, in order to
divert the company with their dancing and playing on
an instrument called crotalum, whence they had their
name.
CROTCHET, in Music, one of the notes or cha¬
racters of time, equal to half a minum, and double of
a quaver.
Crotchets are also marks or characters, serving to
inclose a word or sentence which is distinguished from
the rest, being generally in this form [ J.
CROTO, or Croton, in Ancient Geography, a noble
city of the Bruttii, built by the Acheans, 150 stadia to
the north of Lacinium, and in the neighbourhood of
Metapontum. It was twelve miles in compass before
the arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy ; but after the desolation
produced by that war, scarce half of it was inhabited.
The citadel on one side hung over the sea, on the other
towards the land. It was naturally strong from its situ¬
ation, but afterwards walled round ; on which side it
was taken by Dionysius by stratagem, by means of the
rocks behind it.
Pythagoras, after his long pereginations in search
of knowledge, fixed his residence in this place, which
some authors think his native one, at least that of his
parents, supposing him to have been born in the isle of
Samos, and not at some town of that name in Italy.
This incomparable sage spent the latter part of his life
in training up disciples to the rigid exercise of sublime
and moral virtue, and instructing the Crotonites in the
true arts of government, such as alone can inspire hap¬
piness, glory, and independence.
Under the influence of this philosophy, the Croto¬
nites inured their bodies to frugality and hardships,
and their minds to self-denial and patriotic disinterest¬
edness. Their virtues were the admiration of Greece,
where it was a current proverb, that the last of the
Crotonites was the first of the Greeks. In one Olym¬
piad, seven of the victors in the games were citizens
of Croton ; and the name of Milo is almost as famous
as that of Hercules. The vigour of the men and
beauty of the women were ascribed to the climate,
which was believed to be endowed with qualities pe¬
culiarly favourable to the human system. Their phy¬
sicians were in high reputeand among those, Alc-
meon and Democides rendered themselves most con¬
spicuous. Alcmeon was the first who dared to ampu¬
tate a limb, in order to save the life of a patient; and
also the first writer who thought of inculcating moral
precepts under tire amusing cloak of apologues. This
invention is more commonly attributed to .ZEsop, as
he was remarkably ingenious in this species of com¬
position. Democides was famous for his attachment
to his native soil. Though caressed and enriched by
the king of Persia, whose queen he had snatched from
the jaws of death, he abandoned wealth and honours, Croio
and by stratagem escaped to the humble comforts of a i|
private life at Croton.—The Pythagoreans are said to , Bronte,
have discovered that disposition of the solar system,
which, with some modifications, has been revived by
Copernicus, and is now universally received, as being
most agreeable to nature and experiment. Theano,
the wife of Pythagoras, and many other women, emu¬
lated the virtues of their husbands.
In those fortunate days the state of Croton was
most flourishing. Its walls inclosed a circumference
of 12 miles. Of all the colonies sent out from Greece,
this alone furnished succour to the mother-country
when invaded by the Persians. By its avenging arms
the Sybarites were punished for their shameful dege¬
neracy : but victory proved fatal to the conquerors j
for riches, and all their pernicious attendants, insinua¬
ted themselves into Croton, and soon contaminated
the purity of its principles. Indeed, the very consti¬
tution of human nature militates against any long con¬
tinuance in such rigid practices of virtue ; and there¬
fore it is no wonder if the Crotonites fell by degrees
into the irrregularities they once abhorred. Not long
after the Locrians, who were less corrupted, defeated
them on the banks of the Sagra, and reduced the re¬
public to distress and penury. This restored the re¬
maining Crotonites to their pristine vigour of mind, and
enabled them to make a brave, though unsuccessful re¬
sistance, when attacked by Dionysius of Syracuse.
They suffered much in the war with Pyrrhus, and,
by repeated misfortunes, decreased in strength and
numbers, from age to age, down to that of Hannibal,
when they could not muster 20,000 inhabitants. This
small population being incapable of manning the ex¬
tensive works erected in the days of prosperity, Croton
was taken by the Carthaginians, and its citizens trans¬
ported to Locri. The Romans sent a colony hither
200 years before Christ. In the Gothic war, this city
rendered itself conspicuous by its fidelity to Justinian,
and Totila besieged it long in vain.
CROTON, Wild Ricinus ; a genus of plants, be¬
longing to the monoecia class ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 3.8th order, Tricoccee. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CROTONA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of
Naples, seated on the gulf of Taranto, with a bishop’s
see and citadel. E. Long. 17. 27. N. Lat. 39. 10.
CROTOPHAGA, a genus of birds belonging to the
order of picae. See Ornithology Index.
CROTOY, a town of France in Picardy* now in
the department of Somme. The fortifications are
demolished. It is seated at the mouth of the river
Somme. E. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 50. IJ--.
CROUCHED Friars. See Croisiers.
CROUP, in Medicine. See Medicine Index.
Crovp of a Horse, in the manege, the extremity of
the reins above the hips.
CROUPADE, in the manege, a leap, in which the
horse pulls up his hind legs, as if he drew them up to
his belly.
CROUTE, Sour Croute, or Kroute. As this
preparation of cabbage has been found of sovereign
efficacy as a preservative in long voyages from the sea-
scurvy, it may not be unacceptable to give a concise
account
c R O [ 776 1 CEO
Croute account of the process for making it, according to the
ii information communicated by an ingenious German
gentleman.
The soundest and most solid cabbages are selected
for this use, and cut very small, commonly with an in¬
strument made for this purpose, not unlike the plane
which is used in this country for slicing cucumbers.
A knife is used when the preparation is made with
great nicety. The cabbage thus minced is put into
a barrel in layers, hand high, and over each is strewed
a handful of salt and carraway seeds ; in this manner
it is rammed down with a rammer, stratum super stra¬
tum, till the barrel be full $ when a cover is put over it
and pressed down with a heavy weight. After standing
some time in this state it begins to ferment; and it is
not till the fermentation has entirely subsided that the
bead is fitted to it, and the barrel is finally shut up and
preserved for use. There is not a drop of vinegar em¬
ployed in this preparation. The Germans write this
preparation in the following manner : Sauer kraut, or
sat/er kohl; that is, in their language, “ sour herb, or
' sour cabbage.”
CROUSAZ, John Peter de, a learned philosopher
and mathematician, was born in 1663. Having made
great progress in the mathematics and the philosophy
of Des Cartes, he travelled to Geneva, Holland, and
France ; was successively professor in several univer¬
sities j and at length was chosen governor to Prince
Frederick of Hesse Cassel, nephew to the king of Swe¬
den. He wrote many works $ the most esteemed of
which are, I. His Logic, the best edition of which is
that of 1741, in 6 vols 8vo. 2. A Treatise on Beauty.
3. A Treatise on the Education of Children, 2 vols
12mot 4. Several Treatises on Philosophical and Ma¬
thematical Subjects, &c. He died at Lausanne in
1748.
CROW. See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
Crow, in Mechanics, a kind of iron lever, with a
claw at one end and a sharp point at the other ; used
for heaving or purchasing great weights.
Crow's Bill, among surgeons, a kind of forceps for
drawing bullets and other foreign bodies out of wounds.
Crow's Feet, in the military art, machines of iron,
having four points, each about three or four inches
long, so made that, whatever wray they fall, there is
still a point up $ they are thrown upon breaches, or in
passes where the enemy’s cavalry are to march, proving
very troublesome, by running into the horses feet, and
laming them.
Crow's Foot, on shipboard, a complication of small
cords spreading out from a long block, like the smaller
parts which extend from the backbone of a herring.
It is used to suspend the awnings ; or to keep the top¬
sails from striking violently, and fretting against the
tops.
CROW-Net, is an invention for catching wild-fowl
i|i the winter-season, and may be used in the day time.
The net is made of double thread, or fine packthread ;
the meshes should be two inches wide, the length about
ten yards, and the depth three ; it must be verged on
the side with good strong cord, and stretched out very
stiff on long poles prepared for that purpose. When
you are come to the place where you would spi'ead
your net, open it, and lay it out at its full length, and
3
breadth j then fasten the lower end of the net all along Crow-net
the ground, so as only to move it up and down ; the S
upper end of the net must stand extended on the long Crown,
cord ; the further end thereof being staked first to the T1 ^
earth by a strong cord about five yards distant from
the net. Place this cord in an even line with the lower
edge of the net. The other end must be at least 25
yards distant to reach into some natural or artificial
shelter, by the means of which vou may lie concealed
from the fowl, otherwise no good success can be ex¬
pected. The net must be placed in such exact order
that it might give way to play on the fowl on the least
pull of the cord, which must be done smartly, lest the
fowl should prove too quick for you. This net may be
used for pigeons, crows, or other birds, on corn-fields
newly sown j as also in stubble-fields, provided the stub¬
ble conceals the net from the birds.
CROWD, in a general sense, signifies a number of
people assembled in a place scarce big enough to hold
them all.
To Crowd, in the sea-language, is to carry an extra¬
ordinary force of sail upon a ship, in order to accelerate
her course on some important occasion ; as in pursuit
of, or flight from an enemy} to escape any immediate
danger, &c.
CROWLAND, a town in Lincolnshire, seated in
the fens, in a dirty soil, and had formerly an abbey of
very great note. There is no coming at it but by nar¬
row causeways, wdiich will not admit a cart. It has
three streets, separated from each other by water-courses.
Their chief trade is in fish and fowl, which are in great
plenty in the adjacent pools and marshes. Population
1879 in 1811. W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 52. 40.
CROWN, an ornament worn on the head by kings,
sovereign princes, and noblemen, as a mark of their
dignity.
In scripture there is frequent mention of crowns,
and the use of them seems to have been very common
among the Hebrews. The high priest wore a crown,
which was a fillet of gold placed upon the forehead,
and tied with a ribbon of hyacinth colour or azure
blue. It seems also as if private priests, and even
common Israelites, wore also a sort of crown, since
God commands Ezekiel not to take off his crown, nor
assume the marks of one in mourning. This crown
was no more than a ribbon or fillet, with which the
Jews and several people in the east girt their heads.
And indeed the first crowns were no more than a ban¬
delet drawn round the head, and tied behind, as we
still see it represented in medals round the heads of
Jupiter, the Ptolemies, and kings of Syria. After¬
wards they consisted of two bandelets ; by degrees
they took branches of trees of divers kinds ; at length
they added flowers, insomuch that Claudius Saturninus
says, there was not any plant whereof crowns had not
been made. The woods and groves were searched to
find different crowns for the several deities; and they
were used not only on the statues and images of the
gods, by the priests in sracrificing, and by kings and
emperors, but also on altars, temples, doors of houses,
sacred victims, ships, &c.
The Roman emperors had four kinds of crowns, still
seen on medals, viz. a crown of laurels, a radial or ra¬
diating crown, a crown adorned with pearls and preci¬
ous
■C K
Crown.
C It O [ 777 ] C It 0
ous stones, and the fourth, a kind of bonnet or cap,
something like the mortier.
The Romans had also various kinds of crowns,
which they distributed as rewards of military achieve¬
ments; as, i. The oval crown, made of myrtle, and
bestowed upon generals who were entitled to the ho¬
nours of the lesser triumph, called ovation. 2. The
naval or rostral crown, composed of a circle of gold,
with ornaments representing beaks of ships, and given
to the captain who first grappled, or the soldier who
first boarded an enemy’s ship. 3. The crown called
in Latin vallaris, or castrensis, a circle of gold raised
with jewels or palisades $ the reward of him who first
forced the enemy’s entrenchments. 4. The mural
crown, a circle of gold indented and embattled j given
to him who first mounted the wall of a besieged place,
and there lodged a standard. 5. The civic crown,
made of the branch of a green oak, and given him
who had saved the life of a citizen. 6. The trium¬
phal crown, consisting at first of wreaths of laurel,
but afterwards made of gold ; proper to such generals
as had the honour of a triumph. 7. The crown called
obsidionalisy or gr amine a, made of grass growing on
the place; the reward of a general who had delivered
a Roman army from a siege. 8. The radial crown,
given to princes at their translation among the gods.
We meet also with the corona aurea, often bestowed
on soldiers without any other additional term 5 ath¬
letic crowns, and crowns of laurel, destined to crown
victors at the public games, poets, orators, &c. All
these crowns were marks of nobility to the wearers ;
and upon competitions with rivals for rank and digni¬
ties, often determined the preference in their favour.
See Plate CLXIV. For an account of modern crowns,
see Heraldry.
Crown is also used to signify the possessions and
dignity of a king. The crown of England, according
to Sir William Blackstone, is by common law and con¬
stitutional custom, hereditary, and this in a manner
peculiar to itself; but the right of inheritance may
from time to time be changed or limited by act of par¬
liament, under which limitations the crown still conti-
tinues hereditary. See Succession.
Pleas of the Crown. See Pleas.
Crown, in Commerce, is a general name for coins,
both foreign and domestic, of or near the value of five
shillings sterling. In its limited sense, crown is only
applicable to that popular English coin which bears the
name, and which is equivalent to sixty English pence or
five shillings, or to six livres French money. Rut, in
its extensive sense, it takes in several others 5 as the
French ecu, which we call the French crown, struck
in 1641 for sixty sols, or three livres ; also the peta-
gon, dollar, ducatoon, rixdollar, and piastre or piece
of eight.
Crown, in an ecclesiastical sense, is used for the
clerical tonsure j which is the mark or character of the
Romish ecclesiastics. Hus is a little circle of hair
shaved off from the crown of the head : more or less
broad, according to the quality of the orders received .
That of a mere clerk is the smallest ; that of priests
and monks the largest. Hie clerical crown was an¬
ciently a round list of hair, shaved oft around the head,
representing a real crown : this is easily observable in
Vol. VI. Part II. t
several ancient statues, &c. The religious of St Do¬
minic and St Francis still retain it.
Crown, among jewellers, the upper work of the
rose diamond, which all centres in the point at the top,
and is bounded by the horizontal ribs.
CnowN-Office, an office belonging to the king’s
bench court, of which the king’s coroner or attorney
is commonly master. In this office, the attorney ge¬
neral and clerk of the crown severally exhibit infor¬
mations for crimes and misdemeanours at common
law, as in the case of batteries, conspiracies, libelling,
&c. on which the offender is liable to pay a fine to the
king.
CnoWN-Glass, denotes the finest sort of window-
glass. See Glass.
Crown Scabs. See Farriery Index.
Crown Wheel of a Watch, the upper wheel next the
balance, which by its motion drives the balance, and in
royal pendulums is called the swing-wheel.
CnowN-Imperial. See Fritillaria, Botany In¬
dex.
Crown-Work, in Fortification, is an out-work run¬
ning into the field 5 designed to keep off the enemy,
gain some hill or advantageous post, and cover the
other works of the place. The crown-work consists of
two demi-bastions at the extremes, and an entire ba¬
stion in the middle, with curtains.
Crown, in Astronomy, a name given to two con¬
stellations, the southern and the northern.
Crown, in Geometry, a plane ring included between
two parallel or concentric peripheries of unequal circles.
CROWN-Post, is a post in some building, standing up¬
right in the middle between two principal rafters 5 and
from which proceed struts or braces to the middle of
each rafter. It is otherwise called a king-post, or
king's piece, or joggle-piece.
CROWNE, John, a celebrated dramatic writer,
born in Nova Scotia, where his father was a minister.
Being impatient of the gloomy restraint of that coun¬
try, he came to England, where he was reduced to
enter into the service of an old lady 5 of which he
was soon as weary as he had been of America. He
then had recourse to his pen, which quickly procured
him favour at court: but this kind of subsistence pro¬
ving precarious, he ventured to solicit Charles II. for
some establishment. Charles promised to provide for
him, but insisted first on having another comedy ; and
suggested to him the plan of a Spanish play, from
which Crowne produced the comedy of Sir Courtly
2sJice: but the sudden death of the king on the last
day of the rehearsal, plunged him at once from his
pleasing expectations into disappointment and distress,
and left him no resource but his wits. He died some
time about the year 1703 •, and left behind him 17 tra¬
gedies and comedies, some of which are acted with
great success. His chief excellence lay in comedy;
yet his tragedies are far from being contemptible.
His plots are for the most part his own invention ; his
characters are in general strongly coloured and highly
finished 5 and his dialogue lively and spirited, atten¬
tively diversified, and well adapted to the several
speakers. So that on the whole he may assuredly be
allowed to stand at least in the third rank of our dra¬
matic writers.
iF
CROWNING,
Crown,
Crowne
c R U [ 778 ] C R U
Crowning CROWNING, in Architecture, is understood, in
|| the general, of any thing that terminates or finishes
. Crucita. a memljer or decoration. Thus, a corniche, a pedi¬
ment, &c. are called crownings. Thus also the abacus
is said to crown the capital; and thus any member or
moulding is said to be crowned when it has a fillet over
it; and a niche is crowned when it is covered with a
capital.
CROWNING, in sea-language, denotes the finishing
part of a knot made at the end of a rope. It is per¬
formed by interweaving the ends of the different strands
artfully amongst each other, so as that they may not
become loosened or untwisted. They are useful in all
kinds of stoppers.
GROWTH, or Cruth. See Cruth.
CROXAL, Samuel, an ingenious English divine,
who in his youth wrote the celebrated poem entitled
The Fair Circassian. He had the livings of Hampton
in Middlesex, and the united parishes of St Mary So¬
merset, and St Mary Mounthavv, in London ; both
which he held till his death in 1751. He published
many other poems and translations, with an entire
English edition of ./Esop’s Fables. In consequence of
his attachment to Whig principles, he enjoyed some
other preferments, and was chaplain in ordinary to
George IF.
CROYDON, a town of Surry in England. Its si¬
tuation is low, near the spring-head of the river Wan-
de), and it is the seat of the archbishop of Canterbury^
It has a large handsome church, an hospital, and a free
school. A canal, joining the grand Surry canal, was
opened here in 1809. W. Long. Ov 5. N. Lat. 51.
22.
CRUCIAL incision, in Surgery, an incision made
in the form of a cross.
CRUCIANELLA, Petty Madder j a genus of
plants, belonging to the tetrandria class, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 47th order, Stellatce*
See Botany Index.
CRUCIBLE, a chemical vessel made of earth, and
so tempered and baked as to endure the greatest heat.
It is used to melt metals, and to flux minerals, ores,
&c.
CRUCIFIX, a cross upon which the body of Christ
is fastened in effigy, used by the Roman Catholics to
excite in their minds a strong idea of our Saviour’s
passion.
They esteem it an essential circumstance of their re¬
ligious worship performed at the altar ; and on Good
Friday they perform the ceremony of adoring it, which
is done in these words, 0 crux ave, spes unica ; “ Hail,
thou cross, our only hope.” The officiating priest un¬
covers the crucifix, elevates it with both his hands, and
says, Fcce lignum crucis ; “ Behold the wood of the
cross.” The people answer, in quo salus mundi pe-
pendit“ on which the Saviour of the world suffered
death.” Then the whole congregation bow with great
reverence, and devoutly kiss the holy wood.
CRUCIFIXION, a capital punishment by nailing
the criminal to a cross. See Cross.
CRUCIFORM,, in general, something disposed
cross-ways ; but more especially used by botanists, for
flowers consisting of four petals disposed in the form of
a cross.
CRUCITA, in Botany, a genus of the digynia or-.
der, belonging to the tetrandria class of plants; and in Crucita
the natural method ranking with those the order of [)
which is doubtful. The interior calyx is tetraphyllous, ^ru>ca-
the exterior calyx triphyllous ; there is no corolla, and ■
only one seed.
CRUDE, an epithet given to something that has not
passed the fire or had a proper degree of coction.
CRUDITY, among physicians, is applied to undi¬
gested substances in the stomach j to humours in the
body which are unconcocted, and not prepared for ex¬
pulsion ; and to the excrements.
CRUISE, from the German kruiss, “ across,” sig¬
nifies to cross to and fro, to sail up and down within a
certain space of the sea, called the cruising latitude, in
quest of vessels or fleets of an enemy, &c.
CRUISERS, in the navy, are small men of war
made use of to and fro in the Channel, and elsewhere,,
to secure our merchant ships and vessels from the ene¬
my’s small frigates and privateers. They are general*
ly such as sail well, and are commonly well manned :
and indeed the safety of the trade in the Channel, and
up and down the soundings, and other places, abso¬
lutely requires the constant keeping out such ships
at sea.
CRUMENTATA, among zoologists, animals fur¬
nished with a pouch or bag, wherein to receive their
young in time of danger } as the oppossum. See Dl-
DELPHUS.
CRUOR, sometimes signifies the blood in general }
sometimes only the venous blood ; and sometimes ex-
travasated or coagulated blood : but is most frequently
used for the red globules of the blood ; in contradistinc¬
tion to the limpid or serous part.
CRUPPER, in the manege, the buttocks of a horse j
the rump: also a thong of leather put under a horse’s
tail, and drawn up by thongs to the buckle behind the
saddle, so as to keep him from casting the saddle for¬
wards on his neck.
CRURiEUS, Crureus, Mu sc ulus, in Anatomy, a
fleshy mass, covering almost all the foreside of the os
femoris, between the two vast!, which likewise cover
the edges of this muscle on each side. See Anatomy,
Table of the Muscles.
CRURAL, in Anatomy, an epithet given to the ar¬
tery which conveys the blood to the crura or legs, and
to the vein by which this blood returns towards the
heart. See Anatomy Index.
CRUS, in Anatomy, all that part of the body con*
tained between the buttocks and the toes.
CRUSADE. See Croisade.
CRUSADO, in commerce, a Portuguese coin, struck,
under Alphonsus V. about the year 1457, at the time
when Pope Calixtus sent thither the bull for a croisade
against the infidels. This coin has a cross on one side
and the arms of Portugal on the other.
CRUSCA, an Italian term signifying bran, is in use
amongst us to denote that celebrated academy called
Della Crvsca, established at Florence for purifying
and perfecting the Tuscan language. See Academy,
N° 11. The academy took its name from its office,
and the end proposed by it j which is, to refine the
language, and as it were to separate the bran from
it. Accordingly, its device is a sieve j and its motto,
11 piu bielfior ne coglie ; that is, “ It gathers the finest
flour thereof.” In the hall or apartment where the
academy
C R U [ 779 ] C R U
Crusca academy meets, M. Moneonis informs us, that every .ted to the society of antiquarians, respecting the abbey-
tl thing bears an allusion to the name and device; the church of Melrose in Scotland, supposed to have been
Cruth. seats are in form of a baker’s basket; their backs like built about the time of Edward II. It seems that a-
a shovel for moving of corn ; the cushions of gray sa- mong the outside ornaments of that church there is the
tin, in form of sacks or wallets; and the branches representation of a cruth, very little different from the
where the lights are placed resembling sacks. The description above given. The instrument is now dis-
vocabulary Della Crusca is an excellent Italian die- used, insomuch that Sir John Hawkins, from whom
tionary, composed by this academy. we extract, tells us, that there is but one person in
CRUSTA LACTEA, in Medicine^ the same with the whole principality of North Wales that can play
Achor. upon it; and as he was at that time near 60 years of
CRUSTACEOUS FISH, in Natural History, are age, the succession of performers is probably near an end.
those covered with shells, consisting of several pieces or CRUX, or St Croix, one of the Caribbee islands,
scales; as those of crabs, lobsters, &c. situated about 60 miles south-east of Porto Rico, and
These are usually softer than the shells of the testa- taken from the Danes by the British in 1801. The soil is
ceous kind, which consist of a single piece, and gene- fertile, abounding in sugar canes, oranges, citrons, and
Tally much thicker and stronger than the former; such various other fruits. It containsabout 3000 white inhabi-
ks those of the oyster, scallop, cockle, &c. tants,and30,oooslaves. W.Long.64.35.N.Lat. 17. 30.
Dr Woodward observes, in his Natural History, that La CRUZ, an excellent harbour on the north-west
of all the shells found in beds of all the different mat- coast of America, which was discovered by the Spa-
ters dug out of the earth, there are scarce any of the niards in 1779. They were introduced into it by a
-crustaceous kind: the reason he gives for it is, that passage which they called BucarellVs entrance, and
these being much lighter than the rest, must have which they placed in 55. 18. N. Lat. and 139. 15.
floated on the surface at the time of the deluge, when W. Long, from the meridian of Paris. The latitude
all the strata were formed; and there have corrupted of this passage as laid down by the Spaniards seems to
and perished. be correct; but the editor of Perouse’s voyage con-
CRUTH, or Growth, a kind of musical instru- eludes, from the survey made by Captain Cook on the
ment formerly in use among the common people in coasts adjacent to the entrance of Bucarelli, that this
Wales. It is of the fidicinal kind, somewhat resem- entrance is about 1350 20' to the w'est of Paris, or near
Wing a violin, 12 inches in length, and an inch and a 1330 west of Greenwich.
half in thickness. It has six strings supported by a The Spaniards were not long in the harbour of La
bridge, and is played on with a bow: the bridge dif- Cruz before they received a visit from the inhabitants
fers from that of a violin, in that it is flat and not in its neighbourhood. Bartering took place. The In-
convex on the top; a circumstance from which it is dians gave their peltry, and various trifles, for^glass
to be inferred, that the strings are to be struck at the beads, bits of old iron, &c. By this traffic the Spa-
same time, so as to afford a succession of concords, niards were enabled to gain a sufficiently exactly know-
The bridge is not placed at right angles with the sides ledge of their genius, of their offensive and defensive
of the instrument, but in an oblique direction; and, arms, of their manufactures, &c. Their colour is a
which is farther to be remarked, one of the feet of clear olive; many among them have, however, a per-
the bridge goes through one of the sound-holes, fectly white skin; their countenance is well propor-
which are circular, and rests on the inside of the back; tioned in all its parts. They are robust, courageous,
the other foot, which is proportionably shorter, resting arrogant, and warlike. They clothe themselves in one
on the belly before the other sound-hole. Of the strings or two undressed skins (with the fur apparently) ; these
the four first are conducted from the bridge down the are the skins of otters, of sea-wolves, of benades (a
finger board, as in a common violin; but the fifth species of deer), of bears, or other animals. These
and sixth, which are about an inch longer than the dresses cover them from the neck to the middle of the
others, leave the small end of the neck about an inch leg; some, however, among them wear boots of smooth
to the right. The whole six are wound up either by skin, resembling English boots, only that those of the
wooden pegs in the form of the letter T, or by iron Indians open before, and are laced tight with a string,
pins, which are turned with a wrest like those of a They wear hats woven from the fine barks of trees,
harp or spinet. Of the tuning, it is to be remarked, which is formed into the shape of a funnel or a cone,
that the fifth and sixth strings are the unison and oc- At the wrists they have bracelets of copper or iron,
tave of G; the fourth and fifth, the same of C; and or for want of these metals the fins of whales ; and
the second and first, the same of D; so that the second round the neck, necklaces of small fragments of bones
pair of strings are a fourth, and the third a fifth, to the of fishes and other animals, and even copper collars
first. See Plate CLXIV. of the bigness of two fingers. They wear in their
Concerning the antiquity of this instrument, there ears pendants of mother-of-pearl, or flat pieces of
is but little written evidence to carry it further back copper, on which is embossed a resin of a topaz co-
than the time of Leland; nevertheless the opinion of lour, and which are accompanied with jet beads,
its high antiquity is so strong among the inhabitants of Their hair is long and thick, and they make use of a
the country where it was used, as to afford a probable comb to hold it together in a small queue from the
ground of conjecture, that the cruth might be the pro- middle to the extremity; a narrow ribbon of coarse
totype of the whole fidicinal species of musical instru- linen, woven for this purpose, serves as a ligament,
ments. Another evidence of its antiquity, but which They wear also as a covering a kind of scarf, woven
tends also to prove that it was not peculiar to Wales, in a particular manner, something more than a yard
arises from a discovery lately made and communica- and a half long, and about half a yard broad, round
5 F 2 which
Crutk
V
C R U [ 730 ] C R U
La Cruz, which hangs a fringe something more than half a
1 quarter of a yard deep, of which the thread is regularly
twisted.
The women give proofs of their modesty and decen¬
cy by their dress. Their physiognomy is agreeable,
their colour fresh, their cheeks vermilioned, and their
hair long : they plait it together in one long tress.
They wear a long robe of a smooth skin tied round the
loins, like that of a nun j it covers them from the neck
as low as the feet; the sleeves reach down to the wrists.
Upon this robe they put divers skins of otters or other
animals to defend themselves from the inclemency of
the weather. All the married women have a large
opening in the under lip, and this opening or orifice is
filled up by a piece of wood cut in an oval shape, of
which the smallest diameter is almost an inch: the
more a woman is advanced in years the more this cu¬
rious ornament is extended ; it renders them frightful,
the old women especially, whose lip, deprived of its
wonted spring, and dragged by the weight of this
extraordinary jewel, necessarily hangs in a very disa¬
greeable manner. The girls wear only a copper needie,
which crosses the lip in the place where the ornament
is intended hereafter to be placed.
These Indians in war make use of cuirasses and
shoulder-pieces of a manufacture like that of the whale¬
bone stays among the Europeans. Narrow boards or
scantlings form, in some sort, the woof of the texture,
and threads are the warp : in this manner the whole is
very flexible, and leaves a free use to the arms for the
handling of weapons. They wear round the neck a
coarse and large gorget which covers them as high as
below the eyes, and their head is defended by a morion,
or skull piece, usually made of the head of some feroci¬
ous animal. From the waist downwards, they wear a
kind of apron, of the same contexture as their cuirass.
Easily, a fine skin hangs from their shoulders down to
the knee. With this armour, they are invulnerable to
the arrows of their enemies j but thus armed, they can¬
not change position with so much agility as if they were
less burdened.
Their oflensive arms are arrows ; bows, of which the
strings are woven like the large cords of our best musi¬
cal instruments ; lances, four yards in length, tongued
with iron j knives of the same metal, longer than Eu¬
ropean bayonets, a weapon however not very common
among them j little axes of flint, or of a green stone, so
hard that they cleave the most compact wood without
injury to their edge.
The pronounciation of their language is extremely
difficulty they speak from the throat, with a move¬
ment of the tongue against the palate. The little use
the women make of their inferior lip greatly injures
the distinctiveness of their language. The Spaniards
could neither pronounce nor write the wmrds which
they heard.
From the vivacity of spirit in these Indians, and from
their attention amply to furnish the market established
in the harbour, it may be concluded that they are pret¬
ty laborious. They continually brought stuffs well
woven and shaded with various colours, the skins of land
and sea wolves, of otters, bears, and other smaller ani¬
mals ; of these some were raw, and others dressed.
There were to be found at this market also coverlets of
eparse cloth, shaded with white and brown colours, very
well woven, but in small quantities ; large ribbons of
the same linen, which might match with that of the
Spanish officers mattresses; skeins of thread such as
this cloth was made of; wooden plates or bowls neatly
woiked; small boats, or canoes, painted in various co¬
lours, the figures of which represented heads with all
their parts ; frogs in wood, nicely imitated, which open¬
ed like tobacco boxes, and winch they employed to
keep their trinkets in ; boxes made of small planks, of
a cubical form, being three quarters of a yard on each
side, with figures well drawn or carved on the outside,
representing various animals; the covers fabricated like
Flanders etwees, with rabbeted edges, formed so as to
shut into the body of the box ; animals in wood, as
vyell those of the earth as of the air ; figures of men of
the same material, with skull caps representing the beads
of various fierce animals ; snares and nets for fishing ;
copper collars for the neck, and bracelets of iron for
the wrist, but which they would not part with except
at a very high price ; beak-like instruments, from which
they drew sounds as from a German flute. The prin¬
cipal officers took such of these merchandises as were
most agreeable to them, and left the remainder to the
ships crews.
As the Indians discovered that the Spaniards were
very dainty in their fish, they did not let them want for
choice : the greatest abundance was in salmon, and a
species of sole or turbot three yards and a quarter long,
broad and thick in proportion; cod and pilchards were
also brought to market, and fishes resembling trout.
From all this it may be inferred, that this gulf is full of
fish ; the banks too are covered with shells.
The quantity of mother-of-pearl that these Indians
cut to pieces for making ear-rings awakened the curio¬
sity of the Spaniards : they tried to discover whether
these people had not in their possession, or whether their
country did not produce pearls, or some precious stones:
their researches were fruitless, they only found some
stones which they judged to be metallic, and which they
carried on board, not having the necessary pieans for ex¬
tracting the metal they might contain.
The inhabitants of La Cruz feed upon fish, fresh or
dry, boiled or roasted; herbs and roots which their
mountains yield them, and particularly that which in
Spain is called sea parsley; and, lastly, upon the flesh
of animals which they take in hunting: the produc¬
tions of the chase are undoubtedly abundant, seeing
the number of dogs they keep for this purpose.
They appeared to the Spaniards to worship the sun,
the earliest and most natural of all idolatrous worship ;
aud they paid a decent respect to the remains of their
dead. Don Maurelle, one of the Spanish officers, in
an expedition round the gulf, found in two islands
three dead bodies laid in boxes of a similar form to
those which have been described above, though consider¬
ably larger, and decked in their furs. These biers were
placed in a little hut upon a platform, or raised floor,
made of the branches of trees.
The country is very hilly ; the mountains are lofty,
and their slope extends almost everywhere to the sea,
The soil is lime-stone ; it is nevertheless covered with an
impenetrable forest of tall fir trees, very large and very
straight. As these trees cannot strike very deep into the
earth, the violence of the wind often tears them up by
the roots : they rot and become a. light mould, .upon
which
CRY [ 781 ] CRY
phy.
La Cruz whioli grows a bushy thicket: anti In this are found
3 nettles, chamomile, wild celery, anise, a species of cab-
Cryptogra- bage, celandine, elder, wormwood, sorrel ; and without
' doubt there are other plants along the rivers.
The Spaniards saw ducks, gulls, divers, kites, ravens,
geese, storks, gold-finches, and other little birds un¬
known to them.
The commerce between the Spaniards and the In¬
dians was quite undisturbed $ and so desirous were the
latter to obtain iron, cloths, and other stufis, that they
sold their children for broken iron hoops and other
wares. The Spaniards in this manner bought three
young lads, one from five to six years old, another of
four, and the third from nine to ten, not to make
slaves, but Christians of them ; they hoped besides to
derive useful information from them as to the nature of
the country and its inhabitants. These youths were
so contented in being with the Spaniards, that they hid
themselves when their parents came on board, from the
apprehension of being again restored to them. Two
young girls were also purchased with the same view j one
very ugly, seven years of age ; the other younger, bet¬
ter made, but sickly, and almost at the gates of death.
At the full and change of the moon, the sea rises in the
harbour of La Cruz seventeen feet three inches Eng¬
lish ; it is then high water at a quarter after 12 at noon.
CRYMODES, among physicians, a kind of fever
attended with a shivering cold.
CRYOLITE, a mineral substance. See Minera¬
logy Index.
CRYOPHORUS, a new philosophical instrument.
See Supplement.
CRYPTA, a subterraneous cell or vault, especially
under a church, for the interment of particular families
or persons. S. Ciampini, describing the outside of the
Vatican, speaks of the cryptee of St Andrew, St Paul,
&c. The word is formed of K.gvxru, abscondo^ “I hide j”
whence jtgvwrjj, crypta.
Vitruvius uses the word crypta for a part of a build¬
ing, answering nearly to our cellar j Juvenal for a cloaca.
Hence crypto-porticus, a subterraneous place arched or
vaulted, used as an under-work or passage in old walls.
The same is also used for the decoration at the entry of
a grotto.
Crypta is also used by some of our ancient writers
for a chapel or oratory under ground.
CftYPTiE, in Anatomy, a name given by Ruysch to
glands situated on the back of the tongue, and to glands
of the intestines.
CRYPTOGAMIA, (from howtos, occultus, “ con¬
cealed,” and yajftoff, nuptid, “ nuptials”), the 24th class
in the Linnsean system, comprehending those plants
whose fructification is concealed, either through minute¬
ness, or within the fruit. See Botany Index.
CRYPTOGRAPHY, the art of writing in cipher,
or with sympathetic ink. Among the methods which
Ovid teaches young women to deceive their guardians,
when they write to their lovers, lie mentions that of
writing with new milk, and of making the writing
legible by means of coal dust or soot; from which it
appears, that the use of sympathetic ink was known to
the ancients.
Tula quoque est,fallitque oculos, e lacte recenti
Liter a •*: car bonis ptilvere tange ; leges.
De Arte Amandi, lib. iii.
Ausonius proposes the same means to Paulinus in the Cryptogra-
two following verses : phy,
Lacte incide notas ; arescens charta tenebit , rybUk >
Semper imisptcvas ; prodeniur sciipla favillis.
Epist. xxiii.
But it would appear, that the commentators on this
poet have mistaken the meaning of the word favilla,
which is used here to signify fuligo, or soot *, and in
the same sense it is often employed by other poets.
Columella, speaking of the method of preserving plants
from insects with soot, calls it nigra favilla. In ano¬
ther place he mentions the same practice, and says
fuliginem quee supra focos tectis inheeret. Other glu¬
tinous juices besides milk may he employed for the
same purpose, as they will equally hold fast the black
powder strewed over them. Pliny, therefore, recom¬
mends the milky juice of certain plants, and particu¬
larly mentions that of lettuce, to produce this efiect.
It is now well known that several metallic solutions
may be employed for a similar purpose, and being ex¬
posed to the action of certain vapours, the characters
which are written with them become visible. This
eftect was perhaps accidentally discovered 5 but it does
not appear to be of ^reat antiquity. In a book De
Secretis, compiled by Wecker from Porta, Cardan,
and some other old writers, and printed in 1592, there-
is no mention of it j nor even is it noticed by Cane-
parius in his book de Atramentis, printed in 1619. The
first receipt given for the preparation of a sympathetic
ink is in a book by Peter Borrel, printed at Paris in
1653, where it is called magnetic water which acts at
a distance. Beckmann. Hist, of Invent. See Che¬
mistry Index, Cipher, and Ink.
CRYSTAL, in its original meaning, signified ice.
It was afterwards applied to rock crystal, or crystallized
siliceous earth j for the ancients, according to Pliny,
regarded that body, as water which'was congealed by
the action of cold.
Crystal, a species of stone belonging to the quartz
or siliceous genus. It always appears, where there
has been no interruption to its crystallization, in
hexagonal prisms pointed at both ends. It is found
of different kinds and colours. 1. Opaque or semi¬
transparent, and- white or of a milk colour. 2. O-
paque and red, or of a carnelian colour, from Oran
in Barbary. 3. Opaque and black, from the same
place. 4. Clear. The specific gravity of these kinds
of crystals is from 2650 to 2700. Professor Bergman
extracted from them about six parts of argilla and one
of calcareous earth per hundred weight j but Mr Ger¬
hard found some so pure as to contain neither.
5. Clear and blackish brown j the smoky topaz, or ranch
topaz of the Germans. It is found at Egan in Nor¬
way, and at Lovisa in Finland. These crystals are said
to become clear by boiling them in tallow. 6. Clear
and yellow ; found in Bohemia, and sold instead of
topazes. 7. Clear and violet-coloured 5 the amethyst
from Saxcny, Bohemia, and Dannemore in Upland.
The most transparent of these are called false diamonds, ,
Bristol, Kerry stones, Alen^on diamonds, &c. 8. Co¬
lourless rock crystal, properly so called, found in Bo¬
hemia, the province of Jemtland, and many other
places. 9. Pyramidal crystal with one or two points.
These have no prismatic shape, but either stand upon
a base in cavities of quartz, veins, have only a single
pyramid,,
CRY [ 7S2 1 CRY
Crystal, pyramid, anti are of various colours ; or they He in
“'"'Y——^ clayey earths, and have both pyramids, but no prism.
They are found at Blackenburg upon the Haiti, and
at Morserosh in the Silverland in Transylvania.
The coloured transparent crystals derive their tinge
from an exceedingly small portion of metallic oxide, hut
lose them entirely when strongly heated. They are
C9.\\t& false gems ; viz. the red from Oran in Barbary,
false rubies j the yellow from Saxony, false topazes j
the green from Dauphiny, very rare, false emeralds or
prases •, the violet from Yil in Catalonia, false amethvsts;
the blue from Puy in Valais in France, false sapphires.
There are likewise opal or rainbow crystals, the various
colours of which are thrown out in zones across the sur¬
face. They make a very fine appearance, though they
never shine like the oriental opal.
M. Fourcroy makes a remarkable difierence between
the crystals and quartz, by affirming that the former
are unalterable in the fire, in which they neither lose
their hardness, transparency nor colour; while the quartz
loses the same qualities, and is reduced by it to a white
and opaque earth. He classes the rock crystals,
I. According to their form, viz. 1. Insulated hexa¬
gonal crystals ending in pyramids of six faces, which
have a double refraction, or show two images of the
same object when looked through. 2. Hexagonal
crystals united, having one or two points. 3. Tetrae-
dral, dodecaedral, Hatted crystals; and which, though
hexagonal, have nevertheless their planes irregular. 4.
Crystals in large masses, from the island of Madagascar,
which have a simple refraction.
n. FVith regard to their colour, as being either
diaphanous, reddish, smoky, or blackish.
HI. \Y ith regard to accidental changes, some are
hollow ; some contain water within one or more cavi¬
ties : some are cased one within the other ; some are
of a round form, as the pebbles of the Rhine ; some
have a crust of metallic calces or of a pyrites ; some
are found crystallized in the inside of a cavity ; while
some seem to contain amianthus or asbestus ; and others
contain shirls. The same author reckons among crystals
the oriental topaz, the hyacinth, the oriental sapphire,
and the amethyst. M. Daubenton has always looked
upon this last as a quartz of a crystal.
W hen the rock crystals are semitransparent or inter¬
mixed with opaque veins, they are called by the Swe¬
dish lapidaries milk-crystals. When they are found in
the form of round pebbles, which is occasioned by their
being tossed about and rubbed against one another by
floods or by the sea, they are called by the English la¬
pidaries ■pebble-crystals. They come from the Indies,
Siberia, and other places.
According to Bomare, the rock-crystals are general¬
ly formed upon or among quartz, which shows their
great affinity, and are to he found in all parts of the
world. The greatest quantity of them is brought from
Mount Saint Gothard in Switzerland. Large pieces
of these, weighing from 5 to 800 pounds, were found
there at Grimselberg; another of about 1200 pounds
weight was found some years ago at Fisbach in the Va¬
lais : and a piece six feet long, four wide, and equally
thick, was found in the island of Madagascar, where
these natural productions are of the most extraordinary
size and perfection.
In the imperial collection at Vienna, there is a pyra-
2
midal crystal vase two ells in height, cut wholly out of Ovsta!
one piece. It is usual with the largest crystals of the ^ ^
German mountains to be full of cracks and flaws, and
to be so constructed internally as to show all the prisma¬
tic colours ; but the above-mentioned ones were quite
free from these blemishes, and resembled columns of the
purest glass, only much clearer than any glass can
be made. Crystal is also found in many parts of Bri¬
tain and Ireland. About Bristol it is found of an ame¬
thystine tinge. In Silesia and Bohemia in Germany it
is found stained with the colours of the ruby, sapphire,
emerald, and topaz ; in which case jewellers take great
advantage of it, selling it under the name of occidental
sapphire.
The orders of pure crystal are three; the first is
perfect columnar crystals, with double pyramids, com¬
posed of 18 planes, in an hexangnlar column, termi¬
nated by an hexangular pyramid at each end : the se¬
cond order is that of perfect crystals, with double pyra¬
mids, without a column, composed either of 12 or of
16 planes, in two hexangular pyramids, joined closely
base to base, without the intervention of any column ;
the third order is that of imperfect crystals, with
single pyramids, composed either of 12 or 10 planes,
in an hexangular or pentangular column, affixed irre¬
gularly at one end to some solid body, and terminated
at the other by an hexangular or pentangular pyra¬
mid.
These are all the general forms into which crystal,
when pure, is found concreted ; but under these there
are almost infinite varieties in the number of angles,
and the length, thickness, and other accidents of the
columns and pyramids.
When crystal is blended with metalline particles at
the time of its formation, it assumes a variety of fi¬
gures wholly different from these, constituting a* fourth
order, under the name of metalline crystals ; when that
metal is lead, the crystal assumes the form of a cube;
when it is tin, of a quadrilateral pyramid, with a broad
base ; when iron, the crystal is found concreted in rhom-
boidal figures : these crystals are very common about
mines ; but the common spars, which are liable to be
influenced in the same manner by the metals, and to
appear in the very same form, are to be carefully dis¬
tinguished from them. There is one very easy test for
this purpose, which is, that all spars are subject to be
dissolved by aquafortis, and effervesce violently only
on its touching them : hut it has no such effects on cry¬
stal.
The pebble-crystal is common enough in all parts of
the world ; but that which is formed of hexangular co¬
lumns, affixed to a solid base at one end, and termina¬
ted by a hexangular column at the other, is infinitely
more so : this is what we call sprig or rock crystal,
and is the species described by most authors under the
name of crystal of the shops, or that kept for medicinal
uses.
With regard to the formation of crystals, it is cer¬
tain that they must have been once in a soft state,
since some are found to have water in their cavities.
Professor Bergman obtained 13 regular formed cry¬
stals, by suffering the powder of quartz to remain in a
vessel with fiuor acid for two years. These were about
the size of small peas, and were less hard than quartz.
Mr Magellan informs us, that he received from Mr
Achard
CRY [ 783 ] CRY
Crystal. Acliard two crystals, one of the sparry kind, and the
—-v—other as hard and transparent as rock crystal. The
first he procured by means of calcareous earth, and the
latter from the earth of alum, both dissolved in water
impregnated with fixed air, the water filtrating very
slowly through a porous bottom of baked clay. The
apparatus is described by the author in the Journal de
Physique for January 1778: but though the process
was attempted by Mr Magellan, and afterwards a se¬
cond time by Mr Achard himself, neither of them were
able to succeed. Mr Morveau, however, in the first
volume of the Dijon Memoirs for 1785, asserts that
he has produced a very small artificial crystal j and
gives the proper method for succeeding in the process.
Crystal is frequently cut j and lustres, vases, and
toys, are made of it as of other beautiful stones. For
this purpose it is to be chosen perfectly clear and trans¬
parent. It is to be tried by aquafortis, or by drawing
it along a pane of glass. The genuine crystal will net
be affected by the acid, and will cut glass almost like
a diamond. When any piece of workmanship of natu¬
ral crystal is become foul and dark, the following me¬
thod is to be used for recovering its brightness without
hurting the polish. Mix together six parts of common
water and one part of brandy j boil these over a brisk
fire, and let the crystal be kept in it, in a boiling state,
a quarter of an hour ; then take it out and rub it
carefully over with a brush dipped in the same liquor j
after this it is to be wiped with a napkin, and by
that means its surface will be perfectly cleaned, and
rendered as bright as at first, without any injury to
the points of the cutting or the polish of the planes or
faces, which would probably have happened had the
cleaning been attempted by mere rubbing with a
cloth.
Natural crystal may be reduced by calcination into
a state proper for making glass with alkaline salts, and
thus becomes a very valuable frit. The method of do¬
ing it is as follows : calcine natural crystal in a cruci¬
ble j when it is red hot, throw it into cold water. Re¬
peat this eight times, covering the crucible, that no dust
or ashes may get in among the crystal. Dry this cal¬
cined mass, and reduce it to an impalpable powder.
Colouring Crystal, for the imitation of gems. See
Doublet.
Crystal is also used for a factitious body, cast in
glass-houses, called crystal-glass, being in fact no more
than glass carried, in the composition and manufacture,
to a greater perfection than the common glass.
The best kind of glass-crystal is that called Venice-
crystal, made at Moran near Venice. See Glass.
Island or Iceland Crystal, a transparent fissile stone
brought from Iceland, soft as talc, clear as rock cry¬
stal, and without colour, remarkable for its unusual re¬
fractions. It is a carbonate of lime.
It is there found in great abundance all over the
country, but is particularly plentiful in a mountain,
not far from the bay of Roezfiord, where the finest
and most pellucid pieces are found on digging. The
mountain lies in 65 degrees latitude, and has its whole
outside made up of it; but though this makes a very
bright and glittering appearance, it is not so fine as
that which lies at a little depth, and is met with on
opening the surface.- This is generally taken up out
of the earth in masses a foot long, and its corners very Crystal,
frequently are terminated in these large masses by a —v—
sort of crystals, very different in figure and qualities
from the rest of the mass. The stone itself is of a
parallelopiped figure ; but these excrescences are ei¬
ther single pyramids, affixed to columns like common
crystal, or double pyramids with or without columns
between. The stone itself is soft 5 these are hard, and
cut glass: the stone calcines to lime in the fire j these
run into glass : in short, the stone itself is true spar,
and these are true crystal. Beside these, there some¬
times grows out of the end of the larger masses a pure
fine asbestos. This likewise is the case sometimes in
the spar found about Bareges in France, and shows how
nearly together the formation of bodies, wholly differ¬
ent from one another, may happen. The general fi¬
gure of the stone is parallelopiped j or, as some express
it, rhomboid: and it retains this not only while whole,
but also when broken to pieces 5 every fragment it na¬
turally falls into, though ever so small, being truly of
that shape. But it is remarkable, that in some places
of this mountain the same sort of matter is found in
form of triangular pyramids, all which have the same
property of the double refraction with the parallelepi¬
peds of the same substance; so that the original error
of supposing its qualities owing to its shape, is refuted
by this as well as by the trials made with other pellu¬
cid bodies of the same figure, which do not show this
remarkable property.
The Iceland crystal is electrical, and when rubbed
will attract straws, feathers, and other light substances,
in the same manner that amber does.
The vast masses of white spar which are found in the
lead mines of Derbyshire, though they are not exter¬
nally of the parallelopiped figure of the Iceland crystal,
nor have any thing of its brightness or transparence
in the general lump ; yet when they are broken they
separate into rhomboidal fragments, and some of these
are found to be tolerably pellucid : all those which are
so have the property of the Iceland crystal ; and being
laid upon paper where a black line is drawn, they all
show that line double, in the same manner as the real
Iceland crystal does.
Iceland crystal bears a red heat without losing its
transparency ; and in a very intense heat calcines with¬
out fusion : steeped a day or two in water, it loses its
natural polish. It is very soft and easily scratched with
the point of a pin : it will not give fire on being struck
against steel ; and ferments and is perfectly dissolved
in aquafortis. It is found in Iceland, from whence
it has its name ; and in France, Germany, and many
other places. In England fragments of other spars
are very often mistaken for it, many of them having
in some degree the same property. It has none of the
distinguishing characters of crystal ; and is plainly a
genus of spars, called from their figure parallelopipedia,
which, as well as some other bodies of a different ge¬
nus, have the same properties. Bartholine, Huygens,
and Sir Isaac Newton, have described the body at
large, but have accounted it either a crystal or a talc;
errors which could not have happened, had the ente-
rions of fossils been at that time fixed ; since Sir Isaac
Newton has recorded its property of effervescing with
nitric acid, which alone must prove that it is neither
CRY [ 784 ] CRY
Crystal- talc nor crystal, both those bodies being wholly unaf-
—y—— fected by that menstruum. It Is always found in
form of an oblique parallelepiped, with six sides ;
and is found of various sizes, from a quarter of an
inch to three inches or more in diameter. It is pel¬
lucid, and not much less bright than the purest crystal ;
and its planes are all tolerably smooth, though when
nicely viewed they are found to be waved with crook¬
ed lines made by the edges of imperfect plates. What
appears very singular in the structure of this body is,
that all the surfaces are placed in the same manner,
and consequently it will split off into thin plates, ei¬
ther horizontally or perpendicularly; but this is found,
on a microscopic examination, to be owing to the re¬
gularity of figure, smoothness of surface, and nice
joining of the several small parallelepiped concretions,
of which the whole is composed; and to the same
cause is probably owing its remarkable property in re¬
fraction.
The phenomena of this stone are very remarkable,
were first suggested by Bartholin, and have been exa¬
mined with great accuracy by Mr Huygens and Sir
Isaac Newton.
1. Whereas in other pellucid bodies there is only
one refraction, in this there are two ; so that objects
viewed through it appear double.
2. W hereas in other transparent bodies, a ray falling
perpendicularly on the surface, passes straight through,
without suffering any refraction, and an oblique ray is
always divided j in Iceland crystal, every ray, whether
perpendicular or oblique, becomes divided into two, by
means of the double refraction. One of these refrac¬
tions is, according to the ordinary rule, the sine of in¬
cidence out of air into crystal, being to the sine of re¬
fraction as five to three ; hut the other is perfectly new.
The like double refraction is also observed in crystal of
the rock, though much less sensibly. When an incident
ray is thus divided, and each moiety arrives at the far¬
ther surface, that refracted in the first surface after the
usual manner, is refracted entirely after the usual man¬
ner at the second ; and that refracted in the unusual
manner in the first is entirely refracted after the like
manner in the second ; so that each emerges out of the
second surface parallel to the first incident ray. Again,
il two pieces of this crystal be placed over each other,
so that the surfaces of the one be parallel to the cor¬
responding ones of the other ; the rays refracted in the
usual manner in the first surface of the first, are refract¬
ed after the usual manner in all the other surfaces ; and
the same uniformity appears in the rays refracted after
the unusual manner; and this in any inclination of the
surfaces, provided their planes of perpendicular refrac¬
tion be parallel.
From these phenomena Sir Isaac Newton infers,
that there is an original difference in the rays of light ;
fov means whereof some are here constantly refracted
after the usual manner j and others in the unusual
manner. Wrere not the difl’erence original, and did it
arise from any new modifications impressed on the ravs
at their first refraction, it would be altered by new
modifications in the three following ones ; whereas, in
fact, it suffers no alteration at all. Again, he hence
takes occasion to suspect, that the rays of light have
several sides, endued with several original properties :
3
for it appears from the circumstances, that these are Crvshd
not two sorts of rays differing in their nature from [J
each other, one constantly in all positions, refract-Cr.v*t»!h'n*.
ed in the usual, and the other in the unusual manner j ’
the difference in the experiment mentioned being only-
in the position of the sides of the rays to the plane of
perpendicular refraction. For one and the same ray
is refracted sometimes after the usual, and sometimes
after the unusual manner, according to the position of
its sides to the crystal: the refraction being alike in
both, when the sides of the rays are posited the same
way to both, but different when different. Every ray
therefore may be considered as having four sides or
quarters ; two of which, opposite to each other, dispose
the ray to be refracted after the unusual manner j and
the other two in the usual. These dispositions, being
in the rays before their incidence on the second, third,
and fourth surfaces, and suffering no alteration 5 for
what appears in their passage through them must be
original and connate.
Father Beccaria corrects the observations of Huy¬
gens and Newton concerning the refraction of rock or
mountain crystal. The double refraction of the latter
happens when a ray passes through two sides that are
inclined to each other, and consequently issues colour¬
ed : whereas that of the Iceland crystal is made by the
passage of a ray through two parallel sides, and there¬
fore it issues colourless. He suggests, that there may
be other substances in which there is a manifold re¬
fraction. Gravesande had a prism of Brasil pebble,
which had a double refraction at each angle, but of a
different kind from one another. Mr B. Martin pre¬
pared several prisms of Iceland crystal, which exhibited
not only a double but a multiple refraction. A single
prism produced a six-fold refraction ; and by combining
several prisms, a number of refractions was obtained
equal to the product of those of the single prisms 5 i. e.
a prism which afforded two images applied to one of
six, produced a prism of twelve images, &c. He far¬
ther observes, with respect to Iceland crystal, that
though the sides of its plane of perpendicular refraction
be parallel to one another, a beam of light transmitted
through them will not be colourless ; in which property
it differs from all other known substances.
CRYSTALLINE, in general, something composed
of or resembling crystal. See Crystal.
Crystalline Heavens, in Ancient Astronomy, two
spheres imagined between the primum mobile and the
firmament, in the Ptolemaic system, which supposes the
heavens solid, and only susceptible of a single motion.
See Astronomy.
Crystalline Humour. See Anatomy Index.
CRYSTALLINE, or Crystallines, in Medi¬
cine, are pustules filled with water, and so called on ac¬
count of their transparency. They are one of the worst
symptoms attendant on a gonorrhoea. They are lodged
on the prepuce, without pain ; and though caused by
coition, have nothing of infection attending them. The
cause is supposed to be a contusion of the lymphatic
vessels in the part affected. Dr Cockburn, who hath
described this case, recommends for the cure a mixture
of three parts of lime-water and two of rectified spirit
of wine, to be used warm, as a lotion three times a-
dav.
CRYSTALLIZATION.
C 78s ]
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Definition.
Bodies
which cry¬
stallize
must be
susceptible
of
3
Solution;
4
or fusion.
Conjectures
abost the
CRYSTALLIZATION is the symmetrical arrange¬
ment of the particles of a body when it passes
from the liquid to the solid form. This arrangement
is determined by the mutual action of the small solids
of which the body is composed-, and these solids are se¬
parated from the liquid by their force of cohesion. Cry¬
stallization is one of the most remarkable effects of co¬
hesion. The qualities of a solid in which the force of
cohesion is more easily overcome in one direction than
another, its brittleness, elasticity, and ductility, depend
on this arrangement of its particles.
Solid bodies are found either in irregular masses, or
exhibit certain determinate forms by the process of
crystallization. Those substances which are capable of
assuming regular figures, uniformly affect the same
form ; subject, however, to certain deviations, from the
operation of particular circumstances. Those bodies
only can assume the form of crystals which are suscepti¬
ble- of being reduced to the fluid state. This is the
usual method of crystallizing saline substances. The
substance to be crystallized is dissolved in a sufficient
quantity of water to retain it in solution. This is
slowly evaporated j and as the bulk of the fluid is di¬
minished, the particles are brought nearer to each other-,
they combine together by the force of cohesion, and
form crystals. Some saline bodies, which dissolve but
in small proportion in cold water, are found to be very
soluble in hot water. But when this water cools, it is
no longer capable of holding them in solution. The
particles then gradually approach each other, and ar¬
range themselves into certain determinate forms j or
they crystallize. Many of the saline bodies which cry¬
stallize in this manner, combine with a considerable
portion of water. This is called the water of crystalli-
xation. Other saline substances are equally soluble in
hot and cold water. These substances do not crystal¬
lize by cooling the fluid ; they assume regular forms
only by diminishing its quantity. This is effected by
means of evaporation by the application of heat. In
salts which are crystallized in these circumstances, the
proportion of water which enters into combination is
small.
There are some classes of bodies which assume regu¬
lar forms, but are not soluble in any liquid. Such, for
instance, are metallic substances, glass, and some other
bodies. Substances of this nature are crystallized, by
being previou-lv subjected to fusion j and thus having
combined with caloric, they are reduced to the liquid
state, and the particles being separated from each other
are left at liberty to arrange themselves into regular
forms, or to crystallize, as the body cools.
But what is the cause which operates in determining
the regular arrangement of the particles of bodies in
these circumstances ? or what is the. cause of the same
bodies in the same circumstances assuming regular fi¬
gures ? The ancient philosophers supposed that the ele¬
ments of bodies consisted of certain regular geometri¬
cal figures ; but it does not appear that they applied
this theory to explain crystallization. I he schoolmen
Vol. VI. Part II. f
ascribed the regular figure of crystals to their substan¬
tial forms j and others supposed that it depended mere¬
ly on the aggregation of the particles, but without ex¬
plaining to what this aggregation was owing, or the
reason of the regular figures thus produced. Accord- 6
ing to Sir Isaac Newton and the theory of Boscovich, Newton’s,
the particles of bodies held in solution in a fluid, are
arranged at regular distances, and in regular order;
and when the force of cohesion between the particles
and the fluid is diminished, it is increased between the
particles themselves. Thus they separate from the fluid,
and combine together in groups which are composed of
the particles nearest to each other. If we suppose that
the particles composing the same body have the same
figui’e, the aggregation of any determinate number of
such particles will produce similar figures. Bergman
is of opinion that the particles of saline substances pos¬
sess a double tendency: by the one they arrange them¬
selves in the form of spiculae-, and by the other, these
spiculse arrange themselves at certain angles of inclina¬
tion, and according to the difl'erence of these angles,
diflerent forms of crystals are produced. These effects
are ascribed by the ingenious author to the mutual at¬
traction which exists between the particles, which, ac¬
cording to the peculiar figures of the atoms, at one
time, arranges them in the form of spiculse, and then
combines the spiculae thus formed under different angles
of inclination. But this arrangement of the particles, 7
or tendency to arrangement, assigned by Bergman as a Bergman’s,
cause, is only explaining the phenomenon by itself;
while the cause of the tendency is yet unexplained.
Nor will Newton’s hypothesis be more satisfactory; for
if the particles of a body, after being equally diffused
in a fluid, are brought together by a general attraction,
it will follow that every saline body should crystallize
in the same manner. s
According to the ingenious theory which has been liauy’s.
proposed by Hauy, the integrant particles always com¬
bine in the same body in the same way-, the same faces
and the same edges are always attracted towards each
other. But these faces and edges are different in dif¬
ferent crystals 5 and hence originates that variety of
forms which different bodies assuming regular figures
bv crystallization exhibit. But why are the same
edges and the same faces attracted in the same way ?
This still wants explanation. If it be ascribed, as some
have supposed, to a certain degree of polarity existing
among the particles, it might enable us to account for
the regular figures of bodies produced by the process of
crystallization. For bv the effects of this agent we
might suppose that different parts of the particles of bo¬
dies are endowed with diflerent forces ; one an attrac¬
tive, and another a repulsive force -, and by the action
of these two forces, the same arrangement of the par¬
ticles will uniformly take place ; for when one part of
a particle is attracted, the other will be invariably re¬
pelled ; and thus the same faces and edges will always
be disposed in the same way. But it ought to be ob¬
served that the existence of this power, however satis-
j; G factorily
786
JPfieno- factorily it might account for the plienomena, has by no
mena. means been proved ; and even if its existence were com-
pietely established, the difliculty still remains how this
polarity is to be explained.
Without entering farther into these speculations, we
propose, in the two following sections, to present our
readers with a comprehensive view of the formation
and structure of crystallized bodies. In the first sec¬
tion we shall treat ol the phenomena of crystallization,
the means of conducting this process to obtain the most
perfect crystals, and the modifications of which each
of the forms is susceptible. In the second we shall
give a short view of the theory of the structure of
crystals.
Sect. I. Of the 'Phenomena of Crystallisation^ and the
modifications to which it is subject.
The most complete set of observations which has yet
appeared on this branch of practical chemistry has
been made by M. Leblanc ; and to his ingenious me-
■} Jour, de moirt we must acknowledge ourselves indebted for
Physique, what we now lay before our readers that is new or in-
t;ome lv' teresting on this subject. This art, he observes, of
managing or conducting the crystallization of salts, is
Q in a great measure new ; for it has hitherto attracted
Conditions, little attention. To insure success in obtaining per¬
fect crystals, the process must be conducted in flat-bot¬
tomed vessels •, and vessels of glass or porcelain are
found preferable to those of any other materials for
this purpose. The salt employed sborld be in a state
of purity 5 and to favour the increase and regular form
of the crystals, they are to be placed at a distance from
each other in the vessels containing the solution. To
i-hese necessary precautions, it may be added, that the
vessels in which the evaporation goes on should be at
perfect rest, and that it is requisite to observe the den¬
sity, or specific gravity, at which-the solution begins to
yield crystals.
The particles of any saline body cannot come into
contact and form crystals, as long as the force of affini¬
ty between these particles and the fluid in which they
IO are held in solution is greater than the mutual affinity
Prepara- of the particles among themselves. A salt, for in-
lion of the stance, which begins to crystallize at a certain specific
solution. gravity of its solution in water, will afford no crystals
when that specific gravity is diminished; for then the
particles of the salt are removed to a greater distance
from each other; and while, by this distance, the force
of their mutual attraction is diminished, the attraction
between these particles and the water in which they
are dissolved is increased by the increase of the quan¬
tity of the solvent. But, on the other hand, if a solu¬
tion which begins to crystallize at a certain specific
gravity, is more concentrated, the crystals which
are thus- obtained are greatly multiplied, hut they are
heaped together in confused masses, exhibiting no re¬
gular forms. Thus, a solution which has been scarcely
reduced to that degree of concentration at which it be¬
gins to crystallize, being poured while it is hot into
the proper vessel for carrying on the process, or left at
rest in the same vessel in which the solution is made, to
cool slowly, will yield a small number of crystals, which
will have no other defects than what are occasioned by
their contact with the vessel. Even perfect crystals
rtong the smaller ones. When Pheno.
the concentration of the solution has not been carried meiia.
too far, or not farther than what is effected by slow v-—*
cooling, not only have the embryo crystals less bulk,
but the particles having come.into contact slowly and
without confusion, they possess a greater degree of trans¬
parency. After a certain period, which varies accord¬
ing to the species of salt which is subjected to the ope¬
ration, small crystals may he distinctly observed. These
are to he carefully detached from each other, and placed
in a different position. Being placed by this manage¬
ment on a different side, the defects occasioned by their
contact with the vessel are soon repaired. From the
crystals treated in this way, the finest and most perfect
are to he obtained. I bis operation of changing the
position of the crystal from one side to the other, ought
to be repeated at least once every day, if we wish to
obtain the completest crystals.
At the end of a certain period, the small crystals are
to he removed, that the fluid may he more concentrated,
either by a new evaporation, or by dissolving a new por¬
tion of the same salt. After the new solution has cool¬
ed, and the crystals which have formed in it are separat¬
ed, if it has been too much concentrated, or too great a
portion of salt has been added ; the crystals of the first
solution are then to he introduced and treated in the
same way as formerly.
When the crystals have acquired a sufficient volume Manage.
to handle them, and to choose such as we wish should ment of the
increase to the largest size, either as simple or com-crystals?
plete crystals, or as exhibiting varieties from position
or particular circumstances, the individual crystals are
then to he separated, and solutions are to be prepared
for them, and brought to such a degree of concentration
as to afford crystals in a mass; which latter being re¬
moved, the single crystals are introduced into these so¬
lutions, which are now in a proper state to favour their
increase. The crystals may he either previously dispo¬
sed in the vessel, and then the solution may be poured
on ; or having first introduced the latter, they may be
afterwards distributed on the bottom of the vessel. And
thus by continuing the same process, by taking care to
change the position of the crystal from one side to the
other frequently, and by keeping up the solution to a
proper degree of strength, we may obtain crystals of any
bulk we choose. I2
When the quantity of particles, which in a certain which de¬
state of concentration continue to be mutually attract-crease ^
ed, has diminished in consequence of their accumula-j^1^
tion on the crystals which are formed, at a certain gopjuom ”
stage of this diminution the crystals cease to enlarge or
increase in bulk ; it happens, on the contrary, if they
are left in the fluid, that they begin to dissolve. It is
usually on the corners and angles that this decrease
takes place ; and in some salts it seems to go on piece¬
meal, so as to present distinct layers of the particles ;
for in this case lines parallel to the sides may be obser¬
ved, and these are disposed like steps of stairs. Should
the accident, which is here alluded to, he allowed to go
on too far, it may often require a long time to repair
it; but it is in genera! easy to avoid this inconvenience,
by watching the progress of the operation and the
increase of the crystals. If their corners or angles
are observed to become less sharp, they must be
removed till the fluid is farther concentrated, or
they
CRYSTALLIZATION
will be sometimes found
I
CRYSTALLIZATION.
787
PllCEO-
mcna.
Their posi¬
tion must
be chan¬
ged.
they must he Introduced into a new solution of the
same salt of the proper degree of strength. To pre¬
pare the new solution for the increase of the crystals, a
quantity of the same salt is to he dissolved in a given
portion of water, so that it shall be fully saturated.
It is then allowed to cool and crystallize. The cry¬
stals being separated, the remaining solution is to be
employed in such quantity as may be judged necessary
to replace that in which the diminution of the crystals
had commenced.
Sometimes it happens, from want of necessary pre¬
caution, that the new solution in which the process is
to be conducted, either being too much saturated, or
being disturbed by pouring from one vessel to another,
exhibits many other points of attraction beside the cry¬
stals whose increase is proposed. In this case a great
number of small crystals make their appearance, and
cover the surface of the former with a kind of incrusta¬
tion. The small crystals, provided they are taken in
time, may be removed without injury to the others j if
not, they will be unavoidably spoiled.
When the crystals have reached such a size as that
they may be placed one by one, without being in con¬
tact with each other, we must still continue frequently
to change their position. This may be done with a
spatula, a glass rod, or with any instrument which will
communicate nothing to the fluid. In this way the
sides of the crystal which are alternately in contact with
the bottom of the vessel will increase in equal propor¬
tion, and it will always remain complete.
It is chiefly in salts which furnish elongated prisms
that the influence of position may be most distinctly
seen. If, for instance, a crystal before it has acquired
much volume is found to rest on one of its bases as
well as on one of its sides, it will be observed to be
compressed in the direction from base to base j and it
will appear to be only a regular segment of the cry¬
stal, which having been placed on one of its sides has
obtained a great bulk. If we take a six-sided prism
whose summits are obliquely truncated, and if it be
placed on one of its sides, it will enlarge in a greater
or less degree, but always in such a manner that the
distance from one base to the other shall never be less
than the distance between the sides. But if the posi¬
tion be on one of its bases, then its principal increase
will be in the direction of the sides, and it will appear
to be compressed between the bases. At first sight, a
crystal treated in this way will seem difl'erent from
the former. For the corners form the summit of appa¬
rent pyramids which are separated by a four sided
prism. This circumstance affords a sufficient explana¬
tion of one of the causes which produce varieties in
the appearances of a crystal with regard to its relative
extent 5 it shows that there is no foundation for the
opinion of a supposed balance between the particles
of the salt and that of the solvent; and it shows also,
that if the force of attraction be the efficient cause of
the saline particles coming into contact, the force of
gravitation acts at the same time, and modifies in a
greater or less degree the effects of the first.
According to these observations, and the different
states in which crystallized substances are found, it has
been supposed that we might conclude, that the force
of adhesion between the particles of the salt and those
of the solvent, varies according to circumstances, which
depend on the degree of tendency to combination be* Pheno-
tween the bodies, and the relative weight or bulk of men a.
the parts of which these bodies are composed. If a —v’""—'
crystal in the incipient stage of its increase be placed
on one of its bases, it enlarges in the direction of its
sides ; but if it be reversed and placed on one of its sides,
it enlarges in the dimensions of an elongated prism.
An insulated crystal, placed on one of its sides on a
smooth surface, and left undisturbed to enlarge in size,
presents on this part a kind of hollow, which corre¬
sponds exactly with the side which it replaces. Here
the saline particles which cannot reach this surface,
are distributed on the neighbouring parts with which
they come in contact, with this circumstance, that tire
edges of the surface on which the crystal rests increase
in proportion, but without allowing the liquid to have
access to this surface.
The hollows which are formed at the surface of li¬
quids difler sometimes from each other even in the
same salt. If we suppose that a particle forms the in¬
cipient point of the hollow, the latter will assume a
configuration corresponding to the side of the particle
presented to the surface of the liquid : hut the part
which it touches increases also ; and if by any circum¬
stance a change of position happens, the hollow, thus
necessarily formed according to the arrangement of the
part which corresponds exactly to the surface of the li¬
quid, will change its form, because the new position of
the side presented differs from the first.
When a neutral salt, in a state of purity, and after
being crystallized, ceases to produce any effect on ve¬
getable blues, it is not supposed that any of its consti¬
tuent principles is in excess. But if in this state it is
found to combine with other bodies, in such a manner
as to produce solid and well defined crystals, we must
admit that there exists an affinity between the salt and
the body with which it has combined. 14
This subject, Leblanc observes, of the supra-compo-Compound
sition, or compound combination, as it might perhaps c.ombuia"
be called, of which several salts are susceptible, has not
hitherto much occupied the attention of chemical phi¬
losophers. Some indeed have been pointed out by
Bergman and others ; hut it has been remarked that
these affinities are probably much more extensive than
has been supposed ; and not only with regard to neu¬
tral salts with each other, but also neutral salts with
other bodies. Of this kind of combination is not
to be reckoned that of one of the constituent parts of
a salt being in excess, which frequently takes place
in some salts, and is found to be more or less perma¬
nent. This circumstance seems to prove that certain
salts have two different points in the combination of
their constituent parts. Let us see what has been ob¬
served in this respect of the sulphate of alumina, which
will perhaps explain the reason that this salt is almost al¬
ways found in nature in the acidulous state. It is found
that the more that alum approaches to the state of sa¬
turation by an additional portion of base, the less solid
the new combination becomes ; and in all cases, after
a certain time, which is longer or shorter according to
circumstances, the portion which was added separates.
It will perhaps appear in the sequel, that this tendency
to combination which is constantly in action, produ¬
cing an immense multitude of different individuals, re¬
sides not only among the properties of the simple prin-
5 G 2 ciples^
788
i-’lieno-
CHYSTALLIZATION.
ciples, but also In those which belong to all the com¬
pounds.
Many of the sulphates are always found In the aci¬
dulous state ; and all of them seem to be susceptible of
combination with a new quantity of the same base, till
they reach the point of saturation. For example, the
sulphate of copper, in the state in which it is usually
found, crystallizes in eight-sided oblique prisms, termi¬
nated by sides according to the obliquity of the prism.
But if another portion of base be added, the crystals
assume the form of pyramids of several faces, separated
by a four-sided prism. The acidulous sulphate of zinc
gives crystals of six-sided prisms, which are often very
regular $ but an addition of base produces a great
change, for then the crystals are in the rbomboidal
form, very little different from the cube. Alum in its
ordinary state of combination crystallizes in the form
of a regular octaedron j but in the intermediate propor¬
tions between this state and that of saturation, it as¬
sumes the form of a cube.
Hauy, as will be afterwards noticed, has demonstra¬
ted that the form of the primitive molecules is the
same in all crystals of the same salt, and he has shown
by calculation that the variations arise from the laws
of decrement in the layers which surround the nucleus j
but that the order according to which the secondary
forms are produced may be interrupted, whether this
form be complete or not; and the crystal may then, ac¬
cording to circumstances, return to its primitive form,
or to some of those which are derived from it. But.
from the experiments of Leblanc, he thinks that these
changes always depend on new conditions in the state
of the fluid, as a different proportion of the principles
of which the salt is composed.
If a crystal of octaedral alum be placed in a solution
modified by which forms cubic crystals of the same salt, the former
the sola- will assume the cubic form, by giving up a series of
molecules from the summits of the solid angles, so that
the layers continue to decrease on the triangular faces
till the crystal has completed its new form. In this
process, the change may be stopped at any period, and
crystals of every modification of form may be obtained.
From this it follows, that the centre of each of the
faces of the octaedron corresponds to a solid angle of
the cube in which it is inscribed. But if a cubical
crystal be introduced into the solution which yields
the octaedron, its return to this latter form proceeds
in the same order, by the subtraction of a series of mo¬
lecules from the solid angles of the cube. It often
happens, however, at the same time, that the subtraction
of the molecules extends to the corners of the crystal;
so that the layers of super-position decrease all at once,
according to the order of the formation of the octae¬
dron, and the dodecaedron with rhomboidal surfaces.
This circumstance seems to suggest the possibility of
obtaining crystals of alum of this latter form ; but it
seems to depend on a particular proportion which is not
easily determined.
Thus we leam from experiment that salts which ex¬
hibit different forms of crystals can be made to assume
each of these at pleasure. This phenomenon, which
has not been much attended to, seems to merit parti¬
cular investigation. The transition from one form to
another may be explained according to the laws of di¬
minution, by the successive and regular subtraction of
x5
Crystals
tjoi.
Id
series of molecules; so that the form actually obtained,
the restoration of the preceding form, is easily expli¬
cable on the principle of restitution alone. It may be
observed, that during this kind of metamorphosis, both
operations, namely, that by which the crystal receives
on the one hand a new form, and that by which on the
other hand it increases on all its sides, constantly take
place.
The particles of a salt which are in solution in a Crystals
fluid, are attracted by it, particle by particle, without differently
any separation or decomposition ; but it is necessary
that there be a balance of the attracting forces between heights in
the salt and the solvent. This is demonstrated by the the fluid,
following experiment. A vessel two feet high and
two inches in diameter was filled with a solution of a
proper degree of concentration for the growth of cry¬
stals, which were suspended at different heights from
the bottom of the vessel to the surface of the fluid ;
and it was observed that the increase of the crystal was
in proportion to its depth in the vessel, that which was
nearest the bottom increasing most rapidly. When
the liquid was deprived of saline particles by their ac¬
cumulation on the crystals, by rest, and sometimes even
by the influence of the atmosphere, the crystals de¬
creased by similar gradations to those of their increase;
so that it at last reached that state when the crystals
near the surface of the liquid were dissolved, while those
towards the bottom continued to increase ; and some¬
times it happened that the crystals at the bottom of
the vessel continued to increase on the surface which
was in contact with it, while the opposite upper surface
was in a state of dissolution.
All the experiments which were made on salts
of different degrees of specific gravity accord with
this observation ; and the difference in the degrees
of saturation of the waters of the ecean, which de¬
pends on the difference of depth, seems to be in fa¬
vour of this opinion. It is confirmed by the analysis
of sea-water by Bergman and others, which was taken
up in different places and at different depths. It receives
still farther confirmation from a practice of the inhabi¬
tants of Salines in Bearn in estimating the degree of
strength of a salt spring. An egg is thrown into the
waters of the spring, and the whole water which covers
the surface of the egg is thrown away, as it is not of a
sufficient degree of concentration.
It is well known that a cold temperature is most
convenient for the crystallization of salts. But it is
not at the period when the salt* begins to crystallize
that it is most convenient to carry on the process ; for
then it sometimes happens, from too great concentra¬
tion of the fluid, that the crystallization is too rapid
and confused. ^
Hitherto saline substances, which are susceptible ofTwoclas-
regular crystallization, have been divided into two ses of saline
classes, according to the peculiarities in the formation sul)stances•
of their crystals. The one class comprehends those cry¬
stals which are formed by cooling the fluid in which
the solution is made. The other class includes those
which are produced only during the evaporation of
the solution. This distinction is no doubt well found¬
ed ; but there are some excepti-ons to it which are ne¬
cessary to be attended to in conducting the process of
crystallization. If a saline solution which is too much
saturated, he cooled, it furnishes a mass of crystals,
which
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Pheno- which are confused and irregular, and which present no
rneiia. determined form except on those sides which are in con-
— tact with the liquid. It in this state the remaining liquid
is poured off, it will yield another set of crystals, but in
very small number } and there are some salts which
continue to form crystals alter being several times suc¬
cessively treated in this way, the number of the crystals
still diminishing from the first degree ol concentration.
It will be found too that this will take place whether
the process be carried on in the open air or in close
vessels. It follows from this that the increase or the
formation ot crystals, in this case depends solely on the
mutual attraction of the particles, or on the attraction
between the particles and the crystal ) an attraction or
affinity which is not destroyed by the cooling of the
iluid, but is probably regulated by the distance ol the
particles, and the degree of force or affinity which exists
between the particles and the solvent. In some saline
solutions the increase of the crystals goes on in this
manner for a long time. It is only in the interval be¬
tween the cooling of the liquid to the temperature of
the atmosphere, and that period when its degree of con¬
centration is so diminished that the increase of the cry¬
stals ceases, that the latter proceeds with that degree
tg of perfection of which it is susceptible.
Some nalina It is not a property peculiar to dry substances to ab¬
solutions sorij moisture from the atmosphere. Liquids saturated
attract Wlti1 certain salts seem also to possess this property 5
moisture. ^ gome sa];ne solutions, the liquids assume a solvent
power which never tails to attack, the crystals, and not
only to prevent their increase, but to diminish the bulk
which they had acquired. This accident can only be
obviated by regulating the state of the atmosphere in
which the evaporating vessels are placed,and preserving
it free from an excess of moisture. From causes which
produce a contrary effect, the evaporation becomes too
rapid ; this circumstance also requires to be attended to
and properly regulated, to insure the full success of the
operation.
From the preceding observations it will appear, that
solutions of salts which are susceptible of crystallization
have certain degrees of concentration which are neces¬
sary for the formation ol crystals j and that they must
be reduced nearly to that degree in which they begin
to yield crystals, before it can be expected that they af¬
ford proper results. It is therefore necessary to attend
particularly to the degree of concentration which each
salt requires for the regular formation of its crystals, and
to obtain them with that degree of transparency of which
they are susceptible. ^Ve have seen that in the iorma-
Aion of crystals they may be removed from one vessel to
another, and from one solution to another $ and that in
proportion to the slowness ot the process they become
more beautiful and more perfect. These operations, it
may be added, require much patience and attention, but
at the same time the observer is fully compensated for
his trouble, by perceiving the progress of the crystalliza¬
tion, and by the interest which is excited in all itsstages.
It is essential to know that neither the crystals form¬
ed during the artificial evaporation, nor those which
are produced during the cooling of the solution^^are
proper to be made choice of for being increased and
brought forward to the most perfect crystals. hen
a solution has become cold, that Is to say, when it has
789
acquired the temperature of the atmosphere, and it is pheno-
deprived of the excess of saline particles which it held mena.
in combination during its increase of temperature, it is —-v-"—*
still in a condition to yield crystals, and as long as the
distances between the particles are not too great to al¬
low of mutual attraction. A solution saturated to excess
affords on cooling a confused mass of crystals , but after
the fluid is poured off, it will still produce more crystals,
hut in smaller number. The degree of concentration
of the solution before it yielded the last product, may
be considered as the term of saturation most proper to
he employed for the species of salt which is thus treated.
But by the repetition of these operations, and the
observation of their progress, it will not be difficult to
discover the proper proportions between the salt and the
solvent.
It seems to be a mistake to suppose, with some, that
the crystals which are placed in favourable circumstan¬
ces to become larger and more perfect, are injured by
coming in contact with each other during their in¬
crease. It is undoubtedly better that they should be
kept separate j but it does not appear that they are hurt
by touching each other, if the number in the vessel be
not too great, and they are not heaped or pressed to¬
gether. In that crystallization which results from the
cooling of a solution too much saturated, the crystals
are always confused and interlaced with each other j
and the molecules which are arranged in this kind of
disorder experience a kind of irregular distribution ;
and it may be observed, that in this case the summits
only of the crystals which are elevated from the kind of
cake which is formed on the surfaces of the vessel con¬
taining the solution, present regular and determined
forms. The mass in which these crystals are implanted
is a confused heap.
No cavities have been observed on the faces of crys¬
tals excepting those which are formed on the sur¬
face of fluids. Those which are produced on that
side of a crystal which rests on the bottom of the ves¬
sel are more common in other salts. This phenomenon
seems to merit more attention than has yet been be¬
stowed upon it j as it explains easily the introduction
of extraneous bodies which are sometimes detected in
the interior of crystals. For when a cavity of this 19
kind has acquired a certain depth, it is capable of re- Cavitie8 on
ceiving part of any foreign substance, and to be filled 7 a
up by the change of position of the same crystal, re¬
taining at the same time the extraneous matter. By a
little art and dexterity, these fortuitous circumstances
may be favoured, so that phenomena exhibited by such
occurrences may be traced and observed at the pleasure
of the operator. Experiments have been made with
the view of ascertaining whether an extraneous sub¬
stance could he substituted as the nucleus of a crystal j
hut from the result of these experiments, it does not
appear that the particles of any salt have a tendency to
combine with any foreign matter, and to form regular
cry stals. The portions of the salt which were attached
to the extraneous substance were always separate and
independent crystals.
There are some saline substances which retain in
their solution an excess of particles even after cooling,
and which being strongly agitated instantly deposit a
great number, of small crystals which render the solu¬
tion
790 CRYSTALLIZATION.
Pheno- tion turbid. The introduction of crystals of the same
niei;a" it is well known, as in the case of a solution of
Glauber’s salt, promotes this sudden crystallization or
separation of the excess of the salt. If, in this state of
the solution, crystals are immersed with the view of ha¬
ving them large and regular, they are certain of being
spoiled by the accumulation of a great number of small
crystals on their surface, unless the precaution of imme¬
diately washing them with pure water when this hap¬
pens is observed.
It may be remarked also that when the solution is
diminished below a certain degree of saturation, the
crystals not only cease to increase, but are also again
in some measure dissolved $ the corners and angles re¬
duced and rounded. And if the crystals in this state
ba introduced into a solution of sufficient strength to
promote their increase, supernumerary faces and trun-
catures, as they are denominated in technical language,
are formed on the rounded corners and angles. But
these laces always disappear as the increase of the cry¬
stals proceeds, and are replaced by corners and angles,
which become at last sharp and distinct.
By attention to preserve the solutions of salt in per¬
fect purity, we shall be more certain of obtaining the
most beautiful and transparent crystals. Some fluids,
after a certain time, are observed to deposit substances
which are foreign to the salt held in solution, and were
dissolved along with it. These substances sometimes
appear in the form of earthy matters, which precipi¬
tate to the bottom of the vessel; in other cases they
are didused in the form of flakes, ana sometimes they
rise and swim on the surface. In all these cases, the
crystals whose formation and increase are going for¬
ward must be removed, and the liquor must be filtrated
.2°. before they are replaced,
in^iy'stals . ^ sal>ne substance, which is capable of crystalliza-
from chan- fi°n» possesses, in the state of minute division in which
ges in tire it is in solution, or in the coudition of the molecules
solution. which compose it, a determined property which is uni¬
form and constant, in which resides essentially the
power of uniting in a certain symmetrical manner, and
thus constructing regular solids. The results also are
uniform and constant when the process is carefully con¬
ducted i but it is necessary to distinguish with accuracy
the circumstances which accompany the operation, and
may occasion a deviation from this uniformity. The
sulphate of iron, for instance, usually crystallizes in the
form of rhomboids ; but sometimes it has been found to
assume that of an irregular octaedron. And although
it may be true that an elongated octaedron may be clas¬
sed with prismatic crystals, it does not on that account
belong less to the octaedral form ; but it seems probable
that these different varieties, in the forms of crystals, de¬
pend on some changes which take place in the solutions
themselves. The iron in the present case is constantly
receiving new portions of oxygen from the atmosphere,
and in this new combination it is precipitated in the
fluid : this, therefore, occasions a change in the consti¬
tuents of the salt.
Several sulphates are found to combine readily with
each other: those of iron and copper are of this de¬
scription ; and the result of this compound crystal is
always a rhomboid. It seems to he doubtful whether
this should be considered as a case of simple interposi¬
tion of one salt with the other.
When a liquid, which holds saline bodies in solu- pjiena-
tion, is evaporated to a certain degree, a crust forms mena.
on the surface, acquires a certain thickness, and when '
this is removed, it is renewed. The point at which
the liquid exhibits this appearance is known in chemi¬
stry, by the appellation of evapoi'ation to a pellicle. 21
TV hen it has reached this point, the solution is in a Formation
state of complete saturation 5 and the smallest addition-of dendrites
al quantity of fluid cannot be withdrawn without a cor¬
responding quantity of salt assuming the solid form.
On this principle liobinet has attempted to account
for the formation of dendrites, or the arborescent ap¬
pearance and efflorescence of some salts. Almost all
the different species of fucus or sea-weed, he observes,
are covered, in drying, with an efflorescence of white
mattex-. In some species, this white matter was ob¬
served to possess a saccharine quality. A number of
lai’ge x’oots of the fucus palmalus was hung up in the
shade, and ten days had elapsed without the appearance
of any thing on the surface. After that period it be¬
came white, and it was soon covered with a light
downy substance, the filaments of which gradually in¬
creased to a considerable length. When this downy
matter was brushed off with a feather, it was renewed
till the plants were completely dry. This substance,
it appeared on examination, was of a saccharine na¬
ture, mixed with a small portion of common salt, and
a great quantity of mucilaginous matter. By solution
and crystallization, the sugar was separated from the
other substances.
In comparing the circumstances of this effloxescence
with those of the formation of the pellicle, in the pro-
giess of evaporation, the former seems to be a modifi¬
cation of the latter. In a vessel which contains a li¬
quid saturated with a salt, the surface subjected to eva¬
poration has no sooner assumed a solid form, than the
surface immediately inferior is exposed to the action
of the same causes, and produces the same effect 5 and
this effect continues till this crust has become so thick,
or so compact, as to prevent the contact of air, and
then the evaporation ceases. But, on the contrai-y, in
the fucus, the air acting only on the surface of the
plant, the liquid which it contains cannot undergo the
process of evaporation, without coming to the surface.
The attraction of the matter of the plant tends to pro¬
mote this motion ; for as the liquid is equally diffused
thi'ough its whole mass, it rises constantly to the sux-
fiice, in proportion as this surface is dried by the sur¬
rounding air; and it would appear that this is the pro¬
cess in the desiccation of all thick and massy bodies.
Now, the saline matter which, in the present case, is
in the state of efflorescence, having the same power>of
attraction on the liquid, the rudiments of each fila¬
ment constitute, at the instant of their formation, part
of the whole mass or body of the plant. They parti¬
cipate, therefore, of the same degree of moisture as
that of the plant, and it is on their surface that the
evaporation and crystallization of saline matter chiefly
take place.
The mechanism of the dendritical or arborescent
form of saline bodies seems to be in this way capable
of explanation. The whole saline mass, which extends
to the edges of the vessel, and even redescends extei’-
nally, is constantly in the humid state, as long as
any liquid remains in the vessel. It may be supposed,
CRYSTAL
Pheno- l^at the matter of the sides of the vessel determines,
mena. by its attraction, the external circle of the surface of
1"" v the liquid to rise above the surface ; a phenomenon
which is sufficiently obvious, but especially in narrow
vessels. This portion of liquid, which is more com¬
pletely subjected to evaporation, gives origin to a cir¬
cle of saline matter, which appears thus raised above
the surface of the liquid, and which being the first
rudiments of the dendrites, contributes afterwards to
its increase, in the way which has been already ex¬
plained. Thus the vegetation of salts bears a striking
resemblance to the process of efflorescence, or the for¬
mation of the downy matter on the surface of the
22 fucus.
Effiores- There is yet another kind of crystallization which
cence. seems to depend on the same cause. This is the saline
efflorescence, which occurs in different places on the
surface of the globe, and is frequently in such quantity
as to become an important object of manufacture.
Without extending our observations to the efflorescence
of soda on the surface of the soil in Egypt, or that of
nitre in Asiatic countries, we may refer to the produc¬
tion of muriate of soda, or common salt, in different
parts of Europe, in those places which are covered
with the waters of the ocean during high tides. The
waters of the sea, with which the sandy shores are twice
periodically moistened in the course of a month, are
far distant from the point of saturation which deter¬
mines crystallization. They rarely contain more than
3 parts of salt in loo j and the sand at the degree of
moisture, in which it is left by the sea, is not impreg¬
nated with a sufficient quantity of saline matter to he
worthy the labour of manufacturing; hut, during the
interval between the tides, these circumstances are
greatly changed. The dry air of summer, by evapo¬
rating the moisture on the surface, allows the matter
of the sand to attract towards the surface a similar
portion of water, which was in the lower part of the
soil, and which always tends to diffuse itself equally
through the whole mass. This liquid, carrying with
it the salt, which it holds in solution, increases the quan¬
tity of saline matter which exists on the surface. This
process continues without interruption, as long as there
is no fall of rain. It reaches at last a certain point, at
which the water subjected to evaporation is saturated
with the salt; and this process cannot proceed farther
without the deposition of crystals of the salt, which dis¬
cover themselves by their shining appearance. After
some days, the sand on the surface is collected, and
about six times the quantity of saline matter is found
in the same proportion of sand, when it was first moist¬
ened by the sea water (a).
Another phenomenon which takes place during the
the bottom process of artificial evaporation, should not pass unno-
of vessels, ticed. This is the formation of a saline crust at the
bottom of the vessels in which the process is conducted.
This seems to be the immediate effect of ebullition;
>3
Crust on
LIZATION. 791
for when the temperature of the liquid is kept under X’lieno-
the boiling point, no such effect is produced. This mena.
crust is composed of all the saline substances which are y“—
held in solution in the liquid ; and even these substan¬
ces are found combined in the same proportion in which
they actually exist in the solution. Whatever be the
attraction of these substances for water, or even if
they possess a deliquescent property, they are not less
disposed to enter into combination during the formation
of the solid crust on the bottom of vessels in which the
process of evaporation is conducted with a temperature
equal to the boiling point. A slight degree of attention
will satisfy us, that the formation of this crust depends
on the particular circumstances of the evaporation in
the case of ebullition. It must be obvious, that in this
case the stratum of liquid which is in immediate con¬
tact with the vessel, receives the caloric which pene¬
trates its sides, is charged with it beyond its capacity,
changes its state, and assumes the gaseous form, and by
this change having entirely lost its solvent power, what¬
ever saline matter is held in solution must assume the
solid state in contact with the sides of the vessel, and
consequently adhere to it. Thus it happens, according
to a very judicious observation, that in different saline
solutions, the results of which have been compared, f Jour, tie
these scales or crusts are more abundant in proportion ^/s•
as the degree of saturation is lessf. *2^
To these observations we shall only add a short ac-Microsco-
count of the phenomena of crystallization, as they werepical cry-
observed with the assistance of a microscope, by Mrstals*
Baker, and of the appearances of different saline bo¬
dies which he hath described. This will not afford any
scientific information to the philosopher, but it may
perhaps be the source of amusement to some of our
readers, and the means, by a minute observation of
the phenomena, of leading to some useful discoveries.
The method which he followed in conducting these
experiments, is the following. The substance to ha
examined is to be dissolved in a quantity of pure wa¬
ter, so as to he completely saturated. For salts of easy
solubility, cold water may be employed ; hut for salts
which are dissolved with more difficulty, hot or boiling
water may be found necessary. In preparing the solu¬
tion, the same rule may he observed as in preparing
solutions for obtaining large crystals, which has been
given in the former part of this section. The solution
should be allowed to remain at rest for some hours, so
that the first crystallization, if too much saline matter
has been added to the liquid, may he allowed to take
place. Thus the solution will be always of the same
strength, and the same appearances may be uniformly
expected.
When the solution is thus prepared, a drop of it
may be taken up with the point of a quill, cut in the
form of a pen, and placed on aflat slip o( glass, spread¬
ing it on the glass with the quill till the liquid is so
shallow as to rise very little above its surface. It is
then
(a) Common salt is manufactured in this way on the sandy shores of the Solway Frith, in Annandale in Scot¬
land. These flat shores are covered with the waters of the ocean during spring tides; and in the interval of
these tides the evaporation by the heat of the sun and the action of the air is so considerable, as.to leave the
sand impregnated with a quantity of salt, sufficient to defray the expence and trouble of manufacturing it by fil¬
tration and boiling.
792 CRYSTAL
Fheno- then to be held over the clear part of a moderate fire,
men a. or the flame of a candle, and such a degree of heat ap-
^ plied as is found from experience to produce the neces¬
sary evaporation. This will be known by observing
the formation of saline particles at the edges of the
•drop of fluid. The microscope being previously ad¬
justed, and a magnifier of a moderate power being fit¬
ted on, the slip of glass is to be placed immediately
•under the eye, and brought exactly to the focus of the
•magnifier. After running over the whole drop, the
attention is to be directed to that side on which the
process of crystallization first commences, and proceeds
from the circumference towards the centre. The mo¬
tion is at first slow, if too much heat has not been ap¬
plied, but becomes quicker as the evaporation conti¬
nues. In some crystallizations the configurations are
produced towards the end of the process with great ra-
■pidity, and exhibit an elegance, order, and regularity,
which imagination only can conceive. When this ra¬
pid action has once begun, the eye must be kept fixed
on the object, till the whole process is completed, be¬
cause new forms appear, quite difl’erent from those
which were first produced, and which have been pro¬
perly ascribed to a quantity of different salts mixed with
the substance to be examined, when the precaution has
not been used of having it in a state of purity. When
the configurations are fully formed, and the water eva¬
porated, such salts as are deliquescent, it is scarcely
necessary to observe, are soon destroyed by attracting
the moisture from the air $ but those which are more
permanent, and not disposed either to deliquesce or to
be deprived of their water of crystallization, may be
preserved, by being enclosed between glasses, for a
long time, as amusing objects for the microscope. To
make the liquid spread readily on the glass, the surface
of it may be moistened with a little of it, and rubbed
with the finger. In this way, the repulsion which
sometimes is observed between the liquid and the glass
is completely removed. During the evaporation, the
object-glass of the microscope is sometimes obscured by
the condensation of the water from the saline solution
on the slip of glass, and the vision is thus rendered in¬
distinct. When this happens, if the circumstance be
recollected, the glass must be wiped and replaced. In
examinations of saline solutions, and in observing the
progress of crystallization, Mr Baker recommends the
light of a candle in preference to the light of day,
which latter being of a whiter colour and nearly the
same with the transparent crystals, they are less di¬
stinctly seen than with the brown light of a candle.
Plate Fig. I. is a representation of the microscopical cry-
CLXV. stals of nitre or saltpetre. They begin to shoot out
from the edges with very moderate heat into flat fi¬
gures of different lengths, with straight parallel sides,
and exceedingly transparent. They appear in difl’er¬
ent states of their progress at the letters, a, b, c, d, and
e; a exhibits the appearance when they first begin to
form. When a number of crystals have made their
appearance they sometimes dissolve under the eye, and
disappear entirely : but, by continuing to watch the
changes which go on, the process is frequently obser¬
ved to recommence, and new shoots pudi out. The
first crystals sometimes become larger without under¬
going any change of figure ; and sometimes form in
the way which is represented in the figure. When the
3
L I Z A T I O N.
heat is too great, as might be expected, the process Pheno-
goes on with great rapidity, and numerous ramifica- mens,
tions are formed. This arises no doubt from the con-v"" ~v ■—
fused crystallization.
Fig. 2. shews the microscopical crystals of blue vi¬
triol (sulphate of copper), which appear first round the
edges, short at the beginning, but gradually increasing,
as they are represented at the letters o, b, c, which
denote their difference of form, and the progress of
their growth. These crystals, which are transparent,
assume a solid regular form, and reflect the light from
their polished sides and angles. As the evaporation
proceeds, a great number of filaments as fine as hairs
make their appearance, some crossing each other, as at
d; and others exhibiting a stellated form with many
radiations, as at e e. The crystallization of this salt
proceeds slowly. Towards the end of the process the
regular crystals appear, and are finely branched as
at/.
Fig. 3. is a view of the crystals of distilled verdigrise,
or acetate of copper. When it is immediately applied
to the microscope, the regular figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, make their appearance 5 but if the solution is al¬
lowed to remain at rest for a few hours, and a drop of
it is then heated on a slip of glass till it begins to con¬
crete about the sides, sharp-pointed solid figures are
formed, and shoot forwards. These crystals are often
striated obliquely, frequently arise in clusters, or shoot
from a centre. Sometimes, towards the end of the
process, and in the middle of the drop, they assume a
foliated form, and have the appearance of four leaves
of fern united by their stems.
Fig. 4. shews the microscopical crystals of alum.
These are more or less perfect according to the strength
of the solution, and the temperature employed. To
prepare this salt for examination, the saturated solution
may remain for some days. In that lime crystals will
form, and if what remains liquid should be found too
weak, heat may be applied, which will again dissolve
the crystals.
In fig. 5. is a view of the crystals of borax, or the
subborate of soda. The drop of this solution should
not be held too long over the fire, as it hardens on the
slip of glass, and no crystals appear. A brisk heat for
about a second is recommended as the best method. It
is then applied to the microscope, and the crystals will
form as in the figure.
Fig. 6. shews the microscopical crystals of sal ammo¬
niac, or muriate of ammonia. Great numbers of thick,
sharp, and broad spiculge shoot from the edges, and
from their sides are protruded others of the same form,
which are parallel to each other, but perpendicular to
the main stem. The formation of these crystals, un¬
less the heat employed be very moderate, is very
rapid.
Fig. 7. exhibits the appearance of the crystals of
acetate of lead (sugar of lead). Alter a liitle of this
salt is dissolved in hot water, and allowed to remain at
rest for a short time, it is lit for being examined with
the microscope. A drop of it put on a slip of glass,
and heat being applied, will be seen forming round
the edge, a regular border of a clear and transpan-nt
substance, which with a strong heat runs over the
whole of the drop, and hardens on the glass •, but when
the heat employed is moderate, bundles of lines, ar¬
ranged
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Situciutc ofruigecl in a radiated form, make their appearance.
Crystals They arise from points in the interior edge of the bor-
' der, and spread out nearly at equal distances from each
other, in all directions.
In fig. 8. are represented the crystals of Glauber’s
salt (sulphate of soda), which assumes the form of ra¬
mifications, proceeding from the side of the drop, like
the growth of minute plants. Other appearances pre¬
sent themselves in different periods of the process. It
is indeed but of short duration, for when the crystal¬
lisation has once begun, it goes on with great rapi¬
dity.
The examples which we have now given will, we
apprehend, be sufficient to enable those who are cu¬
rious in microscopical observations, to prosecute re¬
searches of this kind. Many more might have been
given from the same author; but as experiments on
crystallization, conducted in this way, are little suscep¬
tible of accuracy or precision, we wish to avoid swell¬
ing out the article without conveying some useful in¬
formation. Our chemical readers will readily per¬
ceive, that very different appearances will be the re¬
sult of a slower or more rapid crystallization, greater
or less purity of the salt, and different degrees of
strength of the solution. In compound bodies, for in¬
stance, modifications in the form of the crystals are
produced by a difference in the proportion of the con¬
stituent parts. The crystals of alum, which is a triple
salt, viz. a sulphate of alumina and potash, are in the
form of octahedrons. The addition of a quantity of
alumina changes the form of the crystals to that of
cubes ; and if a cubic crystal of alum be introduced
into a solution, the proportions of which afford octa¬
hedral crystals, the cubic crystal will assume the form
of an octahedron, and the octahedral crystal put into
a solution which affords cubic crystals, passes into that
of the cube. The nature of the solvent also, in which
the crystallization takes place, produces certain devia¬
tions in the form of the crystals. The solution of com¬
mon salt in water affords cubical crystals, but in urine
it crystallizes in the form of octahedrons. Muriate of
ammonia dissolved in water, crystallizes in the form of
an octahedron, but in urine it affords crystals in the
form of cubes. But we now proceed to consider the
theory of the structure of crystals, which will be the
subject of the next section.
Sect. II. 0/ the Theory of the Structure of Crystals.
In the former section we have given a view of the
phenomena of crystallization. The regular forms
which bodies assume by means of this process, have oc¬
cupied no small share of the attention of naturalists,
793
and chemical philosophers. The researches and in-Structureot
vestigations of Bergman, Rome de L’Isle, and Hauy, Crystals,
have been particularly directed this way. Bergman, v
in his 12th Dissertation*, treats of the variety of the * Physic.
forms of crystals, of the various figures derived from the ^ Chemic.
spathaceous form, of the structure of the most minute ssa2ts‘
parts, and of the different modes in which crystals are
generated. Rome de L’Isle has arranged crystals into
six species, derived from the varieties of form. I. Tetra¬
hedron. 2. Cube. 3. Octahedron. 4. Parallelepiped.
5. Rhomboidal octahedron. 6. Dodecahedron. But
the ingenious researches of Hauy on this subject have
been followed by the completes! and most successful in¬
vestigation of the theory of the structure of crystals
which has yet appeared. Of this theory, an account of
which the reader will find in the Annates de Chimie f, | Vol xvii.
and in his Traite de Minerahgiewe now propose to| VoL i.
give a comprehensive view.
This theory, the author observes, cannot he fully
understood without the aid of analytical calculations.
For beside the convenience of analysis, including in the
same formula a great number of different problems, it
is by means of it alone, that the theory can assume the
character of absolute certainty in arriving at the same
results which are obtained by observation. But not¬
withstanding these considerations, it seemed to be bet¬
ter for those who had not a competent knowledge of
the science of calculation to prefer the method of
simple reasoning, but accompanied with geometrical
figures, which are so useful in giving a distinct con¬
ception of the arrangement of the small solids which
combine together to form a crystal. This arrange¬
ment is denominated structure, in opposition to the
term organisation, which expresses the more compli¬
cated mechanism of vegetables and animals. This me¬
thod may perhaps be less direct, and less precise and
expeditious, and it may require attention to those de¬
tails which are passed over in the analytical method to
reach its object more speedily ; it has, however, this
advantage, that the mind by its means perceives better
the connexion of the different parts under considera¬
tion, and can more readily comprehend the facts with
which it is furnished.
I. Mechanical Division of Crystals.
The same mineral substance, it is known, is sus¬
ceptible of several different forms, well defined, some
of which do not appear, at first sight, to have any
common point of resemblance to indicate their rela¬
tion. If, for instance, we compare the regular hex-
ahedral prism of calcareous spar with the rhomboid of
the same mineral (b), whose large angle is about 101 J°,
we
(b) The name of rhomboid is given by the author to a parallelepiped a, e (fig. I 2.) terminated by six equal
and similar rhombuses. In every rhomboid, two of the solid angles, such as a, e opposed to each other, are
formed by the junction of three equal plane angles; each of the six solid angles is formed by a plane angle equal
to each of the three preceding, and by two other angles of a different measure, but equal to each other. rIhe
points a e are the summits, the line a e is the axis. In any one of the rhombuses a b, df, which compose the sur¬
face, the angle a, contiguous to the summit, is called the superior angle; the angle d the inferior angle; and the
angles b *ni\f are the lateral angles. The sides ab, ojTare the superior edges, and the sides b d, df the inferior
edges : bf\* the horizontal diagonal, and a d, the oblique diagonal. The rhomboid is obtuse or acute, according
as the ansrles of the summits are obtuse or acute. The cube is the limit of the rhomboids.
Vol. VI. Part II. f 5 ^
794 crystal:
Structure ofwe should be led to believe that each of these two
Crystal*, forms is quite distinct from the other. But this point
' » 1 of relation, which escapes notice, when we consider
only the external form, becomes sensible when we at¬
tend to the intimate mechanism of the structure. Here
the author gives a historical view of the progress of his
researches, and traces the steps which led him to the
discovery of what became as it were the key of his
whole theory. ^
He had in his hand a hexahedral prism of calcare¬
ous spar, similar to that mentioned above, and which
had been detached from a group of the same crystals.
The fracture presented a very smooth surface, situated
obliquely, like the trapezium p s u t (fig. 9.), and
which had au angle of 1350, both with the remain¬
der a b c s p h of the base, and with the remainder
t 11 ef oi the plane i n e f. Observing that the cunei¬
form segment p s u t i n which this fracture separated
from the crystal, had for its vertex one of the edges of
the base, namely the edge i n, he attempted to separate
a second segment in that part to which the contiguous
edge c n belonged. For this purpose he employed the
blade of a knife, directed with the same degree of obli¬
quity as the trapezium p s u t and aided by the stroke
of a hammer. This attempt failed ; but having tried
the same operation towards the next edge & c, a new
trapezium similar to the first came into view. The
fourth edge a b resisted the instrument, but the follow¬
ing, a h, readily yielded to mechanical division, and
presented a third trapezium, having as fine a polish as
the other two. The sixth edge i h, it is scarcely ne¬
cessary to observe, could not be divided, more than the
fourth and the second.
Proceeding then to the inferior base d e f g k r, it
was soon found that the edges of this base, which ad¬
mitted of divisions similar to the preceding, were not
the edges ef d r, g k, which corresponded to those
which could be divided towards the upper part, but
the intermediate z&gts, d v y, g f. The trapezium
l q y v shews the section made below the edge k r.
This section is obviously parallel to that of the trape¬
zium p s u t; and the four other sections are in like
manner parallel, two and two. Now, these different
sections being in the direction of the natural joints of
the laminm, it wTas easy to obtain others parallel to
each of them, but it was found impossible to divide the
crystal iaany other direction. Following this mecha¬
nical division according to the parallelism stated above,
new sections were obtained, always nearer to the axis
of the prism •, and when the sections were carried so
far as to make the remainder of the two bases disappear,
the prism was transformed into a solid OX (fig. 10.)
terminated by 12 pentagons, parallel two to two, of
which those of the extremities, namely, S.IOIR,
GIODE, BAODC, on the one side, and KNPQF,
MNPXU, ZQPXY, on the other, were the results
of the mechanical division, and had their common ver¬
tices O, P, situated in the centres of the bases of the
prism, fig. 9. The six lateral pentagons RSUXY,
ZYRIG, &c. (fig. IQ.) were the remainders of the
planes of the same prism.
In proportion as the sections were multiplied, always
parallel to the preceding, the lateral pentagons dimi¬
nished in height, and at a certain term the points R,
G. being confounded with the points Y, Z, the points
\
. I Z A T I O N.
S, R with the points U, Y, &c. there remained no Structure of
more of these pentagons, but the triangles YIZ, UXY, Crystals,
&c. (fig. II.). Beyond that term the sections coming
to pass over the surface of these triangles, diminished
gradually in extent, till at last the same triangles were
lost, and then the solid obtained from the hexahedral
prism, appeared to be a rhomboid a e (fig. 12.) exactly
similar to that which is commonly denominated Iceland
spar.
So unexpected a result led the ingenious author to the
examination of other calcareous crystals in a similar
manner, all of which yielded to mechanical division in
such a way, as, when all the external surfaces had dis¬
appeared, the nucleus which remained was always a
rhomboid, of the same form as the first. All that was
necessary was to discover the direction of the sections
which conducted to the central rhomboid.
To extract, for instance, this rhomboid from the
spar which is usually denominated lenticular, and which
is itself a much more obtuse rhomboid, having its large
plane angle equal to 1140 18' 56", it was necessary to
begin with the two vertices, and to make the sections
pass through the small diagonals of the faces. But if
it is wished, on the contrary, to get at the nucleus of
the rhomboidal spar with acute vertices, the direction
of the sections-of the planes must be parallel to the
edges contiguous to the summits, and in such a manner
that each of them shall be equally inclined to the faces
which it cuts.
These results are the more worthy of attention, as
it would seem at first, that in the process of crystalli¬
zation, after the rhomboid has been once adopted with
regard to a determined species of mineral, it ought al¬
ways to re-produce it with the same angles. But the
paradox which arises from this diversity of appearance,
is explained by the double use of the rhomboidal form,
which serves here to disguise itself, and conceals fixed
and constant characters under a variable external ap¬
pearance.
If we take a crystal of a different nature, such as a
cube of flu or spar, the nucleus will have a different
form. This will be, in the present case, an octahedron,,
which we shall obtain by taking off the eight solid
angles of the cube. Heavy spar will produce for a
nucleus a right prism with rhomboidal bases ; feld spar,
an oblique-angled parallelepiped, but not rhomboidal j
apatite or beryl, a right six-sided prism j the adamantine
spar a rhomboid, a little acute j blende, a dodecahedron,
with rhomboidal planes; iron of the island of Elba, ?.
cube, &c.; and each of these forms will be constant in
relation to the whole species, so that its angles will un¬
dergo no variation which is appreciable: and if we at¬
tempt to divide the crystal in any other direction, we
shall not be able to find any joint j vve shall only obtain
indeterminate fragments j it will rather be broken than
divided.
These solids inscribed each in all the crystals of the
same species, ought to be regarded as the true primi¬
tive forms on which all the other forms depend. All
minerals, it is true, are not susceptible of mechanical
division,, but the number is greater than what appear-,
ed at first sight; and with regard to those crystals in
which the attempts to discover the natural joints have
failed, it has been remarked that their surface striated
in a certain direction, or the relation of their different
forms,.
C R Y S T A L I
Structure of forms> among those which belong to the same substance,
Crystals frequently presented indications of their structure, and
' by reasoning from their analogy with other divisible
crystals, we may determine this structure, at least with a
good deal of probability.
All deviations from the primitive form are called by
liauy, secondary forms. The number of these forms
has certain limits, which can be determined by theory,
according to the laws which regulate the structure of
crystals.
The solid of the primitive form, which is obtained by
means of the operation described above, may be farther
subdivided in a direction parallel to its different faces.
All the surrounding matter is equally divisible by sec¬
tions parallel to the faces of the primitive form. Hence
it follows, that the parts detached by the aid of all
these sections are similar, and only differ in their
volume, which continually decreases in proportion to the
extent of the division. Those, however, must be ex¬
cepted, which are near to the faces of the secondary
solid •, for these faces not being parallel to those of the
primitive form, the fragments which have one of their
facets taken in the same faces, cannot exactly resemble
those which are detached towards the middle of the
crystal. For instance, the fragments of the hexahedral
prism (fig. 9-)» whose external facets make part of the
bases, or of the planes, have not, in this respect, the
same figure with those which are situated nearer to the
centre, all of whose facets are parallel to the sections
p s u t, l q y v ; but the difficulty which presents itself
at first sight, in consequence of that diversity, is removed
bv the help of the theory, and the whole are reduced to
a unity of form.
But the division of the crystal into small, similar
solids, has a certain limit, beyond which we should
arrive at particles so small, that they are no longer di¬
visible, without destroying the nature of the substance,
or decomposing it. At this term, the investigation
stops j and to the small solids, which we might insu¬
late if our organs and instruments were sufficiently
delicate, Hauy has given the name of integrant or
integral molecules. He thinks it probable, that these
molecules are those which were suspended in the fluid in
which the crystallization took place. In general it
maybe observed that, with the aid of these molecules, the
theory reduces to simple laws the different forms of crys¬
tals, and arrives at results which exactly represent those
of nature.
When the nucleus is a parallelepiped, that is, a solid
having six parallel faces, two to two, like the cube,
the rhomboid, See. and this solid admits of no other
divisions than those which are made in the direction
of its faces ; it is obvious that the molecules which
result from the subdivision, whether of the nucleus
or of the surrounding matter, are similar to this nu¬
cleus. In other cases, the form of the molecules is
different from that of the nucleus. There are, besides,
other crystals which afford, by means of mechanical di¬
vision, pai'ticles of different figures combined together
through the whole extent of these crystals. The
ingenious author of the theory has thrown out some
conjectures on the manner of resolving the difficulty
which these kinds of mixed structures present 5 and at
any rate he observes that it does not affect the stability
of the theory.
11 Z A T I Q N. 795
Stracture of
XL Laws of Decrement. i Ct)^als'-
l. Decrements at the Edges.
The primitive form, and that of the integrant mole¬
cules, being determined, after the dissection of the cry¬
stals, we must investigate the laws according to which
these molecules were combined, to produce around the
primitive form those kind of coverings which terminated
so regularly, and from which resulted polyhedra so dif¬
ferent from each other, although originally of the same
substance. Now, such is the mechanism of the structure
subject to these laws, that all the parts of the secondary
crystal superadded to the nucleus, are formed of la¬
minae, which decrease regularly by subtractions of one
or more ranges of integral molecules, so that theory
determines the number of these rows, and by a ne¬
cessary consequence the exact form of the secondary
crystal.
To have a distinct idea of these laws, let us take a
very simple and elementary example. Conceive EF
(fig. 13.) to represent a dodecahedron whose faces are
equal and similar rhombuses, and that this dodecahedron
is a secondary form, having a cube for its nucleus or
primitive form. By the inspection of fig. 14. the po¬
sition of this cube in the crystal may be easily con¬
ceived. The small diagonals DC, CG, GF, ID of
the four faces of the dodecahedron, being united round
the same solid angle, form a square CD FG. Now there
are six solid angles, composed of the four planes, name¬
ly the angles L, O, E, N, R, P (fig. 13.), and conse¬
quently, if sections are made to pass through the small
diagonals of the faces which compose the solid angles,
six squares will be successively uncovered. These
squares will be the faces of the primitive cube, of which
three are represented at fig. 14. namely CDFG, ABCD,
BCGH.
This cube would evidently be an assemblage of
cubic integral molecules, and it would be necessary
that each of the pyramids, such as LDCGF (fig. 14.)-
which rest on the faces, should be itself composed ot
cubes equal to each other, and to those which form
the nucleus. To have a more distinct conception of
this arrangement, let us compose an artificial dodecahe¬
dron of a certain number of small cubes, the arrange¬
ment of which will be an imitation of the process of
nature in disposing the molecules in the formation of the
dodecahedron.
Let ABGF (fig. 15,) be a cube composed of 729
small cubes equal to each other, in which case each
face of the whole cube will include 81 squares, that
is, 9 on each side, which will be the external faces of as
many partial cubes representing the molecules. This
cube will be the nucleus of the dodecahedron which is
to be constructed. On one of the faces, as ABCD, ot
the cube apply a square lamina, composed of cubes
equal to those which form the nucleus, but having to¬
wards each a row of cubes less than if it were on a
level with the contiguous faces BCGH, DCGF, &e.
This lamina will be composed of 49 cubes, that is, 7
on each side, so that if the inferior base be 0 nfg (fig.
16.) this base will fall exactly on the square marked
with the same letters in fig. 15. Above this first la¬
mina let a second be applied, composed of 25 cubes,
5 on each side, so that if Imp u (fig. 17.) represent
5 H 2 its
796
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Structure of its inferior base, this base will correspond exactly with
Crystals, the square marked with the same letters in fig. 15. If
1 in like manner a third lamina be applied to the second,
which is composed only of 9 cubes, that is, 3 on each
side, so that v x y % (Hg. 18.) being the inferior base,
shall correspond with the square marked with the same
letters in fig. 15.; and if on the middle square r of the
preceding lamina the small cube r (fig. 19.) be placed,
this will represent the last lamina.
When this operation is completed, it will appear
that there is formed on the face ABCD (fig. 15.)
a four-sided pyramid, of which this face is the base,
and the cube r (fig. 19.) is the summit. And if the
same operation be continued on the other five sides of
the cube, we shall have six four-sided pyramids, resting
on the six faces of the nucleus, which is enveloped with
them on all sides. But as the different rows oflaminas
composing these pyramids project beyond each other for
a certain way, as appears on fig. 20. where the parts
raised above the planes BCD, BCG represent the
two pyramids which rest on the faces ABCD, BCGH,
(fig. 15.) the faces of the pyramids will not form con¬
tinued planes j for they will be alternately re-entering
and salient, in some measure imitating a stair with four
sides.
Let us now suppose that the nucleus is composed of
a number of almost imperceptible cubes incomparably
greater, and that the laminae applied on the different
faces, which may be called the laminae of superposi¬
tion, continue to increase towards their four edges by
subtractions of one range of cubes equal to those of
the nucleus, the number of these laminae will be in¬
comparably greater than in the preceding hypothesis 5
and at the same time the cavities or furrows which they
form, as they alternately become salient or re-entering,
will be almost imperceptible 5 and indeed it might be
supposed that the cubes of which the crystal is compo¬
sed are so small as to become quite imperceptible to our
senses, and the faces of the pyramids to be perfectly
smooth.
Now DCBE (fig. 20.) being the pyramid which
rests on the face ABCD (fig. 15.), and CBOG (fig.
20.) the pyramid applied to the face BCGH (fig. 15.),
if we consider that every thing is uniform from E to O
(fig. 20.) in the manner in which the laminae of super¬
position mutually project beyond each other, we may
readily conceive that the face CEB of the first pyramid
ought to be exactly in the same plane as the face COB
of the contiguous pyramid, so that the union of these
two faces should form a rhombus ECOB. But we have,
for the 6 pyramids, 24 triangles similar to CEB, which
consequently will be reduced to 12 rhombuses, from
which results a dodecahedron similar to what is repre¬
sented in fig. 13. and 14.
The cube, before it arrives at the form of the dode¬
cahedron, passes through a multitude of intermediate
modifications, of which one is shown at fig. 21. The
squares p a e 0^ k l q u, tn n t &c. correspond to the
squares ABCD, DCGF, CBHG, &c. (fig. 14.), and
form the superior basis of as many pyramids, incomplete Stnictare of
from the deficiency of the lamina; with which they Cr^tals.
ought to terminate. The rhombuses EDLC, ECOB
(fig- I3°)> by 51 necessary consequence, are reduced to
simple hexagons ae C l k\y, e 0 nmC (fig. 21.), and
the surface of the secondary crystal is composed of 12 of
these hexagons and 6 squares. This is the case with
the boracic spar (the borate of magnesia and lime),
with the exception of some facets which surmount the
solid angles, and which depend on a difierent law of de¬
crement.
If the diminution of the laminae of superposition
proceeded in a more rapid ratio ; for example, if each
lamina had had on its circumference, two, three, or four
rows of cubes less than the inferior lamina, the pyra¬
mids produced on the nucleus by this diminution be¬
ing more depressed, and their contiguous faces being
no longer on a level, the surface of the secondary so¬
lid would have been composed of 24 isosceles triangles,
all inclined to each other. Decrement on the edges, is
that which takes place parallel to the edges of the nu¬
cleus, and it ought to be distinguished from another kind
of decrease to be afterwards mentioned.
2. Examples of Decrease on the Edges.
Martial Pyrites, or Dodecahedral Sidphuret of Iron.
Geometric Character.—Inclination of any one of the
pentagons, as DPRFS (fig. 27.), to the pentagon
CPRGL, which has the same base PR, 126° 56' 8".
Angles of the pentagon CPRGL, L rz 1210 35'
17"; C or G = 1060 35'57" 3ow ; PorR=io2°
36' i9,/.
Let us conceive again a cubic nucleus, whose differ¬
ent edges are lines of departure to the same number
of decrements which take place at the same time in
two different ways ; that is, by the subtraction of two
rows parallel to the edges AB, CD (fig. 15.), and of
one row parallel to the edges, AB, BC. Let it be sup¬
posed also that each lamina being only equal in thick¬
ness to a small cube of the side AB and CD, is on the
contrary equal to double the thickness of the side AD
and BC. Fig. 22. represents this disposition with re¬
gard to thfe decrements which proceed from the lines
DC, BC, (fig. 15.). It is plain that on account of the
more rapid decrease in proceeding from DC or AB,
than from BC or AD, the faces produced in the first
case will be more inclined to the plane ABCD, while
the faces produced in the second will remain as it were
behind, so that the pyramid will no longer be terminated
by a single cube E, as in fig. 20. which on account of its
minuteness seems to be only a point, but by the row of
cubes MNST (fig. 22.) which, supposing these cubes to
be infinitely small, will preseent the appearance of a sim¬
ple ridge. By a necessary consequence, the pyramid
will have for its faces two trapeziums, such as DMNC,
resulting from the first decrement, and two isosceles
triangles, such as CNB, which will be the effect of the
second decrement (c).
Let
(c) Hei’e the face which corresponds to ABCD (fig. 13.) has 25 squares on each side, as may be seen in
fig. 22. The structure of this pyramid may be imitated artificially, by regulating the arrangement and number
of the cubes represented in the same figure.
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Structure.of Let us suppose farther, that with regard to the la-
Grystals. minte of superposition, which arise on the face BCGII
u"—  (fig. 15.), the decrements follow the same laws, but in
cross directions j in such a way that the more rapid of
the two may take place in proceeding from BC, or
from GH, towards the vertex of the pyramid, and the
slower decrement in proceeding from CG, or BH, to¬
wards the same vertex. The pyramid which results
from these decrements will lie placed in a direction op¬
posite to that which rests on ABCD, and will have
the position represented at fig. 25. where the edge KL,
which terminates the pyramid, instead of being paral¬
lel to CD, like the edge MN, (fig. 22. and 23.) is on
the contrary parallel to BC. We shall then conceive
what is to be done, that the pyramid which will rest on
DC, GF (fig. 15.) may be turned as it is represented in
fig. 24. and may have its terminating edge PR parallel
to CG (fig. 15.)» The pyramids which will rest on
three other faces of the cube, will stand like that which
arises on the opposite face.
But as the decrements which produce the triangle
CNB (fig. 23.) make a continuity with those from
which results the trapezium CBKL (fig. 25.), these two
figures will be in the same plane, and will form a pen¬
tagon CNBKL (fig. 26.). For the same reason the
triangle DPC (fig. 24.) will be on a level with the tra¬
pezium DMNC (fig. 23.) and by applying the same
reasoning to the other pyramids, it will be conceived
that the six pyramids having for their whole faces 12
trapeziums and 12 triangles, the surface of the secon¬
dary solid will be composed of 12 pentagons, which
will correspond to the 12 rhombuses of fig. 13. but with
this difference, that they will have other inclinations.
This solid is represented at fig. 27. and with its cubic
nucleus at fig. 28. where it may be seen how to pro¬
ceed in the extraction of this nucleus. If, for exam¬
ple, a section be made passing through the points D,
C, G, F, the pyramid which rests on the face DCGF of
the nucleus will be detached, and by this section the
latter will be uncovered.
Among the crystals belonging to the sulphuret of
iron, or the arseniate of cobalt, there is found a dode¬
cahedron, having the faces equal and similar pentagons,
and having for its nucleus a cube in the position above
described. But there are an infinite number of possible
dodecahedra, which may have for faces equal and similar
pentagons, and will differ from each other by the re¬
spective inclinations of their faces. Of all these do¬
decahedra, the one whose structure would be subjected
to these laws, gives I 26° 56' 8", as the angle formed
by the inclination of any two of its faces DPRIS,
CPRGL (fig. 27O at the edge of junction PR, as
might be shewn by calculation. Some mineralogists,
overlooking the use of geometry in the consideration
of crystals, have confounded the dodecahedron of py¬
rites with the same regular geometrical figure in which
all the sides and angles of each pentagon are equal j
but there is a striking difference between these two
dodecahedra. The regular dodecahedron gives only
1160 33' 54", as the inclination of its respective pen¬
tagons, making a difference of nearly ii^° between it
and the other. And indeed the regular dodecahedron
cannot be produced by any law of decrement what¬
ever, however compound it may be supposed, in re¬
gard to a cubic nucleus j and, as may be demonstrated
797
generally, for a nucleus of any form. There are then two Structure of
kinds of dodecahedra, one of whose faces are rhombuses, Crystals,
and another whose faces are pentagons, produced upon ^ ’
a cubical nucleus, in consequence of two simple and
regular laws of decrement, in a direction parallel to the
edges of the nucleus. By varying these laws in dif¬
ferent other ways, a multitude of new polyhedra, having
the same nucleus may he constructed.
Obtuse or Lenticular Calcareous Spar, (fig. 30.).
Geometric Character. Inclination of the rhombus rz a
to the rhombus a if d\ 1340 25' 36". Angles of the
rhombus nad b'; a or £'= 1140 18' 36"; n ovd'—bf
41' 4"*
This variety arises from a decrement by a single
row on both sides of the edges a b, a g, aj (fig. 31.)
and c 0, e d, e .r, contiguous to the summits a, e, of tho
nucleus. An idea may be formed of its structure, by
comparing it with that of the dodecahedron whose planes
form rhombuses (fig. 13. and 20.), originating from
the cube, (fig. 15.); and by supposing that the laminse,.
instead of decreasing at the same time on all the edges,
decrease only to those contiguous, three by three, to
the angle C* and its opposite. The faces formed in
that ease will be reduced to six, which, by prolonging
themselves, according to the law of continuity, so
as to intersect each other, rvill compose the surface of
a rhomboid analogous to the one which we are now
treating of, excepting that it will have other angles,
on account of the cubical form of its integral mole¬
cule.
From this it may he conceived, that the diagonals
drawn from a to b' (fig. 30.), from a to g', from a to/',
&.c. on the secondary rhomboid, will be confounded
with the edges a b, a g, a f (fig. 31.) of the nucleus,
which serve as lines of departure for the decrements:
and hence to extract this nucleus, the planes of the
sections must pass along these diagonals, as has been
already remarked.
Common Topaz, (fig. 33.).
Geometric Character.—The inclination of the trape¬
zoid srtm to the adjacent plane r t ey, 136°; of the
same plane, to hr yx, I24°26'; of the plane tm ge,
to m l ig, 93°.
The primitive form of the topaz is that of a right-
angled, four-sided prism hy (fig. 32.) the bases of which
are rhombuses, having the angle h or r=l24° 26'. Ac¬
cording to theory, in regard to the integrant molecule,
the height ?’ y is to the side r n nearly in the ratio of 3
to 2. The pyramidal summit of the topaz results from
a decrement by two rows of small prisms on the edges
x r, v n, n h, h x of the superior base of the primi¬
tive form. The planes tm g e, l mge (fig. 33.) on one
side, and b k % p, b u clp, on the other, arise from a de¬
crement by three rows on each side ot the edges, n v
x q (fig. 32.), which decrement remains suspended at a
certain term, and leaves four rectangles t r y e, kry x,
l he i,u he d, (fig. 33.), parallel to the planes of the
primitive form. The effect of this decrement is shewn
at fig. 34. where the rhombus h n r H is the same as
fig. 32. j and all the small rhombs by which it is subdi¬
vided, or which are exterior to it, represent the bases
of. so maqy molecules. The lines x d, x zf n 7, n et
7^8
CRYSTALLIZATION.
l&tiiict:ircofare directed according to the law of decrement already
Crystals, explained, and the lines cd,ci,y,z, ye, correspond
v to the planes of the prism, which are not subject to
this law.
3. Decrement on the Angles.
This position of the rhomboidal nucleus inclosed in
the regular hexahedral prism of the calcareous spar
being discovered, did not directly lead to1 the determi¬
nation of the laws of those decrements of secondary
crystals. More simple intermediate steps were neces¬
sary. To conceive the method of investigating these
new decrements, it may be remarked that the same
substances which exhibit the dodocahedron with penta¬
gonal planes originating from the cubes (fig* 27. and
28.), and which might assume the form of the dodecahe¬
dron whose planes are rhombuses (fig. 13. and 14.), are
found also under that of the regular octahedron. But
if the laminae of superposition decrease only on the
edges of the two opposite faces of this cube, as on those
of the superior base ABCD (fig. 14.), and of the in¬
ferior base, we shall in general have two pyramids ap¬
plied on these bases. And if we suppose the effect of
the law of decrements continued in the space situated
between the bases of the cube, we shall arrive at an
octahedron, whose angles will vary as there is a greater
cr smaller number of rows subtracted. But no law',
however complicated, can give equilateral triangles as
the faces of this octahedron.
On the other hand, by dividing a regular octahedron
originating from a cube, the cubic nucleus will appear
to be so situated in this octahedron that each of its six
solid angles corresponds to the centre of one of the
faces of the octahedron j but this could not be the case
by supposing a decrement on the edges. The law of
decrement accomplishes its ends, in such cases, by a
different progress from that which conducts to the forms
already described.
Let ABCD (fig. 35.) be the superior or inferior sur¬
face of a lamina composed of small cubes, whose bases
are represented by the squares which subdivide the
whole square. The series of cubes to which the squares
a, b, c, cl, e, f, g, h, i, belong, are on the diagonal
drawn from A to C $ and they form one string, (fig.
36.) which will not differ from the string of the cubes
c, n, g, r', sJ, t', u', a,-', (fig. 35.), lying in the direc¬
tion of the edge AD, excepting that in the former the
cubes touch only by one of their edges, and in the lat¬
ter by one of their faces. There are also, throughout
the whole extent of the lamina, strings of cubes parallel
to the diagonal. The series of letters q, v, k, v, x, y,
%, shews one, and the letters n, t, /, m, p, 0, r, s, shew
another string.
The laminse of superposition, it may be conceived,
project beyond each other one or more rows of cubes
in a direction parallel to the diagonal. In like man¬
ner may be constructed around the cubic nucleus,
solids of different figures, by placing successively a-
bove the different faces of this nucleus laminse which
may arise in the form of pyramids, and which will ex¬
perience this kind of decrement. The faces of these
solids rvill be roughened by an infinite number of sa¬
lient angles formed by the exterior points of the com¬
posing cubes. This follows from the angular figure
which is continually presented by the edges of the
laminae of superposition. But these points being on a structure oT
level, the cubes may be supposed to be so small that Crystals,
the faces of the solid will appear smooth and continued
planes.
Around the cube ABGF (fig. 37.), as a nucleus,
let a secondary solid be constructed, in which the la¬
mina of superposition shall decrease on all sides by a
single row of cubes, in a direction parallel to the dia¬
gonals ; and let ABCD (fig. 38-)> the superior base of
the. nucleus, be subdivided in 81 small squares, repre¬
senting the exterior faces of an equal number of mole¬
cules. lig. 39. represents the superior surface of the
first lamina which ought to be placed above ABCD
(%• 38-) in such a manner that the point a' may cor¬
respond to the point a, the point b' to the point b, the
point c' to the point c, and the point d* to the point d.
By this disposition the squares Ac, B£, Cc, Dg? (fig.
38. ) remain uncovered, which will fulfil the above law
of decrement j and the borders QV, ON, IL, GF (fig.
39. ) project by one row beyond the borders AB, AD,
CD, BC (fig. 37.), which is necessary that the nucleus
may be enveloped towards these edges. For if the
edges of the lamina represented (fig. 39.), as well as
the following, coincided with the lines ST, EZ, YX,
MU, on which supposition they would be on a level
with AD, AB, CD, BC (fig. 38.), they would form
re-entering angles towards the analogous parts of the
crystal. Thus in the laminae applied on ABCD (fig.
37.) all the edges answering to CD would be on a level
with CDFG, of which they would form a prolonga¬
tion j and in the laminae applied on DCFG all the
edges analogous to the same ridge CD would he on a
level with ABCD, from which necessarily results a re¬
entering angle opposite to the salient angle formed by
the two faces ABCD and CDFG. But by the laws
which determine the formation of simple crystals, re¬
entering angles appear to be excluded. The solid will
then increase in those parts to which the decrement
does not extend. But this decrement alone being suf¬
ficient to determine the form of the secondary crystal,
all the other variations which intervene only in a sub¬
sidiary manner may be set aside, excepting in the con¬
struction of artificial crystals, and in exhibiting the de¬
tails relating to the structure.
The superior face of the second lamina will be like
A'G'l/K/ (fig. 40.), and this lamina must be placed
above the preceding, in such a manner that the points
a", b", c", d", may correspond with the points a1, b', c',
d! (fig. 39.), which will leave uncovered the squares
having their exterior angles situated in Q, S, E, O, V,
T, M, G, &c. and continuing to produce the decre¬
ment by one row-. The solid increases towards the
analogous edges at AB, BC, CD, AD (fig. 38.), since
between A' and 17, for instance, (fig. 40.), there are
13 squares, but between QV and LI (fig. 39.) there
are only eleven.
The large faces of the laminse of superposition which
were hitherto octagons QVGFILNO (fig. 39.) having
arrived at the figure of the square A'G'L'K' (fig. 40.),
will, after passing that term, decrease on all sides at the
same time, and the following lamina will have for its su¬
perior face the square B'MT'S (fig. 41.), less in every
direction by one row than the square A'G'L'K' (fig.40.).
Let this square be disposed above the preceding, so that
the points c',g, h! (fig. 41.) may correspond with
the
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Structure of the points c,g, h, (fig. 40.). Fig. 42. 43. 44. and
Crystals. 45, represent the four laminae which ought to rise
^ " ’ successively above the preceding, the same letters be¬
ing made to correspond. The last Jamina is reduced
to one cube z' (fig. 47.) which should correspond with
the same letter (fig. 45.).
Thus it follows, that the laminae of superposition ap¬
plied on the base ABCD (fig. 37. and 38.) produce,
by the total of their decreasing edges, four faces,
which in proceeding from the points A, B, C, D, in¬
cline one to another in the form of a pyramidal sum¬
mit. These edges, it may be remarked, have lengths
which begin by increasing as in fig. 39. and 40. and
which then proceed decreasing. Thus the faces pro¬
duced by the same edges increase at first, and after¬
wards decrease in breadth, so that they become qua¬
drilaterals. One of these is represented at fig. 47. in
which the inferior angle C is confounded with the angle
C (fig. 37.) of the nucleus ; and the diagonal LQ re¬
presents the edge L'G' of the lamina A'G'L'K' (fig. 40.),
which is the most extended in the direction of that
edge. And the number of laminae of superposition pro¬
ducing the triangle LCQ (fig. 47.) being less than that
of the laminae producing the triangle LZQ, since there
is here only one lamina preceding the lamina A'G'L/K
(fig. 40.), while there are six which follow it as far as
the cube z (fig. 46.) inclusively, the triangle LZQ
(fig. 47.) composed of the sum of the edges of these
latter laminae, will have a much greater height than
the inferior triangle LCQ, as it is expressed in the fi¬
gure.
The surface of the secondary solid, then, will be
formed of 24 quadrilaterals, disposed three and three
around each solid angle of the nucleus. But decreas¬
ing by one row, the three quadrilaterals belonging to
each solid angle, such as C (fig. 37.) will be in the
same plane, forming an equilateral triangle ZIN (fig.
48.). The 24 quadrilaterals, then, will produce eight
equilateral triangles. One of these is represented at
fig. 49. shewing the arrangement of the cubes that
concur to form it j and the secondary solid will be a
regular octahedron. This octahedron is represented
at fig. 50. enclosing the cubic nucleus, so that each of
its solid angles corresponds to the centre of one of the
triangles 1ZN, IPN, PIS, SIZ, &c. of the octahe¬
dron. To extract this nucleus, it would be necessary
to divide the octahedron in its eight solid angles,
by sections parallel to the opposite edges. This is
the structure of octahedral sulphuret of lead or ga¬
lena.
Such then is an example of decrements on the angles
which take place in a direction parallel to the diago-
— nals. By this denomination may be expressed precise¬
ly the result of each decrement, by denoting the angle
which serves it as a point of departure.
Acute calcareous Spar, (fig. 51.).
Geometric Character.—Inclination oipnry to 7; uoy,
78® 27'47"; and to f rz.s, joi° 32'13". Angles
of the rhombus p%ry, p ov r=^y° 31' 20"; z or
y=l04° 28' 40". Inclination of the oblique di¬
agonal drawn from p to r with the edge p u, 710
35' 54"-
Geomet. Propert.—The angles of the rhombus are
799
equal to the respective inclinations of the faces of the Structure of
nucleus, and x’eciprocally. The angles of the princi- Crystal*,
pal quadrilateral, or that which passes through two v—v—
opposite oblique diagonals p r, u i, and through the in¬
termediate edges p u, i r, are the same as on the nu¬
cleus.
To conceive the structure of this rhomboid, suppose
that abdf (fig. 52.) represents the face of the nu¬
cleus marked with the same letters, (fig. 12.) subdivided
into a multitude of partial rhombuses, which are the
exterior faces of so many molecules. Suppose farther,
that the laminae of superposition, applied on this face,
decrease by one row towards the lateral angles abd,
afd, in such a manner, that on the first the two rhom¬
buses bhkl, fm in are uncovered 5 that on the second
the uncovered rhombuses are those traversed by the
diagonals c 0, uy, on the third those traversed by the
diagonals s t, 7 z, &c.; in which case the decreasing
edges will successively correspond with these diagonals.
By this law of decrement two faces will be produced j
which, proceeding from the angles bf, will rise in the
form of a roof above the rhombus a b df and will
meet on a common edge situated immediately above
the diagonal a d, and which will be parallel to it ;
and, as there are six rhombuses, which undergo like
decrements on the primitive form, the faces produced
will be 12 in number. But, by the law of decrement
by one row, the two faces which have the same angle
b,f,g, &c. (fig. 12.) for the point of departure will
be in the same plane; thus reducing the 12 faces to
six, and transforming the secondary crystal into an acute
rhomboid (fig. 51.). In this rhomboid the edges
px, py, p u, are situated each as the oblique diagonals
of the nucleus, or those which would be drawn from
a to d, from a to x, from a to c. See. (fig. 12.).
Crystals of this variety are found near Lyons in
France ; and the freestone of Fontainbleau, commonly
called crystallised freestone, which is nothing else than
calcareous spar, mixed with particles of quartz, ex¬
hibits the same form. The crystals of this stone yield
to mechanical division, and have their natural join¬
ings, like those of pure spar, situated in the planes
parallel to the edges p %, py, pu, &c. (fig. 51.),
and which would pass at an equal distance from these
edges.
Rhomboidal Iron ore, (fig. 53.).
Geometric Character.—Inclination of BCRP to BCOA
or OCRS, 146° 26' 33" > angles of the rhombus
BCRP, C or P=ii7° 2' 9"; B or R=62° 57'
51"-
The laminae composing this rhomboid decrease by
two rows on the angles b c r, 0 c r, b c 0, &c. (fig. 54.)
which concur to the formation of the two solid angles
cn, of a cubic nucleus. The faces produced, instead
of being on a level, three and three, around these angles,
as in the case of decrement by a single row, incline one
to the other, and extend above the faces of the nucleas
in such a manner that their diagonals are parallel to
the horizontal diagonals of the same faces. The cube
here answers the purpose of a rhomboid, which should
have its summits in c and 71, in which case there would
be only one axis passing through the summits. In the
dodecahedron, on the other hand, with pentagonal
planes
CRYSTALLIZATION.
8co
Structure ofP'anes C^S‘ 27’) ^ie cut>e performs the functions of a
Crystals, rectangular parallelopipedon, and then three dillerent
v—'v—■ axes may be conceived, each of which passes through
the middle of the two opposite faces. When the cube
begins to perform the one or the other, in regard to
one species of mineral, it is observed to continue that
function in all the varieties of that species.
The crystals of rhomboidal iron are found among
those of the iron ore of the island of Elba. It is un¬
common, however, for the law of decrement to attain
to its boundary, and for the rhomboid not to be modi¬
fied by facets parallel to the faces of the nucleus. If
the decrement which produces the rhomboid took place
at the same time on the eight solid angles of the cube,
there would result a polyhedron of 24 facets, of which
nature are the crystals found at the Calton hill, Edin¬
burgh, which have been considered as zeolites.
4. Intermediate Decrements.
In some crystals the decrements on the angles do not
take place in lines parallel to the diagonals, but paral¬
lel to lines situated between the diagonals and the ed¬
ges. This happens when the subtractions are made by
double, triple, &c. rows of molecules. In figure 55.
which is an instance of these subtractions, the molecules
composing the row represented by the figure, are so ar¬
ranged as if, of two, only one was formed. To reduce
this case under that of the common decrements on the
angles, we have only to conceive the crystal composed
of parallelepipeds, having their bases equal to the small
rectangles abed, odfg, hgil, &c. The name of
intermediate decrement is given to this kind of dimi¬
nution.
Syntactic Iron Ore, (fig. 50.).
Geometric Character.—Respective inclination of the
trapeziums, be go, nqgo of the rising pyramids
~ISS° 34' 31"; of the e.dges cg> g<li I29° 31'
16". Angles of the trapezium £ ego, i or 0=103°
48' 35"} 0 or £=76° 11' 25".
This variety of iron ore is found at Framont in Les
Vosges. It commonly appears under the form of two
•opposite pyramids, and some groups reflect from the
surface the prismatic colours. These crystals, classed
by De L’Isle among the modifications of the dodeca¬
hedron with isosceles triangular planes, have for nu¬
cleus a cube performing the functions of the rhomboid.
The two regular hexagons by which they are termina¬
ted, arise from a decrement by a single row of cubic
molecules on the angles c, n, (fig. 54.) of the nucleus.
To comprehend the effect of this law, combined
with the preceding, and which produces the lateral tra¬
peziums, let it be supposed that cbpr 57.) re¬
presents the same square as fig. 54. subdivided into
small squares, which are the external faces of so many
molecules. Taking these molecules by pairs, so that
they form rectangular parallelopipeds, having for bases
the oblong squares bng h, h g m G, &c. and imagine,
that the subtractions are made by two rows of these
double molecules, the edges of the laminae of superpo¬
sition will be successively ranged in lines, as PG, TL,
lip, Sp, k%, y%, &c. and the sum of all these edges
will produce two faces, which departing from the
angles b, r, will converge, the one towards the other,
and will unite themselves on a common ridge, situated
above the diagonal cp, but inclined to that diagonal. Crystals.
The complete result of this decrement, then, is 12 fa- -v-—'
ces $ and it is shewn by calculation, that the six supe¬
rior faces being prolonged to the point where they
meet the six lower faces, will form with them the sur¬
face of a dodecahedron, composed of two right pyramids
united at their bases. By the effect of the first law,
these pyramids are here incomplete, which gives the
hexagon a b c dr u (fig. 56.) and its opposite.
5. Mixed Decrements.
The decrements in other crystals, either on the edges,
or on the angles, vary according to laws, the propor¬
tion of which can only be expressed by the fraction j
or It may happen, for instance, that each lamina
exceeds the following by two rows parallel to the ed¬
ges, and that it may, at the same time, have an alti¬
tude triple that of a simple molecule. A vertical geo¬
metrical section of one of the kinds of pyramids, re¬
sulting from this decrement, is represented at fig. 62.
The effects of this decrement may be readily conceived
by considering that AB is a horizontal line taken on
the upper base of the nucleus ba%r, the section of the
first lamina of superposition, gfen that of the second.
These are called mixed decrements, which exhibit this
new kind of exception from the simplest laws. They,
as well as the intermediary ones, rarely exist anywhere
else, and they have been particularly discovered in cer¬
tain metallic substances. The application of the ordi¬
nary laws, Hauy observes, to a variety of these substan¬
ces, presented such errors in the value of the angles, as
led him to believe that they were inconsistent with
theory. But extending his theory, he arrived at results
so correct as removed every doubt of the existence of
the laws on which these results depended.
All the changes to which crystals are subjected de¬
pend on the laws of structure which have been explain¬
ed, and others of a similar kind. The decrements some¬
times take place at the same time on all the edges, as
in the dodecahedron having rhombuses for its planes,
or on all the angles, as in the octahedron originating
from a cube. Sometimes they take place only on cer¬
tain edges of certain angles. There is sometimes a uni¬
formity between them, so that it is one single law by one,
two, three rows, See. which acts on the different edges,
or the different angles. Sometimes the law varies
from one edge to the other, or from one angle to the
other. This happens, particularly, when the form of
the nucleus is not symmetrical, as, for instance, when
it is a parallelopiped, whose faces differ by their respec¬
tive inclinations, or the measure of their angles. In
some cases there is a concurrence of the decrements on
the edges, with those on the angles, to produce the
same form ; and sometimes the same edge or the same
angle is subjected to several laws of decrement succeed¬
ing each other. The secondary crystal, in some cases,
has faces parallel to those of the primitive form, and
which combine with the faces produced by the decre¬
ments to modify the figure of the crystal. Simple se¬
condary forms are those which arise from a single law
of decrement, the effect of’which entirely conceals the
nucleus. Compound secondary forms arise from seve¬
ral simultaneous laws of decrement, or from one single
law not having attained to its extent 5 so that there re¬
main
CRYSTALLIZATION. Soi
Structure ofmain faces parallel to those of the nucleus, which con-
Crystal?, cur with the faces produced by the decrement, to diver-
'■“•-"Y—' sify the form of the crystal. If, amidst this diversity of
laws, sometimes insulated, sometimes united by more or
less complicated combinations, the number of the rows
subtracted were itself extremely variable; if, for in¬
stance, these decrements were by 12, 20, or 30 rows,
or more, which is possible, the number of forms which
might exist in each kind of mineral would be immense.
But the power by which the subtractions are effected,
seems to be very limited in its action. Its extent rare¬
ly exceeds I or 2 rows of molecules. Beyond four
rows, only one variety of calcareous spar has been dis¬
covered. The structure of this variety depends on a
decrement by six rows ; but this seems to be a rare oc¬
currence in nature. Yet, although the laws of crystal¬
lization are limited to two of the simplest, that is, those
which produce subtractions by one or two rows, calca¬
reous spar is susceptible of 2044 different forms, a num¬
ber exceeding more than 50 times that of the forms at
present known j and, admitting into the combination
decrements by 3 and 4 row's, calculation will give
8,388,604 possible forms of the same substance, and by
the operation of either mixed or intermediate decre¬
ments, this number will be greatly augmented.
The striae observed on the surface of many crystals
is another proof in favour of the theory ; for they al¬
ways have directions parallel to the projecting edges
of the laminae of superposition, which mutually go be¬
yond each other, if the regularity of the process has not
been disturbed. It must not, however, be supposed, that
the inequalities arising From the decrements must be al¬
ways sensible, if the form of the crystals be complete *,
for the molecules being extremely minute, the surface
will appear finely polished, and no striae would be per¬
ceptible. In some secondary crystals, therefore, they
are not to be seen, while they are quite distinct in o-
thers of the same nature and form. In the latter case,
the action of the causes producing crystallization, has
not enjoyed all the necessary conditions ; the operation
has been interrupted j and the law of continuity not ha¬
ving been observed, there have remained on the surface
of the crystal, perceptible vacancies. These deviations
have this advantage, that they point out the direction,
according to which the striae are arranged in lines, and
thus contribute to discover the real mechanism of the
structure.
The small vacuities which the edges of the laminae
of superposition leave on the surface of even the most
perfect secondarycrystals, by their re-entering and salient
angles, shew that the fragments obtained by division,
whose external facets form part of the faces of the se¬
condary crystal, are not like those drawn from the in¬
terior part. For this apparent diversity arises from these
facets being composed of a multitude of small planes,
really inclined to each other, but which being very mi¬
nute," present the appearance of one plane. And if the
division could reach its utmost bounds, these fragments
would be resolved into molecules similar to each other,
and to those situated towards the centre. It happens,
too, that molecules of different figures arrange them¬
selves in such a manner, as to produce similar polyhe-
dra in different kinds of minerals. Thus the dodeca¬
hedron with rhombuses for its planes, which is obtain¬
ed by combining cubic molecules, exists in granite, with
VOL. VI. Part II. f
astructure composed of small tetrahedra, having isosceles Structure of
triangular faces. It exists also in sparry fluor, where Crystals,
there is also an assemblage of tetrahedra, but regular j 111
that is to say, the faces of which are equilateral triangles.
Examples of Compound Secondary Forms.
Pris??iatic Calcareous Spar, (fig. 9.).
The bases of this prism are produced in consequence
of a decrement, by a single row on the angles of the
summits b af g a f bag,dex, dec, cex (fig. 12.)
of the primitive form. The six planes result from a
decrement by two rows on the angles b df,fxg, beg,
df x, d b c, c g x, opposite to the preceding. Let a b df
(fig. 58.) be the same face of the nucleus, as fig. 12.
The decreasing edges situated towards the angle of the
summit a will successively correspond with the lines
h i, k l, &c. and those which look towards the inferior
angle d, will have the positions pointed out by m n,o p ;
but as the first decrement takes place by one row, it is
proved, that the face which results from it is perpendi¬
cular to the axis ; and calculation shews, in like manner,
that the second decrement taking place by two rows,
produces planes parallel to the axis, and thus the secon¬
dary solid is a regular hexahedral prism.
To develope farther the structure of this prism, it
may be remarked, that in the production of any one
a b c n i h (fig. 9.) of the two bases, the effect of one
only of the three decrements which take place around
the solid angle a (fig. 12.) may be considered, for ex¬
ample, of that which takes place on the angle b a f sup¬
posing that the laminae applied on the two other faces
f a g x, b a g c, Ao not decrease, but to assist the result
of the principal decrement which takes place in regard
to the angle b af Here these auxiliary decrements
are quite similar to that whose effect they are supposed
to prolong.
The case will be totally different by applying the
same observation to the decrements which are affected
by two rows on the inferior angles b df, df x, f x g,
&c. and which produce the six planes of the prism. If,
for example, we consider the effect of the decrement on
the angle d f X, it is necessary also that the laminae ap¬
plied on the faces afdb,a f x g (fig. 12.) should ex¬
perience, towards their lateral angles a f d, afx, adja¬
cent to the angle dfx, variations which second the ef¬
fect of the generating decrement. Here, however,
these variations are intermediary decrements by rows
of double molecules.
Amphitrigonous Iron Ore. Fig. 59. shews this crystal
in a horizontal projection, and fig. 66. in perspective.
Geometric Character.—Respective inclination of the tri¬
angles g c ft, g c d, &c. from the same summit, 1466
26' 33" 5 of the lateral triangles b g u, b g q, to the
adjacent pentagons, such -as gut mn, 154° 45' 39".
This is the common form of the iron ore of the island
of Elba. It results from a decrement by two rows on
the angles c, n (fig. 54.) to the summits of a cubic nu¬
cleus, which produces the isosceles triangles g cn,g cd,
n c d (fig. 59. and 60.), and of a second decrement by
three rows on the lateral angles c b q, c r p, c r s, &c.
which produce the trianglesTW n r, r n k, u g b, g g b,
&c. These two decrements stop at a certain term, so
5 I that
8c2
CRYSTALLIZATION,
Structure ofthat there remain faces parallel to those of the nucleus,
, Crystals* _ viz. the pentagons g u t m h d n k ly &.c. (fig. 59.).
The first decrement is similar to that which produces
the rhomboidal iron ore. The second has this proper¬
ty, that if its effects were complete, it would give a do¬
decahedron of isosceles triangles, or composed of two
right pyramids united at their bases. The triangles of
the summits are frequently furrowed by strife parallel
to the bases g «, d n, g d, of these triangles, and which
point out the direction of the decrement.
Analogical Calcareous Spar, (Hauy), fig. 61.
Geometric Character.—Inclination of any one, ini eh,
of the trapezoids of the summits to the corresponding
vertical trapezoid e c p g, Ii6°33'54,,j angles of
the same trapezoid i~ 1140 18' 56'^ £=75° 31' 20"j
m or ZtrzSj0 4' 52". Angles of the trapezoid e h og,
crrpo0; 0= 1270 25' 53"; £=67° 47' 44" ; /*=74°
46' 23"; of the trapezoid c ^=60° j pzz^Q
J 2' 46" ; c or gzz. x oo° 53' 3 7".
Geomet. Pi'opert.—1. In each vertical trapezoid, the
triangle eeg is equilateral. 2. The height ex of this
triangle is double the height p x of the opposite tri¬
angle cpg. 3. In the trapezoid e hog, and the other
similarly situated, the angle eg- is a right angle. 4.
If the diagonal ^ ^ be drawn, the triangle h eg will be
similar to any one ao^ (fig. 12.) of those which would
be produced by drawing in the primitive rhombus the
two diagonals b[ a d. 5. If in the trapezoid e m ih,
or any other situated at the summits, the diagonals
e i, m h be drawn, the height e / of the inferior triangle
meh will be double the height il of the superior tri¬
angle m i h. 6. The triangle m ih is similar to -J of the
rhombus of every obtuse spar, divided by the horizontal
diagonal, and the triangle m e h is similar to 4- of the
rhombus of the acute spar divided in the same manner.
The numerous analogies connecting this variety with
different crystalline forms, whether considering certain
angles formed by planes, or certain triangles obtained
by drawing the diagonals of the trapezoids, led the au¬
thor of this theory to give it the name of analogical
spar. It is derived from three other varieties, viz. very
obtuse spar, by the trapezoids e m i h,f ih t, &c.; me¬
tastatic spar, by the trapezoids c m d c, e h 0 g, 0 h t •z,
&c. •, and the prismatic spar by the trapezoids back,
c e gp, &c. which are consequently parallel to the axis.
The trapezoids im eh, f i h t, &c. are often separated
by an intermediary ridge from the vertical trapezoids
c e gp, gozr, &c. In that case the trapezoids c d m e,
ge ho, &c. are changed into pentagons.
Icosahedral Sulphuret of Iron, (fig. 63.)
Geometric Character.—Respective inclinations of the
isosceles triangles PLR, PSR, 126° 52' nM; of any
one PNL of the equilateral triangles to each adja¬
cent isosceles triangle, PLR, or LNK, 140° 46' 17".
Angles of the isosceles triangle PLR, L—48° 11/
20"; P or R=65° 54' 20".
This variety is the result of a combination of the law
which produces the octahedron originating from a cube
(fig. 50.) with that which takes place for the dode¬
cahedron with pentagonal planes (fig. 27. and 28.)
The first law produces the eight equilateral triangles Structnre o£
which correspond with the solid angles of the nucleus j Crystals,
and the second produces twelve isosceles triangles, situ- v""*' •*
ated two and two above the six faces of the same nu¬
cleus. If a dodecahedron similar to that of fig. 28.
were converted geometrically into this icosahedron, it
would be sufficient to make the planes of eight sections
pass through it in the following manner j viz. one
through the angles P, N, L, (fig. 27.), another through
the angles P, M, S 5 a third through the angles
L, R, U, &c. By comparing the figures 27. and 63.
the relation between the polyhedra will be seen by the
correspondence of the letters $ but this is merely an
artificial operation j for it may be observed, that the
nucleus of the icosahedra which would be obtained,
would be much smaller than that of the dodecahedron,
since the solid angles of the latter nucleus would be
confounded with the angl|jg D, C, G, &c. (fig. 28.) of
the dodecahedron ; but the other nucleus would have
its solid angles situated in the middle of the equilateral
triangles MPS, NPL, URL, (fig. 63.).
The icosahedron of the sulphuret of iron, which is not
very common, has been confounded with the regular
geometrical icosahedron which has all its angles equila¬
teral. Theory shows that the existence of the latter
icosahedron is equally impossible in mineralogy as the
geometrical dodecahedron. Among the five regular
polyhedra of geometry, viz. the cube, the tetrahedron,
the octahedron, the dodecahedron, and the icosahedron,
the three former can only exist among minerals accord¬
ing to the laws of crystallization.
Polynomous Petunze (Hauy'), fig. 64.
Geometric Character.—Respective inclination of the
narrow planes, onkm, cfhg, to the adjacent planes
on each side, 150° ; of the planes r £ F^-, P 0 N
to those contiguous to them by the edges t F, PN,
1200 ; of the heptagon7) G c l dez \.o the enneagon
z e b noP r s, 990 41' 8"; of the trapezium d afe
both to the plane n b afhilk, and to the heptagon
pGtc.dez, 1350 ; of the facet d e a b, or AB zp,
to the same pentagon, 1240 15' 15".
Hauy had not observed the petunze crystallized un¬
der its primitive form. This form, such as it is given
by the mechanical division of secondary crystals, is that
of an oblique prism of four planes (fig. 66.), two of
which, such as GOAD, RBHN, are perpendicular
to the bases ADNH, OGRB ; the other two, viz.
BOAH, RGDN, make with the former, angles of
120° at the ridges OA, RN, and angles of 6o° to¬
wards the opposite ridges BH, GD. These planes
are inclined to the bases at that place of the ridges
GO, BR, in0 29' 43", and at the opposite ridges
68° 30' 17". This form is at the same time that of
the molecule. By theory, the two parallelograms
GOAD, OGRB, as well as their parallels, are equal
in extent; and the parallelogram BOAH, or its oppo¬
site, RGDN, is double each of the preceding. This
may serve to explain the roughness of the sections made
in the direction BOAH, when compared with those
in the directions of the small parallelograms, the latter
being always smooth and brilliant. If, however, the
diagonal OR be drawn, it will be found perpendicu¬
lar to OA and RN j or, it will be situated horizon¬
tally,
CRYSTAL
structure of tally, by supposing that the ridges OA, BH have a
Crystals, vertical position.
This mineral exhibits the most complicated variety
which the author has observed among this kind of crys¬
tals. To comprehend its structure, suppose that bpyr,
(fig. 65.) represents a section of the nucleus AR, (fig.
66.), made byaplane perpendicular to the parallelograms
GOAD, BOAH, and subdivided into a multitude ot
small parallelograms, which are the analogous sections
of so many molecules. Here the side y r (fig. 65.),
which is the same section of the cutting plane as
GOAD, is greater than it ought to be in regard to the
side c r (fig. 65.), which is the same section as BOAH
(fig. 66.). But these dimensions are suited to those of
the secondary crystal, and here occasion no difficulty,
because it may be supposed that the primitive form has
been extended more in one direction than in another ;
for this form is to be considered only as a convenient
datum for the explanation of the structure, and the
crystal consists merely in an assemblage of similar
molecules $ so that it is the dimensions of these mole¬
cules which remain invariable.
By comparing fig. 64* alld 65. it will be found, I.
That the plane/a bnklih (fig. 64.) and its opposite
which correspond to m n, cl g (fig. 65.) are parallel to
two planes ot the nucleus, vjz. GOAD, BRNH (fig.
66.), and therefore do not result from any law of decre¬
ment. 2. That the plane P 0 m N, and its opposite (fig.
64.) which correspond to a 0, e g, (fig. 65.) are also pa¬
rallel to two of the planes of the nucleus, viz. BOAH
RGDN, (fig. 66.). 3. That the plane 0 n k m, and
its opposite (fig* 04.) which correspond to 0 nt e gi
(fig. 6 c.) result from a decrement by two rows parallel
to the ridges AO, NR, (fig. 66.). 4. 'I hat the plane
■ cfg h, and its opposite, (fig. 64.), result from a decre¬
ment by four rows parallel to the ridges GD, BH, (fig*
66.), which decrement takes place on the other side of
these ridges. From this it may be seen, that decrements
different in their measure, give rise to planes similarly
situated, such as 0 n km and cfg ht (fig. 64.), which is
a consequence of the particular figure ot the molecules.
With regard to the faces of the summit, the heptagon
pG t c d e z, (fig. 64.), is situated parallel to the base
BRGO, (fig. 66.). The enneagon BsrP 0 n b e %
(fig. 64.) is produced in consequence of a decrement
bv one row on the angle OBR (fig. 66.), or parallel
to the diagonal OR; which decrement does not attain
to its full extent, and leaves subsisting the neighbour¬
ing heptagon parallel to the base BRGO. It may be
conceived, from what has been said on the position of
the diagonal OR, why the line <? 2; (fig. 64.) which
separates the two large faces of the summit, is situated
horizontally, by supposing that the planes have a ver¬
tical position.
The trapeziums daf c,Kp GC, are the result ot a
decrement by one row on the ridges GO, BR (fig.
66.). The facet deb a (fig. 64.) arises from a decre¬
ment by two rows parallel to the ridge BO (fig. 66.).
With regard to the other facet AB ssp, which has the
same position as the preceding, in relation to the oppo¬
site part of the crystal, it results from an intermediary
law, by a row of double molecules on the angle OBR
(fig. 66.). The rhombuses b clh,klsu (fig. 67.) re¬
present the horizontal sections of two of these double
molecules taken in the same row, and whose relation
L I Z A T I O N. 803
to the rest of the arrangement will become sensible Structure of
by comparing these rhombuses with those marked with ^ Crystals. ^
the same letters in fig. 65. This variety of crystals is '
subject to a change of dimensions; the faces pGt c dcz,
fabnkli /i, and their opposites, which are at right
angles to each other, are elongated in the direction of
their breadth, exhibiting the appearance of a quadri¬
lateral, rectangular prism, the summits of which would
be formed by the faces situated towards the ridges
PN, Yt. Crystals of this variety, which are opaque,
and of a whitish, yellowish, and sometimes reddish
colour, are found in granites 5 some are in groups, and
some, but more rarely, are met with in single cry¬
stals.
III. Number of Primitive Forms.
In the examples which have been given, the author
of the theory has chosen the parallelepiped for a nucleus,
on account of the simplicity of its form. He has hitherto
found that all the primitive forms may be reduced to six.
I. The parallelepiped in general, which comprehends
the cube, the rhomboid, and all the solids terminated by
six faces parallel two and two. 2. The regular tetrahe¬
dron. 3. The octahedron with triangular faces. 4.
The hexagonal prism. 5. The dodecahedron with
rhomboidal planes. 6. The dodecahedron with isosceles
triangular faces.
Among these forms there are some found as nucleus,
which have the measure of their angles the same iu
different kinds of minerals. It is to be considered that
these nuclei are composed, in the first instance, of ele¬
mentary molecules, and that it is possible that the same
form of nucleus may be produced in one species by
elements of a certain nature, and in another species by
different elements combined in a different manner, as we
see integrant molecules, some cubic, and some tetrahe¬
dral, produce similar secondary forms by the operation
of different laws of decrement. But it may be observed,
that all the forms which have hitherto occurred as nu¬
clei, on the different species, are such as have a particu¬
lar character of perfection and regularity, as the cube,
the regular octahedron, and the dodecahedron with
equal and similar rhombuses for its faces.
IV. Forms of the Integral Molecules.
The primitive form is that which is obtained by sec¬
tions made on all the similar parts of the secondary
crystals j and these sections, continued parallel to them¬
selves, conduct to a determination of the form of the
integral molecules, of which the whole crystal is the
assemblage. There is no crystal from which a nucleus
in the form of a parallelepiped may not be extracted,
by making the limitation to six selections, parallel two
and two. In a great number of substances, this pa¬
rallelepiped is the last term of the mechanical division,
and consequently the real nucleus 5 but in some mine¬
rals this parallelepiped is divisible, as well as the rest
of the crystal, by farther sections made in the different
directions of the faces, from which results a new solid,
which will be the nucleus, if all the parts of the se¬
condary crystal superadded to this nucleus are simi¬
larly situated. When the mechanical division com.
ducts to a parallelepiped, divisible only by sections pa¬
rallel to its six faces, the molecules are parallelepipeds
5 I 2 similar
804
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Structure of similar to tlie nucleus ; but In all other cases their form
Crystals, differs from that of the nucleus. This may be illustrated
y by an example.
Let a c h s n o (fig. 68.) be a cube, having two of Its
solid angles a, s, situated on the same vertical line ;
this line will be the axis of the cube, and the points
a and s will be its summits. Let it be supposed that
this cube is divisible by sections, each of which, such
as a h n, passes through one of the summits a, and by
two oblique diagonals a h, a n, contiguous to the sum¬
mit. By this section the solid angle i will be detach¬
ed j and as there are six solid angles, situated laterally,
viz. h, cf r, o, n, the six sections will produce an
acute rhomboid, the summits of which will be con¬
founded with those of the cube. At fig. 69. this
rhomboid is represented existing in the cube in such a
manner, that its six lateral solid angles b, d,f, p, g, e,
correspond with the middle of the faces a c h t, c rs h,
h t n 6', &c. of the cube $ but each of the angles at the
summits b a g, d sf, p s f &c. of the acute rhomboid,
are =r6o°, from which it follows, that the lateral
angles a bf, a gf, &c. are Besides, it is pro¬
ved by theory, that the cube is the result of a decre¬
ment which takes place by a single row of small rhom¬
boids, similar to the acute rhomboid on the six oblique
ridges a b, a gy a e, s d, sf, s p. This decrement pro¬
duces two faces, one on each side of each of these ridges,
making in the whole 12 faces j but as the two faces,
having the same line of ridge for their departure, are on
the same plane $ by the nature of the decrement, the 12
faces will be reduced to six, which are squares, so that
the secondary solid is a cube.
Suppose that the cube (fig. 68.) admits, in regard to
its summits a, s, two new divisions similar to the pre¬
ceding six, one of which passes through the points
c, i, 0, and the other through the points h, n, r. The
first will also pass through the points b, g, e, and the
second through the points d,f p, (fig. 69. and 70.) of
the rhomboid ; from which it follows, that these two
divisions will each detach a regular tetrahedron b a g e,
ox d sf p (fig. 70.) ; so that the rhomboid will be found
converted into a regular octahedron ef (fig. 71.), which
will be the real nucleus of the cube; for it is produced
by divisions similarly made in relation to the eight so¬
lid angles of the cube. If we suppose the same cube
to be divisible throughout its whole extent by analo¬
gous sections, it is clear that each of the small rhom¬
boids, of which it is the assemblage, will be found in
like manner subdivided into an octahedron, and two
regular tetrahedrons, applied on the two opposite faces
of the octahedron. By taking the octahedron for a
nucleus, a cube may be constructed round it, by regu¬
lar subtractions of small complete rhomboids. If, for
example, we suppose decrements, by a single row of
these rhomboids, having b for the point of their depar¬
ture, and made in a direction parallel to the inferior
edges g-/, eg, d e, d f of the four triangles, which
unite to form the solid angle b% there will result four
faces, which will be found on a level, and like the
octahedron, with six solid angles, similar decrements
around the other five angles will produce twenty faces,
which taken four and four will be equally on a level,
making in the whole six distinct faces, situated as those
of. the cube (fig. 68.). The result will be exactly the
3;
same as in the case of the rhomboid, considered as nu- Structure of
cleus. (Jiystals.
In whatever way we proceed to subdivide, either the
cube, the rhombus, or the octahedron, we shall always
have solids of two forms, that is to say, octahedrons and
tetrahedrons, without being able to reduce the result of
the division to unity. But the molecules of a crystal be¬
ing similar, Hauy thinks it probable, that the structure
was, as it were, interspersed with a multitude of small
vacuities, occupied either with the water of crystalliza¬
tion or some other substance j so that, if it were possible
to carry the division to its limits, one of those two kinds
of solids would disappear, and the whole crystal would
be found composed only of molecules of the other
form. This view is the more admissible, as each oc¬
tahedron being enveloped with eight tetrahedrons, and
each tetrahedron being in like manner enveloped with
four octahedrons, whichever of these forms may be
supposed to be suppressed, the remaining solids will join
exactly by their edges; so that in this respect there
will be continuity and uniformity throughout the whole
extent of the mass. It may be readily conceived how
each octahedron is enveloped with tetrahedrons. By
attending to the division of the cube only by the six
sections which give the rhomboid, W'e may depart at
pleasure from any two, a, s ; 0, h ; c, n ; i, r, of the
eight solid angles, provided that these two angles be
opposite to each other. But by departing from the
angles a, s, the rhomboid will be in the position shewn
at fig. 70. If, on the contrary, we depart from the
solid angles 0, h, these angles will become the summits
of a new rhomboid (fig. 72.), composed of the same
octahedron as that of fig. 71. with two new tetrahedrons
applied on the faces b df e g p, (fig. 72.), which were
unoccupied on the rhomboid of fig. 70. Fig. 73.
represents the case in which the two tetrahedrons repose
on the faces d b e, f g p, of the octahedron ; and fig.
74. represents the case in which they would rest on the
faces b f g, d e p. Hence, whatever may be the two
solid angles of the cube assumed for the points of
departure, we shall always have the same octahedron,
with two tetrahedrons contiguous by their summits to
these two solid angles} and there being eight of these
solid angles, the central octahedron will be circumscribed
with eight tetrahedrons, which will rest on its faces.
By continuing the division always parallel to the first
sections, the same effect will always take place. Each
face of the octahedron, however small it may be sup¬
posed to be, adheres to a face of the tetrahedron, and
reciprocally; and each tetrahedron is enveloped with
four octahedrons.
The structure which is here explained is that of
fluate of lime, or fluor spar. By dividing a cube of
this substance, we may at pleasure extract rhomboids
which have the angles formed by their planes equal to
120a, or regular octahedrons, or tetrahedrons equally
regular. In some other substances, as rock crystal,
carbonate of lead, &c. which being mechanically di¬
vided beyond the term at which we should have a
rhomboid or a parallelepiped, parts of various different
forms are obtained, arranged together even in a more
complicated manner than in fluor spar. In conse¬
quence of these mixed structures, there is some uncer¬
tainty respecting the real figure of the integral mole¬
cules
CRYSTAL
Structure of cules which belong to these substances. It is observed,
Crystals, however, that the tetrahedron is always one of those
'—' solids which concur to the formation of small rhom¬
boids or parallelepipeds that would be extracted from
the crystal by a first division. Hut, on the other hand,
there are substances which, being divided in every pos¬
sible direction, resolve themselves only into tetrahe¬
drons. Garnet, blendes, and tourmaline, belong to
this number.
Several minerals are divisible into right triangular
prisms. Such is the apatite, whose primitive form is a
regular right hexahedral prism, divisible parallel to its
bases and its planes, from which necessarily result right
prisms with three planes. Fig. 76. represents one of
the bases of the hexahedral prism, divided into small
equilateral triangles, which are the bases of so many
molecules, and which being taken two and two, form
quadrilateral prisms, with rhombuses tor their bases.
By adopting then the tetrahedron, in the doubtful
cases already mentioned, all the forms of integral mo¬
lecules may he in general reduced to three, which, aie
remarkable for tbeir simplicity, viz. the parallelepiped,
the simplest of all the solids, having parallel faces two
and two; the triangular prism, the simplest of all
prisms ; and the tetrahedron, which is the simplest of
pyramids. This simplicity may furnish a reason for
the preference given to the tetrahedron in flnor spar,
and the other substances which have been mentioned
as examples. But the ingenious author of the theory
cautiously declines to speak decisively on the subject,
as the want of direct and precise observations, be ob¬
serves, leaves to theory only conjectures and probabi-
lities.
But the essential object is, that the diflerent forms
to which these mixed structures lead, are arranged in
such a manner, that their assemblage is equivalent to
a sum of small parallelepipeds, as has been seen to he
the case in regard to fluor spar l and that the laminae
of superposition applied on the nucleus, decrease by
subtractions of one or more rows of these parallelepi¬
peds. The basis of the theory exists, therefore, inde¬
pendently of the choice which might be made of any
of the forms obtained by the mechanical division.
With the help of this result the decrements to which
crystals are subject, whatever be their primitive forms,
are found reducible to those which take place in sub¬
stances, where this form, as well as that of the mo¬
lecules, are indivisible parallelepipeds ; and the theory
has this advantage of being able to generalise its ob-
ject, by connecting with one fact, that multitude of
facts which, on account of their diversity, seem to he
little susceptible of being brought to one common
point. But what has been said, will be still more il¬
lustrated by examples of the manner in which we may
reduce to the theory of the parallelepiped, that of the
forms which are different from that solid.
Crystals whose Molecules are Tetrahedrons, with Iso¬
sceles Triangular Faces.
Garnet.
1. Primitive Garnet (fig. 76.)
Geometric Character.—Respective inclinations of any
two of the faces of the dodecahedron, 120°. Angles
L I Z A T I O N. 805
of the rhombus CLGH, C or G=zI09° 28' 1 ft' > Structure of
L or H=:780 31' 44". Crystal*.
« . .7
Notwithstanding the vitreous appearance in general
exhibited on the fractures of garnets of the primitive
form, laminae may be perceived on them, situated pa¬
rallel to the rhombuses which compose their surface.
Let us suppose the dodecahedron divided in the direc¬
tion of its laminae, and, for the greater simplicity, let
us suppose the sections to pass through the centre.
One of these sections, viz. that which will be parallel
to the two rhombuses DLIN, BHOR, will concur
with a hexagon, which would pass through the points
E, C, G, P, 1, A, by making the tour of the crystal.
A second section parallel to the two rhombuses GLPI,
BEAR, will coincide with another hexagon shewn by
the points D, C, H, O, I, N. And if the division be
continued parallel to the other eight rhombuses, taken
two and two, it will be found that the planes ol the
sections will be confounded with four new hexagons
analogous to the preceding. But by resuming all these
hexagons, it will appear that their sides correspond,
some of them with the small diagonals of the rhombu¬
ses af the dodecahedron, viz. those which would be
drawn from C to G, from A to I, from C to B, &c..
and others would correspond with, the different ridges
EC, GP, PI, EA, &c.
I. The planes then of the sections passing through
the sides and through the small diagonals of the twelve
rhombuses, will subdivide the whole surface into 24
isosceles triangles, which will be the halves of these
rhombuses. 2. Since the planes of the sections pass
also through the centre of the crystal, they will de¬
tach 24 pyramids with three faces; the bases of
which, if we choose, will be the external triangles
that make part of the surface of the dodecahedron, and
of which the summits will be united in the centre.
Besides, if we take, for example, the six tetrahe¬
drons, which have for external faces the halves of the
three rhombuses CEDL, CLGH, CEBH, these six
tetrahedrons will form a rhomboid represented by fig.
77. and in which the three inferior rhombuses DLGS,
GHBS, DEBS, result from three divisions which pass,
one through the hexagon DLGORA, (fig. 7^0 5
second through the hexagon GHBANF ; and the third
through the hexagon BEDFPO. Fig. 77. also repre¬
sents the two tetrahedrons, the bases of which make
part of the rhombus CLGH. One of these is marked
with the letters L, C, G, S, and the other with the
letters H, C, G, S. And by applying what has been
said to the other nine rhombuses, which are united,
three and three, around the points F, A, H, (fig. 77*)>
we shall have three new rhomboids ; from which it
follows, that the 24 tetrahedrons, considered six and
six, form four rhomboids ; so that the dodecahedron
may be conceived as being itself immediately composed
of these four rhomboids, and in the last analysis of 24
tetrahedrons. 4 '
It may be observed, that the dodecahedron having
eight solid angles, each formed with three planes, they
might have been considered as the assemblage of the
four rhomboids, which would have for exterior sum¬
mits the four angles G, B, D, A ; from which it fol¬
lows that any one of the faces, such as CLGO, is
common ta two rhomboids, one of which would bjive
8c6
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Structure of Us summit in C, and the other in G, and which would
Crystals, themselves have a common part in the interior of the
y   1 ' crystal.
We may remark farther, that a line GS (ng. 77.)
drawn from any one G (fig. 76.) of the solid angles
composed of three planes, as far as the centre of the
dodecahedron, is at the same time the axis of the rhom¬
boid, which would have its summit in C (fig. 76. and
77.). The composing rhomboids then have this proper¬
ty, that their axis is equal to the sides of the rhombus.
From which, with a little attention, we may conclude,
that in each tetrahedron, such as CLGS (fig. 77.)>
the faces are equal and similar isosceles triangles.
If the division of the dodecahedron be continued by
sections passing between those which we have supposed
• to be directed towards the centre, and which should be
parallel to them, we should obtain tetrahedrons always
smaller, and arranged in such a manner, that taking
them in groups of six, they would form rhomboids of a
bulk proportioned to their own.
The tetrahedrons, which would be the term of the
division, were it possible to reach it, ought to be consi¬
dered as the real molecules of the garnet. But it will
be seen, that in the passage to the secondary forms, the
laminae of superposition, which envelope the nucleus,
really decrease by rows of small rhomboids, each of
which is the assemblage of these tetrahedrons.
The sulphuret of zinc, or blende, has the same struc¬
ture as the garnet. Hauy informs us that he has di¬
vided fragments of this substance by very clean sec¬
tions, in such a manner as to obtain successively the
dodecahedron, the rhomboid and the tetrahedron.
2. Trapezoidal Garnet, (fig. 78.).
Geomet. Character.—Respective inclination of the tra¬
pezoids, united three and three around the same
solid angle D, C, G, &c. 131° 48' 33" j of the tra¬
pezoids united four and four around the same solid
angle u, x, r, &c. 131° 48' 36". Angles of any
one of the trapezoids m I) u Ij, LrryS0 27' 46//;
D=li70 2' 8" 5 m or «=82° 15' 3". The value of
the angle L is the same as that of the acute angle
of the nucleus of calcareous spar.
This variety is the result of a series of laminae, de¬
creasing at the four edges, on all the faces of the pri¬
mitive dodecahedron. For the more simplicity, let us
first consider the effect of this decrement in regard to
the rhombus CLGH (fig. j6.). We have just seen
that this rhombus was supposed to belong in common
to two rhomboids, which should have for summits, one
the point C, and the other the point G. Let us sup¬
pose that the laminae applied on this rhombus decrease
towards their four edges by subtractions of a single row
of small rhomboids, in such a manner that in regard
to the two edges CL, CH, circumstances are the same
as if the rhombus belonged to the rhomboid which
has its summit in C 5 and that in regard to the other
two edges GL, GH, the effect is the same as if the Structure of
rhombus belonged to the rhomboid, which has its sum- Crystals,
mit in G. This disposition is admissible here in conse- —v™—^
quence of the particular structure of the dodecahedron,
which permits us to obtain small rhomboids j some of
which have their faces parallel to the faces of that with
its summit in C, and the rest to that having its summit
in G (d).
The results of the four decrements being thus quite
similar to each other, the laminae of superposition, ap¬
plied on the rhombus CLGH, and on each of the
other rhombuses of the dodecahedron, will form as
many right quadrangular pyramids, which will have
for bases these same rhombuses. Fig. 79. represents
the pyramids which rest on the three rhombuses CLDE,
CEBH, CGHB (fig. j6.), and which have for sum¬
mits the points w, e, s, (fig. 76.) ; but on account of
the decrement by a simple row, the adjacent triangu¬
lar faces, such as E W2 C, E s C of the two pyramids
that belong to the rhombuses CLDE, CEBH, are
on a level, and form a quadrilateral EwzCs. But
we had 12 pyramids, and consequently 48 triangles.
These divided by two give 24 quadrilaterals, which
will compose the surface of the secondary crystal.
But because the rhomboidal bases of the two pyramids
extend more, in px-oceeding from L to E, or from H
to E, than in proceeding from D to C, or from B
to C, the sides w E, E 5 of the quadrilateral will be
longer than the sides Cm, Cs. And besides mY. will
be equal to E s, and C m equal to C s. Thus the qua¬
drilaterals will be trapezoids which have their sides
equal two and two. There is no crystalline form in
which the striae, when they do exist, shew in a more
sensible manner, the mechanism of the structure than
in this variety of garnet. We may here see the series
of decreasing rhombuses which form each of the pyra¬
mids CLDE m, CEBH s, &c. (fig. 79*)» and some¬
times the furrows are so deep that they produce a
kind of stair, the steps of which have a more particu¬
lar polish and brilliancy than those of the facets, which
are parallel to the faces CEDL, CHBE, of the nu¬
cleus.
If the decrements stop abruptly at a certain term, so
thai. the pyramids are not terminated, the 24 trapezoids
will be reduced to elongated hexagons, which will inter¬
cept 12 rhombuses parallel to the faces of the nucleus.
To this variety Hauy has given the name of interme¬
diary garnet.
In the sulphuret of zinc the regular octahedron is
the result of a decrement by a row around the eight
solid angles, composed of three planes, viz. C, B, O,
G, F, D, A, I, (fig. 76.). The same substance also
assumes the form of a regular tetrahedron, by the help
of a decrement by one row on four only of the eight
solid angles before mentioned, such as C, O, F, A. The
structure of this tetrahedoon is remarkable, as it pre¬
sents an assemblage of other tetrahedrons with isosceles
faces.
Crystals
(d) Theory, the author observes, has conducted him to another result, which is, that the sum of the nucleus
and laminae of superposition, taken together in proportion as the latter are applied one upon the other, is always
equal to a sum of rhomboids; though at first view it does not appear that this should be the case, according to
the figure of these laminae, which represent rising pyramids.
CRYSTALLIZATION.
807
Structure of
Crystals.
Crystals whose Molecules are Triangular Prisms.
Oriental.
Hauy has thus denominated the gem which is known
under the different names of ruby, sapphire, oriental
topaos, according as the colour is red, blue, or yellow.
The different varieties of this gem have not been ac¬
curately described, aud the nature of the particular
angles of each has not been precisely indicated, on ac¬
count of the rare occurrence of regularly formed cry¬
stals, or when such have been found, on account of
their being defaced by being water-worn, or otherwise
injured. But from some crystals which were suffi¬
ciently characterised, Hauy obtained the following re¬
sults.
I. Primitive Oriental.
This mineral crystallizes in the form of a regular
hexahedral prism, which is divisible parallel to its bases.
According to theory, which points out other joinings
parallel to the planes, the molecule is an equilateral
triangular prism. The height of this prism, calculated
by theory, is a little less than three times the height of
the triangle of the base.
2. Elongated Oriental, (fig. 80.).
Geometric Character.—Respective inclinations of the
triangles IAS, IBS, 1390 54'. Angles of the tri¬
angle IAS, A=22° 54'. I or 8=78° 47'.
This form is the result of a decrement by a simple
row of small quadrangular prisms on all the edges of the
bases of the nucleus. Let q d (fig. 75.) he the supe¬
rior base, subdivided into small triangles, which repre¬
sent the analogous bases of so many molecules. The
edges of the laminae of superposition will correspond suc¬
cessively to the hexagons hilmnr, eku xyv, &c.;
from which it follows that the subtractions take place
by rows of small parallelepipeds of quadrangular prisms
composed each of two triangular prisms.
3. Minor Oriental.
Geometric Character.—Dodecahedron formed of two
right pyramids less elongated than those of the pre¬
ceding variety. The triangles corresponding to
IAS, IBS, are inclined to each other 122° 36'. In
each of these triangles the angle of the summit is 310,
and each of the angles at the base is 740 30'.
The law of which this variety is the result, differs
from that which produces the preceding, as it deter¬
mines a mixed decrement by three rows in breadth and
two rows in height.
4. Enneagonal Oriental, (fig. 8i.)
Geometric Character.—Inclination of each small tri¬
angle, such as c <7 i, to the adjacent base a c ip Ibged,
122° 18'.
This is the elongated oriental, whose summits are re¬
placed by two faces parallel to the bases of the nucleus,
with the addition of six small isosceles triangles c y
I b f, v so, m, &c. the three superior of which are alter¬
nate in position with the three inferior. These triangles
are the result of a decrement, by three rows of small Structure of
quadrangular prisms on the three angles of the superior Crystals,
base of the nucleus, such as b, cl, g (fig. 75*)> and 0Q —y——^
the intermediate angles of the inferior base, it may
be readily conceived, that in the decrement which
takes place, for example, on the angle g, the three rows
which remain unoccupied between that angle and the
corresponding edge of the first lamina of superposition,
are, 1. the small rhombus g 0 ip, which alone forms the
first row j 2. the two rhombuses 0 sti,p% di; 3. the
three rhombuses situated on the same line behind the
two preceding.
Crystals of this gem are chiefly found in the kingdom
of Pegu. Some have been found in Prance, which have
received the name of sapphires of Puy. Ihey have
been also found at a little distance from Velay, on the
banks of a rivulet near the village of Expailly, where
they are mixed with garnets and hyacinths. These have
all the characters of the stone which is denominated ori¬
ental sapphire.
V. Difference between Structure and Incre¬
ment.
In what has been said respecting the decrements to
which the laminae of superposition are subjected, the
author observes, that it was his view only to unfold the
laws of structure ; and he adds, that he is far from be¬
lieving that in the formation of a dodecahedral crystal,
or one of any other form, having a cube for a nucleus,
the crystallization has originally produced that nu¬
cleus such as it is extracted from the dodecahedron,
by the successive application of all the laminae of super¬
position with which it is covered. It seems proved, on
the contrary, that from the first moment the crystal is
already a very small dodecahedron, containing a cubi¬
cal nucleus proportioned to its small size, and that the
crystal afterwards increases by degrees without changing
its form, by new layers which envelope it on all sides,
so that the nucleus increases also, preserving always the
same relation with the whole dodecahedron.
An example taken from a plane figure will make
this more striking j and what is said respecting this fi¬
gure may be easily applied to a solid, since a plane fi¬
gure may be always conceived as a section ol a solid.
Let ERFN (fig. 82.) be an arrangement of small
squares, in which the square ABCD, composed of 49
partial squares, represents a section of the nucleus, and
the extreme squares R, S, G, A, I, L, &c. that of the
kind of stair formed by the laminae of superposition.
It may be readily conceived, that the arrangement be¬
gan with the square ABCD and that different files of
small squares were afterwards applied on each of the
sides of the central square : for example, on the side
AB, first the five squares comprehended between I and
M, next the three squares comprehended between L
and O, and then the square E. This increment cor¬
responds with that which would take place if the dode¬
cahedron began by being a cube proportioned to its
bulk, and which increased afterwards with the addition
of continually decreasing lamincc.
But, on the other hand, the arrangement may be
conceived to be such as is represented in fig. 84. in
which the square a b c d is composed of only nine mo-
- lecules, and bears upon each of its sides only one
square
8o8
CRYSTALLIZATION,
Structure ofsquare e, or r ; and that afterwards, by means of
Crystals, the application of new squares arranged round the for-
v iner, the assortment has become that of fig. 83. where
the central square a' b’ d d* is formed of 25 small
squares, and bears on each side of its sides a file of
three squares, plus a terminating square e\ n\ /', or d 5
and that, in short, by a farther application, the assort¬
ment of fig. 83. is converted into that of fig. 82.
These different transitions will give some notion of the
manner in which secondary crystals may increase in
bulk, and yet retain their form; and from this it will
appear, that the structure is combined with that aug¬
mentation of bulk, so that the law, according to which
all the laminae applied in the nucleus of the crystal,
when arrived at its greatest dimensions, successively
decrease, in departing from this nucleus, existed al¬
ready in the rising crystal.
Such is the ingenious theory of the structure of
crystals, which the author observes, is in this similar
to other theories, that it sets out from a principal fact,
on which it makes all facts of the same kind to de-Structure of
pend, and which are only as it were corollaries. This Crystals,
fact is the decrement of the laminae superadded to11,1 v™"’""’
the primitive form ; and it is by bringing back this
decrement to simple and regular laws, susceptible of
accurate calculation, that theory arrives at results, the
truth of which is proved by the mechanical division of
crystals, and by observation of their angles. But new
researches are still wanting, in order to ascend a few
steps farther towards the primitive laws by which
crystallization is regulated. The object of one of
these researches would be to explain how these small
polyhedrons, which are as it were the rudiments of
crystals of a sensible bulk, sometimes represent the pri¬
mitive form, without modification; sometimes a se¬
condary form produced in virtue of a law of decre¬
ment; and to determine the circumstances which pro¬
duce decrements on the edges, as well as those which
give rise to decrements on the angles.
END OF THE SIXTH VOLUME.
DIKECTIONS FOR PLACING THE PLATES OF Vol. VI.
Part I.
Plate CXLV. to face
CXLVL—CXLVIII.
CXLIX.
CL. CLI.
CLII.—CLV.
CLVL—CLXIII.
CLXIV,
CLXV.—CLXVII.
Part II.
page 94
208
236
370
484
548
776
808
Crystallization .
/'A/7rAYA17 7
Fip.JjmneorSa/tJiir*. Fff.S.B/,,,- Vi&vot. Fig/.S. firdyfreasea&stitf*/. Fig. if. .
\
_E. frfitcA eXl^/r^^v f
eH r S T -A-L I, Iz A TIO X
r///,.// .V^v// .//>//!• A'<f//'/*'>■
p]\
i
sV
dt'\"
1 \
jj*
c
-\/y
rv
\r
n
Gi
e.
—
J
___
—
—r-
—
J
j
L
1
%